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diff --git a/44720-h/44720-h.htm b/44720-h/44720-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..21165d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/44720-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4104 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" /> +<meta content="text/css" http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" /> +<title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Packing and Portaging, by Dillon Wallace. +</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin: auto 10%; +} + +h1,h2,h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +table {} + +table td { + padding-right: 2em; +} + +table.toc { + margin: 0 auto; +} + +table.toc th { + font-size:x-small; + text-align:left; +} + +.titlepage { + page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; +} + +.titlepage p { + text-align: center; + line-height: 1.5 +} + +.ph1, .ph2, .ph3 { font-weight: bold; } +.ph1 { font-size: xx-large; } +.ph2 { font-size: x-large; } +.ph3 { font-size: large; } +.ph4 { font-size: small; } + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +.list { + padding-left: 0; + margin-left: 1em; + font-size: smaller; +} + +ul { + list-style-type: none; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.rights { + width: 20%; + margin-left: 40%; + margin-right: 40%; + +} + +hr.chap { + width: 65%; + margin-left: 17%; + margin-right: 17%; + +} + +.tdr {text-align: right;} + +.pagenum { + visibility: hidden; + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.center {text-align: center;} +.narrow { + max-width: 20em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.dimension {white-space:nowrap;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.allcap {text-transform: uppercase;} + +.caption { + text-align: justify; + font-size: smaller; + page-break-before: avoid; +} + +.caption .cols { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + max-width: 20em; + text-align:left; +} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 1em; + text-align: center; +} + +.illustration { + max-width: 400px; +} + +/* drop cap */ +p.drop-cap { + text-indent: 0em; +} +p.drop-cap:first-letter +{ + float: left; + margin: 0.05em 0.1em 0em 0em; + font-size: 250%; + line-height:0.85em; +} +@media handheld +{ + p.drop-cap:first-letter + { + float: none; + margin: 0; + font-size: 100%; + } +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote { + background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44720 ***</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1" name="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + +<h1>PACKING AND PORTAGING</h1> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2" name="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a><br /><a id="Page_3" name="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<div class="titlepage"> + + <p class="ph1">PACKING AND<br /> + PORTAGING</p> + + <p class="ph3">BY<br /> + <span class="ph2">DILLON WALLACE</span></p> + + <p class="center narrow">Author of "The Lure of the Labrador Wild," "The + Long Labrador Trail," "Saddle and Camp in + the Rockies," "Across the Mexican + Sierras," etc.</p> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/03a.png" alt="OUTING HANDBOOKS" /> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/03b.png" alt="" /> + </div> + + <p class="ph4">NEW YORK<br /> + <span class="ph3">OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY</span><br /> + MCMXII </p> + + <p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4" name="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> + + <hr class="chap" /> + + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1912, by</span><br /> + <span class="ph3">OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY</span></p> + + <hr class="rights" /> + + <p class="ph4">All rights reserved + </p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5" name="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CONTENTS" name="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2> + +<table class="toc" summary="TOC"> + <tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th><th></th><th>PAGE</th> + </tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">I.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Packing and the Outfit</span></a></td><td class="tdr">9</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">II.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">The Canoe and Its Equipment</span></a></td><td class="tdr">12</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">III.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Camp Equipment for the Canoe Trip</span></a></td><td class="tdr">15</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">IV.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Personal Equipment</span></a></td><td class="tdr">23</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">V.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Food</span></a></td><td class="tdr">31</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">VI.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">The Portage</span></a></td><td class="tdr">38</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">VII.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">Travel with Saddle and Pack Animals</span></a></td><td class="tdr">51</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">VIII.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="smcap">Saddle and Pack Equipment</span></a></td><td class="tdr">56</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">IX.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">Personal Outfit for the Saddle</span></a></td><td class="tdr">64</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">X.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><span class="smcap">Adjusting the Pack</span></a></td><td class="tdr">71</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">XI.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><span class="smcap">Some Practical Hitches</span></a></td><td class="tdr">77</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">XII.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><span class="smcap">Traveling Without a Pack Horse</span></a></td><td class="tdr">101</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">XIII.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><span class="smcap">Afoot in Summer</span></a></td><td class="tdr">106</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">XIV.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><span class="smcap">With Snowshoes and Toboggan</span></a></td><td class="tdr">110</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tdr">XV.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><span class="smcap">With Dogs and Komatik</span></a></td><td class="tdr">123</td></tr> +</table> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6" name="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a><br /><a id="Page_7" name="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="ILLUSTRATIONS" name="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2> + +<table class="toc" summary="List of illustrations"> + <tr> + <th></th> <th>PAGE</th> + </tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i58">Method of Slinging Load on Aparejo</a></td><td class="tdr">58, 59</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i74">Sling for Racking on Crosstree Saddle</a></td><td class="tdr">74</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i79">Squaw or Crosstree Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">79, 80</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i82">The Crosstree Diamond Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">82, 83</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i85">United States Army Diamond Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">85, 86</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i93">Lifting Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">93, 94</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i96">Stirrup Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">96</td></tr> + + <tr><td><a href="#i97">Saddle Hitch</a></td><td class="tdr">97</td></tr> +</table> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8" name="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a><br /><a id="Page_9" name="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center ph1">PACKING AND PORTAGING</p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_I" name="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br /><br /> +PACKING AND THE OUTFIT</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">Ordinarily</span> the verb <i>to pack</i> means +to stow articles snugly into receptacles, +but in the parlance of the trail it often +means to carry or transport the articles from +place to place. The <i>pack</i> in the language of +the trail is the load a man or horse carries.</p> + +<p>Likewise, a <i>portage</i> on a canoe route is a +break between navigable waters, over which +canoe and outfit must be carried; or the word +may be used as a verb, and one may say, "I +will portage the canoe," meaning "I will carry +the canoe." In the course of the following +pages these terms will doubtless all be used in +their various significations.</p> + +<p>Save for the few who are able to employ a +retinue of professional guides and packers to +attend to the details of transportation, the one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10" name="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +chief problem that confronts the wilderness +traveler is that of how to reduce the weight +of his outfit to the minimum with the least +possible sacrifice of comfort. It is only the +veriest tenderfoot that deliberately endures +hardships or discomforts where hardships and +discomforts are unnecessary. Experienced +wilderness travelers always make themselves +as comfortable as conditions will permit, and +there is no reason why one who hits the trail +for sport, recreation or health should do otherwise.</p> + +<p>In a description, then, of the methods of +packing and transporting outfits the tenderfoot +and even the man whose feet are becoming calloused +may welcome some hints as to the selection +of compact, light, but, at the same time, efficient +outfits. These hints on outfitting, therefore, +I shall give, leaving out of consideration +the details of camp making, camp cookery and +those phases of woodcraft that have no direct +bearing upon the prime question of packing and +transportation on the trail.</p> + +<p>Let us classify the various methods of wilderness +travel under the following heads: 1. +By Canoe; 2. With Saddle and Pack Animals; +3. Afoot in Summer; 4. On Snowshoes; 5. +With Dogs and Sledge. Taking these in order, +and giving our attention first to canoe<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11" name="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +travel, it will be found convenient further to +subdivide this branch of the subject and discuss +in order: (a) The Canoe and its Equipment; +(b) Camp Equipment for a Canoe +Trip; (c) Personal Equipment; (d) Food; +(e) The Portage.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12" name="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_II" name="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br /><br /> + THE CANOE AND ITS EQUIPMENT</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">A sixteen-foot</span> canoe with a width +of at least 33 inches and a depth of at +least 12 inches will accommodate two +men, an adequate camping outfit and a full ten +weeks' provisions very nicely, and at the same +time not lie too deep in the water. A fifteen-foot +canoe, unless it has a beam of at least 35 +inches and a depth of 12 inches or more, is +unsuitable. Three men with their outfit and +provisions will require an eighteen-foot canoe +with a width of 35 inches or more and a depth +of no less than 13 inches, or a seventeen-foot +canoe with a width of 37 inches and 13 inches +deep. The latter size is lighter by from ten +to fifteen pounds than the former, while the +displacement is about equal.</p> + +<p>The best all-around canoe for cruising and +hard usage is the canvas-covered cedar canoe. +Both ribs and planking should be of cedar, and +only full length planks should enter into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13" name="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +construction. Where short planking is used +the canoe will sooner or later become hogged—that +is, the ends will sag downward from the +middle.</p> + +<p>In Canada the "Peterborough" canoe is +more largely used than the canvas-covered. +These are to be had in both basswood and +cedar. Cedar is brittle, while basswood is +tough, but the latter absorbs water more readily +than the former and in time will become +more or less waterlogged.</p> + +<p>Cruising canoes should be supplied with a +middle thwart for convenient portaging. Any +canoe larger than sixteen feet should have +three thwarts. To lighten weight on the portage, +and provide more room for storing outfit, +it is advisable to remove the cane seats with +which canvas canoes are usually provided. +This can be readily done by unscrewing the +nuts beneath the gunwale which hold the seats +in position.</p> + +<p>Good strong paddles—sufficiently strong to +withstand the heavy strain to which cruising +paddles are put—should be selected. On the +portage they must bear the full weight of the +canoe; they will frequently be utilized in poling +up stream against stiff currents; and in running +rapids they will be subjected to rough +usage. On extended cruises it is advisable to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14" name="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +carry one spare paddle to take the place of +one that may be rendered useless.</p> + +<p>Experienced canoemen pole up minor rapids. +Poles for this purpose can usually be cut at the +point where they are needed, but pole "shoes"—that +is, spikes fitted with ferrules—to fit on +the ends of poles are a necessary adjunct to +the outfit where poling is to be done. Without +shoes to hold the pole firmly on the bottom +of the stream the pole may slip and pitch +the canoeman overboard. The ferrules should +be punctured with at least two nail holes, by +which they may be secured to the poles, and +a few nails should be carried for this purpose.</p> + +<p>A hundred feet or so of half-inch rope +should also be provided, to be used as a tracking +line and the various other uses for which +rope may be required.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15" name="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_III" name="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br /><br /> +CAMP EQUIPMENT FOR A CANOE TRIP</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">Personal</span> likes and prejudices have +much to do with the form of tent chosen. +My own preference is for either the "A" +or wedge tent, with the Hudson's Bay model as +second choice, for general utility. Either of +these is particularly adapted also to winter +travel where the tent must often be pitched +upon the snow. If, however, the tent is only +to be used in summer, and particularly in canoe +travel where a light, easily erected model is +desired, the Frazer tent is both ideal for comfort +and is an exceedingly light weight model +for portaging.</p> + +<p>Duck or drill tents are altogether too heavy +and quite out of date. They soak water and +are an abomination on the portage. The best +tent is one of balloon silk, <i>tanalite</i>, or of extra +light green waterproofed tent cloth. The balloon +silk tent is very slightly heavier than +either of the others, but is exceedingly durable. +For instance, a <span class="dimension">7<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> × 7<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span> foot "A" tent of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16" name="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +either tanalite or extra light green waterproof +tent cloth, fitted with sod cloth, complete, +weighs eight pounds, while a similar tent of +waterproof balloon silk weighs nine pounds. +A Hudson's Bay model, <span class="dimension">6 × 9</span> feet, weighs respectively +seven and seven and one-half pounds.</p> + +<p>These three cloths are not only waterproof +and practically rot proof, but do not soak +water, which is a feature for consideration +where much portaging is to be done and camp +is moved almost daily.</p> + +<p>Some dealers recommend that customers +going into a fly or mosquito country have +the tent door fitted with bobbinet. The idea +is good, but cheese cloth is much cheaper and +incomparably better than bobbinet.</p> + +<p>The cheese-cloth door should be made rather +full, and divided at the center from tent peak +to ground, with numerous tie strings to bring +the edges tight together when in use, and other +strings or tapes on either side, where it is attached +to the tent, to reef or roll and tie it back +out of the way when not needed.</p> + +<p>When purchasing a light-weight tent, see +that the dealer supplies a bag of proper size +in which to pack it.</p> + +<p>A pack cloth <span class="dimension">6 × 7</span> feet in size, of brown +waterproof canvas weighing about 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pounds, +makes an excellent covering for the tent floor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17" name="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +at night. On the portage blankets and odds +and ends will be packed and carried on it. If +one end and the two sides of the pack cloth +are fitted with snap buttons it may be converted +into a snug sleeping bag with a pair of blankets +folded lengthwise, the bottom and sides +of the blanket secured with blanket safety pins +as a lining for the bag.</p> + +<p>My standby for summer camping is a fine +all-wool gray blanket <span class="dimension">72 × 78</span> inches in size +and weighing 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pounds. This I have found +sufficient even in frosty autumn weather—always, +in fact, until the weather grows cold +enough to freeze streams and close them to +canoe navigation. Used as a lining for the +improvised pack cloth sleeping bag, this blanket +is quite bedding enough and makes an exceedingly +comfortable bed, too.</p> + +<p>A three-quarter axe with a 24- or 28-inch +handle makes a mighty good camp axe. A +full axe is heavy and inconvenient to portage +and the lighter axe will serve every purpose in +any country at any time. Personally I favor +the Hudson's Bay axe. This may be had fitted +either with a 24-inch or 18-inch handle. In +the two-party outfit which we are discussing +there should be two axes, one of which may +be fitted with the shorter handle, but the other +should have at least a 24- and preferably a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18" name="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +28-inch handle. Every axe should have a +leather sheath or scabbard for convenient packing. +The so-called pocket axes are too small +to be of practical use. The camper does not +wish to miss the luxury of the big evening +camp-fire, and he can never provide for it with +a small hatchet or toy pocket axe.</p> + +<p>Cooking utensils of aluminum alloy are the +lightest and best for the trail. Tin and iron +will rust, enamel ware will chip, and unalloyed +aluminum is too soft and bends out of shape. +The best sporting goods dealers carry complete +outfits of aluminum alloy. I have used them +in the frigid North and in the tropics, in canoe, +sledging, tramping and horseback journeys, +and can recommend them unequivocally, save +perhaps the frying pan.</p> + +<p>The two-man cooking and dining outfit +should contain the following utensils:</p> + +<ul class="list"> + <li>1 Pot with cover <span class="dimension">7 × 6<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> inches, capacity three quarts.</li> + <li>1 Coffee pot <span class="dimension">6 × 6<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inches, capacity two quarts.</li> + <li>1 Steel frying pan <span class="dimension">9<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub> × 2</span> inches, with folding handle.</li> + <li>1 Pan <span class="dimension">9 × 3</span> inches, with folding handle, for mixing- and dish-pan.</li> + <li>2 Plates 8<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub> inches diameter.</li> + <li>2 Cups.</li> + <li>2 Aluminum alloy forks.</li> + <li>2 Dessert spoons.</li> + <li>1 Large cooking spoon.</li> + <li>1 Dish mop.</li> + <li>2 Dish towels.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The regular aluminum alloy cup is too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19" name="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +small for practical camp use. There is an +aluminum bowl, however, holding one pint, but +without a handle. This is about the right size +for a practical cup, and I have a handle riveted +on it and use it as a cup. The top only of the +handle should be attached, that the cups may +set one inside the other. The heat conducting +quality of aluminum makes it a question +whether or not enamel cups are not preferable.</p> + +<p>To pack the outfit snugly, set the mixing pan +into the frying pan, the handles of both pans +folded, place the plates, one on top of the +other, in the mixing pan, the cooking pot on +top of these, and the coffee pot inside the cooking +pot. The cups will fit in the coffee pot. +The weight of this outfit complete is 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> +pounds.