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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Luck or Cunning?, by Samuel Butler
+(#11 in our series by Samuel Butler)
+
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+Title: Luck or Cunning?
+
+Author: Samuel Butler
+
+Release Date: January, 2004  [EBook #4967]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on April 5, 2002]
+[Most recently updated: April 5, 2002]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, LUCK OR CUNNING? ***
+
+
+
+
+Transcribed by David Price, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk from the
+1922 Jonathan Cape edition
+
+
+
+LUCK, OR CUNNING AS THE MAIN MEANS OF ORGANIC MODIFICATION
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+
+This second edition of Luck, or Cunning? is a reprint of the first
+edition, dated 1887, but actually published in November, 1886.  The
+only alterations of any consequence are in the Index, which has been
+enlarged by the incorporation of several entries made by the author
+in a copy of the book which came into my possession on the death of
+his literary executor, Mr. R. A. Streatfeild.  I thank Mr. G. W.
+Webb, of the University Library, Cambridge, for the care and skill
+with which he has made the necessary alterations; it was a
+troublesome job because owing to the re-setting, the pagination was
+no longer the same.
+
+Luck, or Cunning? is the fourth of Butler's evolution books; it was
+followed in 1890 by three articles in The Universal Review entitled
+"The Deadlock in Darwinism" (republished in The Humour of Homer),
+after which he published no more upon that subject.
+
+In this book, as he says in his Introduction, he insists upon two
+main points:  (1) the substantial identity between heredity and
+memory, and (2) the reintroduction of design into organic
+development; and these two points he treats as though they have
+something of that physical life with which they are so closely
+associated.  He was aware that what he had to say was likely to
+prove more interesting to future generations than to his immediate
+public, "but any book that desires to see out a literary three-score
+years and ten must offer something to future generations as well as
+to its own."  By next year one half of the three-score years and ten
+will have passed, and the new generation by their constant enquiries
+for the work have already begun to show their appreciation of
+Butler's method of treating the subject, and their readiness to
+listen to what was addressed to them as well as to their fathers.
+
+HENRY FESTING JONES.
+March, 1920.
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
+
+
+
+This book, as I have said in my concluding chapter, has turned out
+very different from the one I had it in my mind to write when I
+began it.  It arose out of a conversation with the late Mr. Alfred
+Tylor soon after his paper on the growth of trees and protoplasmic
+continuity was read before the Linnean Society--that is to say, in
+December, 1884--and I proposed to make the theory concerning the
+subdivision of organic life into animal and vegetable, which I have
+broached in my concluding chapter, the main feature of the book.
+One afternoon, on leaving Mr. Tylor's bedside, much touched at the
+deep disappointment he evidently felt at being unable to complete
+the work he had begun so ably, it occurred to me that it might be
+some pleasure to him if I promised to dedicate my own book to him,
+and thus, however unworthy it might be, connect it with his name.
+It occurred to me, of course, also that the honour to my own book
+would be greater than any it could confer, but the time was not one
+for balancing considerations nicely, and when I made my suggestion
+to Mr. Tylor on the last occasion that I ever saw him, the manner in
+which he received it settled the question.  If he had lived I should
+no doubt have kept more closely to my  plan, and should probably
+have been furnished by him with much that would have enriched the
+book and made it more worthy of his acceptance; but this was not to
+be.
+
+In the course of writing I became more and more convinced that no
+progress could be made towards a sounder view of the theory of
+descent until people came to understand what the late Mr. Charles
+Darwin's theory of natural selection amounted to, and how it was
+that it ever came to be propounded.  Until the mindless theory of
+Charles Darwinian natural selection was finally discredited, and a
+mindful theory of evolution was substituted in its place, neither
+Mr. Tylor's experiments nor my own theories could stand much chance
+of being attended to.  I therefore devoted myself mainly, as I had
+done in "Evolution Old and New," and in "Unconscious Memory," to
+considering whether the view taken by the late Mr. Darwin, or the
+one put forward by his three most illustrious predecessors, should
+most command our assent.
+
+The deflection from my original purpose was increased by the
+appearance, about a year ago, of Mr. Grant Allen's "Charles Darwin,"
+which I imagine to have had a very large circulation.  So important,
+indeed, did I think it not to leave Mr. Allen's statements
+unchallenged, that in November last I recast my book completely,
+cutting out much that I had written, and practically starting anew.
+How far Mr. Tylor would have liked it, or even sanctioned its being
+dedicated to him, if he were now living, I cannot, of course, say.
+I never heard him speak of the late Mr. Darwin in any but terms of
+warm respect, and am by no means sure that he would have been well
+pleased at an attempt to connect him with a book so polemical as the
+present.  On the other hand, a promise made and received as mine
+was, cannot be set aside lightly.  The understanding was that my
+next book was to be dedicated to Mr. Tylor; I have written the best
+I could, and indeed never took so much pains with any other; to Mr.
+Tylor's memory, therefore, I have most respectfully, and
+regretfully, inscribed it.
+
+Desiring that the responsibility for what has been done should rest
+with me, I have avoided saying anything about the book while it was
+in progress to any of Mr Tylor's family or representatives.  They
+know nothing, therefore, of its contents, and if they did, would
+probably feel with myself very uncertain how far it is right to use
+Mr. Tylor's name in connection with it.  I can only trust that, on
+the whole, they may think I have done most rightly in adhering to
+the letter of my promise.
+
+October 15, 1886.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I--INTRODUCTION
+
+
+
+I shall perhaps best promote the acceptance of the two main points
+on which I have been insisting for some years past, I mean, the
+substantial identity between heredity and memory, and the
+reintroduction of design into organic development, by treating them
+as if they had something of that physical life with which they are
+so closely connected.  Ideas are like plants and animals in this
+respect also, as in so many others, that they are more fully
+understood when their relations to other ideas of their time, and
+the history of their development are known and borne in mind.  By
+development I do not merely mean their growth in the minds of those
+who first advanced them, but that larger development which consists
+in their subsequent good or evil fortunes--in their reception,
+favourable or otherwise, by those to whom they were presented.  This
+is to an idea what its surroundings are to an organism, and throws
+much the same light upon it that knowledge of the conditions under
+which an organism lives throws upon the organism itself.  I shall,
+therefore, begin this new work with a few remarks about its
+predecessors.
+
+I am aware that what I may say on this head is likely to prove more
+interesting to future students of the literature of descent than to
+my immediate public, but any book that desires to see out a literary
+three-score years and ten must offer something to future generations
+as well as to its own.  It is a condition of its survival that it
+shall do this, and herein lies one of the author's chief
+difficulties.  If books only lived as long as men and women, we
+should know better how to grow them; as matters stand, however, the
+author lives for one or two generations, whom he comes in the end to
+understand fairly well, while the book, if reasonable pains have
+been taken with it, should live more or less usefully for a dozen.
+About the greater number of these generations the author is in the
+dark; but come what may, some of them are sure to have arrived at
+conclusions diametrically opposed to our own upon every subject
+connected with art, science, philosophy, and religion; it is plain,
+therefore, that if posterity is to be pleased, it can only be at the
+cost of repelling some present readers.  Unwilling as I am to do
+this, I still hold it the lesser of two evils; I will be as brief,
+however, as the interests of the opinions I am supporting will
+allow.
+
+In "Life and Habit" I contended that heredity was a mode of memory.
+I endeavoured to show that all hereditary traits, whether of mind or
+body, are inherited in virtue of, and as a manifestation of, the
+same power whereby we are able to remember intelligently what we did
+half an hour, yesterday, or a twelvemonth since, and this in no
+figurative but in a perfectly real sense.  If life be compared to an
+equation of a hundred unknown quantities, I followed Professor
+Hering of Prague in reducing it to one of ninety-nine only, by
+showing two of the supposed unknown quantities to be so closely
+allied that they should count as one.  I maintained that instinct
+was inherited memory, and this without admitting more exceptions and
+qualifying clauses than arise, as it were, by way of harmonics from
+every proposition, and must be neglected if thought and language are
+to be possible.
+
+I showed that if the view for which I was contending was taken, many
+facts which, though familiar, were still without explanation or
+connection with our other ideas, would remain no longer isolated,
+but be seen at once as joined with the mainland of our most assured
+convictions.  Among the things thus brought more comfortably home to
+us was the principle underlying longevity.  It became apparent why
+some living beings should live longer than others, and how any race
+must be treated whose longevity it is desired to increase.  Hitherto
+we had known that an elephant was a long-lived animal and a fly
+short-lived, but we could give no reason why the one should live
+longer than the other; that is to say, it did not follow in
+immediate coherence with, or as intimately associated with, any
+familiar principle that an animal which is late in the full
+development of its reproductive system will tend to live longer than
+one which reproduces early.  If the theory of "Life and Habit" be
+admitted, the fact of a slow-growing animal being in general longer
+lived than a quick developer is seen to be connected with, and to
+follow as a matter of course from, the fact of our being able to
+remember anything at all, and all the well-known traits of memory,
+as observed where we can best take note of them, are perceived to be
+reproduced with singular fidelity in the development of an animal
+from its embryonic stages to maturity.
+
+Take this view, and the very general sterility of hybrids from being
+a CRUX of the theory of descent becomes a stronghold of defence.  It
+appears as part of the same story as the benefit derived from
+judicious, and the mischief from injudicious, crossing; and this, in
+its turn, is seen as part of the same story, as the good we get from
+change of air and scene when we are overworked.  I will not amplify;
+but reversion to long-lost, or feral, characteristics, the phenomena
+of old age, the fact of the reproductive system being generally the
+last to arrive at maturity--few further developments occurring in
+any organism after this has been attained--the sterility of many
+animals in confinement, the development in both males and females
+under certain circumstances of the characteristics of the opposite
+sex, the latency of memory, the unconsciousness with which we grow,
+and indeed perform all familiar actions, these points, though
+hitherto, most of them, so apparently inexplicable that no one even
+attempted to explain them, became at once intelligible, if the
+contentions of "Life and Habit" were admitted.
+
+Before I had finished writing this book I fell in with Professor
+Mivart's "Genesis of Species," and for the first time understood the
+distinction between the Lamarckian and Charles-Darwinian systems of
+evolution.  This had not, so far as I then knew, been as yet made
+clear to us by any of our more prominent writers upon the subject of
+descent with modification; the distinction was unknown to the
+general public, and indeed is only now beginning to be widely
+understood.  While reading Mr. Mivart's book, however, I became
+aware that I was being faced by two facts, each incontrovertible,
+but each, if its leading exponents were to be trusted, incompatible
+with the other.
+
+On the one hand there was descent; we could not read Mr. Darwin's
+books and doubt that all, both animals and plants, were descended
+from a common source.  On the other, there was design; we could not
+read Paley and refuse to admit that design, intelligence, adaptation
+of means to ends, must have had a large share in the development of
+the life we saw around us; it seemed indisputable that the minds and
+bodies of all living beings must have come to be what they are
+through a wise ordering and administering of their estates.  We
+could not, therefore, dispense either with descent or with design,
+and yet it seemed impossible to keep both, for those who offered us
+descent stuck to it that we could have no design, and those, again,
+who spoke so wisely and so well about design would not for a moment
+hear of descent with modification.
+
+Each, moreover, had a strong case.  Who could reflect upon
+rudimentary organs, and grant Paley the kind of design that alone
+would content him?  And yet who could examine the foot or the eye,
+and grant Mr. Darwin his denial of forethought and plan?
+
+For that Mr. Darwin did deny skill and contrivance in connection
+with the greatly preponderating part of organic developments cannot
+be and is not now disputed.  In the first chapter of "Evolution Old
+and New" I brought forward passages to show how completely he and
+his followers deny design, but will here quote one of the latest of
+the many that have appeared to the same effect since "Evolution Old
+and New" was published; it is by Mr. Romanes, and runs as follows:-
+
+"It is the VERY ESSENCE of the Darwinian hypothesis that it only
+seeks to explain the APPARENTLY purposive variations, or variations
+of an adaptive kind." {17a}
+
+The words "apparently purposive" show that those organs in animals
+and plants which at first sight seem to have been designed with a
+view to the work they have to do--that is to say, with a view to
+future function--had not, according to Mr. Darwin, in reality any
+connection with, or inception in, effort; effort involves purpose
+and design; they had therefore no inception in design, however much
+they might present the appearance of being designed; the appearance
+was delusive; Mr. Romanes correctly declares it to be "the very
+essence" of Mr. Darwin's system to attempt an explanation of these
+seemingly purposive variations which shall be compatible with their
+having arisen without being in any way connected with intelligence
+or design.
+
+As it is indisputable that Mr. Darwin denied design, so neither can
+it be doubted that Paley denied descent with modification.  What,
+then, were the wrong entries in these two sets of accounts, on the
+detection and removal of which they would be found to balance as
+they ought?
+
+Paley's weakest place, as already implied, is in the matter of
+rudimentary organs; the almost universal presence in the higher
+organisms of useless, and sometimes even troublesome, organs is
+fatal to the kind of design he is trying to uphold; granted that
+there is design, still it cannot be so final and far-foreseeing as
+he wishes to make it out.  Mr. Darwin's weak place, on the other
+hand, lies, firstly, in the supposition that because rudimentary
+organs imply no purpose now, they could never in time past have done
+so--that because they had clearly not been designed with an eye to
+all circumstances and all time, they never, therefore, could have
+been designed with an eye to any time or any circumstances; and,
+secondly, in maintaining that "accidental," "fortuitous,"
+"spontaneous" variations could be accumulated at all except under
+conditions that have never been fulfilled yet, and never will be; in
+other words, his weak place lay in the contention (for it comes to
+this) that there can be sustained accumulation of bodily wealth,
+more than of wealth of any other kind, unless sustained experience,
+watchfulness, and good sense preside over the accumulation.  In
+"Life and Habit," following Mr. Mivart, and, as I now find, Mr.
+Herbert Spencer, I showed (pp. 279-281) how impossible it was for
+variations to accumulate unless they were for the most part
+underlain by a sustained general principle; but this subject will be
+touched upon more fully later on.
+
+The accumulation of accidental variations which owed nothing to mind
+either in their inception, or their accumulation, the pitchforking,
+in fact, of mind out of the universe, or at any rate its exclusion
+from all share worth talking about in the process of organic
+development, this was the pill Mr. Darwin had given us to swallow;
+but so thickly had he gilded it with descent with modification, that
+we did as we were told, swallowed it without a murmur, were lavish
+in our expressions of gratitude, and, for some twenty years or so,
+through the mouths of our leading biologists, ordered design
+peremptorily out of court, if she so much as dared to show herself.
+Indeed, we have even given life pensions to some of the most notable
+of these biologists, I suppose in order to reward them for having
+hoodwinked us so much to our satisfaction.
+
+Happily the old saying, Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque
+recurret, still holds true, and the reaction that has been gaining
+force for some time will doubtless ere long brush aside the cobwebs
+with which those who have a vested interest in Mr. Darwin's
+reputation as a philosopher still try to fog our outlook.  Professor
+Mivart was, as I have said, among the first to awaken us to Mr.
+Darwin's denial of design, and to the absurdity involved therein.
+He well showed how incredible Mr Darwin's system was found to be, as
+soon as it was fully realised, but there he rather left us.  He
+seemed to say that we must have our descent and our design too, but
+he did not show how we were to manage this with rudimentary organs
+still staring us in the face.  His work rather led up to the clearer
+statement of the difficulty than either put it before us in so many
+words, or tried to remove it.  Nevertheless there can be no doubt
+that the "Genesis of Species" gave Natural Selection what will prove
+sooner or later to be its death-blow, in spite of the persistence
+with which many still declare that it has received no hurt, and the
+sixth edition of the" Origin of Species," published in the following
+year, bore abundant traces of the fray.  Moreover, though Mr. Mivart
+gave us no overt aid, he pointed to the source from which help might
+come, by expressly saying that his most important objection to Neo-
+Darwinism had no force against Lamarck.
+
+To Lamarck, therefore, I naturally turned, and soon saw that the
+theory on which I had been insisting in" Life and Habit" was in
+reality an easy corollary on his system, though one which he does
+not appear to have caught sight of.  I saw also that his denial of
+design was only, so to speak, skin deep, and that his system was in
+reality teleological, inasmuch as, to use Isidore Geoffroy's words,
+it makes the organism design itself.  In making variations depend on
+changed actions, and these, again, on changed views of life,
+efforts, and designs, in consequence of changed conditions of life,
+he in effect makes effort, intention, will, all of which involve
+design (or at any rate which taken together involve it), underlie
+progress in organic development.  True, he did not know he was a
+teleologist, but he was none the less a teleologist for this.  He
+was an unconscious teleologist, and as such perhaps more absolutely
+an upholder of teleology than Paley himself; but this is neither
+here nor there; our concern is not with what people think about
+themselves, but with what their reasoning makes it evident that they
+really hold.
+
+How strange the irony that hides us from ourselves!  When Isidore
+Geoffroy said that according to Lamarck organisms designed
+themselves, {20a} and endorsed this, as to a great extent he did, he
+still does not appear to have seen that either he or Lamarck were in
+reality reintroducing design into organism; he does not appear to
+have seen this more than Lamarck himself had seen it, but, on the
+contrary, like Lamarck, remained under the impression that he was
+opposing teleology or purposiveness.
+
+Of course in one sense he did oppose it; so do we all, if the word
+design be taken to intend a very far-foreseeing of minute details, a
+riding out to meet trouble long before it comes, a provision on
+academic principles for contingencies that are little likely to
+arise.  We can see no evidence of any such design as this in nature,
+and much everywhere that makes against it.  There is no such
+improvidence as over providence, and whatever theories we may form
+about the origin and development of the universe, we may be sure
+that it is not the work of one who is unable to understand how
+anything can possibly go right unless he sees to it himself.  Nature
+works departmentally and by way of leaving details to subordinates.
+But though those who see nature thus do indeed deny design of the
+prescient-from-all-eternity order, they in no way impugn a method
+which is far more in accord with all that we commonly think of as
+design.  A design which is as incredible as that a ewe should give
+birth to a lion becomes of a piece with all that we observe most
+frequently if it be regarded rather as an aggregation of many small
+steps than as a single large one.  This principle is very simple,
+but it seems rather difficult to understand.  It has taken several
+generations before people would admit it as regards organism even
+after it was pointed out to them, and those who saw it as regards
+organism still failed to understand it as regards design; an
+inexorable "Thus far shalt thou go and no farther" barred them from
+fruition of the harvest they should have been the first to reap.
+The very men who most insisted that specific difference was the
+accumulation of differences so minute as to be often hardly, if at
+all, perceptible, could not see that the striking and baffling
+phenomena of design in connection with organism admitted of exactly
+the same solution as the riddle of organic development, and should
+be seen not as a result reached per saltum, but as an accumulation
+of small steps or leaps in a given direction.  It was as though
+those who had insisted on the derivation of all forms of the steam-
+engine from the common kettle, and who saw that this stands in much
+the same relations to the engines, we will say, of the Great Eastern
+steamship as the amoeba to man, were to declare that the Great
+Eastern engines were not designed at all, on the ground that no one
+in the early kettle days had foreseen so great a future development,
+and were unable to understand that a piecemeal solvitur ambulando
+design is more omnipresent, all-seeing, and all-searching, and hence
+more truly in the strictest sense design, than any speculative leap
+of fancy, however bold and even at times successful.
+
+From Lamarck I went on to Buffon and Erasmus Darwin--better men both
+of them than Lamarck, and treated by him much as he has himself been
+treated by those who have come after him--and found that the system
+of these three writers, if considered rightly, and if the corollary
+that heredity is only a mode of memory were added, would get us out
+of our dilemma as regards descent and design, and enable us to keep
+both.  We could do this by making the design manifested in organism
+more like the only design of which we know anything, and therefore
+the only design of which we ought to speak--I mean our own.
+
+Our own design is tentative, and neither very far-foreseeing nor
+very retrospective; it is a little of both, but much of neither; it
+is like a comet with a little light in front of the nucleus and a
+good deal more behind it, which ere long, however, fades away into
+the darkness; it is of a kind that, though a little wise before the
+event, is apt to be much wiser after it, and to profit even by
+mischance so long as the disaster is not an overwhelming one;
+nevertheless, though it is so interwoven with luck, there is no
+doubt about its being design; why, then, should the design which
+must have attended organic development be other than this?  If the
+thing that has been is the thing that also shall be, must not the
+thing which is be that which also has been?  Was there anything in
+the phenomena of organic life to militate against such a view of
+design as this?  Not only was there nothing, but this view made
+things plain, as the connecting of heredity and memory had already
+done, which till now had been without explanation.  Rudimentary
+organs were no longer a hindrance to our acceptance of design, they
+became weighty arguments in its favour.
+
+I therefore wrote "Evolution Old and New," with the object partly of
+backing up "Life and Habit," and showing the easy rider it admitted,
+partly to show how superior the old view of descent had been to Mr.
+Darwin's, and partly to reintroduce design into organism.  I wrote
+"Life and Habit" to show that our mental and bodily acquisitions
+were mainly stores of memory:  I wrote "Evolution Old and New" to
+add that the memory must be a mindful and designing memory.
+
+I followed up these two books with "Unconscious Memory," the main
+object of which was to show how Professor Hering of Prague had
+treated the connection between memory and heredity; to show, again,
+how substantial was the difference between Von Hartmann and myself
+in spite of some little superficial resemblance; to put forward a
+suggestion as regards the physics of memory, and to meet the most
+plausible objection which I have yet seen brought against "Life and
+Habit."
+
+Since writing these three books I have published nothing on the
+connection between heredity and memory, except a few pages of
+remarks on Mr. Romanes' "Mental Evolution in Animals" in my book,
+{23a} from which I will draw whatever seems to be more properly
+placed here.  I have collected many facts that make my case
+stronger, but am precluded from publishing them by the reflection
+that it is strong enough already.  I have said enough in "Life and
+Habit" to satisfy any who wish to be satisfied, and those who wish
+to be dissatisfied would probably fail to see the force of what I
+said, no matter how long and seriously I held forth to them; I
+believe, therefore, that I shall do well to keep my facts for my own
+private reading and for that of my executors.
+
+I once saw a copy of "Life and Habit" on Mr. Bogue's counter, and
+was told by the very obliging shopman that a customer had just
+written something in it which I might like to see.  I said of course
+I should like to see, and immediately taking the book read the
+following--which it occurs to me that I am not justified in
+publishing.  What was written ran thus:-
+
+"As a reminder of our pleasant hours on the broad Atlantic, will Mr.
+-- please accept this book (which I think contains more truth, and
+less evidence of it, than any other I have met with) from his friend
+-- ?"
+
+I presume the gentleman had met with the Bible--a work which lays
+itself open to a somewhat similar comment.  I was gratified,
+however, at what I had read, and take this opportunity of thanking
+the writer, an American, for having liked my book.  It was so plain
+he had been relieved at not finding the case smothered to death in
+the weight of its own evidences, that I resolved not to forget the
+lesson his words had taught me.
+
+The only writer in connection with "Life and Habit" to whom I am
+anxious to reply is Mr. Herbert Spencer, but before doing this I
+will conclude the present chapter with a consideration of some
+general complaints that have been so often brought against me that
+it may be worth while to notice them.
+
+These general criticisms have resolved themselves mainly into two.
+
+Firstly, it is said that I ought not to write about biology on the
+ground of my past career, which my critics declare to have been
+purely literary.  I wish I might indulge a reasonable hope of one
+day becoming a literary man; the expression is not a good one, but
+there is no other in such common use, and this must excuse it; if a
+man can be properly called literary, he must have acquired the habit
+of reading accurately, thinking attentively, and expressing himself
+clearly.  He must have endeavoured in all sorts of ways to enlarge
+the range of his sympathies so as to be able to put himself easily
+en rapport with those whom he is studying, and those whom he is
+addressing.  If he cannot speak with tongues himself, he is the
+interpreter of those who can--without whom they might as well be
+silent.  I wish I could see more signs of literary culture among my
+scientific opponents; I should find their books much more easy and
+agreeable reading if I could; and then they tell me to satirise the
+follies and abuses of the age, just as if it was not this that I was
+doing in writing about themselves.
+
+What, I wonder, would they say if I were to declare that they ought
+not to write books at all, on the ground that their past career has
+been too purely scientific to entitle them to a hearing?  They would
+reply with justice that I should not bring vague general
+condemnations, but should quote examples of their bad writing.  I
+imagine that I have done this more than once as regards a good many
+of them, and I dare say I may do it again in the course of this
+book; but though I must own to thinking that the greater number of
+our scientific men write abominably, I should not bring this against
+them if I believed them to be doing their best to help us; many such
+men we happily have, and doubtless always shall have, but they are
+not those who push to the fore, and it is these last who are most
+angry with me for writing on the subjects I have chosen.  They
+constantly tell me that I am not a man of science; no one knows this
+better than I do, and I am quite used to being told it, but I am not
+used to being confronted with the mistakes that I have made in
+matters of fact, and trust that this experience is one which I may
+continue to spare no pains in trying to avoid.
+
+Nevertheless I again freely grant that I am not a man of science.  I
+have never said I was.  I was educated for the Church.  I was once
+inside the Linnean Society's rooms, but have no present wish to go
+there again; though not a man of science, however, I have never
+affected indifference to the facts and arguments which men of
+science have made it their business to lay before us; on the
+contrary, I have given the greater part of my time to their
+consideration for several years past.  I should not, however, say
+this unless led to do so by regard to the interests of theories
+which I believe to be as nearly important as any theories can be
+which do not directly involve money or bodily convenience.
+
+The second complaint against me is to the effect that I have made no
+original experiments, but have taken all my facts at second hand.
+This is true, but I do not see what it has to do with the question.
+If the facts are sound, how can it matter whether A or B collected
+them?  If Professor Huxley, for example, has made a series of
+valuable original observations (not that I know of his having done
+so), why am I to make them over again?  What are fact-collectors
+worth if the fact co-ordinators may not rely upon them?  It seems to
+me that no one need do more than go to the best sources for his
+facts, and tell his readers where he got them.  If I had had
+occasion for more facts I daresay I should have taken the necessary
+steps to get hold of them, but there was no difficulty on this
+score; every text-book supplied me with all, and more than all, I
+wanted; my complaint was that the facts which Mr. Darwin supplied
+would not bear the construction he tried to put upon them; I tried,
+therefore, to make them bear another which seemed at once more sound
+and more commodious; rightly or wrongly I set up as a builder, not
+as a burner of bricks, and the complaint so often brought against me
+of not having made experiments is about as reasonable as complaint
+against an architect on the score of his not having quarried with
+his own hands a single one of the stones which he has used in
+building.  Let my opponents show that the facts which they and I use
+in common are unsound, or that I have misapplied them, and I will
+gladly learn my mistake, but this has hardly, to my knowledge, been
+attempted.  To me it seems that the chief difference between myself
+and some of my opponents lies in this, that I take my facts from
+them with acknowledgment, and they take their theories from me--
+without.
+
+One word more and I have done.  I should like to say that I do not
+return to the connection between memory and heredity under the
+impression that I shall do myself much good by doing so.  My own
+share in the matter was very small.  The theory that heredity is
+only a mode of memory is not mine, but Professor Hering's.  He wrote
+in 1870, and I not till 1877.  I should be only too glad if he would
+take his theory and follow it up himself; assuredly he could do so
+much better than I can; but with the exception of his one not
+lengthy address published some fifteen or sixteen years ago he has
+said nothing upon the subject, so far at least as I have been able
+to ascertain; I tried hard to draw him in 1880, but could get
+nothing out of him.  If, again, any of our more influential writers,
+not a few of whom evidently think on this matter much as I do, would
+eschew ambiguities and tell us what they mean in plain language, I
+would let the matter rest in their abler hands, but of this there
+does not seem much chance at present.
+
+I wish there was, for in spite of the interest I have felt in
+working the theory out and the information I have been able to
+collect while doing so, I must confess that I have found it somewhat
+of a white elephant.  It has got me into the hottest of hot water,
+made a literary Ishmael of me, lost me friends whom I have been
+sorry to lose, cost me a good deal of money, done everything to me,
+in fact, which a good theory ought not to do.  Still, as it seems to
+have taken up with me, and no one else is inclined to treat it
+fairly, I shall continue to report its developments from time to
+time as long as life and health are spared me.  Moreover, Ishmaels
+are not without their uses, and they are not a drug in the market
+just now.
+
+I may now go on to Mr. Spencer.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II--MR. HERBERT SPENCER
+
+
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer wrote to the Athenaeum (April 5, 1884), and
+quoted certain passages from the 1855 edition of his "Principles of
+Psychology," "the meanings and implications" from which he contended
+were sufficiently clear.  The passages he quoted were as follows:-
+
+Though it is manifest that reflex and instinctive sequences are not
+determined by the experiences of the INDIVIDUAL organism manifesting
+them, yet there still remains the hypothesis that they are
+determined by the experiences of the RACE of organisms forming its
+ancestry, which by infinite repetition in countless successive
+generations have established these sequences as organic relations
+(p. 526).
+
+The modified nervous tendencies produced by such new habits of life
+are also bequeathed (p. 526).
+
+That is to say, the tendencies to certain combinations of psychical
+changes have become organic (p. 527).
+
+The doctrine that the connections among our ideas are determined by
+experience must, in consistency, be extended not only to all the
+connections established by the accumulated experiences of every
+individual, but to all those established by the accumulated
+experiences of every race (p. 529).
+
+Here, then, we have one of the simpler forms of instinct which,
+under the requisite conditions, must necessarily be established by
+accumulated experiences (p. 547).
+
+And manifestly, if the organisation of inner relations, in
+correspondence with outer relations, results from a continual
+registration of experiences, &c. (p. 551).
+
+On the one hand, Instinct may be regarded as a kind of organised
+memory; on the other hand, Memory may be regarded as a kind of
+incipient instinct (pp. 555-6).
+
+Memory, then, pertains to all that class of psychical states which
+are in process of being organised.  It continues so long as the
+organising of them continues; and disappears when the organisation
+of them is complete.  In the advance of the correspondence, each
+more complex class of phenomena which the organism acquires the
+power of recognising is responded to at first irregularly and
+uncertainly; and there is then a weak remembrance of the relations.
+By multiplication of experiences this remembrance becomes stronger,
+and the response more certain.  By further multiplication of
+experiences the internal relations are at last automatically
+organised in correspondence with the external ones; and so conscious
+memory passes into unconscious or organic memory.  At the same time,
+a new and still more complex order of experiences is thus rendered
+appreciable; the relations they present occupy the memory in place
+of the simpler one; they become gradually organised; and, like the
+previous ones, are succeeded by others more complex still (p. 563).
+
+Just as we saw that the establishment of those compound reflex
+actions which we call instincts is comprehensible on the principle
+that inner relations are, by perpetual repetition, organised into
+correspondence with outer relations; so the establishment of those
+consolidated, those indissoluble, those instinctive mental relations
+constituting our ideas of Space and Time, is comprehensible on the
+same principle (p. 579).
+
+
+In a book published a few weeks before Mr. Spencer's letter appeared
+{29a} I had said that though Mr. Spencer at times closely approached
+Professor Hering and "Life and Habit," he had nevertheless nowhere
+shown that he considered memory and heredity to be parts of the same
+story and parcel of one another.  In his letter to the Athenaeum,
+indeed, he does not profess to have upheld this view, except "by
+implications;" nor yet, though in the course of the six or seven
+years that had elapsed since "Life and Habit" was published I had
+brought out more than one book to support my earlier one, had he
+said anything during those years to lead me to suppose that I was
+trespassing upon ground already taken by himself.  Nor, again, had
+he said anything which enabled me to appeal to his authority--which
+I should have been only too glad to do; at last, however, he wrote,
+as I have said, to the Athenaeum a letter which, indeed, made no
+express claim, and nowhere mentioned myself, but "the meanings and
+implications" from which were this time as clear as could be
+desired, and amount to an order to Professor Hering and myself to
+stand aside.
+
+The question is, whether the passages quoted by Mr. Spencer, or any
+others that can be found in his works, show that he regarded
+heredity in all its manifestations as a mode of memory.  I submit
+that this conception is not derivable from Mr. Spencer's writings,
+and that even the passages in which he approaches it most closely
+are unintelligible till read by the light of Professor Hering's
+address and of "Life and Habit."
+
+True, Mr. Spencer made abundant use of such expressions as "the
+experience of the race," "accumulated experiences," and others like
+them, but he did not explain--and it was here the difficulty lay--
+how a race could have any experience at all.  We know what we mean
+when we say that an individual has had experience; we mean that he
+is the same person now (in the common use of the words), on the
+occasion of some present action, as the one who performed a like
+action at some past time or times, and that he remembers how he
+acted before, so as to be able to turn his past action to account,
+gaining in proficiency through practice.  Continued personality and
+memory are the elements that constitute experience; where these are
+present there may, and commonly will, be experience; where they are
+absent the word "experience" cannot properly be used.
+
+Formerly we used to see an individual as one, and a race as many.
+We now see that though this is true as far as it goes, it is by no
+means the whole truth, and that in certain important respects it is
+the race that is one, and the individual many.  We all admit and
+understand this readily enough now, but it was not understood when
+Mr. Spencer wrote the passages he adduced in the letter to the
+Athenaeum above referred to.  In the then state of our ideas a race
+was only a succession of individuals, each one of them new persons,
+and as such incapable of profiting by the experience of its
+predecessors except in the very limited number of cases where oral
+teaching, or, as in recent times, writing, was possible.  The thread
+of life was, as I have elsewhere said, remorselessly shorn between
+each successive generation, and the importance of the physical and
+psychical connection between parents and offspring had been quite,
+or nearly quite, lost sight of.  It seems strange how this could
+ever have been allowed to come about, but it should be remembered
+that the Church in the Middle Ages would strongly discourage
+attempts to emphasize a connection that would raise troublesome
+questions as to who in a future state was to be responsible for
+what; and, after all, for nine purposes of life out of ten the
+generally received opinion that each person is himself and nobody
+else is on many grounds the most convenient.  Every now and then,
+however, there comes a tenth purpose, for which the continued
+personality side of the connection between successive generations is
+as convenient as the new personality side is for the remaining nine,
+and these tenth purposes--some of which are not unimportant--are
+obscured and fulfilled amiss owing to the completeness with which
+the more commonly needed conception has overgrown the other.
+
+Neither view is more true than the other, but the one was wanted
+every hour and minute of the day, and was therefore kept, so to
+speak, in stock, and in one of the most accessible places of our
+mental storehouse, while the other was so seldom asked for that it
+became not worth while to keep it.  By-and-by it was found so
+troublesome to send out for it, and so hard to come by even then,
+that people left off selling it at all, and if any one wanted it he
+must think it out at home as best he could; this was troublesome, so
+by common consent the world decided no longer to busy itself with
+the continued personality of successive generations--which was all
+very well until it also decided to busy itself with the theory of
+descent with modification.  On the introduction of a foe so inimical
+to many of our pre-existing ideas the balance of power among them
+was upset, and a readjustment became necessary, which is still far
+from having attained the next settlement that seems likely to be
+reasonably permanent.
+
+To change the illustration, the ordinary view is true for seven
+places of decimals, and this commonly is enough; occasions, however,
+have now arisen when the error caused by neglect of the omitted
+places is appreciably disturbing, and we must have three or four
+more.  Mr. Spencer showed no more signs of seeing that he must
+supply these, and make personal identity continue between successive
+generations before talking about inherited (as opposed to post-natal
+and educational) experience, than others had done before him; the
+race with him, as with every one else till recently, was not one
+long individual living indeed in pulsations, so to speak, but no
+more losing continued personality by living in successive
+generations, than an individual loses it by living in consecutive
+days; a race was simply a succession of individuals, each one of
+which was held to be an entirely new person, and was regarded
+exclusively, or very nearly so, from this point of view.
+
+When I wrote "Life and Habit" I knew that the words "experience of
+the race" sounded familiar, and were going about in magazines and
+newspapers, but I did not know where they came from; if I had, I
+should have given their source.  To me they conveyed no meaning, and
+vexed me as an attempt to make me take stones instead of bread, and
+to palm off an illustration upon me as though it were an
+explanation.  When I had worked the matter out in my own way, I saw
+that the illustration, with certain additions, would become an
+explanation, but I saw also that neither he who had adduced it nor
+any one else could have seen how right he was, till much had been
+said which had not, so far as 1 knew, been said yet, and which
+undoubtedly would have been said if people had seen their way to
+saying it.
+
+"What is this talk," I wrote, "which is made about the experience of
+the race, as though the experience of one man could profit another
+who knows nothing about him?  If a man eats his dinner it nourishes
+him and not his neighbour; if he learns a difficult art it is he
+that can do it and not his neighbour" ("Life and Habit," p. 49).
+
+When I wrote thus in 1877, it was not generally seen that though the
+father is not nourished by the dinners that the son eats, yet the
+son was fed when the father ate before he begot him.
+
+"Is there any way," I continued, "of showing that this experience of
+the race about which so much is said without the least attempt to
+show in what way it may, or does, become the experience of the
+individual, is in sober seriousness the experience of one single
+being only, who repeats on a great many different occasions, and in
+slightly different ways, certain performances with which he has
+already become exceedingly familiar?"
+
+I felt, as every one else must have felt who reflected upon the
+expression in question, that it was fallacious till this was done.
+When I first began to write "Life and Habit" I did not believe it
+could be done, but when I had gone right up to the end, as it were,
+of my cu de sac, I saw the path which led straight to the point I
+had despaired of reaching--I mean I saw that personality could not
+be broken as between generations, without also breaking it between
+the years, days, and moments of a man's life.  What differentiates
+"Life and Habit" from the "Principles of Psychology" is the
+prominence given to continued personal identity, and hence to bona
+fide memory, as between successive generations; but surely this
+makes the two books differ widely.
+
+Ideas can be changed to almost any extent in almost any direction,
+if the change is brought about gradually and in accordance with the
+rules of all development.  As in music we may take almost any
+possible discord with pleasing effect if we have prepared and
+resolved it rightly, so our ideas will outlive and outgrow almost
+any modification which is approached and quitted in such a way as to
+fuse the old and new harmoniously.  Words are to ideas what the
+fairy invisible cloak was to the prince who wore it--only that the
+prince was seen till he put on the cloak, whereas ideas are unseen
+until they don the robe of words which reveals them to us; the
+words, however, and the ideas, should be such as fit each other and
+stick to one another in our minds as soon as they are brought
+together, or the ideas will fly off, and leave the words void of
+that spirit by the aid of which alone they can become transmuted
+into physical action and shape material things with their own
+impress.  Whether a discord is too violent or no, depends on what we
+have been accustomed to, and on how widely the new differs from the
+old, but in no case can we fuse and assimilate more than a very
+little new at a time without exhausting our tempering power--and
+hence presently our temper.