</p> + +<p>A waterproof canvas bag of proper size +should be provided in which to pack the utensils. +Forks and spoons, wrapped in a dish +towel, will fit nicely in the canvas bag alongside +the pots.</p> + +<p><i>Waterproof</i> canvas is suggested for the bag, +not to protect the utensils but because anything +but waterproofed material will absorb +moisture and become watersoaked in rainy +weather, adding materially to the weight of +the outfit.</p> + +<p>One of the handiest aids to baking is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20" name="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +aluminum reflecting baker. An aluminum +baker <span class="dimension">16 × 18</span> inches when open, folds to a +package <span class="dimension">12 × 18</span> inches and about two inches +thick, and fitted into a waterproof canvas case +weighs, case and all, about four pounds.</p> + +<p>Broilers, fire irons, fire blowers or inspirators, +as they are sometimes called, and many +other things that are convenient enough but +quite unnecessary, should never burden the outfit. +Even though the weight of some of them +may be insignificant, each additional claptrap +makes one more thing to look after. There +are a thousand and one claptraps, indeed, that +outfitters offer, but which do not possess sufficient +advantage to pay for the care and labor +of transportation, and my advice is, leave them +out, one and all.</p> + +<p>Outfitters supply small packing bags of +proper size to fit, one on top of another, into +larger waterproof canvas bags. These small +bags are made preferably of balloon silk. By +using them the whole outfit may be snugly and +safely packed for the portage.</p> + +<p>In one of these small bags keep the general +supply of matches, though each canoeist should +carry a separate supply for emergency in his +individual kit.</p> + +<p>In like manner two or three cakes of soap +should be packed in another small bag. Float<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21" name="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>ing +soap is less likely to be lost than soap that +sinks.</p> + +<p>A dozen candles will be quite enough. +These if packed in a tin box of proper size +will not be broken.</p> + +<p>Repair kits should be provided. A file for +sharpening axes and a whetstone for general +use are of the first importance. Include also +a pair of pincers, a ball of stout twine and a +few feet of copper wire. A tool haft or handle +with a variety of small tools inside is convenient. +Either a stick of canoe cement, a +small supply of marine glue, or a canoe repair +outfit such as canoe manufacturers put up and +which contain canvas, white lead, copper tacks, +calor and varnish will be found a valuable adjunct +to the outfit should the canoe become +damaged. This tool and repair equipment +should be packed in a strong canvas bag small +enough to drop into the larger nine-inch waterproof +bag.</p> + +<p>A small leather medicine case with vials +containing, in tabloid form, a cathartic, an +astringent (lead and opium pills are good) +and bichloride of mercury, suffices for the +drug supply. Surgical necessities are: Some +antiseptic bandages, a package of linen gauze, +a spool of adhesive plaster and one-eighth +pound of absorbent cotton, wrapped in oiled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22" name="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +silk. In addition most campers find it convenient +to have in their personal outfit a pair +of small scissors. These are absolutely necessary +if one is to put on a bandage properly. +The regular surgical scissors, the two blades of +which hook together at the center, are the +most convenient sort, both to use and to carry, +and have the keenest edge.</p> + +<p>A pair of tweezers takes up but little room +and is useful for extracting splinters or for +holding a wad of absorbent cotton in swabbing +out a wound, as cotton will, of course, become +septic if held in the fingers.</p> + +<p>A small scalpel is better than the knife blade +for opening up an infection, as it is more convenient +to handle and will make a deep short +incision when desired. These will all be +packed in one of the small balloon silk bags.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23" name="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IV" name="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br /><br /> +PERSONAL EQUIPMENT</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">Each</span> canoeist should have a personal +kit or duffle bag of waterproof canvas. +These may be purchased from outfitters +and are usually 36 inches deep and of 12, 15, +18 or 21 inches diameter. The 12-inch bag, +however, is amply large to accommodate all +one needs in the way of clothing and other personal +gear. This, as well as every other +waterproof canvas packing bag mentioned, excepting +the cooking kit bag, should be supplied +with a handle on the bottom and one on the +side. These bags not only keep the contents +dry, but, as previously stated, do not absorb +moisture to add to the weight, a very essential +feature where every unnecessary pound +must be eliminated. I was once capsized in a +rapid and my duffle bag lay half a day in the +water before it was recovered. The contents +were perfectly dry.</p> + +<p>One suit of medium weight woolen underclothing +in addition to the suit worn is ample<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24" name="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +for a short trip. Four extra pairs of thick +woolen socks should be provided—the home-knit +kind. An excellent material for trousers +to be worn on the trail is moleskin, though for +midsummer wear a good quality khaki is first +rate. Moleskin, however, will withstand the +hardest usage and to my mind is superior to +khaki or any other material where wading is +necessary and on cold or rainy days, as it is +very nearly windproof. A good leather belt +should be worn, even though suspenders support +the trousers.</p> + +<p>The outer shirt should be of light weight +gray or brown flannel and provided with pockets. +A blue flannel shirt of the best quality +is all right. The cheaper qualities of blue +crock, and this feature makes them objectionable. +If the outer shirt is too heavy it will be +found cumbersome under the exertion of the +portage.</p> + +<p>A large, roomy Pontiac shirt to slip over the +outer shirt and use as a sweater is much preferable +to a sweater on the trail. It is windproof +and warm. Do not take a coat—the +Pontiac shirt will be both coat and sweater. +A coat is always in the way on a canoe trip +and makes the pack that much heavier.</p> + +<p>A pair of low leather or canvas wading +shoes for river work and larrigans or shoe<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25" name="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +pacs for ordinary wear, large enough to admit +two pairs of woolen socks, are best suited to +canoeing. Heavy, hobnailed mountaineer +shoes or boots are not in place here.</p> + +<p>Heavy German socks, supplied with garter +and clasp to hold them in position, are better +than canvas leggings, and protect the legs from +chill at times when wading is necessary in icy +waters.</p> + +<p>Any kind of an old slouch hat is suitable.</p> + +<p>Some canoeists take with them a suit of +featherweight oilskin. Personally I have +never worn rainproof garments when canoeing. +Once I carried a so-called waterproof +coat, but it was not waterproof. It leaked +water like a sieve, and was no protection even +from the gentlest shower. I am inclined, however, +to favor featherweight oilskins, though +not while portaging—they would be found too +warm—but when paddling in rainy weather, +or to wear on rainy days about camp.</p> + +<p>If the trip is to extend into a black fly or +mosquito region, protection against the insects +should be provided. A head net of black bobbinet +that will set down upon the shoulders, +with strings to tie under the arms, is about the +best arrangement for the head. Old loose kid +gloves, with the fingers cut off, and farmers' +satin elbow sleeves to fit under the wrist bands<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26" name="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +of the outer shirt will protect the wrists and +hands. The armlets should be well and tightly +sewn upon the gloves, for black flies are not +content to attack where they alight, and will +explore for the slightest opening and discover +some undefended spot. They are, too, a hundred +times more vicious than mosquitoes.</p> + +<p>There are many receipts for fly dope, but in +a half hour after application perspiration will +eliminate the virtue of most mixtures and a +renewed application must be made. Nessmuk's +receipt is perhaps as good as any, and +the formula is as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Ingredients" class="list"> +<tr><td>Oil of pine tar</td><td>3 parts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Castor oil</td><td>2 parts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil of pennyroyal</td><td>1 part</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If when you were a child your father held +your nose as an inducement for you to open +your mouth while your mother poured castor +oil down your throat, the odor of the castor +oil rising above the odors of the other ingredients +will revive sad memories. Indeed it is +claimed for this mixture that the dead will +rise and flee from its compounded odor as they +would flee from eternal torment. It certainly +should ward off such little creatures as black +flies and mosquitoes.</p> + +<p>Another effective mixture is:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27" name="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> + +<table summary="Ingredients" class="list"> +<tr><td>Oil of tar</td><td>3 parts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sweet oil</td><td>3 parts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil of pennyroyal</td><td>1 part</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carbolic acid</td><td>3 per cent.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>An Indian advised me once to carry a fat +salt pork rind in my pocket, and now and again +rub the greasy side upon face and hands. I +tried it and found it nearly as good as the +dopes.</p> + +<p>Unless one penetrates, however, far north +In Canada during black fly season these extraordinary +precautions will scarcely be necessary. +There Is nowhere In the United States +a region where black flies are really very bad +(though perhaps I am drawing invidious comparisons +in making the statement), and even +in interior Newfoundland they are, compared +with the farther north, tame and rather inoffensive +though always troublesome.</p> + +<p>The choice of fishing tackle, guns and arms +depends largely upon personal taste. Steel +rods of the best quality will serve better than +split bamboo on an extended trip where one, +continuously on the portage trail, is often unable +to properly dry the tackle. The steady +soaking of a split bamboo rod for a week is +likely to loosen the sections and injure a fine +rod. A waterproof canvas or pantasote case<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28" name="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +is the right sort for the rod—leather cases are +unpractical on a cruising trip.</p> + +<p>Leather gun cases, too, under like circumstances +will become watersoaked, and under +any circumstances they are unnecessarily +heavy. Use canvas cases therefore in consideration +for your back. They are light and in +a season of rain immeasurably better than +leather.</p> + +<p>Economize, also, on ammunition. Do your +target practice before you hit the trail. A +hunter that cannot get his limit of big game +with twenty rifle cartridges is an unsafe individual +to turn loose in the woods.</p> + +<p>For spruce grouse, ptarmigan and other +small game a ten-inch barrel, 22-caliber single-shot +pistol is an excellent arm, provided one +has had some previous experience in its use. +It is not a burden on the belt, and a handful of +cartridges in the pocket are not noticed.</p> + +<p>Pack your cartridges in a strong canvas bag, +your gun grease and accessories in another receptacle.</p> + +<p>On the belt also carry a broad-pointed four-inch +blade skinning knife of the ordinary +butcher knife shape. This will be your table +knife, as well as cooking and general utility +knife.</p> + +<p>In the pocket carry a stout jackknife, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29" name="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +waterproof matchbox, always kept well filled, +and a compass.</p> + +<p>A film camera is more practical for the trail +than a plate camera for many reasons, one of +which is weight. Plates are heavy and easily +broken. It is well to have each roll of films +put up separately in a sealed, water-tight tin. +Dealers will supply them thus at five cents extra +for each film roll. A waterproof pantasote +case, too, is better than leather, for leather in a +long-continued rain will become watersoaked, +as before stated.</p> + +<p>If a plate camera is carried the plates may +be packed in a small light wooden box—a +starch box, for instance. The box will protect +them under ordinary circumstances. Film rolls, +however, may be carried in a small canvas bag +that will slip into one of the larger waterproof +bags.</p> + +<p>My object in outlining outfit is rather to emphasize +the possibilities of selecting a light and +efficient outfit that may be easily packed and +transported on the trail, than to evolve an infallible +check list; therefore I shall not attempt +to name in detail toilet articles, tobacco and +odds and ends. Take nothing, however, save +those things you will surely find occasion to +use, unless I may suggest an extra pipe, should +your pipe be lost. A small balloon silk bag will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30" name="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +hold them, together with a sewing case containing +needles, thread, patches and some safety +pins. Another will hold the hand towels and +hand soap in daily use, while an extra hand +towel may be stowed in your duffle bag.</p> + +<p>In concluding this chapter it may be pertinent +to say that the novice on the trail is pretty +certain to burden himself with many things he +will seldom or never use. Take your outfitter +into your confidence. Tell him what sort of a +trip you contemplate and he will advise you. +First-class outfitters are usually practical out-of-door +men and camping experts. They have +made an extended study of the subject, for it +is part of their business to do so. Therefore, +in selecting outfit, it is both safe and wise to +rely upon the advice of any responsible outfitter.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31" name="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_V" name="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /><br /> +FOOD</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">The</span> true wilderness voyager is willing to +endure some discomforts on the trail, +to work hard and submit to black flies +and other pests, but as a reward he usually demands +satisfying meals. There is, indeed, no +reason for him to deny himself a variety and +a plenty, unless his trip is to extend into months. +Weight on the portage trail is always the consideration +that cuts down the ration. Packing +on one's back a ration to be used two or three +months hence is discouraging.</p> + +<p>I have evolved a two-week food supply for +two men, based upon the United States army +ration, varied as the result of my own experiences +have dictated. It offers not only great +variety, but is an exceedingly bountiful ration +even for hungry men. Personal taste will suggest +some eliminations or substitutions that +may be made without material loss or change in +weight. If there is certainty of catching fish +or killing game, or if opportunity offers for +purchasing fresh supplies along the trail, re<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32" name="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>ductions +in quantity may be made accordingly. +For each additional man, or for any period beyond +two weeks, a proportionate increase in +quantity may be made.</p> + +<ul class="list"> + <li>Bacon, 6 pounds.</li> + <li>Salt fat pork, 2 pounds.</li> + <li>Ham or canned meats, 5 pounds.</li> + <li>"Truegg" (egg powder), 1 pound (equals 4 dozen eggs.)</li> + <li>"Trucream" (milk powder), 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pounds.</li> + <li>"Crisco," 3 pounds, (2 cans).</li> + <li>Fresh bread, 2 pounds.</li> + <li>Flour, 12 pounds.</li> + <li>Corn meal (yellow), 1 pound.</li> + <li>Rolled oats, 1 pound.</li> + <li>Rice, 1 pound.</li> + <li>Baking powder, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pound.</li> + <li>Potatoes (Dehydrated) riced, 2 pounds (equals 14 lbs. fresh potatoes).</li> + <li>Potatoes (Dehydrated) sliced, 1 pound (equals 7 lbs. fresh potatoes).</li> + <li>Carrots (Dehydrated), <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> pound (equals 3 lbs. fresh carrots).</li> + <li>Onions (Dehydrated), <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> pound (equals 3<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> lbs. fresh onions).</li> + <li>Cranberries (Dehydrated), <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> pound (equals 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> qts. fresh fruit).</li> + <li>Beans, 2 pounds.</li> + <li>Green peas (Dehydrated), <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> pound (equals 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> lbs. fresh peas).</li> + <li>Coffee (ground), 2 pounds.</li> + <li>Tea, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pound.</li> + <li>Cocoa, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pound.</li> + <li>Sugar (granulated), 5 pounds.</li> + <li>Preserves, 1 pound.</li> + <li>Lemons, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> dozen.</li> + <li>Lime tablets, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pound.</li> + <li>Prunes (stoned), 1 pound.</li> + <li>Raisins, 1 pound.</li> + <li>Salt, 1 pound.</li> + <li>Pepper, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> ounce.</li> +</ul> + +<p>This gives each man a nominal ration of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33" name="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +14<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> pounds a week, or about two pounds +a day. In reality, however, it is more bountiful +than the summer garrison ration and far more +liberal than the summer marching ration of the +army. This is brought about by the pretty +general elimination of water, largely through +the substitution of dehydrated vegetables and +fruits for fresh and canned goods. The dehydrated +products designated are in every particular +equal to fresh products and far superior +to canned goods. Dehydrated vegetables +possess all the qualities, in fact, of fresh vegetables, +with only the large percentage of water +removed. Water is introduced restoring them +to original form usually by boiling. No chemical +is used as a preservative as is the case with +all dried vegetables put up by foreign manufacturers.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that butter has been omitted +and that "Crisco" has been introduced in +the place of lard and to be used in cooking instead +of butter. Crisco is a product of edible +vegetable oils. It has the appearance of lard +but can be heated to a much higher temperature +without burning, is fully equal to butter when +used as shortening, and dough bread, fish or +other articles of food fried in it will not absorb +it so readily as they will lard, nor will it +transmit the flavor of one food to another. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34" name="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +example, fish may be fried in Crisco, and dough +bread or anything else fried in the same Crisco +will have not the slightest flavor of fish. It +will keep fresh and sweet under conditions that +turn lard and butter rancid. Butter quickly +becomes strong, and the heat of the sun keeps +it in an oily, unpalatable condition, even when +packed in air-tight tins. The most lavish user +of butter will discover that it is no hardship to +go without it when in camp. Crisco, put up +in handy, friction-top cans, can be purchased +from nearly any grocer.</p> + +<p>Coffee should be carried in friction-top tins. +On extended trips coffee is too bulky to carry +save as a special treat. A pound of tea will go +as far as many pounds of coffee; therefore on +trips extending beyond three or four weeks the +proportion of tea should be increased and that +of coffee diminished. On short trips, however, +such as we are discussing, there is no reason +and most Americans usually prefer it even +when in camp.