+
+Mr. Spencer appears to have forgotten that though de minimis non
+curat lex,--though all the laws fail when applied to trifles,--yet
+too sudden a change in the manner in which our ideas are associated
+is as cataclysmic and subversive of healthy evolution as are
+material convulsions, or too violent revolutions in politics.  This
+must always be the case, for change is essentially miraculous, and
+the only lawful home of the miracle is in the microscopically small.
+Here, indeed, miracles were in the beginning, are now, and ever
+shall be, but we are deadened if they are required of us on a scale
+which is visible to the naked eye.  If we are told to work them our
+hands fall nerveless down; if, come what may, we must do or die, we
+are more likely to die than to succeed in doing.  If we are required
+to believe them--which only means to fuse them with our other ideas-
+-we either take the law into our own hands, and our minds being in
+the dark fuse something easier of assimilation, and say we have
+fused the miracle; or if we play more fairly and insist on our minds
+swallowing and assimilating it, we weaken our judgments, and pro
+tanto kill our souls.  If we stick out beyond a certain point we go
+mad, as fanatics, or at the best make Coleridges of ourselves; and
+yet upon a small scale these same miracles are the breath and
+essence of life; to cease to work them is to die.  And by miracle I
+do not merely mean something new, strange, and not very easy of
+comprehension--I mean something which violates every canon of
+thought which in the palpable world we are accustomed to respect;
+something as alien to, and inconceivable by, us as contradiction in
+terms, the destructibility of force or matter, or the creation of
+something out of nothing.  This, which when writ large maddens and
+kills, writ small is our meat and drink; it attends each minutest
+and most impalpable detail of the ceaseless fusion and diffusion in
+which change appears to us as consisting, and which we recognise as
+growth and decay, or as life and death.
+
+Claude Bernard says, Rien ne nait, rien ne se cree, tout se
+continue.  La nature ne nous offre le spectacle d'aucune creation,
+elle est d'une eternelle continuation; {35a} but surely he is
+insisting upon one side of the truth only, to the neglect of another
+which is just as real, and just as important; he might have said,
+Rien ne se continue, tout nait, tout se cree.  La nature ne nous
+offre le spectacle d'aucune continuation.  Elle est d'une eternelle
+creation; for change is no less patent a fact than continuity, and,
+indeed, the two stand or fall together.  True, discontinuity, where
+development is normal, is on a very small scale, but this is only
+the difference between looking at distances on a small instead of a
+large map; we cannot have even the smallest change without a small
+partial corresponding discontinuity; on a small scale--too small,
+indeed, for us to cognise--these breaks in continuity, each one of
+which must, so far as our understanding goes, rank as a creation,
+are as essential a factor of the phenomena we see around us, as is
+the other factor that they shall normally be on too small a scale
+for us to find it out.  Creations, then, there must be, but they
+must be so small that practically they are no creations.  We must
+have a continuity in discontinuity, and a discontinuity in
+continuity; that is to say, we can only conceive the help of change
+at all by the help of flat contradiction in terms.  It comes,
+therefore, to this, that if we are to think fluently and
+harmoniously upon any subject into which change enters (and there is
+no conceivable subject into which it does not), we must begin by
+flying in the face of every rule that professors of the art of
+thinking have drawn up for our instruction.  These rules may be good
+enough as servants, but we have let them become the worst of
+masters, forgetting that philosophy is made for man, not man for
+philosophy.  Logic has been the true Tower of Babel, which we have
+thought to build so that we might climb up into the heavens, and
+have no more miracle, but see God and live--nor has confusion of
+tongues failed to follow on our presumption.  Truly St. Paul said
+well that the just shall live by faith; and the question "By what
+faith?" is a detail of minor moment, for there are as many faiths as
+species, whether of plants or animals, and each of them is in its
+own way both living and saving.
+
+All, then, whether fusion or diffusion, whether of ideas or things,
+is miraculous.  It is the two in one, and at the same time one in
+two, which is only two and two making five put before us in another
+shape; yet this fusion--so easy to think so long as it is not
+thought about, and so unthinkable if we try to think it--is, as it
+were, the matrix from which our more thinkable thought is taken; it
+is the cloud gathering in the unseen world from which the waters of
+life descend in an impalpable dew.  Granted that all, whether fusion
+or diffusion, whether of ideas or things, is, if we dwell upon it
+and take it seriously, an outrage upon our understandings which
+common sense alone enables us to brook; granted that it carries with
+it a distinctly miraculous element which should vitiate the whole
+process ab initio, still, if we have faith we can so work these
+miracles as Orpheus-like to charm denizens of the unseen world into
+the seen again--provided we do not look back, and provided also we
+do not try to charm half a dozen Eurydices at a time.  To think is
+to fuse and diffuse ideas, and to fuse and diffuse ideas is to feed.
+We can all feed, and by consequence within reasonable limits we can
+fuse ideas; or we can fuse ideas, and by consequence within
+reasonable limits we can feed; we know not which comes first, the
+food or the ideas, but we must not overtax our strength; the moment
+we do this we taste of death.
+
+It is in the closest connection with this that we must chew our food
+fine before we can digest it, and that the same food given in large
+lumps will choke and kill which in small pieces feeds us; or, again,
+that that which is impotent as a pellet may be potent as a gas.
+Food is very thoughtful:  through thought it comes, and back through
+thought it shall return; the process of its conversion and
+comprehension within our own system is mental as well as physical,
+and here, as everywhere else with mind and evolution, there must be
+a cross, but not too wide a cross--that is to say, there must be a
+miracle, but not upon a large scale.  Granted that no one can draw a
+clear line and define the limits within which a miracle is healthy
+working and beyond which it is unwholesome, any more than he can
+prescribe the exact degree of fineness to which we must comminute
+our food; granted, again, that some can do more than others, and
+that at all times all men sport, so to speak, and surpass
+themselves, still we know as a general rule near enough, and find
+that the strongest can do but very little at a time, and, to return
+to Mr. Spencer, the fusion of two such hitherto unassociated ideas
+as race and experience was a miracle beyond our strength.
+
+Assuredly when Mr. Spencer wrote the passages he quoted in the
+letter to the Athenaeum above referred to, we were not in the habit
+of thinking of any one as able to remember things that had happened
+before he had been born or thought of.  This notion will still
+strike many of my non-readers as harsh and strained; no such
+discord, therefore, should have been taken unprepared, and when
+taken it should have been resolved with pomp and circumstance.  Mr
+Spencer, however, though he took it continually, never either
+prepared it or resolved it at all, but by using the words
+"experience of the race" sprang this seeming paradox upon us, with
+the result that his words were barren.  They were barren because
+they were incoherent; they were incoherent because they were
+approached and quitted too suddenly.  While we were realising
+"experience" our minds excluded "race," inasmuch as experience was
+an idea we had been accustomed hitherto to connect only with the
+individual; while realising the idea "race," for the same reason, we
+as a matter of course excluded experience.  We were required to fuse
+two ideas that were alien to one another, without having had those
+other ideas presented to us which would alone flux them.  The
+absence of these--which indeed were not immediately ready to hand,
+or Mr. Spencer would have doubtless grasped them--made nonsense of
+the whole thing; we saw the ideas propped up as two cards one
+against the other, on one of Mr. Spencer's pages, only to find that
+they had fallen asunder before we had turned over to the next, so we
+put down his book resentfully, as written by one who did not know
+what to do with his meaning even if he had one, or bore it meekly
+while he chastised us with scorpions, as Mr. Darwin had done with
+whips, according to our temperaments.
+
+I may say, in passing, that the barrenness of incoherent ideas, and
+the sterility of widely distant species and genera of animals and
+plants, are one in principle--the sterility of hybrids being just as
+much due to inability to fuse widely unlike and unfamiliar ideas
+into a coherent whole, as barrenness of ideas is, and, indeed,
+resolving itself ultimately into neither more nor less than
+barrenness of ideas--that is to say, into inability to think at all,
+or at any rate to think as their neighbours do.
+
+If Mr. Spencer had made it clear that the generations of any race
+are bona fide united by a common personality, and that in virtue of
+being so united each generation remembers (within, of course, the
+limits to which all memory is subject) what happened to it while
+still in the persons of its progenitors--then his order to Professor
+Hering and myself should be immediately obeyed; but this was just
+what was at once most wanted, and least done by Mr. Spencer.  Even
+in the passages given above--passages collected by Mr. Spencer
+himself--this point is altogether ignored; make it clear as
+Professor Hering made it--put continued personality and memory in
+the foreground as Professor Hering did, instead of leaving them to
+be discovered "by implications," and then such expressions as
+"accumulated experiences" and "experience of the race" become
+luminous; till this had been done they were Vox et praeterea nihil.
+
+To sum up briefly.  The passages quoted by Mr. Spencer from his
+"Principles of Psychology" can hardly be called clear, even now that
+Professor Hering and others have thrown light upon them.  If,
+indeed, they had been clear Mr. Spencer would probably have seen
+what they necesitated, and found the way of meeting the difficulties
+of the case which occurred to Professor Hering and myself.  Till we
+wrote, very few writers had even suggested this.  The idea that
+offspring was only "an elongation or branch proceeding from its
+parents" had scintillated in the ingenious brain of Dr. Erasmus
+Darwin, and in that of the designer of Jesse tree windows, but it
+had kindled no fire; it now turns out that Canon Kingsley had once
+called instinct inherited memory, {40a} but the idea, if born alive
+at all, died on the page on which it saw light:  Professor Ray
+Lankester, again called attention to Professor Hering's address
+(Nature, July 13, 1876), but no discussion followed, and the matter
+dropped without having produced visible effect.  As for offspring
+remembering in any legitimate sense of the words what it had done,
+and what had happened to it, before it was born, no such notion was
+understood to have been gravely mooted till very recently.  I doubt
+whether Mr. Spencer and Mr. Romanes would accept this even now, when
+it is put thus undisguisedly; but this is what Professor Hering and
+I mean, and it is the only thing that should be meant, by those who
+speak of instinct as inherited memory.  Mr Spencer cannot maintain
+that these two startling novelties went without saying "by
+implication" from the use of such expressions as "accumulated
+experiences" or "experience of the race."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III--MR. HERBERT SPENCER (continued)
+
+
+
+Whether they ought to have gone or not, they did not go.
+
+When "Life and Habit" was first published no one considered Mr.
+Spencer to be maintaining the phenomena of heredity to be in reality
+phenomena of memory.  When, for example, Professor Ray Lankester
+first called attention to Professor Hering's address, he did not
+understand Mr. Spencer to be intending this.  "Professor Hering," he
+wrote (Nature, July 13, 1876), "helps us to a comprehensive view of
+the nature of heredity and adaptation, by giving us the word
+'memory,' conscious or unconscious, for the continuity of Mr.
+Spencer's polar forces or polarities of physiological units."  He
+evidently found the prominence given to memory a help to him which
+he had not derived from reading Mr. Spencer's works.
+
+When, again, he attacked me in the Athenaeum (March 29, 1884), he
+spoke of my "tardy recognition" of the fact that Professor Hering
+had preceded me "in treating all manifestations of heredity as a
+form of memory."  Professor Lankester's words could have no force if
+he held that any other writer, and much less so well known a writer
+as Mr. Spencer, had preceded me in putting forward the theory in
+question.
+
+When Mr. Romanes reviewed "Unconscious Memory" in Nature (January
+27, 1881) the notion of a "race-memory," to use his own words, was
+still so new to him that he declared it "simply absurd" to suppose
+that it could "possibly be fraught with any benefit to science," and
+with him too it was Professor Hering who had anticipated me in the
+matter, not Mr. Spencer.
+
+In his "Mental Evolution in Animals" (p. 296) he said that Canon
+Kingsley, writing in 1867, was the first to advance the theory that
+instinct is inherited memory; he could not have said this if Mr.
+Spencer had been understood to have been upholding this view for the
+last thirty years.
+
+Mr. A. R. Wallace reviewed "Life and Habit" in Nature (March 27,
+1879), but he did not find the line I had taken a familiar one, as
+he surely must have done if it had followed easily by implication
+from Mr. Spencer's works.  He called it "an ingenious and
+paradoxical explanation" which was evidently new to him.  He
+concluded by saying that "it might yet afford a clue to some of the
+deepest mysteries of the organic world."
+
+Professor Mivart, when he reviewed my books on Evolution in the
+American Catholic Quarterly Review (July 1881), said, "Mr Butler is
+not only perfectly logical and consistent in the startling
+consequences he deduces from his principles, but," &c.  Professor
+Mivart could not have found my consequences startling if they had
+already been insisted upon for many years by one of the best-known
+writers of the day.
+
+The reviewer of "Evolution Old and New" in the Saturday Review
+(March 31, 1879), of whom all I can venture to say is that he or she
+is a person whose name carries weight in matters connected with
+biology, though he (for brevity) was in the humour for seeing
+everything objectionable in me that could be seen, still saw no Mr.
+Spencer in me.  He said--"Mr Butler's own particular contribution to
+the terminology of Evolution is the phrase two or three times
+repeated with some emphasis" (I repeated it not two or three times
+only, but whenever and wherever I could venture to do so without
+wearying the reader beyond endurance) "oneness of personality
+between parents and offspring."  The writer proceeded to reprobate
+this in language upon which a Huxley could hardly improve, but as he
+declares himself unable to discover what it means, it may be
+presumed that the idea of continued personality between successive
+generations was new to him.
+
+When Dr. Francis Darwin called on me a day or two before "Life and
+Habit" went to the press, he said the theory which had pleased him
+more than any he had seen for some time was one which referred all
+life to memory; {44a} he doubtless intended "which referred all the
+phenomena of heredity to memory."  He then mentioned Professor Ray
+Lankester's article in Nature, of which I had not heard, but he said
+nothing about Mr. Spencer, and spoke of the idea as one which had
+been quite new to him.
+
+The above names comprise (excluding Mr. Spencer himself) perhaps
+those of the best-known writers on evolution that can be mentioned
+as now before the public; it is curious that Mr Spencer should be
+the only one of them to see any substantial resemblance between the
+"Principles of Psychology" and Professor Hering's address and "Life
+and Habit."
+
+I ought, perhaps, to say that Mr. Romanes, writing to the Athenaeum
+(March 8, 1884), took a different view of the value of the theory of
+inherited memory to the one he took in 1881.
+
+In 1881 he said it was "simply absurd" to suppose it could "possibly
+be fraught with any benefit to science" or "reveal any truth of
+profound significance;" in 1884 he said of the same theory, that "it
+formed the backbone of all the previous literature upon instinct" by
+Darwin, Spencer, Lewes, Fiske, and Spalding, "not to mention their
+numerous followers, and is by all of them elaborately stated as
+clearly as any theory can be stated in words."
+
+Few except Mr. Romanes will say this.  I grant it ought to "have
+formed the backbone," &c., and ought "to have been elaborately
+stated," &c., but when I wrote "Life and Habit" neither Mr Romanes
+nor any one else understood it to have been even glanced at by more
+than a very few, and as for having been "elaborately stated," it had
+been stated by Professor Hering as elaborately as it could be stated
+within the limits of an address of only twenty-two pages, but with
+this exception it had never been stated at all.  It is not too much
+to say that "Life and Habit," when it first came out, was considered
+so startling a paradox that people would not believe in my desire to
+be taken seriously, or at any rate were able to pretend that they
+thought I was not writing seriously.
+
+Mr. Romanes knows this just as well as all must do who keep an eye
+on evolution; he himself, indeed, had said (Nature, January 27,
+1881) that so long as I "aimed only at entertaining" my "readers by
+such works as 'Erewhon' and 'Life and Habit'" (as though these books
+were of kindred character) I was in my proper sphere.  It would be
+doing too little credit to Mr. Romanes' intelligence to suppose him
+not to have known when he said this that "Life and Habit" was
+written as seriously as my subsequent books on evolution, but it
+suited him at the moment to join those who professed to consider it
+another book of paradoxes such as, I suppose, "Erewhon" had been, so
+he classed the two together.  He could not have done this unless
+enough people thought, or said they thought, the books akin, to give
+colour to his doing so.
+
+One alone of all my reviewers has, to my knowledge, brought Mr.
+Spencer against me.  This was a writer in the St. James's Gazette
+(December 2, 1880).  I challenged him in a letter which appeared
+(December 8, 1880), and said, "I would ask your reviewer to be kind
+enough to refer your readers to those passages of Mr. Spencer's
+"Principles of Psychology" which in any direct intelligible way
+refer the phenomena of instinct and heredity generally, to memory on
+the part of offspring of the action it bona fide took in the persons
+of its forefathers."  The reviewer made no reply, and I concluded,
+as I have since found correctly, that he could not find the
+passages.
+
+True, in his "Principles of Psychology" (vol. ii. p. 195) Mr.
+Spencer says that we have only to expand the doctrine that all
+intelligence is acquired through experience "so as to make it
+include with the experience of each individual the experiences of
+all ancestral individuals," &c.  This is all very good, but it is
+much the same as saying, "We have only got to stand on our heads and
+we shall be able to do so and so."  We did not see our way to
+standing on our heads, and Mr. Spencer did not help us; we had been
+accustomed, as I am afraid I must have said usque ad nauseam
+already, to lose sight of the physical connection existing between
+parents and offspring; we understood from the marriage service that
+husband and wife were in a sense one flesh, but not that parents and
+children were so also; and without this conception of the matter,
+which in its way is just as true as the more commonly received one,
+we could not extend the experience of parents to offspring.  It was
+not in the bond or nexus of our ideas to consider experience as
+appertaining to more than a single individual in the common
+acceptance of the term; these two ideas were so closely bound
+together that wherever the one went the other went perforce.  Here,
+indeed, in the very passage of Mr. Spencer's just referred to, the
+race is throughout regarded as "a series of individuals"--without an
+attempt to call attention to that other view, in virtue of which we
+are able to extend to many an idea we had been accustomed to confine
+to one.
+
+In his chapter on Memory, Mr. Spencer certainly approaches the
+Heringian view.  He says, "On the one hand, Instinct may be regarded
+as a kind of organised memory; on the other, Memory may be regarded
+as a kind of incipient instinct" ("Principles of Psychology," ed. 2,
+vol. i. p. 445).  Here the ball has fallen into his hands, but if he
+had got firm hold of it he could not have written, "Instinct MAY BE
+regarded as A KIND OF, &c.;" to us there is neither "may be regarded
+as" nor "kind of" about it; we require, "Instinct is inherited
+memory," with an explanation making it intelligible how memory can
+come to be inherited at all.  I do not like, again, calling memory
+"a kind of incipient instinct;" as Mr. Spencer puts them the words
+have a pleasant antithesis, but "instinct is inherited memory"
+covers all the ground, and to say that memory is inherited instinct
+is surplusage.
+
+Nor does he stick to it long when he says that "instinct is a kind
+of organised memory," for two pages later he says that memory, to be
+memory at all, must be tolerably conscious or deliberate; he,
+therefore (vol. i. p. 447), denies that there can be such a thing as
+unconscious memory; but without this it is impossible for us to see
+instinct as the "kind of organised memory" which he has just been
+calling it, inasmuch as instinct is notably undeliberate and
+unreflecting.
+
+A few pages farther on (vol. i. p. 452) he finds himself driven to
+unconscious memory after all, and says that "conscious memory passes
+into unconscious or organic memory."  Having admitted unconscious
+memory, he declares (vol. i. p. 450) that "as fast as those
+connections among psychical states, which we form in memory, grow by
+constant repetition automatic--they CEASE TO BE PART OF MEMORY," or,
+in other words, he again denies that there can be an unconscious
+memory.