</p> + +<p>Each article of food should have its individual +bag, to fit into one of the larger waterproof +canvas bags described, though the bacon and +fat pork, each piece wrapped in paraffin +(waxed) paper, may be packed in one bag. +Paraffin paper will protect other packages in +the bag from grease. Several articles of small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35" name="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +bulk and weight such as dehydrated carrots, +onions, cranberries and green peas each in its +original package or a small muslin bag suitable +in size may be carried in a single balloon +silk bag. The small bags containing such articles +as are not in daily and frequent use should +be stowed in the bottoms of the canvas bags, +while those in constant demand should be at the +top where they can be had without unpacking +the entire bag. Every package or bag should +be plainly labeled with the nature of its contents. +In labeling them use ink, as pencil marks +are too easily obliterated. Where a party is +composed of a sufficient number of people to +make it worth while the party ration for each +day may be weighed out and packed in a separate +receptacle, thus making seven food packages +for each week. This, however, would +be obviously unpractical where there are less +than eight or ten members of the party.</p> + +<p>No glass or crockeryware should be used, +not only because of its liability to break, but +because of its unnecessary weight.</p> + +<p>A good way to carry the tin of baking powder +is to sink it into the sack of flour. The +flour will protect it and preclude the possibility +of the cover coming off and the contents spilling +out. Do not carry prepared or self-raising +flour on the trail. For many reasons it is un<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36" name="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>practical +for trail use, though perhaps most excellent +in the kitchen at home.</p> + +<p>Throughout I have accentuated the advisability +of waterproof covers for everything. +Every ounce of water absorbed by tent, bags, +or package covers, adds to the tedium of the +trail by so much unnecessary weight. When +flour carried in an ordinary sack Is exposed to +rain a paste will form next the cloth, and presently +harden into a crust that will protect the +bulk of flour from injury. But the flour used +up in the process of crust forming is a decided +waste, and the paste, retaining a degree of +moisture, increases weight.</p> + +<p>I have suggested balloon silk for the small +food bags to fit into the larger waterproofed +canvas bags, not only because it does not absorb +moisture, but because there will be no possibility +of the contents sifting through the +cloth. If these or the cloth from which to +make them cannot be readily obtained, closely +woven muslin will do.</p> + +<p>Should the canoeist desire to make his own +bags and should he not find it convenient to purchase +waterproofed canvas, the ordinary canvas +which he will use may be waterproofed by +the following process:</p> + +<p>In two gallons of boiling water dissolve three +and one-half ounces of alum. Rain water is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37" name="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +best, though any soft water will do; but it +<i>must be soft water</i> to obtain the best results. +In another vessel dissolve four ounces of sugar +of lead in two gallons of soft water. Unite the +solutions when they have cleared by pouring +into another vessel No. 1 first, then No. 2. +Let the solution stand over night, decant it into +a tub, free of any sediment that may have +settled, and it is ready for the canvas. The +cloth should be put into the solution, thoroughly +saturated with it and then lightly +wrung out, and hung up to dry. This treatment +will render canvas to a considerable extent, +though not completely, waterproof.</p> + +<p>Muslin for the smaller food bags may be +waterproofed by painting it with a saturate solution +of turpentine and paraffin.</p> + +<p>Canned goods should be packed snugly in +canvas bags, with cans on end, that the sides, +not the corners or edges, will rest against the +back in portaging.</p> + +<p>Camp chests in which to store food or other +articles are carried by some canoeists, but they +add considerable weight to the outfit. The +best and most serviceable camp chest is one of +indestructible fiber. One with an inside measurement +of <span class="dimension">18 × 24 × 12</span> inches weighs twenty +pounds.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38" name="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VI" name="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br /><br /> +THE PORTAGE</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">There</span> are several types of pack harness +offered by outfitters, but it is generally +conceded that the best method of +carrying heavy or medium-weight packs is with +the tump line. In tump line carrying the pack +is supported by a broad band of leather passed +across the head—high up on the forehead—thus +throwing the weight upon the strong muscles +of the neck, with no shoulder straps or +other support.</p> + +<p>Canadian voyageurs, Hudson's Bay Company +packers and Indians use the tump line to +the exclusion of all shoulder-carrying devices. +Indeed, by no other method would it be possible +for them to transport upon their backs +through a rough country the heavy burdens +which they are called upon to carry. Experienced +packers with the tump line will sometimes +portage loads of upwards of four hundred +pounds. In tests of skill I have seen a +man carry in a single load the contents of three +barrels of flour—588 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39" name="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<p>The tump line consists of a broad piece of +leather some eighteen or twenty inches in +length (known as the head strap or headpiece), +with a leather thong usually about seven +feet in length attached to each end, the total +length from the tip end of one thong to the tip +end of the other thong averaging about sixteen +feet.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the two thongs are sewn to the +headpiece, and again the line is a single strip of +leather, broadened in the center to form the +headpiece. The best tump lines, however, have +the head strap as a separate piece with a buckle +at each end by which the thongs are attached. +This arrangement admits of adjustment, if +necessary, to suit the individual after the pack +has been made up.</p> + +<p>There is a knack in tump line carrying, but +the following directions for making up various +packs will give the novice sufficient insight, with +a little experience, to enable him to acquire the +art.</p> + +<p>When the pack is to be made up wholly of +bags, lay the tump line on the ground with the +thongs parallel to each other and from sixteen +to twenty inches apart, depending upon the +length of the bags to be packed. Place the +bags across the thongs, one bag upon another, +taking care that the thongs are not so near the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40" name="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +ends of the bags as to render them liable to +slip off when the pack is tied. Now lift the +head strap above the top bag and secure the +pack by drawing the loose end of each thong +in turn tight around the bags and knotting it a +few inches below the buckle that attaches its +other end to the headpiece.</p> + +<p>When a pack cloth is to be used, spread the +pack cloth upon the thongs of the tump line, +stretched upon the ground in the manner above +described, and in the center of the pack cloth +lay folded blankets and other articles to be +packed, making the pile about two feet long, +and taking care that hard substances are in the +center, with blankets and soft things outside. +Now turn the sides of the pack cloth over the +pack and fold over the ends. If a bag is to be +included, lay it upon the pack after the cloth +has been folded, and secure the whole as in +the former case.</p> + +<p>Another method of making up a pack with +the pack cloth, common among Canadian voyageurs, +is as follows: Spread the cloth upon +the ground, and lay the tump line across it, the +headpiece near one end and the thongs a foot +from the sides. Fold the sides of the cloth inward +over each thong. Now build up the pack +in a neat pile about two feet long on the folded +cloth, taking care as before that hard things<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41" name="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +are placed in the middle. Fold the end of the +pack cloth with protruding thongs over the +pack, take a half turn with the loose end of a +thong around the other end near the headpiece, +draw it tight until the end is closely puckered, +then knot it and draw up the other thong and +secure it in like manner. Now bring the free +ends of the tump line to center of pack, on top, +cross them and pass them around middle of +pack and tie.</p> + +<p>The knack of comfortable tump line carrying +once the neck muscles have become developed +and hardened to the work is in properly +balancing the pack. With the headpiece +resting high up upon the forehead the pack +should hang with its bottom no lower than the +hips. Neither should it be too high. A little +experimenting will teach just where the proper +balance is to be found. If it is too high, +lengthen the line, or if too low shorten it by +means of the buckles which attach the thongs +to the headpiece.</p> + +<p>Experienced packers pile additional bags or +bundles on top of the pack, the uppermost +bundle standing higher than the head. In my +own experience I have found that an additional +bag thus placed upon the pack and resting +against the back of my neck helped balance the +load. My favorite bag for this purpose is a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42" name="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +forty or fifty pound bag of flour, sometimes +surmounted by a lighter bundle which rested +partly upon the flour and partly upon my head.</p> + +<p>The tenderfoot will be quite content to limit +his early loads to sixty or seventy pounds, and +even then his first portages will not be what he +can conscientiously term experiences of unalloyed +joy. Gradually, however, he will learn +the knack of tump packing and at the end of a +couple of weeks of daily experience will find +himself able to negotiate a load of one hundred +pounds with some ease.</p> + +<p>All the various types of pack harness are +supplied with straps by which the pack is secured +and loops through which to slip the arms, +the pack being carried from the shoulders instead +of the head. With this sort of a pack, +as with the tump line, care should be given to +the proper adjustment, with the bottom of the +pack no lower than the hips. Fifty pounds is +about as heavy a load as one can comfortably +carry from the shoulders.</p> + +<p>Outfitters sometimes attach a headpiece to +their pack harness—that is to say the harness +is provided with both shoulder loops and tump +line head strap. The object is to secure a division +of weight between shoulders and head. +This is a method employed by Eskimos when +hunting without dogs. The Eskimo hunter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43" name="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +binds his pack with sealskin thongs, and manipulates +a single thong in such a manner as not +only to secure the pack but to form arm loops +and headpiece as well.</p> + +<p>No matter what type of shoulder harness is +employed, a breast strap must be used to fasten +together the arm loops in front or the loops +will have a continual tendency to slip backward +and off the shoulders. This breast strap fastens +the packer so securely to his pack that should +he slip, as is sometimes likely, the pack will +carry him down with it and the probability of +injury is multiplied many times. This alone is +a very decided objection to all forms of pack +harness.</p> + +<p>If one slips with a tump line, on the contrary, +a slight twist of the head will disengage and +free one from the pack; and if one is hunting +the tump pack may readily be dropped at a moment's +notice, should game be sighted.</p> + +<p>Let me therefore urge the adoption of the +tump line for all portage work where fifty +pounds or more must be transported. No experienced +packer will use harness. Harness +packing is indeed indicative of the tenderfoot +who has never learned how, unless on long +cross country tramps with light loads.</p> + +<p>But on a canoe trip, if one would make progress, +big loads must be resorted to. For in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44" name="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>stance, +if the canoeist has a two mile portage to +negotiate and one hundred pounds of duffle he +has but two miles to walk if he carries all his +duffle at once, but if he makes two loads of it +he must walk six miles. With the hundred +pound load the portage may easily be covered +in one hour. With fifty pound loads three +hours will be consumed, for there will be time +lost in making up the second pack.</p> + +<p>Axes, guns and extra paddles may be thrust +under the thongs of the tump line, or carried +in the hand. Never portage a rifle with a cartridge +in the chamber, and never portage a +loaded shotgun. To disregard this advice will +be to take an unnecessary and foolhardy risk.</p> + +<p>Save in a rather stiff breeze, one man can +carry a canoe weighing less than one hundred +pounds nearly as easily as two can carry it. +There is one best way of doing everything, and +the best and most practical way to carry a canoe +is the Indian's way.</p> + +<p>Tie one end of a stout string or thong securely +to the middle thwart close to the gunwale, +and the other end to the same thwart +close to the opposite gunwale with the string +stretched taut from end to end of the thwart +and on top of it. Slip the blades of two paddles, +lying side by side, under the string, the +paddle handles lying on the forward thwart.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45" name="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +With the handles as close together as they will +lie, bind them with a piece of rope or thong to +the center of the forward thwart.</p> + +<p>Spread the blades upon the middle thwart +sufficiently wide apart to admit your head between +them. Take a position on the left side +of the canoe facing the stern. Just forward of +the middle thwart grasp the gunwale on the opposite +or right side of the canoe in your left +hand and the gunwale on the near or left side +in your right hand, and, lifting the canoe over +your head, let the flat side of the paddles directly +forward of the middle thwart rest upon +the shoulders, your head between them. It will +be found that though you faced the stern in +lifting the canoe you are now facing the bow, +and with the bow slightly elevated the canoe +can be carried with ease and a view of the trail +ahead will not be shut out.</p> + +<p>Should the flat paddle blades resting upon +the shoulders be found uncomfortable, as they +doubtless will at the end of the first two or +three hundred yards, a Pontiac shirt or sweater +will serve as a protecting pad.</p> + +<p>Outfitters offer for sale yokes, pneumatic +pads and contrivances of various sorts as protections +for the shoulders, but these contrivances +elevate the canoe from two to four inches +above the shoulders and this increases the diffi<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46" name="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>culty +of steadying it on rough trail. The +sweater or Pontiac shirt eases the cutting effect +of the paddles just as well as any of the special +portaging pads, and the canoe can be handled +more easily with it. Besides it makes one less +thing to look after.</p> + +<p>In a strong breeze it is often difficult for one +man to handle a canoe, for the wind striking it +on the side will turn the portager around and +he will find it impossible to keep his course in +spite of his best efforts. If the portage is a +short one—two or three hundred yards—the +canoe may be carried very well, one man with +the bow the other with the stern upon a +shoulder, the canoe on its side with the bottom +next the portagers' heads, that they may easily +grasp the gunwale in one hand and steady the +canoe with the other.</p> + +<p>This position will soon be found exceedingly +tiresome, and on portages exceeding two or +three hundred yards the paddles should be arranged +with the blades on the after thwart and +the handles lashed to the center of the middle +thwart. With this arrangement one man carries +exactly as when portaging the canoe alone, +save that he stands under the canoe just forward +of the after thwart instead of the middle +thwart, while the other man carries the bow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47" name="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +upon one shoulder. This is the easiest method +of two-man portaging of which I know.</p> + +<p>Many odds and ends may be tucked in the +canoe on the portage—fishing rods, for example, +in cases, with one end stuck in the bow +and the other end tied to the forward thwart.</p> + +<p>Should a canvas canoe become punctured it +may be repaired by one of the following +methods:</p> + +<p>If a stick of canoe cement is in the outfit, +heat the cement with a match and smear it +over the puncture.</p> + +<p>Should the outfit contain a canoe repair kit, +cut a patch of canvas somewhat larger than the +puncture, apply a coat of white lead to the +puncture and over a marginal space as large +as the canvas patch, press the patch firmly and +evenly upon the white lead and tack it down +with copper tacks. To this apply calor, and +when dry complete the repairs with a coat of +varnish.</p> + +<p>Should marine glue be used, lay a sheet of it +over the puncture, heat the bottom of a cup or +some other smooth metal utensil and rub it +over the glue until the glue melts sufficiently to +fill the puncture.</p> + +<p>In a region where spruce gum can be had, +melt a quantity of gum in a frying pan with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48" name="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +sufficient grease to take from the gum its brittle +quality when cold. While hot pour the +gum upon the rupture, letting it run well into +the opening and smearing it smoothly over the +outside.</p> + +<p>"Peterborough" canoes are also easily repaired +with marine glue or gum.</p> + +<p>In loading the canoe place the heavier bags +in the bottom and middle of the canoe, taking +care so to distribute the weight that when fully +loaded the canoe will lie on an even keel. +Keep the load always as low down as possible. +Every bag rising above the gunwales offers resistance +to the wind, and tends to make the +load topheavy. When but one man occupies a +canoe, however, sufficient weight should be carried +forward to counterbalance his weight in +the stern.</p> + +<p>Lash everything fast, particularly in rough +water or when running rapids. It does not pay +to take chances. With a companion I was once +turned over in a rapid in an unexplored, +sparsely timbered wilderness several hundred +miles from the nearest base of supplies—a +Hudson's Bay trading post. Nearly all our +food was lost, as well as guns, axes, cooking +utensils and many other necessities of travel. +The temperature stood close to zero, snow covered +the ground and during the greater part of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49" name="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +the three weeks occupied in reaching the post +we had to dig driftwood from under the snow, +and our ingenuity was taxed at times to the +utmost in efforts to protect ourselves from the +elements and travel with any degree of comfort. +Nothing worse than an unpleasant ducking +in icy waters would have resulted from our +accident had we observed the rule of ordinary +caution and lashed our outfit to the thwarts.</p> + +<p>One end of a rope tied to the forward +thwart, the other end threaded through bag +handles or pack lashings and secured to the after +thwart, will do the trick. A short strap, +one end attached to a thwart, the other end supplied +with a snap to fasten on rifle or shotgun +cases, is a good way to secure the guns and +still have them readily accessible.</p> + +<p>If you would make speed be smart in unloading +the canoe and making up your packs +on the portage, and equally smart in reloading +the canoe. Delays in loading, unloading and +making up packs are the chief causes of slow +progress.</p> + +<p>When it is found necessary to "track," give +the rear end of the tracking line a turn around +the forward thwart, on the land side of the +canoe, then pass the end back and secure it to +the middle thwart. This distributes the strain +between the thwarts. While one man at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50" name="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +farther end of the line tows the canoe, the +other man with a pole may walk upon the bank, +and keep the canoe clear of snags, if the water +is deep. Should the water be shallow it will +usually be found necessary for him to wade +and guide the bow through open channels.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51" name="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VII" name="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br /><br /> +TRAVEL WITH SADDLE AND PACK ANIMALS</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">Under</span> this head we shall consider: (1) +Saddles and pack equipment; (2) +Animals best adapted to pack work; +(3) Outfit and provisions and how to pack them; +(4) How to throw some practical hitches; (5) +Equipment of the traveler who has no pack +animal and whose saddle horse is required to +transport both rider and equipment.</p> + +<p>Comfort on the trail depends to a very large +degree upon the animals of the outfit. A mean +horse is an abomination, and a horse may be +mean in many respects. A bucking horse, a +horse that shies at stumps and other objects or +at every moving thing, or one that is frightened +by sudden and unexpected sounds is not only +an uncomfortable but unsafe animal to ride +upon rugged mountain trails; and a horse that +will not stand without hitching, or one that is +hard to catch when hobbled and turned loose, +will cause no end of trouble.</p> + +<p>In choosing a horse, then, avoid so far as +possible one with these tendencies, and also ob<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52" name="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>serve +the manner in which he handles his feet. +He should not be subject to stumbling. He +should be sure-footed, steady and reliable, to +qualify him for work on dangerous trails; this +is of the first importance. A horse that does +not keep his eyes on the trail and select his +footing with care is wholly unsuited to mountain +work. He should be gunwise. A gunwise +horse will not be easily frightened by sudden +and unexpected noises.</p> + +<p>Whether intended for mountain or plains +work, the horse should be a good camp animal—that +is, one that will not wander far from +camp. It is more than aggravating to find upon +arising in the morning that your horse has disappeared +and one always feels that time consumed +in searching for a roving horse is time +worse than wasted. Of course this tendency of +an animal can be forestalled by picketing him, +but a picketed horse unless forage be particularly +good will not do well, for it rarely happens +in these days of sheep-ravaged ranges that +an animal can find sufficient food to meet his requirements +within the limited length of a +picket rope.</p> + +<p>Some horses need much persuasion before +they can be induced to ford streams, and I have +had them lose their nerve and decline the descent +of precipitous trails. An animal possess<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53" name="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>ing +this trait of timidity is not suited to trail +work, for he is likely to cause trouble at a critical +moment.</p> + +<p>Some horses are good foragers, others are +not. A poor forager will become leg weary +and break down much more quickly than the +animal that takes advantage of every opportunity +to graze or browse. A horse just in +from the open range should be round and full-bellied. +This is an indication that he is a good +feeder. Generally speaking the chunky horse +is the one best adapted to arduous trail work +because he usually possesses greater powers of +endurance than the longer, lankier type.</p> + +<p>All of the qualifications above enumerated +should be borne in mind in selecting animals, +whether for saddle or pack use. And of course +the animals should be as sound as possible. +One should never start upon a journey with an +animal that is lame or has cinch sores or galled +back.</p> + +<p>When mountain trails are to be negotiated +a saddle horse weighing from nine hundred to +a thousand pounds will be found better adapted +to the work than a larger animal. Too large a +horse is liable to be clumsy on the trail, while +too light a horse will of course tire under a +heavy rider. A small horse, as a rule, is better +able to forage a living than a large horse, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54" name="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +for this reason stands up better with a moderate +load on long, continuous journeys. Ponies +weighing from eight hundred to eight hundred +and fifty pounds will pack one hundred and +fifty pounds easily, and ponies of this size make +much better pack animals than larger ones.</p> + +<p>While for general saddle work I prefer a +horse, a mule is surer footed and therefore +preferable on precipitous, narrow mountain +trails. In the Sierra Madres of Mexico I rode +a mule over trails where I would scarcely have +trusted a horse. Good saddle mules, however, +are scarce. I never saw a really good saddle-broke +mule north of Mexico, though they are +doubtless to be had. Mules have greater +powers of endurance than horses, and for many +other reasons are superior as pack animals. +The chief objection to a mule is his timidity +upon marshy trails. His feet are much smaller +than those of a horse, he mires easily, and he is +fully aware of the fact. A good mule, nevertheless, +is the one best all-around pack animal.</p> + +<p>Burros are good where forage is scarce, but +they are slow. When the burro decides that he +has done a day's work he stops, and that is the +end of it. He will not consult you, and he will +not take your advice. When he fully decides +that he will go no farther you may as well unpack +and make camp with as good grace as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55" name="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +you can muster, and keep your temper. I believe +that burros have a well-organized labor +union and they will not do one stroke of work +beyond the limit prescribed by their organization. +But one must sometimes resort to them +in desert travel. They will pick their living and +thrive on sage brush wastes where other animals +would die, and their ability to go long +without water is truly remarkable. On rough +mountain trails they are even more sure-footed +if possible than mules, but like the mule it is +difficult to force them over marshes or into +rivers when fording is necessary.</p> + +<p>In horse-raising localities in the West very +good horses can be had at anywhere from +thirty to seventy-five dollars. The usual rate +for horse rental is one dollar to one dollar and +a half a day, and it is therefore cheaper, when +the journey is to extend to a month or more, to +purchase the animals outright and sell them +when you are finished with them for what they +will bring. Rented animals are generally animals +of low value and sometimes not very +efficient, and in the course of a month one pays +in rental a good share of the value of the horse. +The risk is no greater, for if a rented horse is +injured while in a traveler's possession, the +owner holds him who has rented the animal responsible +for the damage.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56" name="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VIII" name="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /><br /> +SADDLE AND PACK EQUIPMENT</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">The</span> riding saddle should be a double +cinch, horn saddle, with wool-lined +skirts and of ample weight to hold its +position. My own is a regular stock saddle +weighing thirty-five pounds, though for all ordinary +use a twenty-five- or thirty-pound saddle +will do just as well.</p> + +<p>I prescribe the horn saddle because of its +convenience. One may sling upon it a camera, +binoculars or other articles in frequent demand, +and when it becomes necessary to lead a pack +pony the lead rope may be attached to it. For +this latter purpose the horn is indeed indispensable.</p> + +<p>In the light of personal experience with both +single and double cinch saddles, I recommend +the latter unhesitatingly, particularly for mountain +work. In steep ascents or descents it will +not slide, while a single cinch saddle is certain +to do so no matter how tightly cinched, and this +shifting will sooner or later gall the horse's<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57" name="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +back. In Mexico the single cinch saddle is almost +universally used, but who ever saw a +Mexican's horse that was free from saddle +sores? The forward cinch should preferably +be a hair cinch, though the ordinary webbed +sort, both forward and rear, does well enough.</p> + +<p>The saddle blanket should be a thick, good +quality wool blanket. In Arizona Navajo saddle +blankets are popular, and they are undoubtedly +the best when obtainable. A hair +saddle pad or corona, shaped to the animal's +back and used in connection with the blanket, is +a pretty good insurance against galling, and +preferable to the felt pad, for it is cooler.</p> + +<p>A leather boot for rifle, and saddle bags for +toilet articles, note books and odds and ends, +bridle, halter rope, a pair of cowboy spurs with +large blunt rowels, and a quirt to tickle delinquent +pack horses will be needed. The rifle +boot has two sling straps. The usual method +of carrying it is to insert it between the stirrup +leathers on the near side, drop the sling strap +at the top of the boot over the saddle pommel +and buckle the sling strap at the bottom of the +boot into the rear latigo ring. By detaching +the latter sling from the boot before buckling +it to the ring, the boot may be removed from +or attached to the saddle by simply lifting the +forward sling strap over the pommel, without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58" name="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +unbuckling. In case the sling strap at the top +of the boot be placed too far down, it should +be shifted higher up and secured to the boot +with a leather loop which may be riveted to the +boot.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i58"> + <img src="images/058.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Method of Slinging Load on Aparejo</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>) Rope is doubled + and loop A thrown over + horse's back to off side.</p> + <p> + N. B.—In this and the + following diagrams the pack + is represented as spread out + flat and viewed from above. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>For the pack animals the ordinary cross-tree +or sawbuck pack saddle +is the most practical +pack saddle for all-around +use, though the +aparejo, used by the +army and generally +throughout Mexico, is +superior to the sawbuck +when unwieldy +packages of irregular +size and shape are to +be transported. Such +packages must frequently +be transported by +army trains and they +are the rule rather +than the exception in +Mexico, where freighting +throughout wide +regions must be done +wholly on the backs of +animals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59" name="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/059.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>) Packs are now lifted into + place and off packer brings loop A up + around off side pack to top of load. + Near packer passes end B through loop + A and ties ends B and C together with + square knot. Balance or "break" the + packs and load is ready for hitch. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The aparejo is of Arabian origin, and the +Spaniards, who adopted it from the Moors, introduced +it into Mexico. In Mexico there are +two types of the aparejo in common use. One +made usually of the fiber of <i>henequen</i>, which is +woven into pockets which are stuffed with +grass, to form the pads, is used on donkeys in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60" name="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +comparatively light packing; in the other type +the pad casing is made of Mexican tanned +leather instead of <i>henequen</i> matting but also +stuffed with grass. This is used in heavier +packing with mules, in transporting machinery +and supplies to mines and merchandise to inland +settlements.</p> + +<p>The cross-tree or sawbuck, however, is used +almost exclusively in the United States by forest +rangers, cowboys, prospectors and pack +travelers generally, and it is to this type of +pack saddle that we shall direct our attention +chiefly. It may be interesting to note that this +is a very ancient type of pack saddle, of Asiatic +origin. It consists of two saddle boards +connected near each end—front and rear—by +two cross-pieces, the pommel and cantle forming +a miniature sawbuck, while the saddle +boards are similar in shape to the McClellan +saddle tree. This is fitted with breeching, quarter +straps, breast strap, latigos and cinch. As +in the case of the riding saddle, the sawbuck +pack saddle should be supplied with the double +cinch. Care should be taken that the saddle +fits the animal for which intended. A saddle +either too wide or too narrow will be certain to +cause a sore back.</p> + +<p>Each pack saddle should be accompanied by +a heavy woolen saddle blanket, which should be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61" name="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +folded into three or four thicknesses, for here +even greater protection is necessary than with +the riding saddle, for the animal is to carry a +dead weight.</p> + +<p>The preferable method of carrying supplies +with the sawbuck pack saddle is with kyacks, +basket panniers or the <i>alforjas</i>, though with +sling and lash ropes any sort of a bundle may +be slung upon it.</p> + +<p>When they can be obtained, kyacks of indestructible +fiber stand first for preference. +These are usually from twenty-two to twenty-four +inches wide, seventeen or eighteen inches +high and about nine inches deep, and are fitted +with heavy leather loops for slinging on the +saddle. Unless the horse is a large one, the +narrower, or twenty-two inch, should be selected.</p> + +<p>Basket panniers of similar size are lighter +but not so well adapted to hard usage, and are +more expensive.</p> + +<p>The alforjas is constructed of heavy duck +and leather, and of the same dimensions as the +kyack. They are much cheaper than either +panniers or kyacks, and are therefore more +commonly used. Any outfitter can supply them. +They are slung upon the saddle in the same +manner as kyacks. A pair of the type decided +upon will be required for each animal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62" name="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> + +<p>The next requirement is a half-inch lash +rope. This should be at least thirty-three, but +preferably forty feet in length. In some respects +a cotton rope is preferable to one of +hemp, though the latter is more commonly +used, and regulations prescribe it for army +pack trains.</p> + +<p>A good broad cinch should be provided, +fitted with a ring on one end to which is attached +the lash or lair rope and a cinch hook on +the other end.</p> + +<p>There should be a pair of hobbles for each +animal, and a blind to put upon obstreperous +pack animals when slinging and lashing the +load. These may be purchased throughout the +West at almost any village store. It is well +also to carry a bell, which should always be +strapped around the neck of one of the horses +when the animals are hobbled and turned loose +to graze.</p> + +<p>It will sometimes be necessary to picket one +of the animals, and for this purpose fifty or +sixty feet of half or five-eighth inch rope will +be required. Also sufficient leading rope should +be provided for each pack animal, and a halter +rope for the saddle horse. A lariat carried +upon the saddle pommel will be found useful in +a dozen ways, and may be utilized for picketing +horses.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63" name="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + +<p>All horses should be "slick" shod; that is, +shod with uncalked shoes. The shoes should +be of soft iron, not so light as to render them +liable to bend before they are worn out, and +they should not extend beyond the hoof at side +or rear. Some extra shoes of proper size for +each animal, a horseshoer's nippers, rasp, +hammer and some nails should be included in +the equipment.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64" name="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IX" name="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br /><br /> +PERSONAL OUTFIT FOR THE SADDLE</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">The</span> outfit recommended in Chapters <a href="#CHAPTER_III" title="Camp Equipment for the Canoe Trip">III</a> +and <a href="#CHAPTER_IV" title="Personal Equipment">IV</a> in discussing camp and personal +equipment for canoe trips is, with the +modifications and additions which we shall now +consider, equally well adapted to saddle and +pack horse travel. As previously stated, our +object is to describe methods of packing, rather +than to formulate an infallible check list. With +this in view an efficient outfit that may be +easily packed and transported is outlined, in a +general way, and therefore such articles of outfit +mentioned in previous chapters as are obviously +useful only in canoe travel will not be +referred to in this connection.</p> + +<p>The wedge, the Hudson Bay, the forest +ranger and the lean-to tent are all good models +for pack animal travel, and easily erected. +Whichever type is chosen, if made of any one +of the light-weight materials described, will be +found both satisfactory and easily packed. For +example, a forest ranger's tent eight feet deep<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65" name="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +and eight feet wide weighs less than four +pounds, while a lean-to with approximately the +same floor space weighs about three pounds. In +the more arid regions of the West one rarely +finds it necessary to pitch a tent, though it is +handy to have one along and well worth carrying, +particularly should it be desired to remain +more than one night at any point.</p> + +<p>During the summer, save in high altitudes, +one pair of light woolen blankets will be found +ample bedding. For all probable conditions +of weather, however, in tent or in the open, +the sleeping bag is the most convenient and at +the same time the most comfortable camp bed +yet devised, and it is so easily carried on the +pack horse that I advise its adoption. One +made of close-woven waterproofed canvas is +the most thoroughly practical bag for general +use. This should be lined with two pairs of +light blankets, that four thicknesses of blanket +may be available for covering. The blankets +should be so arranged that they may be taken +out and the bag turned for airing. One may +adapt such a bag to the temperature, using as +many or as few thicknesses of blanket as desired, +depending upon the number with which +the bag is lined. I recently saw a bag lined +with four thicknesses of llama wool duffel +(providing two thicknesses for cover) that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66" name="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +weighed but eight pounds and furnished ample +protection for any weather down to a zero +temperature.</p> + +<p>Pack cloths or light tarpaulins <span class="dimension">6 × 7</span> feet, +used to cover and protect the packs, will be +needed for each pack animal, and at night the +bed may be spread upon them. Saddle bags +make excellent pillows.</p> + +<p>In traveling in an arid region canteens are a +necessity. There should be one large one for +each traveler to be carried on the pack horse, +and a small one swung upon the saddle horn +will be found convenient for ready use.</p> + +<p>A folding water bucket of waterproofed +canvas should also be included in the outfit.</p> + +<p>The aluminum reflecting baker which has +been described is far preferable to the Dutch +oven—a heavy iron kettle with iron cover—not +only because it weighs far less and is much +more easily packed, but because it is more practical. +Westerners are wedded to the Dutch +oven, and this reference is merely made as a +suggestion in case the question of choice between +the two should arise.</p> + +<p>If kyacks or alforjas are used the large +water-proofed canvas duffle bags and food bags +will not be required. The smaller balloon silk +or musline food bags, however, will be found +fully as convenient in packing in the pack horse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67" name="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +kyack as in the canvas bags on the canoe trip.</p> + +<p>Each rider should be provided with either +a saddle slicker or a poncho, which when not +in use may be rolled and secured to the saddle +directly behind the seat by means of tie strings +attached to the saddle. A poncho is preferable +to a slicker, because of the many uses to +which it may be put.</p> + +<p>On saddle journeys in cold, windy weather +a wind-proof canvas coat or a large, roomy +buckskin shirt is a comfort. If a buckskin +shirt is adapted, have it made plain without +fringe or frill. Wilderness dwellers formerly +fringed their buckskin shirts, not alone for +ornament, but to facilitate the drying of the +garment when wet. In the fringed shirt water, +instead of settling around the bottom of the +shirt, around the yoke and the seams of the +sleeve, will drain to the fringe which the wind +quickly dries. In our case, however, the poncho +will protect the shirt from a wetting.</p> + +<p>In summer, in an arid or desert region of +the Southwest, athletic summer underwear will +be found entirely satisfactory. Whether this +or light wool is to be worn, however, will +depend entirely upon the season and the region +to be visited.</p> + +<p>In very warm weather a close-woven, good +quality khaki outer shirt is both comfortable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68" name="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +and practical; but on chilly autumn days a flannel +shirt should take its place—gray, brown, +blue—the color does not matter so long as it +does not crock. It is my custom to have one +khaki and one flannel shirt in my outfit.</p> + +<p>Trousers should be of heavy khaki, medium +weight moleskin, or other strong close-woven +material. Full-length trousers, with reinforced +seat, are preferable in some respects to riding +breeches, and may be worn with the regulation +United States cavalry puttee leggings with +shoes.