+
+Mr. Spencer doubtless saw that he was involved in contradiction in
+terms, and having always understood that contradictions in terms
+were very dreadful things--which, of course, under some
+circumstances they are--thought it well so to express himself that
+his readers should be more likely to push on than dwell on what was
+before them at the moment.  I should be the last to complain of him
+merely on the ground that he could not escape contradiction in
+terms:  who can?  When facts conflict, contradict one another, melt
+into one another as the colours of the spectrum so insensibly that
+none can say where one begins and the other ends, contradictions in
+terms become first fruits of thought and speech.  They are the basis
+of intellectual consciousness, in the same way that a physical
+obstacle is the basis of physical sensation.  No opposition, no
+sensation, applies as much to the psychical as to the physical
+kingdom, as soon as these two have got well above the horizon of our
+thoughts and can be seen as two.  No contradiction, no
+consciousness; no cross, no crown; contradictions are the very small
+deadlocks without which there is no going; going is our sense of a
+succession of small impediments or deadlocks; it is a succession of
+cutting Gordian knots, which on a small scale please or pain as the
+case may be; on a larger, give an ecstasy of pleasure, or shock to
+the extreme of endurance; and on a still larger, kill whether they
+be on the right side or the wrong.  Nature, as I said in "Life and
+Habit," hates that any principle should breed hermaphroditically,
+but will give to each an helpmeet for it which shall cross it and be
+the undoing of it; and in the undoing, do; and in the doing, undo,
+and so ad infinitum.  Cross-fertilisation is just as necessary for
+continued fertility of ideas as for that of organic life, and the
+attempt to frown this or that down merely on the ground that it
+involves contradiction in terms, without at the same time showing
+that the contradiction is on a larger scale than healthy thought can
+stomach, argues either small sense or small sincerity on the part of
+those who make it.  The contradictions employed by Mr. Spencer are
+objectionable, not on the ground of their being contradictions at
+all, but on the ground of their being blinked, and used
+unintelligently.
+
+But though it is not possible for any one to get a clear conception
+of Mr. Spencer's meaning, we may say with more confidence what it
+was that he did not mean.  He did not mean to make memory the
+keystone of his system; he has none of that sense of the unifying,
+binding force of memory which Professor Hering has so well
+expressed, nor does he show any signs of perceiving the far-reaching
+consequences that ensue if the phenomena of heredity are considered
+as phenomena of memory.  Thus, when he is dealing with the phenomena
+of old age (vol. i. p. 538, ed. 2) he does not ascribe them to lapse
+and failure of memory, nor surmise the principle underlying
+longevity.  He never mentions memory in connection with heredity
+without presently saying something which makes us involuntarily
+think of a man missing an easy catch at cricket; it is only rarely,
+however, that he connects the two at all.  I have only been able to
+find the word "inherited" or any derivative of the verb "to inherit"
+in connection with memory once in all the 1300 long pages of the
+"Principles of Psychology."  It occurs in vol ii. p. 200, 2d ed.,
+where the words stand, "Memory, inherited or acquired."  I submit
+that this was unintelligible when Mr. Spencer wrote it, for want of
+an explanation which he never gave; I submit, also, that he could
+not have left it unexplained, nor yet as an unrepeated expression
+not introduced till late in his work, if he had had any idea of its
+pregnancy.
+
+At any rate, whether he intended to imply what he now implies that
+he intended to imply (for Mr. Spencer, like the late Mr. Darwin, is
+fond of qualifying phrases), I have shown that those most able and
+willing to understand him did not take him to mean what he now
+appears anxious to have it supposed that he meant.  Surely,
+moreover, if he had meant it he would have spoken sooner, when he
+saw his meaning had been missed.  I can, however, have no hesitation
+in saying that if I had known the "Principles of Psychology"
+earlier, as well as I know the work now, I should have used it
+largely.
+
+It may be interesting, before we leave Mr. Spencer, to see whether
+he even now assigns to continued personality and memory the place
+assigned to it by Professor Hering and myself.  I will therefore
+give the concluding words of the letter to the Athenaeum already
+referred to, in which he tells us to stand aside.  He writes "I
+still hold that inheritance of functionally produced modifications
+is the chief factor throughout the higher stages of organic
+evolution, bodily as well as mental (see 'Principles of Biology,' i.
+166), while I recognise the truth that throughout the lower stages
+survival of the fittest is the chief factor, and in the lowest the
+almost exclusive factor."
+
+This is the same confused and confusing utterance which Mr. Spencer
+has been giving us any time this thirty years.  According to him the
+fact that variations can be inherited and accumulated has less to do
+with the first development of organic life, than the fact that if a
+square organism happens to get into a square hole, it will live
+longer and more happily than a square organism which happens to get
+into a round one; he declares "the survival of the fittest"--and
+this is nothing but the fact that those who "fit" best into their
+surroundings will live longest and most comfortably--to have more to
+do with the development of the amoeba into, we will say, a mollusc
+than heredity itself.  True, "inheritance of functionally produced
+modifications" is allowed to be the chief factor throughout the
+"higher stages of organic evolution," but it has very little to do
+in the lower; in these "the almost exclusive factor" is not
+heredity, or inheritance, but "survival of the fittest."
+
+Of course we know that Mr. Spencer does not believe this; of course,
+also, all who are fairly well up in the history of the development
+theory will see why Mr. Spencer has attempted to draw this
+distinction between the "factors" of the development of the higher
+and lower forms of life; but no matter how or why Mr. Spencer has
+been led to say what he has, he has no business to have said it.
+What can we think of a writer who, after so many years of writing
+upon his subject, in a passage in which he should make his meaning
+doubly clear, inasmuch as he is claiming ground taken by other
+writers, declares that though hereditary use and disuse, or, to use
+his own words, "the inheritance of functionally produced
+modifications," is indeed very important in connection with the
+development of the higher forms of life, yet heredity itself has
+little or nothing to do with that of the lower?  Variations, whether
+produced functionally or not, can only be perpetuated and
+accumulated because they can be inherited;--and this applies just as
+much to the lower as to the higher forms of life; the question which
+Professor Hering and I have tried to answer is, "How comes it that
+anything can be inherited at all?  In virtue of what power is it
+that offspring can repeat and improve upon the performances of their
+parents?"  Our answer was, "Because in a very valid sense, though
+not perhaps in the most usually understood, there is continued
+personality and an abiding memory between successive generations."
+How does Mr. Spencer's confession of faith touch this?  If any
+meaning can be extracted from his words, he is no more supporting
+this view now than he was when he wrote the passages he has adduced
+to show that he was supporting it thirty years ago; but after all no
+coherent meaning can be got out of Mr. Spencer's letter--except, of
+course, that Professor Hering and myself are to stand aside.  I have
+abundantly shown that I am very ready to do this in favour of
+Professor Hering, but see no reason for admitting Mr. Spencer's
+claim to have been among the forestallers of "Life and Habit."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV {52a}--Mr. Romanes' "Mental Evolution in Animals"
+
+
+
+Without raising the unprofitable question how Mr. Romanes, in spite
+of the indifference with which he treated the theory of Inherited
+Memory in 1881, came, in 1883, to be sufficiently imbued with a
+sense of its importance, I still cannot afford to dispense with the
+weight of his authority, and in this chapter will show how closely
+he not infrequently approaches the Heringian position.
+
+Thus, he says that the analogies between the memory with which we
+are familiar in daily life and hereditary memory "are so numerous
+and precise" as to justify us in considering them to be of
+essentially the same kind. {52b}
+
+Again, he says that although the memory of milk shown by new-born
+infants is "at all events in large part hereditary, it is none the
+less memory" of a certain kind. {52c}
+
+Two lines lower down he writes of "hereditary memory or instinct,"
+thereby implying that instinct is "hereditary memory."  "It makes no
+essential difference," he says, "whether the past sensation was
+actually experienced by the individual itself, or bequeathed it, so
+to speak, by its ancestors. {52d}  For it makes no essential
+difference whether the nervous changes . . . were occasioned during
+the life-time of the individual or during that of the species, and
+afterwards impressed by heredity on the individual."
+
+Lower down on the same page he writes:-
+
+"As showing how close is the connection between hereditary memory
+and instinct," &c.
+
+And on the following page:-
+
+"And this shows how closely the phenomena of hereditary memory are
+related to those of individual memory:  at this stage . . . it is
+practically impossible to disentangle the effects of hereditary
+memory from those of the individual."
+
+Again:-
+
+"Another point which we have here to consider is the part which
+heredity has played in forming the perceptive faculty of the
+individual prior to its own experience.  We have already seen that
+heredity plays an important part in forming memory of ancestral
+experiences, and thus it is that many animals come into the world
+with their power of perception already largely developed.  The
+wealth of ready-formed information, and therefore of ready-made
+powers of perception, with which many newly-born or newly-hatched
+animals are provided, is so great and so precise that it scarcely
+requires to be supplemented by the subsequent experience of the
+individual." {53a}
+
+Again:-
+
+"Instincts probably owe their origin and development to one or other
+of the two principles.
+
+"I.  The first mode of origin consists in natural selection or
+survival of the fittest, continuously preserving actions, &c. &c.
+
+"II.  The second mode of origin is as follows:- By the effects of
+habit in successive generations, actions which were originally
+intelligent become as it were stereotyped into permanent instincts.
+Just as in the lifetime of the individual adjustive actions which
+were originally intelligent may by frequent repetition become
+automatic, so in the lifetime of species actions originally
+intelligent may by frequent repetition and heredity so write their
+effects on the nervous system that the latter is prepared, even
+before individual experience, to perform adjustive actions
+mechanically which in previous generations were performed
+intelligently.  This mode of origin of instincts has been
+appropriately called (by Lewes--see "Problems of Life and Mind"
+{54a}) the 'lapsing of intelligence.'" {54b}
+
+I may say in passing that in spite of the great stress laid by Mr.
+Romanes both in his "Mental Evolution in Animals" and in his letters
+to the Athenaeum in March 1884, on Natural Selection as an
+originator and developer of instinct, he very soon afterwards let
+the Natural Selection part of the story go as completely without
+saying as I do myself, or as Mr. Darwin did during the later years
+of his life.  Writing to Nature, April 10, 1884, he said:  "To deny
+THAT EXPERIENCE IN THE COURSE OF SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS IS THE
+SOURCE OF INSTINCT, is not to meet by way of argument the enormous
+mass of evidence which goes to prove THAT THIS IS THE CASE."  Here,
+then, instinct is referred, without reservation, to "experience in
+successive generations," and this is nonsense unless explained as
+Professor Hering and I explain it.  Mr. Romanes' words, in fact,
+amount to an unqualified acceptance of the chapter "Instinct as
+Inherited Memory" given in "Life and Habit," of which Mr. Romanes in
+March 1884 wrote in terms which it is not necessary to repeat.
+
+Later on:-
+
+"That 'practice makes perfect' is a matter, as I have previously
+said, of daily observation.  Whether we regard a juggler, a pianist,
+or a billiard-player, a child learning his lesson or an actor his
+part by frequently repeating it, or a thousand other illustrations
+of the same process, we see at once that there is truth in the
+cynical definition of a man as a 'bundle of habits.'  And the same,
+of course, is true of animals." {55a}
+
+From this Mr. Romanes goes on to show "that automatic actions and
+conscious habits may be inherited," {55b} and in the course of doing
+this contends that "instincts may be lost by disuse, and conversely
+that they may be acquired as instincts by the hereditary
+transmission of ancestral experience."
+
+On another page Mr. Romanes says:-
+
+"Let us now turn to the second of these two assumptions, viz., that
+some at least among migratory birds must possess, by inheritance
+alone, a very precise knowledge of the particular direction to be
+pursued.  It is without question an astonishing fact that a young
+cuckoo should be prompted to leave its foster parents at a
+particular season of the year, and without any guide to show the
+course previously taken by its own parents, but this is a fact which
+must be met by any theory of instinct which aims at being complete.
+Now upon our own theory it can only be met by taking it to be due to
+inherited memory."
+
+A little lower Mr. Romanes says:  "Of what kind, then, is the
+inherited memory on which the young cuckoo (if not also other
+migratory birds) depends?  We can only answer, of the same kind,
+whatever this may be, as that upon which the old bird depends."
+{55c}
+
+I have given above most of the more marked passages which I have
+been able to find in Mr. Romanes' book which attribute instinct to
+memory, and which admit that there is no fundamental difference
+between the kind of memory with which we are all familiar and
+hereditary memory as transmitted from one generation to another.
+
+But throughout his work there are passages which suggest, though
+less obviously, the same inference.
+
+The passages I have quoted show that Mr. Romanes is upholding the
+same opinions as Professor Hering's and my own, but their effect and
+tendency is more plain here than in Mr Romanes' own book, where they
+are overlaid by nearly 400 long pages of matter which is not always
+easy of comprehension.
+
+Moreover, at the same time that I claim the weight of Mr. Romanes'
+authority, I am bound to admit that I do not find his support
+satisfactory.  The late Mr. Darwin himself--whose mantle seems to
+have fallen more especially and particularly on Mr. Romanes--could
+not contradict himself more hopelessly than Mr. Romanes often does.
+Indeed in one of the very passages I have quoted in order to show
+that Mr. Romanes accepts the phenomena of heredity as phenomena of
+memory, he speaks of "heredity as playing an important part IN
+FORMING MEMORY of ancestral experiences;" so that, whereas I want
+him to say that the phenomena of heredity are due to memory, he will
+have it that the memory is due to the heredity, which seems to me
+absurd.
+
+Over and over again Mr. Romanes insists that it is heredity which
+does this or that.  Thus it is "HEREDITY WITH NATURAL SELECTION
+WHICH ADAPT the anatomical plan of the ganglia." {56a}  It is
+heredity which impresses nervous changes on the individual. {56b}
+"In the lifetime of species actions originally intelligent may by
+frequent repetition and heredity," &c.; {56c} but he nowhere tells
+us what heredity is any more than Messrs. Herbert Spencer, Darwin,
+and Lewes have done.  This, however, is exactly what Professor
+Hering, whom I have unwittingly followed, does.  He resolves all
+phenomena of heredity, whether in respect of body or mind, into
+phenomena of memory.  He says in effect, "A man grows his body as he
+does, and a bird makes her nest as she does, because both man and
+bird remember having grown body and made nest as they now do, or
+very nearly so, on innumerable past occasions."  He thus, as I have
+said on an earlier page, reduces life from an equation of say 100
+unknown quantities to one of 99 only by showing that heredity and
+memory, two of the original 100 unknown quantities, are in reality
+part of one and the same thing.
+
+That he is right Mr. Romanes seems to me to admit, though in a very
+unsatisfactory way.
+
+What, for example, can be more unsatisfactory than the following?--
+Mr. Romanes says that the most fundamental principle of mental
+operation is that of memory, and that this "is the conditio sine qua
+non of all mental life" (page 35).
+
+I do not understand Mr. Romanes to hold that there is any living
+being which has no mind at all, and I do understand him to admit
+that development of body and mind are closely interdependent.
+
+If, then, "the most fundamental principle" of mind is memory, it
+follows that memory enters also as a fundamental principle into
+development of body.  For mind and body are so closely connected
+that nothing can enter largely into the one without correspondingly
+affecting the other.
+
+On a later page Mr. Romanes speaks point-blank of the new-born child
+as "EMBODYING the results of a great mass of HEREDITARY EXPERIENCE"
+(p. 77), so that what he is driving at can be collected by those who
+take trouble, but is not seen until we call up from our own
+knowledge matter whose relevancy does not appear on the face of it,
+and until we connect passages many pages asunder, the first of which
+may easily be forgotten before we reach the second.  There can be no
+doubt, however, that Mr. Romanes does in reality, like Professor
+Hering and myself, regard development, whether of mind or body, as
+due to memory, for it is now pretty generally seen to be nonsense to
+talk about "hereditary experience" or "hereditary memory" if
+anything else is intended.
+
+I have said above that on page 113 of his recent work Mr. Romanes
+declares the analogies between the memory with which we are familiar
+in daily life, and hereditary memory, to be "so numerous and
+precise" as to justify us in considering them as of one and the same
+kind.
+
+This is certainly his meaning, but, with the exception of the words
+within inverted commas, it is not his language.  His own words are
+these:-
+
+"Profound, however, as our ignorance unquestionably is concerning
+the physical substratum of memory, I think we are at least justified
+in regarding this substratum as the same both in ganglionic or
+organic, and in the conscious or psychological memory, seeing that
+the analogies between them are so numerous and precise.
+Consciousness is but an adjunct which arises when the physical
+processes, owing to infrequency of repetition, complexity of
+operation, or other causes, involve what I have before called
+ganglionic friction."
+
+I submit that I have correctly translated Mr. Romanes' meaning, and
+also that we have a right to complain of his not saying what he has
+to say in words which will involve less "ganglionic friction" on the
+part of the reader.
+
+Another example may be found on p. 43 of Mr. Romanes' book.
+"Lastly," he writes, "just as innumerable special mechanisms of
+muscular co-ordinations are found to be inherited, innumerable
+special associations of ideas are found to be the same, and in one
+case as in the other the strength of the organically imposed
+connection is found to bear a direct proportion to the frequency
+with which in the history of the species it has occurred."
+
+Mr. Romanes is here intending what the reader will find insisted on
+on p. 51 of "Life and Habit;" but how difficult he has made what
+could have been said intelligibly enough, if there had been nothing
+but the reader's comfort to be considered.  Unfortunately that seems
+to have been by no means the only thing of which Mr. Romanes was
+thinking, or why, after implying and even saying over and over again
+that instinct is inherited habit due to inherited memory, should he
+turn sharply round on p. 297 and praise Mr. Darwin for trying to
+snuff out "the well-known doctrine of inherited habit as advanced by
+Lamarck"?  The answer is not far to seek.  It is because Mr. Romanes
+did not merely want to tell us all about instinct, but wanted also,
+if I may use a homely metaphor, to hunt with the hounds and run with
+the hare at one and the same time.
+
+I remember saying that if the late Mr. Darwin "had told us what the
+earlier evolutionists said, why they said it, wherein he differed
+from them, and in what way he proposed to set them straight, he
+would have taken a course at once more agreeable with usual
+practice, and more likely to remove misconception from his own mind
+and from those of his readers." {59a}  This I have no doubt was one
+of the passages which made Mr. Romanes so angry with me.  I can find
+no better words to apply to Mr. Romanes himself.  He knows perfectly
+well what others have written about the connection between heredity
+and memory, and he knows no less well that so far as he is
+intelligible at all he is taking the same view that they have taken.
+If he had begun by saying what they had said, and had then improved
+on it, I for one should have been only too glad to be improved upon.
+
+Mr. Romanes has spoiled his book just because this plain old-
+fashioned method of procedure was not good enough for him.  One-half
+the obscurity which makes his meaning so hard to apprehend is due to
+exactly the same cause as that which has ruined so much of the late
+Mr. Darwin's work--I mean to a desire to appear to be differing
+altogether from others with whom he knew himself after all to be in
+substantial agreement.  He adopts, but (probably quite
+unconsciously) in his anxiety to avoid appearing to adopt, he
+obscures what he is adopting.
+
+Here, for example, is Mr. Romanes' definition of instinct:-
+
+"Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported the element
+of consciousness.  The term is therefore a generic one, comprising
+all those faculties of mind which are concerned in conscious and
+adaptive action, antecedent to individual experience, without
+necessary knowledge of the relation between means employed and ends
+attained, but similarly performed under similar and frequently
+recurring circumstances by all the individuals of the same species."