</p> + +<p>Some riders prefer top boots, such as Arizona +cowboys wear, and but for their high +heels which make walking uncomfortable they +would be admirable. High-laced, medium-weight +mountaineering shoes will eliminate the +necessity of puttees, and many prefer them to +low-laced shoes and puttees. In snowy, cold +weather I have found heavy German socks and +ordinary shoes, large enough to avoid the possibility +of pinching the feet, admirable footwear +for the saddle. But whatever is decided +upon, extra trousers, extra leggings and extra +shoes are superfluous. One pair of each—the +pair worn—is sufficient.</p> + +<p>The hat should be of the Western style, with +broad brim, and of the best grade. The brims +of the cheaper ones are sure to sag after a lit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69" name="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>tle +wear and exposure to a shower or two. A +good reliable hat may be had for five dollars +that will stand several years of hard wear and +may be renovated when soiled, assuming again +the freshness of a new hat. I have one for +which I paid fourteen pesos in Monterey, Mexico, +in 1907. I have worn It pretty steadily +since in camp and on the trail. It has been +twice renovated, and to-day so nearly resembles +a new hat that I am not ashamed to wear +it about town.</p> + +<p>Heavy gauntlet buckskin gloves are a necessary +protection, not only against cold in frosty +weather, but against brush in summer. The +regulation United States cavalry glove is the +best that I have discovered for all-around hard +usage, and will not harden after a wetting.</p> + +<p>The saddle rifle should be short and light—not +over twenty-four-inch barrel, and not above +seven pounds in weight. A revolver is never +needed, though for target practice one offers +a means of amusement.</p> + +<p>Unless going into permanent camp or into +an isolated region, it will hardly be found necessary +to start out with more than one week's +provisions. Before these are consumed settlements +will be reached, where fresh supplies +may be purchased. It is well to have along a +few cans of baked beans and corned or roast<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70" name="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +beef, that a hasty meal may be prepared when +time does not allow a sufficient halt to permit +the preparation of uncooked foods. Two or +three dozen lemons should also be provided, +particularly in summer, and in more or less +arid regions.</p> + +<p>Provisions and general outfit should be +neatly packed in small bags, and evenly distributed +in the kyacks.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71" name="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_X" name="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br /><br /> +ADJUSTING THE PACK</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">In</span> saddling up, be sure that the saddle +blanket is folded large enough to protect +the horse's sides from the pack, when the +pack is slung into place. Otherwise the kyacks +or alforjas will be liable with constant chafing +when the horse is in motion to cause sores. Not +only where the saddle rests upon the blanket +but where the pack rests upon the horse's sides +there should be sufficient thicknesses of blanket +to overcome friction, and this demands a +greater thickness than under the riding saddle, +for the pack load is a dead load. After the +pack saddle is thrown into place, and before +cinching it, ease the blanket by pulling it up +slightly under the center of the saddle—along +the backbone of the animal. This will overcome +the tendency of the blanket to draw down +and bind the horse's back too tightly when the +saddle is cinched and the pack in place.</p> + +<p>When packing the kyacks or alforjas particular +care should be taken to have the pair<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72" name="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +for each horse evenly balanced as to weight. +If the load swung on one side of the horse is +heavier than that on the opposite side, there +will be a continual drawing down of the pack +saddle on the heavier side, resulting almost +certainly in injury to the animal. Inattention +or willful carelessness on the part of packers in +balancing the pack is five times out of six the +cause which leads to sore-backed pack animals.</p> + +<p>If two or more pack animals are used, let +such provisions and utensils as are in constant +use and will be needed at once by the cook, be +packed on one animal. Hobbles and bell +should also be carried on this animal. This +will be the first animal unpacked, and while the +other animals are being unpacked the cook may +get busy, and the packer will have hobbles and +bell at hand to immediately attach to the animals.</p> + +<p>Attached to each end of the kyacks and +alforjas is a leathern loop or sling strap. By +means of these loops kyacks and alforjas are +hung to the saddle, one loop fitting over the +forward, the other over the rear cruz, or fork. +The kyacks should be so adjusted as to hang +evenly one with the other. That is to say, one +kyack should hang no lower upon the animal's +side than the other, and both should hang as +high as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73" name="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> + +<p>The kyacks in place, hobbles, bell, and such +odds and ends as it may not be convenient to +pack in the kyack, may be laid on the center +between the crosstrees and on top of the kyack, +and over all smoothly folded blankets, sleeping +bags, or tent, care being exercised to keep the +pack as low and smooth as possible. Everything +carefully placed and adjusted, cover the +pack with the pack cloth or tarpaulin, folded to +proper size to protect the whole pack, but with +no loose ends extending beyond it to catch upon +brush or other obstructions. If inconvenient +to include within the pack, the cooking outfit +in its canvas case may be lashed to the top +of pack after the final hitch has been tied. +All is ready now for the hitch that is to bind +the pack into place.</p> + +<p>Frequently the traveler is not provided with +either kyacks or alforjas, and it becomes necessary +to pack the load without the convenience +of these receptacles. Before considering the +hitches, therefore, let us describe methods of +slinging the load in such cases upon the crosstree +saddle.</p> + +<p>The load which is to be slung from the +crosstree should be arranged in two compact +packages of equal weight, one for each side of +the animal. Boxes may be used, but large, +strong sacks are preferable. The large can<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74" name="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>vas +duffle bags, described in the chapter on +canoe outfitting, are well adapted to the purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i74"> + <img src="images/074.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Sling for Packing on Crosstree Saddle</span> + </p> + <p>A is forward cruz, B rear cruz of saddle. CC are loops + which support packages. D and E are ends or hauling + parts of rope.</p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Take the sling rope, and, standing on the +near side, throw one end over the horse's neck +just forward of the saddle. Now at about +the middle of the rope form two half hitches, +or a clove hitch, on the forward cruz or fork +of the saddle.</p> + +<p>With the free end of the rope on the near +side form a half hitch on the rear cruz, allowing +sufficient loop between the forward and +rear cruz to receive the side pack, with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75" name="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +free end of the rope falling under the loop. +Now go to the off side and arrange the rope +on that side in similar manner.</p> + +<p>Lift the offside pack into position with its +forward end even with the forward fork, lifting +the pack well up to the forks. Hold the +pack in position with the palm of the right hand +against the center of the pack, and with the left +hand pass the loop along the lower side of the +pack, drawing in the slack with the free end +of the rope, which passes around the rear fork +and under the center of the pack. With the +pack drawn snugly in position, take a turn +with the free end of the rope around the rope +along the side of the pack. This will hold +the pack in position. Tie a bowline knot in +the end of rope, and at proper length for the +bowline loop to reach the center and top of +pack. Place loop where it may be easily +reached from the near side.</p> + +<p>Now pass to the near side and sling the near +pack in exactly similar manner, save that no +bowline knot is to be formed. Reach up and +slip the end of the near rope, which you are +holding, through the bowline loop, draw tight +and tie.</p> + +<p>The following is another method of slinging +packs, frequently used by forest rangers:</p> + +<p>Throw the rope across the horse directly in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76" name="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +front of the saddle, and as in the previous +method form two half hitches with the rope +at its middle on the front fork, but in this case +permitting the ends to lie on the ground on +either side the horse. Place the near pack in +position and against the lower rope, and holding +it with one hand, bring the rope up and +over the pack with the other hand and throw +a half hitch around the forward fork, keeping +the free end of the rope under. Draw the +rope taut, lifting the pack well up. Pass the +running rope back and throw a half hitch +around the rear fork, the loose or running end +of the rope on the under side, as when forming +the half hitch on the front fork. Now +pass the running rope from under over the +pack at the rear, throw a half hitch over the +rear fork, take up all slack, bring the loose +end under and around the two ropes at their +intersection between pack and rear fork, and +tie securely. The pack on off side is slung in +similar manner.</p> + +<p>Most mules, and not infrequently horses as +well, have a constitutional dislike to receiving +the pack. If your pack animal displays any +such tendency adjust the blind over his eyes +and let it remain there until the hitch is thrown +and the load tightened and secured. The blind +is usually an effective quieter.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77" name="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XI" name="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br /><br /> +SOME PRACTICAL HITCHES</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">Whether</span> the load is made up with +kyacks, alforjas, or separate packs +slung to the crosstree saddle as described +in the preceding chapter it must be secured +in place. For this purpose various +hitches are employed by packers, each hitch +well adapted to the particular conditions which +evolved it.</p> + +<p>Our description will be confined to the following +six hitches, which furnish ample variety +to suit the exigencies of ordinary circumstances:</p> + +<p>(1) The crosstree or squaw hitch, which +is the father of all hitches because from it the +diamond, the double diamond and all pack-train +hitches in present-day use were evolved.</p> + +<p>(2) A diamond hitch, adapted to the crosstree +pack saddle. This is a form of single +diamond.</p> + +<p>(3) The United States army diamond particularly +adapted for use with the aparejo. The +true double diamond is a hitch rarely called for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78" name="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +save in army work or freighting pack trains, +and will therefore be omitted. There are several +so-called double diamonds that might be +described, but these near-double diamonds possess +little or no advantage over the single diamond, +and we shall pass them over as they are +scarcely resorted to in ordinary pack work.</p> + +<p>(4) The one-man or lifting hitch.</p> + +<p>(5) The stirrup hitch, to be used when the +packer has rope but no cinch.</p> + +<p>(6) The saddle hitch, employed in slinging +loads upon an ordinary riding saddle.</p> + +<p>(7) The hitch for packing a sick or injured +man.</p> + +<h3>THE CROSSTREE HITCH</h3> + +<p>This hitch was introduced into the Northwest +by the early fur traders and adopted by +the Indians. Among Indians, women are the +laborers, and the crosstree hitch being the hitch +almost exclusively employed by the squaws was +presently dubbed by white men the "squaw +hitch." It is a hitch very generally used by +prospectors, and for this reason is known in +some localities as the "prospector's hitch." +In other sections of the West, where sheep +herders commonly use it, it is locally called +the "sheep herder's hitch." It is a hitch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79" name="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +easily thrown by one man, holds well, and is +therefore a favorite.</p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i79"> + <img src="images/079a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Squaw or Crosstree Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>) Rope engaged on cinch hook and bight of rope + running from rear forward under standing rope. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/079b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>) Loop of bight enlarged, reversed and passed + around bottom and lower corners of off side pack. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/080.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>) Hitch formed and ready to tighten. 1. Standing + rope. 2. Running rope. 3. Rear rope—off side. 4. + Front rope—off side. 5. Front rope—near side. 6. Rear + rope—near side. 7. Marker. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>With lash rope attached to cinch, take a +position on the near side of the animal facing +the pack. Throw the cinch over the top and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80" name="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +center of pack in such manner as to be easily +reached under the horse's belly. Pick up cinch +and engage the rope from in out upon the +hook. Draw up slack, taking care that the +cinch rests properly upon the horse's belly. +Grasp the running and standing rope in left +hand above the hook, to hold slack, and with +the right hand double the running rope and +thrust the doubled portion under the standing +rope from rear forward in a bight, at top of +pack. Enlarge the loop of the bight by drawing +through enough slack rope to make the loop +of sufficient size to be passed over and around +the off side kyack or pack. Step to off side, +turn loop over, and engage it around the ends +and bottom of kyack, from front to rear. Re<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81" name="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>turn +to near side, and pass the loose end of +running rope around the forward end, bottom +and finally rear end of kyack. Draw the rope +end, from above down, over and under the +standing rear and running ropes, at the top and +center of the load, and the hitch is ready to +tighten.</p> + +<p>To tighten the hitch, grasp the running rope +a little above the cinch hook, and pull with all +your strength, taking up every inch of slack +possible. Retain this slack by holding the +standing and running rope together with left +hand, while with the right hand you reach to +top of load and pull up slack where running +rope passes under standing rope. Go to off +side and draw in all slack, following the rope +around off side pack. Retaining slack, return +to near side, and still following rope and taking +up slack around front to rear of near side +pack, grasp end of rope, already engaged as +directed over and under standing rear and +running rope, pull hard, bracing a foot against +pack, and tie. Two men, one on each side of +the horse, can, of course, throw the hitch and +tighten the load much more quickly than one. +Tightening the load is just as important a feature +of packing as evenly balancing the packs. +The result of an improperly tightened load +will pretty certainly be a sore-backed horse.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82" name="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE CROSSTREE DIAMOND HITCH</h3> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i82"> + <img src="images/082.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>) A turn is here taken around standing rope + with loop of bight of running rope thrust under standing + rope from rear to front, as in <a href="#i79">Fig. 1</a>, illustrating Squaw + Hitch. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Take position on the near side of horse, as +when forming the crosstree hitch, and throw +cinch over horse, engaging it on hook and adjusting +it in exactly similar manner. Take in +slack and retain it by grasping the standing +and running ropes in left hand. Double running +rope and thrust doubled portion under +standing rope in a bight, from rear forward +at top and center of load. Take up all slack. +Enlarge loop of bight by drawing through +enough running rope to form a diamond of +sufficient size to hold top of load. Now bring +center of loop over and under standing rope, +from rear forward, thus giving rope at each<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83" name="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +side of loop a complete turn around standing +rope. Throw the disengaged portion of running +rope to off side of horse, and passing to +the off side, bringing the rope down along rear, +bottom, and up front of kyack, thrust loose +rope end up through loop at top of pack. +Take in slack and return to near side of horse. +Engage running rope around front, bottom and +rear end of near side kyack or pack, and thrust +rope end over and under standing rope opposite +center of loop. Take up slack and load in +ready to tighten.</p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/083.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Crosstree Diamond Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>) Hitch formed ready to tighten. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Tighten load by grasping running rope above +hook and drawing as tight as possible. Hold +slack with left hand, gripping running and +standing rope, and take up slack at loop with +right hand. Pass to off side and take up slack<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84" name="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +and tighten rear to front around kyack. Pass +to near side, tightening front to rear; finally, +bracing a foot against the load pull on loose +end, and retaining all slack make final tie.</p> + +<p>The above described "diamond" hitch is +not the true diamond employed by government +pack trains where the aparejo is used, but it is +a diamond evolved from the crosstree hitch, +and is particularly well adapted to the crosstree +or sawbuck pack saddle, is easily formed, +and holds the load securely, which is the ultimate +object of all hitches.</p> + +<h3>THE UNITED STATES ARMY DIAMOND HITCH</h3> + +<p>The single diamond hitch employed by army +packers is the ideal hitch for securing a load +upon an aparejo. This is a two-man hitch, +though an expert can throw it alone.</p> + +<p>One packer takes his position on the off side +of the animal, while the other with the coiled +lash rope, cinch attached, remains on the near +side.</p> + +<p>The near packer, retaining the cinch, throws +the coiled rope over the horse's haunch, to rear. +The off packer picks up end of rope, and receiving +the hook end of cinch, passed to him +under horse's belly by near packer, holds it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85" name="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a><br /><a id="Page_86" name="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +together with end of rope in his left hand, and +stands erect.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i85"> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">United States Army Diamond Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + Figures represent successive stages in formation. + Near side towards right in each case. Line PP in Fig. 1 + represents horse's back. AA (Fig. 3) standing part of + rope, and A´ (Fig. 2) the running rope. + </p> + </div> + + <img src="images/085a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/085b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/085c.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/086a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/086b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/086c.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The near packer, taking a position at the +horse's neck, grasps the rope about six feet +from cinch, and with an upward and backward +motion, drops it between the two packs, one +slung on either side of the aparejo.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87" name="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> + +<p>Still grasping the rope in his right hand just +forward of the packs at the top, he pulls forward +between the packs sufficient running rope +to permit him to bring his hand down to his +side. Retaining the rope in his right hand +he now reaches up with his left hand, and +with back of hand up and thumb under +grasps running rope and draws sufficient rope +forward to permit the left hand grasping the +rope to come down to his side, arm's length.