+{60a}
+
+If Mr. Romanes would have been content to build frankly upon
+Professor Hering's foundation, the soundness of which he has
+elsewhere abundantly admitted, he might have said -
+
+"Instinct is knowledge or habit acquired in past generations--the
+new generation remembering what happened to it before it parted
+company with the old.  More briefly, Instinct is inherited memory."
+Then he might have added a rider -
+
+"If a habit is acquired as a new one, during any given lifetime, it
+is not an instinct.  If having been acquired in one lifetime it is
+transmitted to offspring, it is an instinct in the offspring, though
+it was not an instinct in the parent.  If the habit is transmitted
+partially, it must be considered as partly instinctive and partly
+acquired."
+
+This is easy; it tells people how they may test any action so as to
+know what they ought to call it; it leaves well alone by avoiding
+all such debatable matters as reflex action, consciousness,
+intelligence, purpose, knowledge of purpose. &c.; it both introduces
+the feature of inheritance which is the one mainly distinguishing
+instinctive from so-called intelligent actions, and shows the manner
+in which these last pass into the first, that is to say, by way of
+memory and habitual repetition; finally it points the fact that the
+new generation is not to be looked upon as a new thing, but (as Dr.
+Erasmus Darwin long since said {61a}) as "a branch or elongation" of
+the one immediately preceding it.
+
+In Mr. Darwin's case it is hardly possible to exaggerate the waste
+of time, money and trouble that has been caused, by his not having
+been content to appear as descending with modification like other
+people from those who went before him.  It will take years to get
+the evolution theory out of the mess in which Mr. Darwin has left
+it.  He was heir to a discredited truth; he left behind him an
+accredited fallacy.  Mr. Romanes, if he is not stopped in time, will
+get the theory connecting heredity and memory into just such another
+muddle as Mr. Darwin has got evolution, for surely the writer who
+can talk about "HEREDITY BEING ABLE TO WORK UP the faculty of homing
+into the instinct of migration," {61b} or of "the principle of
+(natural) selection combining with that of lapsing intelligence to
+the formation of a joint result," {61c} is little likely to depart
+from the usual methods of scientific procedure with advantage either
+to himself or any one else.  Fortunately Mr. Romanes is not Mr.
+Darwin, and though he has certainly got Mr. Darwin's mantle, and got
+it very much too, it will not on Mr. Romanes' shoulders hide a good
+deal that people were not going to observe too closely while Mr.
+Darwin wore it.
+
+I ought to say that the late Mr. Darwin appears himself eventually
+to have admitted the soundness of the theory connecting heredity and
+memory.  Mr. Romanes quotes a letter written by Mr. Darwin in the
+last year of his life, in which he speaks of an intelligent action
+gradually becoming "INSTINCTIVE, I.E., MEMORY TRANSMITTED FROM ONE
+GENERATION TO ANOTHER." {62a}
+
+Briefly, the stages of Mr. Darwin's opinion upon the subject of
+hereditary memory are as follows:-
+
+1859.  "It would be THE MOST SERIOUS ERROR to suppose that the
+greater number of instincts have been acquired by habit in one
+generation and transmitted by inheritance to succeeding
+generations." {62b}  And this more especially applies to the
+instincts of many ants.
+
+1876.  "It would be a SERIOUS ERROR to suppose," &c., as before.
+{62c}
+
+1881.  "We should remember WHAT A MASS OF INHERITED KNOWLEDGE is
+crowded into the minute brain of a worker ant." {62d}
+
+1881 or 1882.  Speaking of a given habitual action Mr. Darwin
+writes:  "It does not seem to me at all incredible that this action
+[and why this more than any other habitual action?] should then
+become instinctive:" i.e., MEMORY TRANSMITTED FROM ONE GENERATION TO
+ANOTHER. {62e}
+
+And yet in 1839, or thereabouts, Mr. Darwin had pretty nearly
+grasped the conception from which until the last year or two of his
+life he so fatally strayed; for in his contribution to the volumes
+giving an account of the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, he
+wrote:  "Nature by making habit omnipotent and its effects
+hereditary, has fitted the Fuegian for the climate and productions
+of his country" (p. 237).
+
+What is the secret of the long departure from the simple common-
+sense view of the matter which he took when he was a young man?  I
+imagine simply what I have referred to in the preceding chapter,
+over-anxiety to appear to be differing from his grandfather, Dr.
+Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck.
+
+I believe I may say that Mr. Darwin before he died not only admitted
+the connection between memory and heredity, but came also to see
+that he must readmit that design in organism which he had so many
+years opposed.  For in the preface to Hermann Muller's
+"Fertilisation of Flowers," {63a} which bears a date only a very few
+weeks prior to Mr. Darwin's death, I find him saying:- "Design in
+nature has for a long time deeply interested many men, and though
+the subject must now be looked at from a somewhat different point of
+view from what was formerly the case, it is not on that account
+rendered less interesting."  This is mused forth as a general gnome,
+and may mean anything or nothing:  the writer of the letterpress
+under the hieroglyph in Old Moore's Almanac could not be more
+guarded; but I think I know what it does mean.
+
+I cannot, of course, be sure; Mr. Darwin did not probably intend
+that I should; but I assume with confidence that whether there is
+design in organism or no, there is at any rate design in this
+passage of Mr. Darwin's.  This, we may be sure, is not a fortuitous
+variation; and, moreover, it is introduced for some reason which
+made Mr. Darwin think it worth while to go out of his way to
+introduce it.  It has no fitness in its connection with Hermann
+Muller's book, for what little Hermann Muller says about teleology
+at all is to condemn it; why, then, should Mr. Darwin muse here of
+all places in the world about the interest attaching to design in
+organism?  Neither has the passage any connection with the rest of
+the preface.  There is not another word about design, and even here
+Mr. Darwin seems mainly anxious to face both ways, and pat design as
+it were on the head while not committing himself to any proposition
+which could be disputed.
+
+The explanation is sufficiently obvious.  Mr Darwin wanted to hedge.
+He saw that the design which his works had been mainly instrumental
+in pitchforking out of organisms no less manifestly designed than a
+burglar's jemmy is designed, had nevertheless found its way back
+again, and that though, as I insisted in "Evolution Old and New,"
+and "Unconscious Memory," it must now be placed within the organism
+instead of outside it, as "was formerly the case," it was not on
+that account any the less--design, as well as interesting.
+
+I should like to have seen Mr. Darwin say this more explicitly.
+Indeed I should have liked to have seen Mr. Darwin say anything at
+all about the meaning of which there could be no mistake, and
+without contradicting himself elsewhere; but this was not Mr.
+Darwin's manner.
+
+In passing I will give another example of Mr Darwin's manner when he
+did not quite dare even to hedge.  It is to be found in the preface
+which he wrote to Professor Weismann's "Studies in the Theory of
+Descent," published in 1881.
+
+"Several distinguished naturalists," says Mr. Darwin, "maintain with
+much confidence that organic beings tend to vary and to rise in the
+scale, independently of the conditions to which they and their
+progenitors have been exposed; whilst others maintain that all
+variation is due to such exposure, though the manner in which the
+environment acts is as yet quite unknown.  At the present time there
+is hardly any question in biology of more importance than this of
+the nature and causes of variability; and the reader will find in
+the present work an able discussion on the whole subject, which will
+probably lead him to pause before he admits the existence of an
+innate tendency to perfectibility"--or towards BEING ABLE TO BE
+PERFECTED.
+
+I could find no able discussion upon the whole subject in Professor
+Weismann's book.  There was a little something here and there, but
+not much.
+
+It may be expected that I should say something here about Mr.
+Romanes' latest contribution to biology--I mean his theory of
+physiological selection, of which the two first instalments have
+appeared in Nature just as these pages are leaving my hands, and
+many months since the foregoing, and most of the following chapters
+were written.  I admit to feeling a certain sense of thankfulness
+that they did not appear earlier; as it is, my book is too far
+advanced to be capable of further embryonic change, and this must be
+my excuse for saying less about Mr. Romanes' theory than I might
+perhaps otherwise do.  I cordially, however, agree with the Times,
+which says that "Mr. George Romanes appears to be the biological
+investigator on whom the mantle of Mr. Darwin has most conspicuously
+descended" (August 16, 1886).  Mr. Romanes is just the person whom
+the late Mr. Darwin would select to carry on his work, and Mr.
+Darwin was just the kind of person towards whom Mr. Romanes would
+find himself instinctively attracted.
+
+The Times continues--"The position which Mr. Romanes takes up is the
+result of his perception shared by many evolutionists, that the
+theory of natural selection is not really a theory of the origin of
+species. . . ."  What, then, becomes of Mr. Darwin's most famous
+work, which was written expressly to establish natural selection as
+the main means of organic modification?  "The new factor which Mr.
+Romanes suggests," continues the Times, "is that at a certain stage
+of development of varieties in a state of nature a change takes
+place in their reproductive systems, rendering those which differ in
+some particulars mutually infertile, and thus the formation of new
+permanent species takes place without the swamping effect of free
+intercrossing. . . .  How his theory can be properly termed one of
+selection he fails to make clear.  If correct, it is a law or
+principle of operation rather than a process of selection.  It has
+been objected to Mr. Romanes' theory that it is the re-statement of
+a fact.  This objection is less important than the lack of facts in
+support of the theory."  The Times, however, implies it as its
+opinion that the required facts will be forthcoming by and by, and
+that when they have been found Mr. Romanes' suggestion will
+constitute "the most important addition to the theory of evolution
+since the publication of the 'Origin of Species.'"  Considering that
+the Times has just implied the main thesis of the "Origin of
+Species" to be one which does not stand examination, this is rather
+a doubtful compliment.
+
+Neither Mr. Romanes nor the writer in the Times appears to perceive
+that the results which may or may not be supposed to ensue on choice
+depend upon what it is that is supposed to be chosen from; they do
+not appear to see that though the expression natural selection must
+be always more or less objectionable, as too highly charged with
+metaphor for purposes of science, there is nevertheless a natural
+selection which is open to no other objection than this, and which,
+when its metaphorical character is borne well in mind, may be used
+without serious risk of error, whereas natural selection from
+variations that are mainly fortuitous is chimerical as well as
+metaphorical.  Both writers speak of natural selection as though
+there could not possibly be any selection in the course of nature,
+or natural survival, of any but accidental variations.  Thus Mr.
+Romanes says:  {66a}  "The swamping effect of free inter-crossing
+upon an individual variation constitutes perhaps the most formidable
+difficulty with which THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION is beset."
+And the writer of the article in the Times above referred to says:
+"In truth THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION presents many facts and
+results which increase rather than diminish the difficulty of
+accounting for the existence of species."  The assertion made in
+each case is true if the Charles-Darwinian selection from fortuitous
+variations is intended, but it does not hold good if the selection
+is supposed to be made from variations under which there lies a
+general principle of wide and abiding application.  It is not likely
+that a man of Mr. Romanes' antecedents should not be perfectly awake
+to considerations so obvious as the foregoing, and I am afraid I am
+inclined to consider his whole suggestion as only an attempt upon
+the part of the wearer of Mr. Darwin's mantle to carry on Mr.
+Darwin's work in Mr. Darwin's spirit.
+
+I have seen Professor Hering's theory adopted recently more
+unreservedly by Dr. Creighton in his "Illustrations of Unconscious
+Memory in Disease." {67a}  Dr. Creighton avowedly bases his system
+on Professor Hering's address, and endorses it; it is with much
+pleasure that I have seen him lend the weight of his authority to
+the theory that each cell and organ has an individual memory.  In
+"Life and Habit" I expressed a hope that the opinions it upheld
+would be found useful by medical men, and am therefore the more glad
+to see that this has proved to be the case.  I may perhaps be
+pardoned if I quote the passage in" Life and Habit" to which I am
+referring.  It runs:-
+
+"Mutatis mutandis, the above would seem to hold as truly about
+medicine as about politics.  We cannot reason with our cells, for
+they know so much more" (of course I mean "about their own
+business") "than we do, that they cannot understand us;--but though
+we cannot reason with them, we can find out what they have been most
+accustomed to, and what, therefore, they are most likely to expect;
+we can see that they get this as far as it is in our power to give
+it them, and may then generally leave the rest to them, only bearing
+in mind that they will rebel equally against too sudden a change of
+treatment and no change at all" (p. 305).
+
+Dr. Creighton insists chiefly on the importance of change, which--
+though I did not notice his saying so--he would doubtless see as a
+mode of cross-fertilisation, fraught in all respects with the same
+advantages as this, and requiring the same precautions against
+abuse; he would not, however, I am sure, deny that there could be no
+fertility of good results if too wide a cross were attempted, so
+that I may claim the weight of his authority as supporting both the
+theory of an unconscious memory in general, and the particular
+application of it to medicine which I had ventured to suggest.
+
+"Has the word 'memory,'" he asks, "a real application to unconscious
+organic phenomena, or do we use it outside its ancient limits only
+in a figure of speech?"
+
+"If I had thought," he continues later, "that unconscious memory was
+no more than a metaphor, and the detailed application of it to these
+various forms of disease merely allegorical, I should still have
+judged it not unprofitable to represent a somewhat hackneyed class
+of maladies in the light of a parable.  None of our faculties is
+more familiar to us in its workings than the memory, and there is
+hardly any force or power in nature which every one knows so well as
+the force of habit.  To say that a neurotic subject is like a person
+with a retentive memory, or that a diathesis gradually acquired is
+like an over-mastering habit, is at all events to make comparisons
+with things that we all understand.
+
+"For reasons given chiefly in the first chapter, I conclude that
+retentiveness, with reproduction, is a single undivided faculty
+throughout the whole of our life, whether mental or bodily,
+conscious or unconscious; and I claim the description of a certain
+class of maladies according to the phraseology of memory and habit
+as a real description and not a figurative." (p. 2.)
+
+As a natural consequence of the foregoing he regards "alterative
+action" as "habit-breaking action."
+
+As regards the organism's being guided throughout its development to
+maturity by an unconscious memory, Dr. Creighton says that
+"Professor Bain calls reproduction the acme of organic
+complication."  "I should prefer to say," he adds, "the acme of
+organic implication; for the reason that the sperm and germ elements
+are perfectly simple, having nothing in their form or structure to
+show for the marvellous potentialities within them.
+
+"I now come to the application of these considerations to the
+doctrine of unconscious memory.  If generation is the acme of
+organic implicitness, what is its correlative in nature, what is the
+acme of organic explicitness?  Obviously the fine flower of
+consciousness.  Generation is implicit memory, consciousness is
+explicit memory; generation is potential memory, consciousness is
+actual memory."
+
+I am not sure that I understand the preceding paragraph as clearly
+as I should wish, but having quoted enough to perhaps induce the
+reader to turn to Dr. Creighton's book, I will proceed to the
+subject indicated in my title.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V--Statement of the Question at Issue
+
+
+
+Of the two points referred to in the opening sentence of this book--
+I mean the connection between heredity and memory, and the
+reintroduction of design into organic modification--the second is
+both the more important and the one which stands most in need of
+support.  The substantial identity between heredity and memory is
+becoming generally admitted; as regards my second point, however, I
+cannot flatter myself that I have made much way against the
+formidable array of writers on the neo-Darwinian side; I shall
+therefore devote the rest of my book as far as possible to this
+subject only.  Natural selection (meaning by these words the
+preservation in the ordinary course of nature of favourable
+variations that are supposed to be mainly matters of pure good luck
+and in no way arising out of function) has been, to use an
+Americanism than which I can find nothing apter, the biggest
+biological boom of the last quarter of a century; it is not,
+therefore, to be wondered at that Professor Ray Lankester, Mr.
+Romanes, Mr. Grant Allen, and others, should show some impatience at
+seeing its value as prime means of modification called in question.
+Within the last few months, indeed, Mr. Grant Allen {70a} and
+Professor Ray Lankester {70b} in England, and Dr. Ernst Krause {70c}
+in Germany, have spoken and written warmly in support of the theory
+of natural selection, and in opposition to the views taken by
+myself; if they are not to be left in possession of the field the
+sooner they are met the better.
+
+Stripped of detail the point at issue is this;--whether luck or
+cunning is the fitter to be insisted on as the main means of organic
+development.  Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck answered this question in
+favour of cunning.  They settled it in favour of intelligent
+perception of the situation--within, of course, ever narrower and
+narrower limits as organism retreats farther backwards from
+ourselves--and persistent effort to turn it to account.  They made
+this the soul of all development whether of mind or body.
+
+And they made it, like all other souls, liable to aberration both
+for better and worse.  They held that some organisms show more ready
+wit and savoir faire than others; that some give more proofs of
+genius and have more frequent happy thoughts than others, and that
+some have even gone through waters of misery which they have used as
+wells.
+
+The sheet anchor both of Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck is in good sense
+and thrift; still they are aware that money has been sometimes made
+by "striking oil," and ere now been transmitted to descendants in
+spite of the haphazard way in which it was originally acquired.  No
+speculation, no commerce; "nothing venture, nothing have," is as
+true for the development of organic wealth as for that of any other
+kind, and neither Erasmus Darwin nor Lamarck hesitated about
+admitting that highly picturesque and romantic incidents of
+developmental venture do from time to time occur in the race
+histories even of the dullest and most dead-level organisms under
+the name of "sports;" but they would hold that even these occur most
+often and most happily to those that have persevered in well-doing
+for some generations.  Unto the organism that hath is given, and
+from the organism that hath not is taken away; so that even "sports"
+prove to be only a little off thrift, which still remains the sheet
+anchor of the early evolutionists.  They believe, in fact, that more
+organic wealth has been made by saving than in any other way.  The
+race is not in the long run to the phenomenally swift nor the battle
+to the phenomenally strong, but to the good average all-round
+organism that is alike shy of Radical crotchets and old world
+obstructiveness.  Festina, but festina lente--perhaps as involving
+so completely the contradiction in terms which must underlie all
+modification--is the motto they would assign to organism, and Chi va
+piano va lontano, they hold to be a maxim as old, if not as the
+hills (and they have a hankering even after these), at any rate as
+the amoeba.
+
+To repeat in other words.  All enduring forms establish a modus
+vivendi with their surroundings.  They can do this because both they
+and the surroundings are plastic within certain undefined but
+somewhat narrow limits.  They are plastic because they can to some
+extent change their habits, and changed habit, if persisted in,
+involves corresponding change, however slight, in the organs
+employed; but their plasticity depends in great measure upon their
+failure to perceive that they are moulding themselves.  If a change
+is so great that they are seriously incommoded by its novelty, they
+are not likely to acquiesce in it kindly enough to grow to it, but
+they will make no difficulty about the miracle involved in
+accommodating themselves to a difference of only two or three per
+cent. {72a}
+
+As long as no change exceeds this percentage, and as long, also, as
+fresh change does not supervene till the preceding one is well
+established, there seems no limit to the amount of modification
+which may be accumulated in the course of generations--provided, of
+course, always, that the modification continues to be in conformity
+with the instinctive habits and physical development of the organism
+in their collective capacity.  Where the change is too great, or
+where an organ has been modified cumulatively in some one direction,
+until it has reached a development too seriously out of harmony with
+the habits of the organism taken collectively, then the organism
+holds itself excused from further effort, throws up the whole
+concern, and takes refuge in the liquidation and reconstruction of
+death.  It is only on the relinquishing of further effort that this
+death ensues; as long as effort endures, organisms go on from change
+to change, altering and being altered--that is to say, either
+killing themselves piecemeal in deference to the surroundings or
+killing the surroundings piecemeal to suit themselves.  There is a
+ceaseless higgling and haggling, or rather a life-and-death struggle
+between these two things as long as life lasts, and one or other or
+both have in no small part to re-enter into the womb from whence
+they came and be born again in some form which shall give greater
+satisfaction.