</p> + +<p>With the right elbow crooked the right hand, +still holding the rope, is brought up about on +a level with the chin, and the left hand, also +retaining its hold on the rope, thumb down, is +raised to hollow of the right arm, with loop of +rope between the hands lying outside the right +arm. Now by a single swinging motion with +both hands the rope in the right hand, called +the "standing rope," is thrown over the center +of pack to the off packer who stands ready +to receive it; and the rope held in the left hand, +called the "running rope," over the horse's +neck, forward of the pack.</p> + +<p>The off packer, still standing with cinch hook +and end of rope in left hand, with his right +hand grasps the standing rope as it comes over +as high up as he can conveniently reach, draws +it down, and holding the cinch hook in proper<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88" name="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +position below the aparejo draws down the +standing rope and engages it upon the hook +from in out.</p> + +<p>The near packer now draws forward between +the packs about six feet more rope, which he +throws to the rear of the near side pack. This +rope is now called the "rear" rope. He next +grasps the running rope at the horse's neck, +and with the off packer's assistance releases that +portion of the running rope lying between the +packs forward of the standing rope, and brings +it to the center of pack on near side, next to and +just back of the standing rope.</p> + +<p>He now slips his right hand down the rope +to a point half way between pack and aparejo +boot, and with the left hand reaches from forward +between standing rope and aparejo and +grasps the rope just above the right hand. Both +hands are now slipped down the rope, and with +the same motion drawn apart, one on each side +of standing rope (under which the rope being +manipulated passes) to the cinches. With the +hands about ten inches apart, the section of rope +between them, which is held in a horizontal +position, is jammed down between the two +cinches under the aparejo.</p> + +<p>The off packer, holding the running rope +with his right hand above the hook, places the +left hand holding end of rope on top of running<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89" name="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +rope between his right hand and the hook, and +with thumb under running rope grasps both +ropes and slips his hands up on running rope, +bringing it to center of load.</p> + +<p>He now draws the end of the rope, held by +left hand, forward until a foot or so falls upon +the near side of the horse's neck. The hitch +is now formed, ready to tighten.</p> + +<p>To tighten, the near packer with his left +palm passing the side and center of the pack +grasps the running rope at the rear of the standing +rope, at the same time bringing the running +rope between the thumb and index finger of the +left hand, which he is using as a brace. In this +position he is prepared to hold slack as it is +given him by the off packer.</p> + +<p>The off packer grasps the running rope close +down to the hook, and, bracing himself with a +knee against the aparejo boot, pulls with all his +might, taking two or more pulls, if necessary, +and giving slack to near packer, until no more +slack can be taken on standing rope. He now +steps smartly to rear and throws the top rope +forward of the pack. The top rope is the rope +leading up from the rear corner of the aparejo +boot on near side to the side and center of off +side pack. After it is thrown forward it is +called the "front" rope. He now prepares to +receive slack from near packer by grasping the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90" name="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +rear rope where it lies between the packs.</p> + +<p>The near packer, who has been receiving the +slack given him by the off packer, carries his +right hand, with which he holds the slack at +rear of standing rope, to lower side of pack +toward the aparejo, and reaches under standing +rope, with left hand grasps rope above right +hand, drawing it forward under standing rope, +and employing both hands jams it upward in a +bight between standing rope and pack. Care +should be taken during this operation to retain +all slack.</p> + +<p>The near packer now engages around front +boot of aparejo the free portion of the running +rope below the bight just formed. Holding +slack with left hand, he grasps the rope to rear +of cinch in right hand; receiving slack from left +hand he brings rope to rear of aparejo boot, +and with both hands carries rope smartly to +upper corner of side pack, always retaining +slack. The off packer receives slack, pulling it +in quickly hand over hand, the near packer retaining +his hold until the off packer has the rope +taut. The near packer now takes a position +at the forward end of load, facing the rear, and +grasps end of rope prepared to take slack from +off packer.</p> + +<p>The off packer, after receiving slack from +near packer as described takes a turn of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91" name="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +rope around each hand, holding every inch of +slack, steps to the rear, keeping in line with +the horse's body, and then facing forward +throws his full weight back upon the rope. Retaining +the slack with his left hand, with his +right hand he brings the free portion of running +rope under and around the aparejo boot, +from rear to front, passes forward of rope, and +facing the rear and grasping rope, right hand +above the left, brings it smartly to upper corner +of pack.</p> + +<p>The near packer, holding end of rope, immediately +draws in slack until he has about six +feet of free rope, which he throws over center +of load to off side, and then drawing in all remaining +slack takes a turn of rope around each +hand and throws his weight upon it, and the off +packer releases his hold.</p> + +<p>Holding the slack with the left hand, the +near packer releases his right hand and with +it engages the free or running portion of rope +under and around the aparejo boot to rear +of load, while the off packer steps to rear of +load, takes end of rope, and while he draws +in all slack, neatly coils rope, holding coil in +right hand at lower side of pack, and, with palm +of left hand braced against center of load, receives +slack from near packer.</p> + +<p>Grasping in his left hand the taut rope above<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92" name="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +the coils, and lifting it sufficiently above the +load to admit the coiled rope under it, he swings +the coils with his right hand from rear to front +to top of load and brings the standing rope +held in his left hand down on top of the coils +to hold them. He now takes a loop of the +rope, forces it between standing rope and pack, +in a bight, and takes a turn of the loop around +standing and running rope to secure it, first +joining the loop well up, and the hitch is tightened.</p> + +<h3>THE ONE-MAN OR LIFTING HITCH</h3> + +<p>This is a pretty good hitch sometimes where +kyacks are not used and an irregular pack is +swung upon the crosstree. While it holds the +pack very securely to the animal's back, its +tendency is to lift the corners that might cause +friction upon the horse's sides.</p> + +<p>Standing on the near side of the horse, throw +cinch over the horse's back, pick up cinch and +engage rope upon cinch hook, from in out, as +in previous hitches. Take up slack, bring running +rope up side of pack, double and thrust +loop or bight under standing rope from rear +forward at top of pack, to hold slack. Throw +all loose rope to off side, and pass around to +off side yourself.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93" name="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i93"> + <img src="images/093a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p>(<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>)</p> + <div class="cols"> + <div style="float:left"> + A—Cinch<br /> + C—Standing rope<br /> + B—Cinch hook<br /> + </div> + <div style="float:right"> + D—Running rope<br /> + E—Front rope<br /> + F—Marker<br /> + </div> + <div style="clear:both"></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/093b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Lifting Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>) Grasp loop A in left hand and with right + jam rope C C along and under rope B (where latter + passes beneath corner of pack) to D, as shown in Fig. 3. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/094a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>) Off side of hitch completed. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/094b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Lifting Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>) Hitch formed ready to tighten. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Draw loose end of running rope forward and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94" name="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +from under standing rope at top of pack. The +effect of operations thus far is this: The running +rope passes up the near side, from hook +and to top of load and passes under standing +rope, which will serve effectually in final tightening +of cinch to hold slack.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95" name="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<p>Pass end of running rope over and under +the forward end of off pack and backward under +standing rope and pack. Now bring the +rope forward over side of pack, double, and +thrust the doubled portion over and under forward +rope in a bight. With left hand grasp +double of rope at bight just to rear of forward +rope where it passes over and under forward +rope, and with right hand slip running rope +down and just to rear of standing rope. Take +up slack. By pulling hard upon loose end of +running rope the ends of pack will be lifted +slightly.</p> + +<p>Throw loose end over horse to near side, +and across middle of load. Pass to near side +and manipulate rope as on off side. Tighten +load. Secure the hitch by bringing loose end +of rope over and under forward running and +standing ropes, and tie.</p> + +<h3>STIRRUP HITCH</h3> + +<p>This hitch is useful where the packer has +lash rope but no cinch, and may be employed on +sawbuck saddle, aparejo, or where the load is +hung upon an ordinary riding saddle. It is a +two-man hitch, though one man may manipulate +it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i96"> + <img src="images/096a.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>) Rope is thrown across load with equal portion + falling on each side. Loop A is formed on top of + load, and the ends BB are passed through it to form + large loops C and D. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter illustration"> + <img src="images/096b.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Stirrup Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + (<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>) Loops C and D are passed under horse's + belly and seized by packers on opposite sides. Each packer + then draws end of rope which he is holding through loop + which has been passed to him. Off packer forms bowline + knot, E, and near packer passes his end of rope through + this. Hitch is now ready to tighten. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>Pass the rope over the load, with an equal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96" name="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a><br /><a id="Page_97" name="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +division of rope on either side. Form a loop +at center and top of load. Each packer will +now place a foot upon the rope, where it falls +from loop to ground, and pass his end of rope +through loop from above down and draw +through slack rope. This forms a loop on +either side in which the foot rests. Each +packer will now bring forward and under the +horse's belly the loop in which his foot rests, +passing the loop to the other packer at the same +time disengaging his foot, and will pass the +loose end of rope which he holds through the +loop which he receives. The ropes on top of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98" name="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +pack will now be spread to properly cover and +secure the pack, and all slack taken.</p> + +<p>The off side packer now forms a bowline +knot in the loose end of his rope, the near side +packer passes his loose end through the bowline +loop. To tighten the load the off side +packer gives slack, while the near side packer +braces and draws in on loose end of rope, tying +at bowline loop to secure load.</p> + +<h3>THE SADDLE HITCH</h3> + +<div class="figcenter illustration" id="i97"> + <img src="images/097.png" alt="Illustration" /> + <div class="caption"> + <p class="center"> + <span class="smcap">Saddle Hitch</span> + </p> + <p> + With rope arranged as shown throw deer across saddle, + enlarge loops A and B around haunches and neck. Bring + ends C and D together, form bowline knot on end D, pass + end C through it and tighten. + </p> + </div> +</div> + +<p>This is a particularly useful hitch when it +becomes necessary to sling a deer to a riding +saddle for transportation to camp.</p> + +<p>Throw the lash rope across the saddle seat, +an equal division of rope falling to either side. +Double the rope where it crosses the cinch ring +and thrust it through the cinch ring in a loop, +drawing through enough loose rope to form a +good-sized loop. This should be done on both +sides. Lay the deer across saddle, with head +hanging on one side and haunches on the other +side, slip loop on one side over the deer's head, +and the loop on the other side over its +haunches. Take in all slack. Form a bowline +loop on end of off side rope, and lay it on +top of load. This loop should be so adjusted +as to reach the middle of the top of load.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99" name="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +Passing to near side, thread loose end of near +side rope through the bowline loop. Tighten +load by pulling on loose end, and tie.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO PACK A SICK OR INJURED MAN</h3> + +<p>Sometimes it occurs that a member of a party +is so injured or becomes so ill as to be helpless, +and the problem of transporting him upon +horseback presents itself. This may be done +in the following manner upon a crosstree or +sawbuck saddle:</p> + +<p>Cut two straight sticks three feet long and +about three inches in diameter. Fit one on +either side of saddle snug against the forks. +Lash securely to forks forward and rear, with +ends of sticks protruding an equal distance forward +of and back of forward and rear forks. +It may be well to cut shallow notches in the +sticks where they rest against the forks. This +will preclude lateral motion.</p> + +<p>Cut two sticks two feet long and three inches +in diameter. Place one in front and one in +rear at right angles to and across top of sticks +already in position. These cross-pieces are to +be lashed to position one about two inches +from forward ends, the other two inches from +rear ends of lengthwise sticks. Before lashing +them into position cut notches to receive lash<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100" name="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +ropes at points of intersection, that any tendency +to slip or work loose may be overcome.</p> + +<p>Now cut two poles six feet long and three +inches in diameter. Spread a pack cloth upon +the ground, and presuming the pack cloth is +six feet wide, place a pole on each outer end +of it. Roll poles, with pack cloth, to center +until there is a width of twenty inches between +the outer edges of poles. In this position lace +cloth to each pole, or if horseshoe or other +nails are handy, nail it to poles. Should the +cloth be wider than length of poles, fold in a +margin on each end, before rolling. Place litter +on cross-pieces, the flat of canvas on top. +Notch, and secure poles of stretcher at front +and rear to cross-pieces. Lash down litter by +means of the stirrup hitch.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101" name="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XII" name="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br /><br /> +TRAVELING WITHOUT A PACK HORSE</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">The</span> man who travels without a pack +horse, and carries his full equipment +and provision supply upon his saddle +must, of necessity, deny himself many things +that under ordinary circumstances are deemed +essentials. He must indeed travel light, and +unless he is well inured to roughing it will be +content to confine his activities to the warmer +and less inclement months.</p> + +<p>The food supply is the first consideration, +but nowadays one is certain to come every three +or four days at the outside upon some point +where fresh supplies may be purchased. Therefore, +twelve to fifteen pounds of provisions, +carefully selected from the ration already suggested, +will meet the utmost needs. In selecting +the ration it is well to eliminate all luxuries. +It may also be said that canned goods are too +heavy, where one is to pack more than a two-days' +supply, and bacon should be made the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102" name="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +basis of the meat diet. But then we are considering +methods of packing and carrying, +rather than check lists. Limiting the quantity +to fifteen pounds for a five-days' trip—and this +is ample with judicious selection—the individual +will be left to decide his ration for himself.</p> + +<p>Saddle bags will be found indispensable and +in them will be ample room to carry the limited +toilet articles required, a hand towel, one +change of light woolen or summer underwear, +matches, tobacco and rifle cartridges. The +best shelter is a lean-to tent, made of extra +light cloth. This should be about seven feet +long, four and one-half feet high and four feet +deep. Such a tent will weigh about three +pounds.</p> + +<p>The cooking outfit will be limited to essentials. +If it can be had an aluminum army or +"Preston" mess kit, either of which weighs +about two pounds, a sheath knife with broad +blade, and a pint cup, will fill all requirements. +If the mess kit cannot be procured, a small +frying pan with folding handle, an aluminum +or enamel plate and a dessert spoon with sheath +knife, and a pint cup, will do nearly as well. +In this latter case coffee may be made in the cup. +A small canteen, which may be hung upon the +saddle horn, should also be provided.</p> + +<p>A small belt axe that weighs about two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103" name="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +pounds, with sheath, a lariat and a few feet +of rope will be required.</p> + +<p>A single blanket or a pair of light blankets +not exceeding five pounds in weight will constitute +the only bedding that can be conveniently +carried.</p> + +<p>To pack the outfit spread tent flat upon the +ground, turning the triangular ends in to lie +flat. Fold the tent once, end for end. This +will make a rectangular pack cloth three and +one-half feet long and about five and one-half +feet wide. Fold your blanket to a size a little +smaller than tent and spread it flat upon the +tent. Arrange your provision packages on the +blanket a foot or so from one end and with a +margin of a foot or more on either side. Fold +the end of blanket and tent up and over the +packages and roll up blanket and tent together +with a band close to the knob in center to hold +the packages in place and prevent their working +down toward ends of roll.</p> + +<p>The provisions should be thoroughly protected +in bags, as previously suggested, in order +that they may not soil the blanket.</p> + +<p>Place the roll directly behind saddle seat +with the bulge caused by the provision bulk +resting against saddle seat, the end of roll falling +on either side, and tie in position by means +of leather tie strings attached to saddle on each<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104" name="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +side. The tie should be made in both cases +just below the bulge in roll.</p> + +<p>The tent will protect blanket and provisions, +and if judgment has been used in the selection +and arrangement of provisions the bulk should +not be unduly or inconveniently large. The +cooking kit, if enclosed in a canvas case with +handle, may be lashed to roll by passing lash +string through the handle and over the top +and around the kit. A strap above the upper +loop of the rifle boot and through the belt +loop on the axe scabbard will hold the axe and +another buckled around the rifle boot and lower +end of handle will prevent a slapping motion +of the handle.</p> + +<p>The poncho, neatly rolled, may be carried +on the pommel, the center of the roll pressed +against the back of the horn, the ends drawn +down and forward of the pommel on either +side and secured with the leathern tie strings +attached to the saddle. When not in use +sweater or Pontiac shirt may be carried with +the poncho.</p> + +<p>The horse may be picketed with the lariat. +Hobbles may be made as cowboys make them +from rope. A strand unraveled from half-inch +rope brought once around one leg, twisted +rather tightly, the ends brought around the +other leg and secured in the twist between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105" name="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +legs, makes a good hobble. Always fasten +picket rope or hobble below the fetlock just +above the hoof—<i>never</i> above the fetlock.