+
+All change is pro tanto death or pro tanto birth.  Change is the
+common substratum which underlies both life and death; life and
+death are not two distinct things absolutely antagonistic to one
+another; in the highest life there is still much death, and in the
+most complete death there is still not a little life.  La vie, says
+Claud Bernard, {73a} c'est la mort:  he might have added, and
+perhaps did, et la mort ce n'est que la vie transformee.  Life and
+death are the extreme modes of something which is partly both and
+wholly neither; this something is common, ordinary change; solve any
+change and the mystery of life and death will be revealed; show why
+and how anything becomes ever anything other in any respect than
+what it is at any given moment, and there will be little secret left
+in any other change.  One is not in its ultimate essence more
+miraculous that another; it may be more striking--a greater
+congeries of shocks, it may be more credible or more incredible, but
+not more miraculous; all change is qua us absolutely
+incomprehensible and miraculous; the smallest change baffles the
+greatest intellect if its essence, as apart from its phenomena, be
+inquired into.
+
+But however this may be, all organic change is either a growth or a
+dissolution, or a combination of the two.  Growth is the coming
+together of elements with quasi similar characteristics.  I
+understand it is believed to be the coming together of matter in
+certain states of motion with other matter in states so nearly
+similar that the rhythms of the one coalesce with and hence
+reinforce the rhythms pre-existing in the other--making, rather than
+marring and undoing them.  Life and growth are an attuning, death
+and decay are an untuning; both involve a succession of greater or
+smaller attunings and untunings; organic life is "the diapason
+closing full in man"; it is the fulness of a tone that varies in
+pitch, quality, and in the harmonics to which it gives rise; it
+ranges through every degree of complexity from the endless
+combinations of life-and-death within life-and-death which we find
+in the mammalia, to the comparative simplicity of the amoeba.
+Death, again, like life, ranges through every degree of complexity.
+All pleasant changes are recreative; they are pro tanto births; all
+unpleasant changes are wearing, and, as such, pro tanto deaths, but
+we can no more exhaust either wholly of the other, than we can
+exhaust all the air out of a receiver; pleasure and pain lurk within
+one another, as life in death, and death in life, or as rest and
+unrest in one another.
+
+There is no greater mystery in life than in death.  We talk as
+though the riddle of life only need engage us; this is not so; death
+is just as great a miracle as life; the one is two and two making
+five, the other is five splitting into two and two.  Solve either,
+and we have solved the other; they should be studied not apart, for
+they are never parted, but together, and they will tell more tales
+of one another than either will tell about itself.  If there is one
+thing which advancing knowledge makes clearer than another, it is
+that death is swallowed up in life, and life in death; so that if
+the last enemy that shall be subdued is death, then indeed is our
+salvation nearer than what we thought, for in strictness there is
+neither life nor death, nor thought nor thing, except as figures of
+speech, and as the approximations which strike us for the time as
+most convenient.  There is neither perfect life nor perfect death,
+but a being ever with the Lord only, in the eternal f??a, or going
+to and fro and heat and fray of the universe.  When we were young we
+thought the one certain thing was that we should one day come to
+die; now we know the one certain thing to be that we shall never
+wholly do so.  Non omnis moriar, says Horace, and "I die daily,"
+says St. Paul, as though a life beyond the grave, and a death on
+this side of it, were each some strange thing which happened to them
+alone of all men; but who dies absolutely once for all, and for ever
+at the hour that is commonly called that of death, and who does not
+die daily and hourly?  Does any man in continuing to live from day
+to day or moment to moment, do more than continue in a changed body,
+with changed feelings, ideas, and aims, so that he lives from moment
+to moment only in virtue of a simultaneous dying from moment to
+moment also?  Does any man in dying do more than, on a larger and
+more complete scale, what he has been doing on a small one, as the
+most essential factor of his life, from the day that he became "he"
+at all?  When the note of life is struck the harmonics of death are
+sounded, and so, again, to strike death is to arouse the infinite
+harmonics of life that rise forthwith as incense curling upwards
+from a censer.  If in the midst of life we are in death, so also in
+the midst of death we are in life, and whether we live or whether we
+die, whether we like it and know anything about it or no, still we
+do it to the Lord--living always, dying always, and in the Lord
+always, the unjust and the just alike, for God is no respecter of
+persons.
+
+Consciousness and change, so far as we can watch them, are as
+functionally interdependent as mind and matter, or condition and
+substance, are--for the condition of every substance may be
+considered as the expression and outcome of its mind.  Where there
+is consciousness there is change; where there is no change there is
+no consciousness; may we not suspect that there is no change without
+a pro tanto consciousness however simple and unspecialised?  Change
+and motion are one, so that we have substance, feeling, change (or
+motion), as the ultimate three-in-one of our thoughts, and may
+suspect all change, and all feeling, attendant or consequent,
+however limited, to be the interaction of those states which for
+want of better terms we call mind and matter.  Action may be
+regarded as a kind of middle term between mind and matter; it is the
+throe of thought and thing, the quivering clash and union of body
+and soul; commonplace enough in practice; miraculous, as violating
+every canon on which thought and reason are founded, if we theorise
+about it, put it under the microscope, and vivisect it.  It is here,
+if anywhere, that body or substance is guilty of the contradiction
+in terms of combining with that which is without material substance
+and cannot, therefore, be conceived by us as passing in and out with
+matter, till the two become a body ensouled and a soul embodied.
+
+All body is more or less ensouled.  As it gets farther and farther
+from ourselves, indeed, we sympathise less with it; nothing, we say
+to ourselves, can have intelligence unless we understand all about
+it--as though intelligence in all except ourselves meant the power
+of being understood rather than of understanding.  We are
+intelligent, and no intelligence, so different from our own as to
+baffle our powers of comprehension deserves to be called
+intelligence at all.  The more a thing resembles ourselves, the more
+it thinks as we do--and thus by implication tells us that we are
+right, the more intelligent we think it; and the less it thinks as
+we do, the greater fool it must be; if a substance does not succeed
+in making it clear that it understands our business, we conclude
+that it cannot have any business of its own, much less understand
+it, or indeed understand anything at all.  But letting this pass, so
+far as we are concerned, [Greek text]; we are
+body ensouled, and soul embodied, ourselves, nor is it possible for
+us to think seriously of anything so unlike ourselves as to consist
+either of soul without body, or body without soul.  Unmattered
+condition, therefore, is as inconceivable by us as unconditioned
+matter; and we must hold that all body with which we can be
+conceivably concerned is more or less ensouled, and all soul, in
+like manner, more or less embodied.  Strike either body or soul--
+that is to say, effect either a physical or a mental change, and the
+harmonics of the other sound.  So long as body is minded in a
+certain way--so long, that is to say, as it feels, knows, remembers,
+concludes, and forecasts one set of things--it will be in one form;
+if it assumes a new one, otherwise than by external violence, no
+matter how slight the change may be, it is only through having
+changed its mind, through having forgotten and died to some trains
+of thought, and having been correspondingly born anew by the
+adoption of new ones.  What it will adopt depends upon which of the
+various courses open to it it considers most to its advantage.
+
+What it will think to its advantage depends mainly on the past
+habits of its race.  Its past and now invisible lives will influence
+its desires more powerfully than anything it may itself be able to
+add to the sum of its likes and dislikes; nevertheless, over and
+above preconceived opinion and the habits to which all are slaves,
+there is a small salary, or, as it were, agency commission, which
+each may have for himself, and spend according to his fancy; from
+this, indeed, income-tax must be deducted; still there remains a
+little margin of individual taste, and here, high up on this narrow,
+inaccessible ledge of our souls, from year to year a breed of not
+unprolific variations build where reason cannot reach them to
+despoil them; for de gustibus non est disputandum.
+
+Here we are as far as we can go.  Fancy, which sometimes sways so
+much and is swayed by so little, and which sometimes, again, is so
+hard to sway, and moves so little when it is swayed; whose ways have
+a method of their own, but are not as our ways--fancy, lies on the
+extreme borderland of the realm within which the writs of our
+thoughts run, and extends into that unseen world wherein they have
+no jurisdiction.  Fancy is as the mist upon the horizon which blends
+earth and sky; where, however, it approaches nearest to the earth
+and can be reckoned with, it is seen as melting into desire, and
+this as giving birth to design and effort.  As the net result and
+outcome of these last, living forms grow gradually but persistently
+into physical conformity with their own intentions, and become
+outward and visible signs of the inward and spiritual faiths, or
+wants of faith, that have been most within them.  They thus very
+gradually, but none the less effectually, design themselves.
+
+In effect, therefore, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck introduce
+uniformity into the moral and spiritual worlds as it was already
+beginning to be introduced into the physical.  According to both
+these writers development has ever been a matter of the same energy,
+effort, good sense, and perseverance, as tend to advancement of life
+now among ourselves.  In essence it is neither more nor less than
+this, as the rain-drop which denuded an ancient formation is of the
+same kind as that which is denuding a modern one, though its effect
+may vary in geometrical ratio with the effect it has produced
+already.  As we are extending reason to the lower animals, so we
+must extend a system of moral government by rewards and punishments
+no less surely; and if we admit that to some considerable extent man
+is man, and master of his fate, we should admit also that all
+organic forms which are saved at all have been in proportionate
+degree masters of their fate too, and have worked out, not only
+their own salvation, but their salvation according, in no small
+measure, to their own goodwill and pleasure, at times with a light
+heart, and at times in fear and trembling.  I do not say that
+Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck saw all the foregoing as clearly as it is
+easy to see it now; what I have said, however, is only the natural
+development of their system.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI--Statement of the Question at Issue (continued)
+
+
+
+So much for the older view; and now for the more modern opinion.
+According to Messrs. Darwin and Wallace, and ostensibly, I am afraid
+I should add, a great majority of our most prominent biologists, the
+view taken by Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck is not a sound one.  Some
+organisms, indeed, are so admirably adapted to their surroundings,
+and some organs discharge their functions with so much appearance of
+provision, that we are apt to think they must owe their development
+to sense of need and consequent contrivance, but this opinion is
+fantastic; the appearance of design is delusive; what we are tempted
+to see as an accumulated outcome of desire and cunning, we should
+regard as mainly an accumulated outcome of good luck.
+
+Let us take the eye as a somewhat crucial example.  It is a seeing-
+machine, or thing to see with.  So is a telescope; the telescope in
+its highest development is a secular accumulation of cunning,
+sometimes small, sometimes great; sometimes applied to this detail
+of the instrument, and sometimes to that.  It is an admirable
+example of design; nevertheless, as I said in "Evolution Old and
+New," he who made the first rude telescope had probably no idea of
+any more perfect form of the instrument than the one he had himself
+invented.  Indeed, if he had, he would have carried his idea out in
+practice.  He would have been unable to conceive such an instrument
+as Lord Rosse's; the design, therefore, at present evidenced by the
+telescope was not design all on the part of one and the same person.
+Nor yet was it unmixed with chance; many a detail has been doubtless
+due to an accident or coincidence which was forthwith seized and
+made the best of.  Luck there always has been and always will be,
+until all brains are opened, and all connections made known, but
+luck turned to account becomes design; there is, indeed, if things
+are driven home, little other design than this.  The telescope,
+therefore, is an instrument designed in all its parts for the
+purpose of seeing, and, take it all round, designed with singular
+skill.
+
+Looking at the eye, we are at first tempted to think that it must be
+the telescope over again, only more so; we are tempted to see it as
+something which has grown up little by little from small beginnings,
+as the result of effort well applied and handed down from generation
+to generation, till, in the vastly greater time during which the eye
+has been developing as compared with the telescope, a vastly more
+astonishing result has been arrived at.  We may indeed be tempted to
+think this, but, according to Mr. Darwin, we should be wrong.
+Design had a great deal to do with the telescope, but it had nothing
+or hardly anything whatever to do with the eye.  The telescope owes
+its development to cunning, the eye to luck, which, it would seem,
+is so far more cunning than cunning that one does not quite
+understand why there should be any cunning at all.  The main means
+of developing the eye was, according to Mr. Darwin, not use as
+varying circumstances might direct with consequent slow increase of
+power and an occasional happy flight of genius, but natural
+selection.  Natural selection, according to him, though not the
+sole, is still the most important means of its development and
+modification. {81a}  What, then, is natural selection?
+
+Mr. Darwin has told us this on the title-page of the "Origin of
+Species."  He there defines it as "The Preservation of Favoured
+Races;" "Favoured" is "Fortunate," and "Fortunate" "Lucky;" it is
+plain, therefore, that with Mr. Darwin natural selection comes to
+"The Preservation of Lucky Races," and that he regarded luck as the
+most important feature in connection with the development even of so
+apparently purposive an organ as the eye, and as the one, therefore,
+on which it was most proper to insist.  And what is luck but absence
+of intention or design?  What, then, can Mr. Darwin's title-page
+amount to when written out plainly, but to an assertion that the
+main means of modification has been the preservation of races whose
+variations have been unintentional, that is to say, not connected
+with effort or intention, devoid of mind or meaning, fortuitous,
+spontaneous, accidental, or whatever kindred word is least
+disagreeable to the reader?  It is impossible to conceive any more
+complete denial of mind as having had anything to do with organic
+development, than is involved in the title-page of the "Origin of
+Species" when its doubtless carefully considered words are studied--
+nor, let me add, is it possible to conceive a title-page more likely
+to make the reader's attention rest much on the main doctrine of
+evolution, and little, to use the words now most in vogue concerning
+it, on Mr. Darwin's own "distinctive feature."
+
+It should be remembered that the full title of the "Origin of
+Species" is, "On the origin of species by means of natural
+selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for
+life."  The significance of the expansion of the title escaped the
+greater number of Mr. Darwin's readers.  Perhaps it ought not to
+have done so, but we certainly failed to catch it.  The very words
+themselves escaped us--and yet there they were all the time if we
+had only chosen to look.  We thought the book was called "On the
+Origin of Species," and so it was on the outside; so it was also on
+the inside fly-leaf; so it was on the title-page itself as long as
+the most prominent type was used; the expanded title was only given
+once, and then in smaller type; so the three big "Origins of
+Species" carried us with them to the exclusion of the rest.
+
+The short and working title, "On the Origin of Species," in effect
+claims descent with modification generally; the expanded and
+technically true title only claims the discovery that luck is the
+main means of organic modification, and this is a very different
+matter.  The book ought to have been entitled, "On Natural
+Selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for
+life, as the main means of the origin of species;" this should have
+been the expanded title, and the short title should have been "On
+Natural Selection."  The title would not then have involved an
+important difference between its working and its technical forms,
+and it would have better fulfilled the object of a title, which is,
+of course, to give, as far as may be, the essence of a book in a
+nutshell.  We learn on the authority of Mr. Darwin himself {83a}
+that the "Origin of Species" was originally intended to bear the
+title "Natural Selection;" nor is it easy to see why the change
+should have been made if an accurate expression of the contents of
+the book was the only thing which Mr. Darwin was considering.  It is
+curious that, writing the later chapters of "Life and Habit" in
+great haste, I should have accidentally referred to the "Origin of
+Species" as "Natural Selection;" it seems hard to believe that there
+was no intention in my thus unconsciously reverting to Mr. Darwin's
+own original title, but there certainly was none, and I did not then
+know what the original title had been.
+
+If we had scrutinised Mr. Darwin's title-page as closely as we
+should certainly scrutinise anything written by Mr. Darwin now, we
+should have seen that the title did not technically claim the theory
+of descent; practically, however, it so turned out that we
+unhesitatingly gave that theory to the author, being, as I have
+said, carried away by the three large "Origins of Species" (which we
+understood as much the same thing as descent with modification), and
+finding, as I shall show in a later chapter, that descent was
+ubiquitously claimed throughout the work, either expressly or by
+implication, as Mr. Darwin's theory.  It is not easy to see how any
+one with ordinary instincts could hesitate to believe that Mr.
+Darwin was entitled to claim what he claimed with so much
+insistance.  If ars est celare artem Mr. Darwin must be allowed to
+have been a consummate artist, for it took us years to understand
+the ins and outs of what had been done.
+
+I may say in passing that we never see the "Origin of Species"
+spoken of as "On the Origin of Species, &c.," or as "The Origin of
+Species, &c."  (the word "on" being dropped in the latest editions).
+The distinctive feature of the book lies, according to its admirers,
+in the "&c.," but they never give it.  To avoid pedantry I shall
+continue to speak of the "Origin of Species."
+
+At any rate it will be admitted that Mr. Darwin did not make his
+title-page express his meaning so clearly that his readers could
+readily catch the point of difference between himself and his
+grandfather and Lamarck; nevertheless the point just touched upon
+involves the only essential difference between the systems of Mr.
+Charles Darwin and those of his three most important predecessors.
+All four writers agree that animals and plants descend with
+modification; all agree that the fittest alone survive; all agree
+about the important consequences of the geometrical ratio of
+increase; Mr. Charles Darwin has said more about these last two
+points than his predecessors did, but all three were alike cognisant
+of the facts and attached the same importance to them, and would
+have been astonished at its being supposed possible that they
+disputed them.  The fittest alone survive; yes--but the fittest from
+among what?  Here comes the point of divergence; the fittest from
+among organisms whose variations arise mainly through use and
+disuse?  In other words, from variations that are mainly functional?
+Or from among organisms whose variations are in the main matters of
+luck?  From variations into which a moral and intellectual system of
+payment according to results has largely entered?  Or from
+variations which have been thrown for with dice?  From variations
+among which, though cards tell, yet play tells as much or more?  Or
+from those in which cards are everything and play goes for so little
+as to be not worth taking into account?  Is "the survival of the
+fittest" to be taken as meaning "the survival of the luckiest" or
+"the survival of those who know best how to turn fortune to
+account"?  Is luck the only element of fitness, or is not cunning
+even more indispensable?
+
+Mr. Darwin has a habit, borrowed, perhaps, mutatis mutandis, from
+the framers of our collects, of every now and then adding the words
+"through natural selection," as though this squared everything, and
+descent with modification thus became his theory at once.  This is
+not the case.  Buffon, Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck believed in
+natural selection to the full as much as any follower of Mr. Charles
+Darwin can do.  They did not use the actual words, but the idea
+underlying them is the essence of their system.  Mr. Patrick Matthew
+epitomised their doctrine more tersely, perhaps, than was done by
+any other of the pre-Charles-Darwinian evolutionists, in the
+following passage which appeared in 1831, and which I have already
+quoted in "Evolution Old and New" (pp. 320, 323).  The passage
+runs:-
+
+"The self-regulating adaptive disposition of organised life may, in
+part, be traced to the extreme fecundity of nature, who, as before
+stated, has in all the varieties of her offspring a prolific power
+much beyond (in many cases a thousandfold) what is necessary to fill
+up the vacancies caused by senile decay.  As the field of existence
+is limited and preoccupied, it is only the hardier, more robust,
+better suited to circumstance individuals, who are able to struggle
+forward to maturity, these inhabiting only the situations to which
+they have superior adaptation and greater power of occupancy than
+any other kind; the weaker and less circumstance-suited being
+prematurely destroyed.  This principle is in constant action; it
+regulates the colour, the figure, the capacities, and instincts;
+those individuals in each species whose colour and covering are best
+suited to concealment or protection from enemies, or defence from
+inclemencies or vicissitudes of climate, whose figure is best
+accommodated to health, strength, defence, and support; whose
+capacities and instincts can best regulate the physical energies to
+self-advantage according to circumstances--in such immense waste of
+primary and youthful life those only come forward to maturity from
+THE STRICT ORDEAL BY WHICH NATURE TESTS THEIR ADAPTATION TO HER
+STANDARD OF PERFECTION and fitness to continue their kind by
+reproduction." {86a}  A little lower down Mr. Matthew speaks of
+animals under domestication "NOT HAVING UNDERGONE SELECTION BY THE
+LAW OF NATURE, OF WHICH WE HAVE SPOKEN, and hence being unable to
+maintain their ground without culture and protection."
+
+The distinction between Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism is generally
+believed to lie in the adoption of a theory of natural selection by
+the younger Darwin and its non-adoption by the elder.  This is true
+in so far as that the elder Darwin does not use the words "natural
+selection," while the younger does, but it is not true otherwise.
+Both writers agree that offspring tends to inherit modifications
+that have been effected, from whatever cause, in parents; both hold
+that the best adapted to their surroundings live longest and leave
+most offspring; both, therefore, hold that favourable modifications
+will tend to be preserved and intensified in the course of many
+generations, and that this leads to divergence of type; but these
+opinions involve a theory of natural selection or quasi-selection,
+whether the words "natural selection" are used or not; indeed it is
+impossible to include wild species in any theory of descent with
+modification without implying a quasi-selective power on the part of
+nature; but even with Mr. Charles Darwin the power is only quasi-
+selective; there is no conscious choice, and hence there is nothing
+that can in strictness be called selection.
+
+It is indeed true that the younger Darwin gave the words "natural
+selection" the importance which of late years they have assumed; he
+probably adopted them unconsciously from the passage of Mr.
+Matthew's quoted above, but he ultimately said, {87a} "In the
+literal sense of the word (sic) no doubt natural selection is a
+false term," as personifying a fact, making it exercise the
+conscious choice without which there can be no selection, and
+generally crediting it with the discharge of functions which can
+only be ascribed legitimately to living and reasoning beings.
+Granted, however, that while Mr. Charles Darwin adopted the
+expression natural selection and admitted it to be a bad one, his
+grandfather did not use it at all; still Mr. Darwin did not mean the
+natural selection which Mr. Matthew and those whose opinions he was
+epitomising meant.  Mr. Darwin meant the selection to be made from
+variations into which purpose enters to only a small extent
+comparatively.  The difference, therefore, between the older
+evolutionists and their successor does not lie in the acceptance by
+the more recent writer of a quasi-selective power in nature which
+his predecessors denied, but in the background--hidden behind the
+words natural selection, which have served to cloak it--in the views
+which the old and the new writers severally took of the variations
+from among which they are alike agreed that a selection or quasi-
+selection is made.
+
+It now appears that there is not one natural selection, and one
+survival of the fittest only, but two natural selections, and two
+survivals of the fittest, the one of which may be objected to as an
+expression more fit for religious and general literature than for
+science, but may still be admitted as sound in intention, while the
+other, inasmuch as it supposes accident to be the main purveyor of
+variations, has no correspondence with the actual course of things;
+for if the variations are matters of chance or hazard unconnected
+with any principle of constant application, they will not occur
+steadily enough, throughout a sufficient number of successive
+generations, nor to a sufficient number of individuals for many
+generations together at the same time and place, to admit of the
+fixing and permanency of modification at all.  The one theory of
+natural selection, therefore, may, and indeed will, explain the
+facts that surround us, whereas the other will not.  Mr. Charles
+Darwin's contribution to the theory of evolution was not, as is
+commonly supposed, "natural selection," but the hypothesis that
+natural selection from variations that are in the main fortuitous
+could accumulate and result in specific and generic differences.
+
+In the foregoing paragraph I have given the point of difference
+between Mr. Charles Darwin and his predecessors.  Why, I wonder,
+have neither he nor any of his exponents put this difference before
+us in such plain words that we should readily apprehend it?  Erasmus
+Darwin and Lamarck were understood by all who wished to understand
+them; why is it that the misunderstanding of Mr. Darwin's
+"distinctive feature" should have been so long and obstinate?  Why
+is it that, no matter how much writers like Mr. Grant Allen and
+Professor Ray Lankester may say about "Mr. Darwin's master-key," nor
+how many more like hyperboles they brandish, they never put a
+succinct resume of Mr. Darwin's theory side by side with a similar
+resume of his grandfather's and Lamarck's?  Neither Mr. Darwin
+himself, not any of those to whose advocacy his reputation is mainly
+due, have done this.  Professor Huxley is the man of all others who
+foisted Mr. Darwin most upon us, but in his famous lecture on the
+coming of age of the "Origin of Species" he did not explain to his
+hearers wherein the Neo-Darwinian theory of evolution differed from
+the old; and why not?  Surely, because no sooner is this made clear
+than we perceive that the idea underlying the old evolutionists is
+more in accord with instinctive feelings that we have cherished too
+long to be able now to disregard them than the central idea which
+underlies the "Origin of Species."
+
+What should we think of one who maintained that the steam-engine and
+telescope were not developed mainly through design and effort
+(letting the indisputably existing element of luck go without
+saying), but to the fact that if any telescope or steam-engine
+"happened to be made ever such a little more conveniently for man's
+purposes than another," &c., &c.?
+
+Let us suppose a notorious burglar found in possession of a jemmy;
+it is admitted on all hands that he will use it as soon as he gets a
+chance; there is no doubt about this; how perverted should we not
+consider the ingenuity of one who tried to persuade us we were wrong
+in thinking that the burglar compassed the possession of the jemmy
+by means involving ideas, however vague in the first instance, of
+applying it to its subsequent function.
+
+If any one could be found so blind to obvious inferences as to
+accept natural selection, "or the preservation of favoured
+machines," as the main means of mechanical modification, we might
+suppose him to argue much as follows:- "I can quite understand," he
+would exclaim, "how any one who reflects upon the originally simple
+form of the earliest jemmies, and observes the developments they
+have since attained in the hands of our most accomplished
+housebreakers, might at first be tempted to believe that the present
+form of the instrument has been arrived at by long-continued
+improvement in the hands of an almost infinite succession of
+thieves; but may not this inference be somewhat too hastily drawn?
+Have we any right to assume that burglars work by means analogous to
+those employed by other people?  If any thief happened to pick up
+any crowbar which happened to be ever such a little better suited to
+his purpose than the one he had been in the habit of using hitherto,
+he would at once seize and carefully preserve it.  If it got worn
+out or broken he would begin searching for a crowbar as like as
+possible to the one that he had lost; and when, with advancing
+skill, and in default of being able to find the exact thing he
+wanted, he took at length to making a jemmy for himself, he would
+imitate the latest and most perfect adaptation, which would thus be
+most likely to be preserved in the struggle of competitive forms.
+Let this process go on for countless generations, among countless
+burglars of all nations, and may we not suppose that a jemmy would
+be in time arrived at, as superior to any that could have been
+designed as the effect of the Niagara Falls is superior to the puny
+efforts of the landscape gardener?"
+
+For the moment I will pass over the obvious retort that there is no
+sufficient parallelism between bodily organs and mechanical
+inventions to make a denial of design in the one involve in equity a
+denial of it in the other also, and that therefore the preceding
+paragraph has no force.  A man is not bound to deny design in
+machines wherein it can be clearly seen because he denies it in
+living organs where at best it is a matter of inference.  This
+retort is plausible, but in the course of the two next following
+chapters but one it will be shown to be without force; for the
+moment, however, beyond thus calling attention to it, I must pass it
+by.
+
+I do not mean to say that Mr. Darwin ever wrote anything which made
+the utility of his contention as apparent as it is made by what I
+have above put into the mouth of his supposed follower.  Mr. Darwin
+was the Gladstone of biology, and so old a scientific hand was not
+going to make things unnecessarily clear unless it suited his
+convenience.  Then, indeed, he was like the man in "The Hunting of
+the Snark," who said, "I told you once, I told you twice, what I
+tell you three times is true."  That what I have supposed said,
+however, above about the jemmy is no exaggeration of Mr. Darwin's
+attitude as regards design in organism will appear from the passage
+about the eye already referred to, which it may perhaps be as well
+to quote in full.  Mr. Darwin says:-
+
+"It is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye to a telescope.
+We know that this instrument has been perfected by the long-
+continued efforts of the highest human intellects, and we naturally
+infer that the eye has been formed by a somewhat analogous process.
+But may not this inference be presumptuous?  Have we any right to
+assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like those of
+men?  If we must compare the eye to an optical instrument, we ought
+in imagination to take a thick layer of transparent tissue, with a
+nerve sensitive to light beneath, and then suppose every part of
+this layer to be continually changing slowly in density, so as to
+separate into layers of different densities and thicknesses, placed
+at different distances from each other, and with the surfaces of
+each layer slowly changing in form.  Further, we must suppose that
+there is a power always intently watching each slight accidental
+alteration in the transparent layers, and carefully selecting each
+alteration which, under varied circumstances, may in any way, or in
+any degree, tend to produce a distincter image.  We must suppose
+each new state of the instrument to be multiplied by the million,
+and each to be preserved till a better be produced, and then the old
+ones to be destroyed.  In living bodies variation will cause the
+slight alterations, generation will multiply them almost infinitely,
+and natural selection will pick out with unerring skill each
+improvement.  Let this process go on for millions on millions of
+years, and during each year on millions of individuals of many
+kinds; and may we not believe that a living optical instrument might
+thus be formed as superior to one of glass as the works of the
+Creator are to those of man?" {92a}
+
+Mr. Darwin does not in this passage deny design, or cunning, point
+blank; he was not given to denying things point blank, nor is it
+immediately apparent that he is denying design at all, for he does
+not emphasize and call attention to the fact that the VARIATIONS on
+whose accumulation he relies for his ultimate specific difference
+are accidental, and, to use his own words, in the passage last
+quoted, caused by VARIATION.  He does, indeed, in his earlier
+editions, call the variations "accidental," and accidental they
+remained for ten years, but in 1869 the word "accidental" was taken
+out.  Mr. Darwin probably felt that the variations had been
+accidental as long as was desirable; and though they would, of
+course, in reality remain as accidental as ever, still, there could
+be no use in crying "accidental variations" further.  If the reader
+wants to know whether they were accidental or no, he had better find
+out for himself.  Mr. Darwin was a master of what may be called
+scientific chiaroscuro, and owes his reputation in no small measure
+to the judgment with which he kept his meaning dark when a less
+practised hand would have thrown light upon it.  There can, however,
+be no question that Mr. Darwin, though not denying purposiveness
+point blank, was trying to refer the development of the eye to the
+accumulation of small accidental improvements, which were not as a
+rule due to effort and design in any way analogous to those
+attendant on the development of the telescope.
+
+Though Mr. Darwin, if he was to have any point of difference from
+his grandfather, was bound to make his variations accidental, yet,
+to do him justice, he did not like it.  Even in the earlier editions
+of the "Origin of Species," where the "alterations" in the passage
+last quoted are called "accidental" in express terms, the word does
+not fall, so to speak, on a strong beat of the bar, and is apt to
+pass unnoticed.  Besides, Mr. Darwin does not say point blank "we
+may believe," or "we ought to believe;" he only says "may we not
+believe?"  The reader should always be on his guard when Mr. Darwin
+asks one of these bland and child-like questions, and he is fond of
+asking them; but, however this may be, it is plain, as I pointed out
+in "Evolution Old and New" {93a} that the only "skill," that is to
+say the only thing that can possibly involve design, is "the
+unerring skill" of natural selection.
+
+In the same paragraph Mr. Darwin has already said:  "Further, we
+must suppose that there is a power represented by natural selection
+or the survival of the fittest always intently watching each slight
+alteration, &c."  Mr. Darwin probably said "a power represented by
+natural selection" instead of "natural selection" only, because he
+saw that to talk too frequently about the fact that the most lucky
+live longest as "intently watching" something was greater nonsense
+than it would be prudent even for him to write, so he fogged it by
+making the intent watching done by "a power represented by" a fact,
+instead of by the fact itself.  As the sentence stands it is just as
+great nonsense as it would have been if "the survival of the
+fittest" had been allowed to do the watching instead of "the power
+represented by" the survival of the fittest, but the nonsense is
+harder to dig up, and the reader is more likely to pass it over.
+
+This passage gave Mr. Darwin no less trouble than it must have given
+to many of his readers.  In the original edition of the "Origin of
+Species" it stood, "Further, we must suppose that there is a power
+always intently watching each slight accidental variation."  I
+suppose it was felt that if this was allowed to stand, it might be
+fairly asked what natural selection was doing all this time?  If the
+power was able to do everything that was necessary now, why not
+always? and why any natural selection at all?  This clearly would
+not do, so in 1861 the power was allowed, by the help of brackets,
+actually to become natural selection, and remained so till 1869,
+when Mr. Darwin could stand it no longer, and, doubtless for the
+reason given above, altered the passage to "a power represented by
+natural selection," at the same time cutting out the word
+"accidental."
+
+It may perhaps make the workings of Mr. Darwin's mind clearer to the
+reader if I give the various readings of this passage as taken from
+the three most important editions of the "Origin of Species."
+
+In 1859 it stood, "Further, we must suppose that there is a power
+always intently watching each slight accidental alteration," &c.
+
+In 1861 it stood, "Further, we must suppose that there is a power
+(natural selection) always intently watching each slight accidental
+alteration," &c.
+
+And in 1869, "Further, we must suppose that there is a power
+represented by natural selection or the survival of the fittest
+always intently watching each slight alteration," &c. {94a}
+
+The hesitating feeble gait of one who fears a pitfall at every step,
+so easily recognisable in the "numerous, successive, slight
+alterations" in the foregoing passage, may be traced in many another
+page of the "Origin of Species" by those who will be at the trouble
+of comparing the several editions.  It is only when this is done,
+and the working of Mr. Darwin's mind can be seen as though it were
+the twitchings of a dog's nose, that any idea can be formed of the
+difficulty in which he found himself involved by his initial blunder
+of thinking he had got a distinctive feature which entitled him to
+claim the theory of evolution as an original idea of his own.  He
+found his natural selection hang round his neck like a millstone.
+There is hardly a page in the "Origin of Species" in which traces of
+the struggle going on in Mr. Darwin's mind are not discernible, with
+a result alike exasperating and pitiable.  I can only repeat what I
+said in "Evolution Old and New," namely, that I find the task of
+extracting a well-defined meaning out of Mr. Darwin's words
+comparable only to that of trying to act on the advice of a lawyer
+who has obscured the main issue as much as he can, and whose chief
+aim has been to leave as many loopholes as possible for himself to
+escape by, if things should go wrong hereafter.  Or, again, to that
+of one who has to construe an Act of Parliament which was originally
+drawn with a view to throwing as much dust as possible in the eyes
+of those who would oppose the measure, and which, having been found
+utterly unworkable in practice, has had clauses repealed up and down
+it till it is now in an inextricable tangle of confusion and
+contradiction.
+
+The more Mr. Darwin's work is studied, and more especially the more
+his different editions are compared, the more impossible is it to
+avoid a suspicion of arriere pensee as pervading it whenever the
+"distinctive feature" is on the tapis.  It is right to say, however,
+that no such suspicion attaches to Mr. A. R. Wallace, Mr. Darwin's
+fellow discoverer of natural selection.  It is impossible to doubt
+that Mr. Wallace believed he had made a real and important
+improvement upon the Lamarckian system, and, as a natural
+consequence, unlike Mr. Darwin, he began by telling us what Lamarck
+had said.  He did not, I admit, say quite all that I should have
+been glad to have seen him say, nor use exactly the words I should
+myself have chosen, but he said enough to make it impossible to
+doubt his good faith, and his desire that we should understand that
+with him, as with Mr. Darwin, variations are mainly accidental, not
+functional.  Thus, in his memorable paper communicated to the
+Linnean Society in 1858 he said, in a passage which I have quoted in
+"Unconscious Memory":
+
+"The hypothesis of Lamarck--that progressive changes in species have
+been produced by the attempts of the animals to increase the
+development of their own organs, and thus modify their structures
+and habits--has been repeatedly and easily refuted by all writers on
+the subject of varieties and species; . . . but the view here
+developed renders such an hypothesis quite unnecessary. . . .  The
+powerful retractile talons of the falcon and cat tribes have not
+been produced or increased by the volition of those animals; . . .
+neither did the giraffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach
+the foliage of the more lofty shrubs, and constantly stretching its
+neck for this purpose, but because any varieties which occurred
+among its antitypes with a longer neck than usual AT ONCE SECURED A
+FRESH RANGE OF PASTURE OVER THE SAME GROUND AS THEIR SHORTER-NECKED
+COMPANIONS, AND ON THE FIRST SCARCITY OF FOOD WERE THUS ENABLED TO
+OUTLIVE THEM" (italics in original). {96a}
+
+"Which occurred" is obviously "which happened to occur, by some
+chance or accident entirely unconnected with use and disuse;" and
+though the word "accidental" is never used, there can be no doubt
+about Mr. Wallace's desire to make the reader catch the fact that
+with him accident, and not, as with Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck,
+sustained effort, is the main purveyor of the variations whose
+accumulation amounts ultimately to specific difference.  It is a
+pity, however, that instead of contenting himself like a theologian
+with saying that his opponent had been refuted over and over again,
+he did not refer to any particular and tolerably successful attempt
+to refute the theory that modifications in organic structure are
+mainly functional.  I am fairly well acquainted with the literature
+of evolution, and have never met with any such attempt.  But let
+this pass; as with Mr. Darwin, so with Mr. Wallace, and so indeed
+with all who accept Mr. Charles Darwin's natural selection as the
+main means of modification, the central idea is luck, while the
+central idea of the Erasmus-Darwinian system is cunning.
+
+I have given the opinions of these contending parties in their
+extreme development; but they both admit abatements which bring them
+somewhat nearer to one another.  Design, as even its most strenuous
+upholders will admit, is a difficult word to deal with; it is, like
+all our ideas, substantial enough until we try to grasp it--and
+then, like all our ideas, it mockingly eludes us; it is like life or
+death--a rope of many strands; there is design within design, and
+design within undesign; there is undesign within design (as when a
+man shuffles cards designing that there shall be no design in their
+arrangement), and undesign within undesign; when we speak of cunning
+or design in connection with organism we do not mean cunning, all
+cunning, and nothing but cunning, so that there shall be no place
+for luck; we do not mean that conscious attention and forethought
+shall have been bestowed upon the minutest details of action, and
+nothing been left to work itself out departmentally according to
+precedent, or as it otherwise best may according to the chapter of
+accidents.
+
+So, again, when Mr. Darwin and his followers deny design and effort
+to have been the main purveyors of the variations whose accumulation
+results in specific difference, they do not entirely exclude the
+action of use and disuse--and this at once opens the door for
+cunning; nevertheless, according to Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck, the
+human eye and the long neck of the giraffe are alike due to the
+accumulation of variations that are mainly functional, and hence
+practical; according to Charles Darwin they are alike due to the
+accumulation of variations that are accidental, fortuitous,
+spontaneous, that is to say, mainly cannot be reduced to any known
+general principle.  According to Charles Darwin "the preservation of
+favoured," or lucky, "races" is by far the most important means of
+modification; according to Erasmus Darwin effort non sibi res sed se
+rebus subjungere is unquestionably the most potent means; roughly,
+therefore, there is no better or fairer way of putting the matter,
+than to say that Charles Darwin is the apostle of luck, and his
+grandfather, and Lamarck, of cunning.
+
+It should be observed also that the distinction between the organism
+and its surroundings--on which both systems are founded--is one that
+cannot be so universally drawn as we find it convenient to allege.