</p> + +<p>The outfit here outlined will weigh, including +rifle and a reasonable amount of ammunition, +from forty to forty-five pounds at the +utmost, and one may be very comfortable with +it. If game and fish can be caught and are +to be depended upon, the provisions may be +cut down to a little flour, bacon, coffee and +sugar, and the traveler may tarry in the wilderness +for a considerable time.</p> + +<p>One may leave out the tent, and in a warm +climate even the blanket, relying for shelter +wholly upon the poncho. An experienced man +will often limit his cooking outfit to a cup and +canteen. A good strong reliable horse, a good +saddle equipment, and enough plain food is all +one really needs who has experience in wilderness +travel. Such a man can make himself +comfortable with exceedingly little.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106" name="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XIII" name="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br /><br /> +AFOOT IN SUMMER</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">On</span> the portage one may carry a pretty +heavy pack and think nothing of it, for +the end of the portage and the relaxation +of the paddle is just ahead. The portage +is merely an incident of the canoe trip.</p> + +<p>The foot traveler, however, has no canoe +to carry him and his outfit five or ten miles for +every mile he carries his outfit. He must carry +both himself and his outfit the entire distance +traversed. This is obvious, and it leads to the +conclusion that the outfit must be accordingly +reduced both in weight and bulk.</p> + +<p>How heavy a load may be easily transported +depends, of course, upon the man, but it is safe +to say that the inexperienced will find twenty-five +pounds a heavy enough burden, and within +this limit must be included shelter, bed, and +one week's provisions; though ordinarily the +tramper will be able to renew his supply of +provisions almost daily.</p> + +<p>Under all ordinary circumstances a single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107" name="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +woolen blanket weighing not to exceed three +pounds will be found ample summer bedding. +A lean-to shelter tent seven feet long, four feet +wide and four feet high of one of the light +tenting materials previously described, weighs +less than three pounds and furnishes ample and +comfortable shelter. Blanket and tent may be +carried easily in a roll, the tent on the outside +to protect the blanket.</p> + +<p>To make the roll spread the tent upon the +ground, fold the blanket once, end for end, and +spread it upon the tent, the sides of the blanket +(<i>not</i> folded ends) toward the ends of the +tent. Fold in ends of tent over blanket and +roll up. Double the roll and tie together a +little above the ends with a stout string. The +roll, dropped over the head with center resting +upon one shoulder and the tied ends coming +together near the hip on the opposite side, may +be carried with little inconvenience. Blankets +are usually seventy-two inches wide, therefore +the roll should be about six feet in length before +it is doubled and the ends tied.</p> + +<p>A belt axe will be carried, in a sheath, upon +the belt, the remaining equipment and provisions +in a Nessmuk pack or a ruck sack. The +Nessmuk pack, sold by most outfitters, is about +<span class="dimension">12 × 20 × 5</span> inches in size and made of waterproofed +canvas. This will easily hold a nine-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108" name="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>inch +frying pan with folding handle, an aluminum +pan <span class="dimension">7 × 3</span> inches with folding handle, a +pint cup (if you do not wish to carry the cup +on your belt), a spoon or two, a cooking knife, +a dish cloth and a dish towel, together with one +week's provisions, matches, etc. There will +still be room for a small bag containing the few +needed toilet articles and hand towel, and another +small bag containing one change of light-weight +woolen underwear and two pairs of +socks.</p> + +<p>The cooking outfit indicated is limited, but +quite ample. I have done very well for weeks +at a time with no other cooking utensils than +a pint cup and a sheath knife. But here we +cannot go into woodcraft or extreme concentration +of rations and outfit. We are considering, +rather, comfortable or moderately comfortable +outfits and how to pack or transport +them.</p> + +<p>Tent, blanket, axe, food and other equipment +above suggested will, if intelligently selected, +not go beyond the twenty-five pound +limit. The greatest weight will be in the food, +and each day will reduce this about two pounds. +If provisions can be purchased from day to day +these, of course, need not be carried, and the +remaining load will be very light indeed.</p> + +<p>I would suggest that a light sweater take the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109" name="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +place of a coat as it will be found more comfortable +and useful and may be carried on top +of the pack or in the blanket roll, for it will +rarely be worn save in the evening camp.</p> + +<p>A broad-brimmed felt hat, an outer shirt of +medium-weight flannel, khaki trousers and +strong but not too heavy shoes make a practical +and comfortable costume. Woolen socks +protect the feet from chafing. Some campers +like long German stockings, which serve also +for leggings, and wear thin cotton socks inside +them. In selecting shoes take into consideration +the kind of socks or stockings to be worn, +and see that the shoes are amply large though +not too large, for shoes too large are nearly +as uncomfortable as shoes too small.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110" name="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XIV" name="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br /><br /> +WITH SNOWSHOES AND TOBOGGAN</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">In</span> the mode of travel here to be considered +the voyageur, equipped with snowshoes, +hauls his provisions and entire camping +paraphernalia upon a toboggan or flat sled. +The toboggan (Indian ta´-bas-kan´) had its origin +in the prehistoric past among the Algonquin +Indians of northeastern America. It was designed +by them for the purpose of transporting +goods over trackless, unbeaten snow wastes +where sleds with runners could not be used, and +for this purpose it is unequaled.</p> + +<p>While for our purpose the conventionalized +toboggan sold by outfitters and designed for +hill sliding and general sport will answer very +well, the wilderness model in use by Indians +and trappers in our northern wilderness is a +better designed and preferable type for the +transportation of loads.</p> + +<p>Various lengths of toboggans are in use, +each intended for the particular purpose for +which it was built. The longest Indian tobog<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111" name="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>gan +I ever saw was twelve feet in length, but +from six to eight feet is the ordinary length, +with a width of nine inches at the tip of the +curved nose, gradually increasing to fourteen +inches wide where the curve ends and the sliding +surface or bottom begins, and tapering away +to about six inches wide at the heel. The conventionalized +type averages from four to six +feet in length with a uniform width of about +fifteen inches from curve to heel.</p> + +<p>Some three or more crossbars, depending +upon the length of the toboggan, are lashed at +intervals across the top, the forward one at +the beginning of the curve where the nose begins +to turn upward, and on either side of the +toboggan from front to rear side bar, and +fastened to the side bars at their ends are side +ropes.</p> + +<p>Beaver-tail, bear's-paw, or swallow-tail +snowshoes, of Indian make, are the shapes best +adapted to the sort of travel we are considering. +These models are all broad and comparatively +short. The web should be of good +caribou babiche, closely woven for use upon +dry snow, and indeed for all-around conditions. +While on wet, soggy snow a coarse web may in +some respects be preferable it will not compare +in efficiency with the close web on loose +snow, or for all-around work under all sorts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112" name="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +of conditions. Long, narrow snowshoes may +be very good for racing where the country is +smooth, but they are not suited to a rough, +wooded or broken country or to hummocky +snow.</p> + +<p>The best and most practical, as well as the +simplest sling or binding for the snowshoe is +made as follows: Cut from an Indian tanned +buckskin a thong about half an inch wide and +thirty inches in length. Thread one end of +this, from above down, through the web at one +side of the toe hole, and from the bottom up +at the opposite side. Pull it through until the +two ends are even. Draw the thong up at the +middle, where it crosses the toe hole, to make +a loop large enough to admit the toe under it, +but not large enough to permit the toe to slide +forward against the forward cross-bar. Wrap +the two ends of the thong around center of +loop two or three times bringing them forward +over the top and drawing them under and back +through the loop. Slip your toes under the +loop, bring the ends of the thong back, one +on either side of the foot, and tie snugly in +the hollow above your heel.</p> + +<p>This sling will hold well, will not chafe the +foot, and with it the snowshoe may be kicked +free from the foot or adjusted to the foot in an +instant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113" name="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>Should the thongs stretch in moist weather, +the sling may be tightened by simply taking an +additional turn or two (without untying) +around the toe loop.</p> + +<p>I believe that lamp-wicking would answer as +well as buckskin thongs, though I have never +used it because I have always carried an ample +supply of buckskin.</p> + +<p>The best underclothing for the winter trail +is good weight—though not the heaviest—woolen. +Two suits should be carried besides +the suit worn. Underclothing should not fit the +body too snugly. It is better that it should be +a size too large than an exact fit.</p> + +<p>The outer shirt should be of flannel, and of +good quality, though not too heavy.</p> + +<p>Hudson's Bay Company trappers wear +good-weight moleskin trousers, almost entirely +to the exclusion of other fabrics, and I adopted +them several years ago as superior to any +other. They are wind-proof and warm and +are particularly well adapted to the rough +work of the trail.</p> + +<p>The ordinary coat is not at all adapted to +the northern wilderness in winter, for it will not +protect against drifting snow and driving blizzard. +In its stead the Eskimo adickey should +be worn.</p> + +<p>Any seamstress who can cut and make an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114" name="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +ordinary work shirt can make an adickey if +your outfitter cannot supply it. This garment +is slipped on over the head like a shirt, and +has a hood attached to draw over the cap as a +neck and head protection. The neck opening +is large enough to permit the head to pass +through it without the necessity of a buttoned +opening in front, for no matter how closely +buttoned a garment may be drifting snow will +find its way in. In length the adickey reaches +half way between hip and knees and is made +circular at the bottom. The hood should be +of ample proportion to pull over the cap +loosely, with a drawstring encircling the front +by which it may be drawn snugly to the face. +A fringe of muskrat or other fur around the +face increases the comfort, the fur acting as a +protection against drifting snow. While white +Hudson's Bay Company kersey cloth is a favorite +fabric for this garment, it may be made of +any woolen blanket duffle or similar cloth.</p> + +<p>Over the kersey adickey another adickey of +some smooth-surfaced, strong material, preferably +moleskin, should be worn. This outside +adickey should of course be just enough larger +than the kersey or blanket adickey to fit over +it easily. The adickeys may be worn singly +or together, according to the demands of the +weather.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115" name="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<p>A Pontiac shirt, to be worn under the adickeys +in extremely cold weather, should be included +in the outfit. This will serve, too, in +camp, when the adickeys are laid aside.</p> + +<p>A round cap of fur or heavy cloth provided +with flaps to turn down over the ears makes +the best head protection. The hoods of the +two adickeys, as before stated, should be large +enough to draw over this.</p> + +<p>Very important indeed is the question of foot +dress. Not only must we aim to secure the +greatest possible freedom and ease in walking, +but the ever-present danger of frostbite must +also be guarded against.</p> + +<p>Socks should be of wool, of the home-knit +variety, and besides the pair worn, three or +four extra pairs should be carried in the kit.</p> + +<p>Knit socks will not be sufficient protection, +however, and where two or three pairs are +worn they are certain to bunch or wrinkle, with +chafed and sore feet as a result. All Hudson's +Bay Company stores keep in stock a +white fuzzy woolen duffle of blanket thickness. +If you are making your start from a Post purchase +some of this duffle and have one of the +women at the Post make you a pair of knee-length +stockings of the duffle to pull over your +knit socks, and two pairs of slippers of the +same material, one just large enough to fit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116" name="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +over the foot of the long stockings, the other +just a little larger to fit over all. These should +be made of proper size, to obviate wrinkles. +The larger outfitters carry in stock good wool +duffle, and will make these to fit properly.</p> + +<p>In crisp, cold weather, when the snow never +softens or gets moist even under the midday +sun, buckskin moccasins should be the outer +footwear. Ordinary leather will freeze stiff, +stop the proper circulation of blood, and +certainly lead to frosted feet. The moccasins +should be made with high tops, reaching above +the ankles, with buckskin strings to wrap +around and secure them. Moccasins are light +to pack, and it is always well to carry a couple +of extra pairs, to have on hand in case of +emergency.</p> + +<p>Leggings of moleskin (or some other strong, +pliable cloth) large enough to push the foot +through protect the legs. These should be +knee high, with a drawstring to secure them +just below the knee. Ordinary canvas leggings +will not do. The leggings <i>must</i> be made in +one piece, without side buttons or other fastenings, +for otherwise snow will work through to +the great discomfort of the wearer.</p> + +<p>I have a pair of buckskin moccasins sewn to +legs of harbor sealskin, the hair side of the +sealskin out. This arrangement is preferable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117" name="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +to separate leggings but sealskin legs are difficult +to procure.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily I have found one pair of knit +socks, one pair of the long duffle stockings described +above and one pair of the duffle slippers, +worn inside the buckskin moccasins, quite sufficient.</p> + +<p>The knit socks may be done away with entirely +and also one pair of duffle slippers if +rabbit-skin socks are to be had. These are +worn with the hair next the foot, and are very +warm and soft.</p> + +<p>In weather when the snow softens and becomes +wet at midday, buckskin moccasins will +not do, for the least moisture penetrates buckskin. +In such weather sealskin boots are the +best foot protection. They are waterproof, +pliable and light. Sealskin boots for this purpose +have neither soles nor heels. They are +simply sealskin moccasins with legs, secured +with drawstrings below the knee. These are +of Eskimo make, and not generally obtainable +though they may be purchased in Newfoundland. +Oil-tanned moccasins, or larrigans, are +the next best moist-snow foot gear.</p> + +<p>Buckskin mittens with one or two inner pairs +of mittens of thick wool duffle, will protect the +hands in the coldest weather. One pair should +be a little smaller than the other, that it may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118" name="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +fit snugly into the larger pair without wrinkles, +and the larger pair of a size to fit in the same +manner into the buckskin mittens. When the +weather is too warm for both pairs, one pair +may be removed. A fringe of muskrat or +other fur around the wrists of the buckskin +mittens protects the wrists from drifting snow.</p> + +<p>A pad of rabbit-skin worn across the forehead +will protect it from intense cold. Hunting +hoods of knit camel's hair worsted are a +pretty good head protection, particularly at +night. They cover the whole head except the +face, and may be drawn up over the chin. +Mouth and nose must not be covered, or the +breath will quickly form a mass of ice upon +the face.</p> + +<p>One caution, though it may seem a digression, +may be made: If the nose or cheeks become +frosted, as will certainly happen sooner +or later to one traveling in a very low temperature, +<i>do not rub snow upon the frosted part</i>. +Snow rubbed on is pretty certain to fracture +and remove sections of the skin. The Eskimo +way is to hold or rub the frosted part with +the bare hand until frost has been removed, +and is far superior.</p> + +<p>The clothing outfit above described will be +found ample. Extra trousers or other extra +outer garments are not needed. <i>Let all hang<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119" name="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +loosely upon the body.</i> Nothing should fit +snugly.</p> + +<p>A pair of smoked or amber goggles should +always be included in the winter outfit. Amber +is more effective than smoked glass, +though ordinarily the latter will do. The goggles +should be fastened with a string to slip +over the back of the head. <i>No metal should +touch the flesh.</i></p> + +<p>The best low temperature sleeping bag is +one of caribou skin made with the hair inside. +Under ordinary conditions, however, a waterproofed +canvas bag lined with good woolen +blankets will do as well, though such a bag +with sufficient blanket lining to give it warmth +equal to that of the caribou skin bag would +be much heavier and more bulky than the latter. +A bag lined with four thicknesses of +llama wool duffle (that is, four thicknesses +over and four beneath the sleeper), however, +should not weigh more than ten pounds, and +would correspond in warmth to one lined with +blankets weighing twenty pounds.</p> + +<p>An A or wedge tent will be found the best +model for winter travel. A sheet-iron tent +stove <i>with bottom</i> and telescoping pipe will +make the tent warm and snug. The tent +should be fitted with an asbestos ring at the +stovepipe hole as a protection. A pack cloth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120" name="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +or tarpaulin will serve as an adequate and +comfortable tent floor.</p> + +<p>It is never safe or advisable for one to travel +in the wilderness alone, for a sprained ankle +or broken leg in an isolated region would be +more than likely to result in death.</p> + +<p>In the Hudson Bay country two pounds of +flour, one pound of fat pork, with baking powder, +tea and sugar, form the daily ration for a +man. It is well when possible to carry frozen +fresh meat, free from bone, with a proportion +of desiccated vegetables to vary the diet. Butter +makes a tasty variety to the fat, for it will +remain sweet at this season. Prunes and chocolate +are both worth while.</p> + +<p>Or if the journey is to be extended the +menu may be simplified by the introduction +of pemmican and the elimination of other +articles. Pemmican is the best condensed +food ever invented for cold weather work. +One pound of pemmican and a quarter +pound of pilot biscuit, as a daily ration, will +sustain a man at hard work, though it will +prove a monotonous diet. The above is +merely suggested as a basis. It may be expanded +or contracted as circumstances require +without disturbing its mean value. Let it be +remembered, however, that ordinary bread +and other moist foodstuffs will freeze as hard<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121" name="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +as stone. Jerked venison and desiccated vegetables +make tasty and sustaining additions to +the ration, and will not freeze.</p> + +<p>A man is supposed to be able to haul at good +speed upon a toboggan a load equal to his own +weight. Therefore two men, each weighing +150 pounds, should between them haul 300 +pounds. Camp equipment, tent axes, guns, +bedding, extra underclothing and all personal +belongings of both, if proper care be exercised +in selection, should weigh not to exceed +140 pounds. Add 80 pounds of food, and we +have 220 pounds, or a maximum load of 110 +pounds for each. The tent and general camp +outfit is indeed sufficient for four men. It is +presumed that the aluminum cooking outfit +previously described will be chosen. Some +eliminations, as, for example, that of the folding +baker, might easily be made without serious +loss of comfort.</p> + +<p>To secure the load upon the toboggan, arrange +the bags in which it is packed evenly, +taking care that no part of the load extends +beyond the sides of the toboggan. Adjust the +tarpaulin or canvas ground cloth neatly over +it. Secure one end of your lash rope to the +side rope on one side at the rear. Bring the +other end over and under the side rope opposite. +Cross it back over the load and over and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122" name="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +under side rope to front of next crossbar, and +so on to front crossbar, taking slack as you +proceed. From front to rear criss-cross rope +in same manner over load and under side ropes, +forming diamonds where the rope crosses itself +on top of load. Bring the end of rope under +side rope at rear, take in all slack and tie.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123" name="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XV" name="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br /><br /> +WITH DOGS AND KOMATIK</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allcap">In</span> considering equipment for dog and +sledge traveling, we must constantly bear +in mind the necessity of keeping down +weight and bulk. Not long since, while visiting +the establishment of a New York City +outfitter, I saw an equipment which a sportsman +ambitious for experience with dogs and +komatik (sledge) had selected for a month's +journey which he was about to undertake. Exclusive +of provisions there was enough material +to weight down four eight-dog teams. +Among other things was a specially designed +tent stove that would have tipped the scales at +upwards of one hundred pounds.</p> + +<p>The would-be traveler declared with pride +that he "did not intend to have cold camps." +It certainly gave me "cold feet" to contemplate +his outfit. It was the most ridiculous +and impracticable conglomerate aggregation of +camping material that I have ever seen put to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124" name="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>gether, +and I doubt if the would-be traveler +ever found a sufficient number of dogs at any +one point to transport it.</p> + +<p>While it is the aim of every experienced +camper to obtain the greatest degree of comfort +of which circumstances will admit, the +voyager with dogs cannot hope to carry with +him the luxuries of a metropolitan hotel, and +one soon learns how little after all is really +necessary to make one comfortable.</p> + +<p>How much weight a team of eight good +dogs can haul depends upon the character of +the country and the condition of the snow or +ice. Under very favorable conditions I have +seen such a team make good progress with +twelve hundred pounds. Ordinarily, however, +eight hundred pounds is a full load, and if +much rough ice, hilly country or soft snow is +encountered six hundred pounds will be found +all too heavy. I have heard of cases, when +traveling was exceptionally good, of dogs covering +upwards of one hundred miles a day. +The biggest day's travel I ever made with dogs +was sixty miles, but often I have toiled day after +day, pulling and hauling with the animals at +the traces, lifting the komatik over rough +places, or packing a trail for the team with my +snowshoes, to find myself rewarded with less +than ten miles when camping time arrived.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125" name="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<p>In selecting outfit the region to be visited +will be a factor to take into consideration. It +would be quite impossible to discuss adequately +in a single chapter all the phases of dog travel +to be provided for. We shall therefore leave +out of consideration polar outfitting, or outfitting +for other unusual work, which the reader +of this will scarcely be likely to undertake.</p> + +<p>The clothing suggested in the chapter on +snowshoe and toboggan travel is equally well +suited to travel with dogs and komatik. Should +the voyager's ambition, however, draw him +within the sub-arctic regions or across the Arctic +Circle some additional protection will be +needed.</p> + +<p>In the far Arctic the natives wear trousers +of either polar bear skin or caribou skin, with +an upper garment of caribou skin called, in +Greenland, the "kulutar;" in Labrador, the +"kulutuk." The only difference between the +adickey and the kulutuk is that the one is made +of cloth, the other of caribou skin. In Ungava +I supplied myself with caribou skin trousers, +which, as is the custom there, I drew on +over my moleskin trousers in windy or intensely +cold weather.</p> + +<p>The kulutuk takes the place of the moleskin +adickey. That is to say, the kersey adickey +worn under the kulutuk will be found ample<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126" name="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +protection in any weather, and often the kulutuk +of itself will be found sufficient.</p> + +<p>Kulutuk and skin trousers are worn hair side +out. Were they worn with the hairy side in, +they would accumulate moisture exuded by the +body, and the moisture would freeze, presently +transforming the hair into a mass of ice. A +friend of mine going to the Arctic for the first +time as a member of one of Peary's early +Greenland expeditions, turned his kulutuk inside +out and donned it with the hairy side next +the body. The Eskimos laughed, and resenting +their levity he assured them it was much +warmer worn in that manner than as they wore +it. "No," said one of them, "if it were warmer +worn that way the animals would wear +their fur inside." My friend quickly learned +by experience the logic of the Eskimo's argument.</p> + +<p>Deerskin kulutuk and trousers are not easily +purchased, though along any coast where seals +are captured similar garments of sealskin may +be procured, which, though not equal to deerskin +garments, answer very well. The skin of +the young harbor seal (the ranger seal) is best +for the purpose, as skins of other species are +too thick and heavy. When made of sealskin +the upper garment is called a "netsek."</p> + +<p>I discovered when traveling among them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127" name="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +that some of the Moravian missionaries of the +Labrador coast wore a buckskin suit under +their ordinary trousers and outer shirt. Such +a suit is much lighter than deerskin trousers +and kulutuk, and serves nearly as well. It is +not difficult to purchase buckskin from which +one may have such a suit made. It is wind-proof +and very light.</p> + +<p>All skin garments, including moccasins, +should be sewn with animal sinew. Ordinary +thread will quickly break out and will not do. +Thread-sewn moccasins are factory-made, and +will give very little service.</p> + +<p>The types of snowshoes suggested in the +chapter on snowshoe and toboggan travel are +the types also best suited to dog and komatik +work. Long snowshoes would be very much +in the way when one has to go to the traces and +haul with the dogs or lift and assist the komatik +over rough places; and this becomes the +rule rather than the exception as one goes +North.</p> + +<p>Let me insist that the web should be of good +caribou babiche, and not the ordinary rawhide +used in many of the snowshoes offered for sale. +The former will not stretch when wet, while +the latter will stretch and bag so badly as to +render the snowshoe practically useless.</p> + +<p>It is well to wrap the frame on either side<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128" name="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +where the babiche is drawn around it, with +buckskin or sealskin. Otherwise even a slight +crust upon the snow will in time cut the babiche +strands. Wrapping the snowshoe in this manner +will at least double its life.</p> + +<p>What was said in reference to tent, small +sheet-iron stove and general camp and cooking +outfit in the previous chapter will apply here, +as well as directions heretofore given for packing +in waterproof bags. In selecting the sleeping +bag, give first preference to one of deerskin.</p> + +<p>In a barren region where firewood is not to +be had, it will be necessary to carry an alcohol +or kerosene burner and stock of fuel. The +former is preferable on account of the low +freezing point of alcohol. Alcohol or oil +should be secured in tin cases. It is regularly +put up in this way by dealers.</p> + +<p>In such a region, too, it may be necessary to +carry snow knives with which to cut blocks of +snow for the erection of snow igloos as shelter. +These knives resemble somewhat the +machete. One cannot, however, learn to build +a snow igloo properly without long practice. +This phase of the work is merely referred to as +interesting; for anyone traveling in a country +where snow house shelter is necessary will secure +the assistance of a native, who will attend<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129" name="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +to proper sledge outfitting at the point of departure.</p> + +<p>On regular lines of dog travel opportunities +to renew the provision supply will frequently +occur, and cabins for night shelter will be +found. Therefore the food outfit will depend +upon the country to be traversed. Where long +stretches occur between supply points, however, +fat pork, pilot bread, tea and sugar should +form the basis. The very best possible food, +however, for this work is pemmican, pilot +bread, tea and sugar. Of course a little coffee +may be carried, but it is bulky.</p> + +<p>The traveler will make his selection carefully, +building around pork, pilot bread and +pemmican with other articles of food like +desiccated vegetables from which water has +been eliminated. Too much salt meat opens +the door to scurvy, unless sufficient variation +in the way of vegetables, fish, or fresh meat +is introduced. Dessicated cranberries are an +excellent preventive. A man can do good +hard work day in and day out, as already +stated, upon one pound of pemmican and a +quarter pound of pilot bread as a daily ration, +and such a ration offers no danger of scurvy.</p> + +<p>Dog pemmican is the best dog food, and the +lightest, for dogs will do pretty well upon one +pound of pemmican each a day. To do well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130" name="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +the animals should be given plenty of fat, +when pemmican is not available, though not a +clear fat diet, for that will make them sick. +Three-quarters of a pound of fat and three-quarters +of a pound of meat or fish is an ordinary +ration. Dogs are fed but once a day—at +night.</p> + +<p>The number of dogs in a team varies, but +the average team is composed of seven or +eight. Eight or nine is the most economical +number so far as results are concerned.</p> + +<p>In the Northwest dogs are harnessed tandem. +This is the white man's method. In the +Northeast they are harnessed fan fashion—the +Eskimo method. That is to say, each dog +has an individual trace secured to the end of a +single thong, leading out from the bow of the +komatik and called the bridle. The individual +traces are of various lengths. The dog with +the longest trace is the leader of the pack, and +particularly trained to respond to the driver's +directions. The other dogs will follow his +lead.</p> + +<p>For open country and sea ice travel the Eskimo +method is probably best, as the work is +more evenly distributed and the driver can always +tell whether each dog is doing his share +of the work, but for narrow trails and woods +travel the tandem method is more practicable.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131" name="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dogs are good, bad and indifferent. One +seldom has an opportunity to pick one's dogs +discriminately, and rarely may one purchase +them outright unless contracted for a year in +advance, for the native dog owner seldom +maintains animals in excess of his requirements +in the ordinary routine of his life. The +traveler will usually be able, however, to hire +a team by employing the owner to drive it, and +the owner of a team will get much more work +out of his dogs than a stranger to the dogs +can hope to do.</p> + +<p>At least a year's experience is necessary to +enable a white man to handle a dog team with +anything approaching efficiency, and even then +one cannot hope to approach the performance +of an Eskimo. The failure to enlist Eskimos +as dog drivers has been the real cause of the +failure of many an Arctic expedition.</p> + +<p>It is advised, then, that the traveler employ +at so much per day or for the trip driver and +dogs. It is an unsafe experiment to start off +with a dog team unattended by an experienced +man. The owner of the team will supply also +the necessary dog harness, his own dog whip +and general dog traveling paraphernalia, including +the komatik.</p> + +<p>Sledges or komatiks vary in different localities +as to width, length and minor methods of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132" name="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +construction. The average komatik is two feet +wide and ten feet long but as stated, they vary +in different localities, a uniform width being +maintained to suit the local conditions of the +region in which they are used. For example, +wide and comparatively short komatiks are +employed in Quebec, while the Ungava komatik +is but sixteen inches wide. These latter komatiks +are usually fifteen or sixteen feet in +length, however. The runners stand ten inches +high. This is, in fact, the heaviest and most +efficient komatik I have ever seen. Each runner +is made from a single piece of timber and +is from two and one-half to three inches thick. +It is designed for the roughest possible use, and +is, I believe, better adapted to this purpose than +the Greenland komatik because more substantially +built. The latter is peculiar in that it has +upstands at the rear for guiding it.</p> + +<p>Crossbars, extending an inch or so on either +side of the runners and from one to two inches +apart, are lashed into place with rawhide. +When the rawhide shrinks the komatik becomes +firm. Iron fastenings being rigid would +break too readily, particularly in intense cold, +to be reliable.</p> + +<p>The traveler will do well, therefore, to purchase +if he does not hire his komatik at the +point of departure, as in so doing he will se<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133" name="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>cure +one of correct design for the region to be +traversed.</p> + +<p>It is well to have a box made the width of +the komatik two or three feet long, and about +fourteen inches deep to lash upon the rear end +of the komatik in which cooking utensils and +a portion of the food supply, as well as odds +and ends, may be carried. This should be supplied +with a hinged cover, and hook or clasp +by which the cover may be securely fastened +down.</p> + +<p>The best lash for securing the load in position +is one of sealskin, though ordinary hemp +rope will do. Before lashing, the tarpaulin +should be neatly folded over the top of load to +protect it.</p> + +<p>One end of the lash is secured to an end of +the crossbar at the forward end of the load, +brought across the load and under the other +end, then across, skipping a couple of crossbars, +and back again skipping a couple of crossbars, +thus threading it from side to side under +the ends of every second or third crossbar to +the rear bar, where it is brought across the +load to the opposite end of this crossbar and +crisscrossed across the load again to the forward +crossbar to be tied.</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top:1em">THE END</p> + +<div class="transnote"> + <strong>Transcriber's note:</strong> + + <p>Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been retained. Punctuation has been normalized.</p> + + <p>The following errors have been corrected:</p> + + <ul> + <li>p. 46 "two or three hundreds" fixed to "... hundred"</li> + <li>p. 51 Chapter VII: fixed numbering of topics</li> + <li>p. 72 carelessless → carelessness</li> + <li>p. 85 change A<sub>1</sub> to A´ to match the illustration</li> + <li>p. 87 graps → grasps</li> + <li>p. 88 "betwee nthem" → "between them"</li> + <li>p. 90 fixed period instead of comma</li> + <li>p. 90 graps → grasps</li> + <li>p. 119 removed redundant "of"</li> + </ul> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44720 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44720-h/images/03a.png b/44720-h/images/03a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78ad8a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/03a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/03b.png b/44720-h/images/03b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ce1af2 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/03b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/058.png b/44720-h/images/058.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..04afebb --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/058.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/059.png b/44720-h/images/059.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1584840 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/059.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/074.png b/44720-h/images/074.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bdcabd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/074.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/079a.png b/44720-h/images/079a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..102e256 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/079a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/079b.png b/44720-h/images/079b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..82c5300 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/079b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/080.png b/44720-h/images/080.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7271641 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/080.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/082.png b/44720-h/images/082.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..87b3307 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/082.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/083.png b/44720-h/images/083.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..659c6ee --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/083.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/085a.png b/44720-h/images/085a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf0d0b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/085a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/085b.png b/44720-h/images/085b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..69607a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/085b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/085c.png b/44720-h/images/085c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bb80b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/085c.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/086a.png b/44720-h/images/086a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..419b708 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/086a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/086b.png b/44720-h/images/086b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..09dd509 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/086b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/086c.png b/44720-h/images/086c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2176b3d --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/086c.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/093a.png b/44720-h/images/093a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..93b2844 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/093a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/093b.png b/44720-h/images/093b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8289a8b --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/093b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/094a.png b/44720-h/images/094a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d68351a --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/094a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/094b.png b/44720-h/images/094b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c713ec6 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/094b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/096a.png b/44720-h/images/096a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6565dc4 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/096a.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/096b.png b/44720-h/images/096b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a474fc --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/096b.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/097.png b/44720-h/images/097.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..01f4c86 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/097.png diff --git a/44720-h/images/cover.jpg b/44720-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..046f494 --- /dev/null +++ b/44720-h/images/cover.jpg |