+There is a debatable ground of considerable extent on which RES and
+ME, ego and non ego, luck and cunning, necessity and freewill, meet
+and pass into one another as night and day, or life and death.  No
+one can draw a sharp line between ego and non ego, nor indeed any
+sharp line between any classes of phenomena.  Every part of the ego
+is non ego qua organ or tool in use, and much of the non ego runs up
+into the ego and is inseparably united with it; still there is
+enough that it is obviously most convenient to call ego, and enough
+that it is no less obviously most convenient to call non ego, as
+there is enough obvious day and obvious night, or obvious luck and
+obvious cunning, to make us think it advisable to keep separate
+accounts for each.
+
+I will say more on this head in a following chapter; in this present
+one my business should be confined to pointing out as clearly and
+succinctly as I can the issue between the two great main contending
+opinions concerning organic development that obtain among those who
+accept the theory of descent at all; nor do I believe that this can
+be done more effectually and accurately than by saying, as above,
+that Mr. Charles Darwin (whose name, by the way, was "Charles
+Robert," and not, as would appear from the title-pages of his books,
+"Charles" only), Mr. A. R. Wallace, and their supporters are the
+apostles of luck, while Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck, followed, more
+or less timidly, by the Geoffroys and by Mr. Herbert Spencer, and
+very timidly indeed by the Duke of Argyll, preach cunning as the
+most important means of organic modification.
+
+NOTE.--It appears from "Samuel Butler:  A Memoir" (II, 29) that
+Butler wrote to his father (Dec. 1885) about a passage in Horace
+(near the beginning of the First Epistle of the First Book) -
+
+Nunc in Aristippi furtim praecepta relabor,
+Et mihi res, non me rebus subjungere conor.
+
+On the preceding page he is adapting the second of these two verses
+to his own purposes.--H. F. J.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII--(Intercalated)  Mr. Spencer's "The Factors of Organic
+Evolution"
+
+
+
+Since the foregoing and several of the succeeding chapters were
+written, Mr. Herbert Spencer has made his position at once more
+clear and more widely understood by his articles "The Factors of
+Organic Evolution" which appeared in the Nineteenth Century for
+April and May, 1886.  The present appears the fittest place in which
+to intercalate remarks concerning them.
+
+Mr. Spencer asks whether those are right who regard Mr. Charles
+Darwin's theory of natural selection as by itself sufficient to
+account for organic evolution.
+
+"On critically examining the evidence" (modern writers never examine
+evidence, they always "critically," or "carefully," or "patiently,"
+examine it), he writes, we shall find reason to think that it by no
+means explains all that has to be explained.  Omitting for the
+present any consideration of a factor which may be considered
+primordial, it may be contended that one of the factors alleged by
+Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck must be recognised as a co-operator.
+Unless that increase of a part resulting from extra activity, and
+that decrease of it resulting from inactivity, are transmissible to
+descendants, we are without a key to many phenomena of organic
+evolution.  UTTERLY INADEQUATE TO EXPLAIN THE MAJOR PART OF THE
+FACTS AS IS THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE INHERITANCE OF FUNCTIONALLY
+PRODUCED MODIFICATIONS, yet there is a minor part of the facts very
+extensive though less, which must be ascribed to this cause."
+(Italics mine.)
+
+Mr. Spencer does not here say expressly that Erasmus Darwin and
+Lamarck considered inheritance of functionally produced
+modifications to be the sole explanation of the facts of organic
+life; modern writers on evolution for the most part avoid saying
+anything expressly; this nevertheless is the conclusion which the
+reader naturally draws--and was doubtless intended to draw--from Mr.
+Spencer's words.  He gathers that these writers put forward an
+"utterly inadequate" theory, which cannot for a moment be
+entertained in the form in which they left it, but which,
+nevertheless, contains contributions to the formation of a just
+opinion which of late years have been too much neglected.
+
+This inference would be, as Mr. Spencer ought to know, a mistaken
+one.  Erasmus Darwin, who was the first to depend mainly on
+functionally produced modifications, attributes, if not as much
+importance to variations induced either by what we must call chance,
+or by causes having no connection with use and disuse, as Mr.
+Spencer does, still so nearly as much that there is little to choose
+between them.  Mr. Spencer's words show that he attributes, if not
+half, still not far off half the modification that has actually been
+produced, to use and disuse.  Erasmus Darwin does not say whether he
+considers use and disuse to have brought about more than half or
+less than half; he only says that animal and vegetable modification
+is "in part produced" by the exertions of the animals and vegetables
+themselves; the impression I have derived is, that just as Mr.
+Spencer considers rather less than half to be due to use and disuse,
+so Erasmus Darwin considers decidedly more than half--so much more,
+in fact, than half as to make function unquestionably the factor
+most proper to be insisted on if only one can be given.  Further
+than this he did not go.  I will quote enough of Dr. Erasmus
+Darwin's own words to put his position beyond doubt.  He writes:-
+
+"Thirdly, when we enumerate the great changes produced in the
+species of animals before their nativity, as, for example, when the
+offspring reproduces the effects produced upon the parent by
+accident or culture, or the changes produced by the mixture of
+species, as in mules; or the changes produced probably by exuberance
+of nourishment supplied to the foetus, as in monstrous births with
+additional limbs; many of these enormities are propagated and
+continued as a variety at least, if not as a new species of animal.
+I have seen a breed of cats with an additional claw on every foot;
+of poultry also with an additional claw and with wings to their
+feet; and of others without rumps.  Mr. Buffon" (who, by the way,
+surely, was no more "Mr. Buffon" than Lord Salisbury is "Mr.
+Salisbury") "mentions a breed of dogs without tails which are common
+at Rome and Naples--which he supposes to have been produced by a
+custom long established of cutting their tails close off." {102a}
+
+Here not one of the causes of variation adduced is connected with
+use and disuse, or effort, volition, and purpose; the manner,
+moreover, in which they are brought forward is not that of one who
+shows signs of recalcitrancy about admitting other causes of
+modification as well as use and disuse; indeed, a little lower down
+he almost appears to assign the subordinate place to functionally
+produced modifications, for he says--"Fifthly, from their first
+rudiments or primordium to the termination of their lives, all
+animals undergo perpetual transformations; WHICH ARE IN PART
+PRODUCED by their own exertions in consequence of their desires and
+aversions, of their pleasures and their pains, or of irritations or
+of associations; and many of these acquired forms or propensities
+are transmitted to their posterity."
+
+I have quoted enough to show that Dr. Erasmus Darwin would have
+protested against the supposition that functionally produced
+modifications were an adequate explanation of all the phenomena of
+organic modification.  He declares accident and the chances and
+changes of this mortal life to be potent and frequent causes of
+variations, which, being not infrequently inherited, result in the
+formation of varieties and even species, but considers these causes
+if taken alone as no less insufficient to account for observable
+facts than the theory of functionally produced modifications would
+be if not supplemented by inheritance of so-called fortuitous, or
+spontaneous variations.  The difference between Dr. Erasmus Darwin
+and Mr. Spencer does not consist in the denial by the first, that a
+variety which happens, no matter how accidentally, to have varied in
+a way that enables it to comply more fully and readily with the
+conditions of its existence, is likely to live longer and leave more
+offspring than one less favoured; nor in the denial by the second of
+the inheritance and accumulation of functionally produced
+modifications; but in the amount of stress which they respectively
+lay on the relative importance of the two great factors of organic
+evolution, the existence of which they are alike ready to admit.
+
+With Erasmus Darwin there is indeed luck, and luck has had a great
+deal to do with organic modification, but no amount of luck would
+have done unless cunning had known how to take advantage of it;
+whereas if cunning be given, a very little luck at a time will
+accumulate in the course of ages and become a mighty heap.  Cunning,
+therefore, is the factor on which, having regard to the usage of
+language and the necessity for simplifying facts, he thinks it most
+proper to insist.  Surely this is as near as may be the opinion
+which common consent ascribes to Mr. Spencer himself.  It is
+certainly the one which, in supporting Erasmus Darwin's system as
+against his grandson's, I have always intended to support.  With
+Charles Darwin, on the other hand, there is indeed cunning, effort,
+and consequent use and disuse; nor does he deny that these have
+produced some, and sometimes even an important, effect in modifying
+species, but he assigns by far the most important role in the whole
+scheme to natural selection, which, as I have already shown, must,
+with him, be regarded as a synonym for luck pure and simple.  This,
+for reasons well shown by Mr. Spencer in the articles under
+consideration, is so untenable that it seems only possible to
+account for its having been advanced at all by supposing Mr.
+Darwin's judgment to have been perverted by some one or more of the
+many causes that might tend to warp them.  What the chief of those
+causes may have been I shall presently point out.
+
+Buffon erred rather on the side of ignoring functionally produced
+modifications than of insisting on them.  The main agency with him
+is the direct action of the environment upon the organism.  This, no
+doubt, is a flaw in Buffon's immortal work, but it is one which
+Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck easily corrected; nor can we doubt that
+Buffon would have readily accepted their amendment if it had been
+suggested to him.  Buffon did infinitely more in the way of
+discovering and establishing the theory of descent with modification
+than any one has ever done either before or since.  He was too much
+occupied with proving the fact of evolution at all, to dwell as
+fully as might have been wished upon the details of the process
+whereby the amoeba had become man, but we have already seen that he
+regarded inherited mutilation as the cause of establishing a new
+breed of dogs, and this is at any rate not laying much stress on
+functionally produced modifications.  Again, when writing of the
+dog, he speaks of variations arising "BY SOME CHANCE common enough
+with nature," {104a} and clearly does not contemplate function as
+the sole cause of modification.  Practically, though I grant I
+should be less able to quote passages in support of my opinion than
+I quite like, I do not doubt that his position was much the same as
+that of his successors, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck.
+
+Lamarck is more vulnerable than either Erasmus Darwin or Buffon on
+the score of unwillingness to assign its full share to mere chance,
+but I do not for a moment believe his comparative reticence to have
+been caused by failure to see that the chapter of accidents is a
+fateful one.  He saw that the cunning or functional side had been
+too much lost sight of, and therefore insisted on it, but he did not
+mean to say that there is no such thing as luck.  "Let us suppose,"
+he says, "that a grass growing in a low-lying meadow, gets carried
+BY SOME ACCIDENT to the brow of a neighbouring hill, where the soil
+is still damp enough for the plant to be able to exist." {105a}  Or
+again--"With sufficient time, favourable conditions of life,
+successive changes in the condition of the globe, and the power of
+new surroundings and habits to modify the organs of living bodies,
+all animal and vegetable forms have been imperceptibly rendered such
+as we now see them." {105b}  Who can doubt that accident is here
+regarded as a potent factor of evolution, as well as the design that
+is involved in the supposition that modification is, in the main,
+functionally induced?  Again he writes, "As regards the
+circumstances that give rise to variation, the principal are
+climatic changes, different temperatures of any of a creature's
+environments, differences of abode, of habit, of the most frequent
+actions, and lastly of the means of obtaining food, self-defence,
+reproduction," &c. {105c}  I will not dwell on the small
+inconsistencies which may be found in the passages quoted above; the
+reader will doubtless see them, and will also doubtless see that in
+spite of them there can be no doubt that Lamarck, while believing
+modification to be effected mainly by the survival in the struggle
+for existence of modifications which had been induced functionally,
+would not have hesitated to admit the survival of favourable
+variations due to mere accident as also a potent factor in inducing
+the results we see around us.
+
+For the rest, Mr. Spencer's articles have relieved me from the
+necessity of going into the evidence which proves that such
+structures as a giraffe's neck, for example, cannot possibly have
+been produced by the accumulation of variations which had their
+origin mainly in accident.  There is no occasion to add anything to
+what Mr. Spencer has said on this score, and I am satisfied that
+those who do not find his argument convince them would not be
+convinced by anything I might say; I shall, therefore, omit what I
+had written on this subject, and confine myself to giving the
+substance of Mr. Spencer's most telling argument against Mr.
+Darwin's theory that accidental variations, if favourable, would
+accumulate and result in seemingly adaptive structures.  Mr. Spencer
+well shows that luck or chance is insufficient as a motive-power, or
+helm, of evolution; but luck is only absence of design; if, then,
+absence of design is found to fail, it follows that there must have
+been design somewhere, nor can the design be more conveniently
+placed than in association with function.
+
+Mr. Spencer contends that where life is so simple as to consist
+practically in the discharge of only one function, or where
+circumstances are such that some one function is supremely important
+(a state of things, by the way, more easily found in hypothesis than
+in nature--at least as continuing without modification for many
+successive seasons), then accidental variations, if favourable,
+would indeed accumulate and result in modification, without the aid
+of the transmission of functionally produced modification.  This is
+true; it is also true, however, that only a very small number of
+species in comparison with those we see around us could thus arise,
+and that we should never have got plants and animals as embodiments
+of the two great fundamental principles on which it is alone
+possible that life can be conducted, {107a} and species of plants
+and animals as embodiments of the details involved in carrying out
+these two main principles.
+
+If the earliest organism could have only varied favourably in one
+direction, the one possible favourable accidental variation would
+have accumulated so long as the organism continued to exist at all,
+inasmuch as this would be preserved whenever it happened to occur,
+while every other would be lost in the struggle of competitive
+forms; but even in the lowest forms of life there is more than one
+condition in respect of which the organism must be supposed
+sensitive, and there are as many directions in which variations may
+be favourable as there are conditions of the environment that affect
+the organism.  We cannot conceive of a living form as having a power
+of adaptation limited to one direction only; the elasticity which
+admits of a not being "extreme to mark that which is done amiss" in
+one direction will commonly admit of it in as many directions as
+there are possible favourable modes of variation; the number of
+these, as has been just said, depends upon the number of the
+conditions of the environment that affect the organism, and these
+last, though in the long run and over considerable intervals of time
+tolerably constant, are over shorter intervals liable to frequent
+and great changes; so that there is nothing in Mr. Charles Darwin's
+system of modification through the natural survival of the lucky, to
+prevent gain in one direction one year from being lost irretrievably
+in the next, through the greater success of some in no way
+correlated variation, the fortunate possessors of which alone
+survive.  This, in its turn, is as likely as not to disappear
+shortly through the arising of some difficulty in some entirely new
+direction, and so on; nor, if function be regarded as of small
+effect in determining organism, is there anything to ensure either
+that, even if ground be lost for a season or two in any one
+direction, it shall be recovered presently on resumption by the
+organism of the habits that called it into existence, or that it
+shall appear synchronously in a sufficient number of individuals to
+ensure its not being soon lost through gamogenesis.
+
+How is progress ever to be made if races keep reversing, Penelope-
+like, in one generation all that they have been achieving in the
+preceding?  And how, on Mr. Darwin's system, of which the
+accumulation of strokes of luck is the greatly preponderating
+feature, is a hoard ever to be got together and conserved, no matter
+how often luck may have thrown good things in an organism's way?
+Luck, or absence of design, may be sometimes almost said to throw
+good things in our way, or at any rate we may occasionally get more
+through having made no design than any design we should have been
+likely to have formed would have given us; but luck does not hoard
+these good things for our use and make our wills for us, nor does it
+keep providing us with the same good gifts again and again, and no
+matter how often we reject them.
+
+I had better, perhaps, give Mr. Spencer's own words as quoted by
+himself in his article in the Nineteenth Century for April, 1886.
+He there wrote as follows, quoting from section 166 of his
+"Principles of Biology," which appeared in 1864:-
+
+"Where the life is comparatively simple, or where surrounding
+circumstances render some one function supremely important, the
+survival of the fittest" (which means here the survival of the
+luckiest) "may readily bring about the appropriate structural
+change, without any aid from the transmission of functionally-
+acquired modifications" (into which effort and design have entered).
+"But in proportion as the life grows complex--in proportion as a
+healthy existence cannot be secured by a large endowment of some one
+power, but demands many powers; in the same proportion do there
+arise obstacles to the increase of any particular power, by 'the
+preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life'" (that is
+to say, through mere survival of the luckiest).  "As fast as the
+faculties are multiplied, so fast does it become possible for the
+several members of a species to have various kinds of superiority
+over one another.  While one saves its life by higher speed, another
+does the like by clearer vision, another by keener scent, another by
+quicker hearing, another by greater strength, another by unusual
+power of enduring cold or hunger, another by special sagacity,
+another by special timidity, another by special courage; and others
+by other bodily and mental attributes.  Now it is unquestionably
+true that, other things equal, each of these attributes, giving its
+possessor an equal extra chance of life, is likely to be transmitted
+to posterity.  But there seems no reason to believe it will be
+increased in subsequent generations by natural selection.  That it
+may be thus increased, the animals not possessing more than average
+endowments of it must be more frequently killed off than individuals
+highly endowed with it; and this can only happen when the attribute
+is one of greater importance, for the time being, than most of the
+other attributes.
+
+If those members of the species which have but ordinary shares of
+it, nevertheless survive by virtue of other superiorities which they
+severally possess, then it is not easy to see how this particular
+attribute can be developed by natural selection in subsequent
+generations."  (For if some other superiority is a greater source of
+luck, then natural selection, or survival of the luckiest, will
+ensure that this other superiority be preserved at the expense of
+the one acquired in the earlier generation.)  "The probability seems
+rather to be, that by gamogenesis, this extra endowment will, on the
+average, be diminished in posterity--just serving in the long run to
+compensate the deficient endowments of other individuals, whose
+special powers lie in other directions; and so to keep up the normal
+structure of the species.  The working out of the process is here
+somewhat difficult to follow" (there is no difficulty as soon as it
+is perceived that Mr. Darwin's natural selection invariably means,
+or ought to mean, the survival of the luckiest, and that seasons and
+what they bring with them, though fairly constant on an average, yet
+individually vary so greatly that what is luck in one season is
+disaster in another); "but it appears to me that as fast as the
+number of bodily and mental faculties increases, and as fast as the
+maintenance of life comes to depend less on the amount of any one,
+and more on the combined action of all, so fast does the production
+of specialities of character by natural selection alone become
+difficult.  Particularly does this seem to be so with a species so
+multitudinous in powers as mankind; and above all does it seem to be
+so with such of the human powers as have but minor shares in aiding
+the struggle for life--the aesthetic faculties, for example.
+
+"Dwelling for a moment on this last illustration of the class of
+difficulties described, let us ask how we are to interpret the
+development of the musical faculty; how came there that endowment of
+musical faculty which characterises modern Europeans at large, as
+compared with their remote ancestors?  The monotonous chants of low
+savages cannot be said to show any melodic inspiration; and it is
+not evident that an individual savage who had a little more musical
+perception than the rest would derive any such advantage in the
+maintenance of life as would secure the spread of his superiority by
+inheritance of the variation," &c.
+
+It should be observed that the passage given in the last paragraph
+but one appeared in 1864, only five years after the first edition of
+the "Origin of Species," but, crushing as it is, Mr. Darwin never
+answered it.  He treated it as nonexistent--and this, doubtless from
+a business standpoint, was the best thing he could do.  How far such
+a course was consistent with that single-hearted devotion to the
+interests of science for which Mr. Darwin developed such an abnormal
+reputation, is a point which I must leave to his many admirers to
+determine.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII--Property, Common Sense, and Protoplasm
+
+
+
+One would think the issue stated in the three preceding chapters was
+decided in the stating.  This, as I have already implied, is
+probably the reason why those who have a vested interest in Mr.
+Darwin's philosophical reputation have avoided stating it.
+
+It may be said that, seeing the result is a joint one, inasmuch as
+both "res" and "me," or both luck and cunning, enter so largely into
+development, neither factor can claim pre-eminence to the exclusion
+of the other.  But life is short and business long, and if we are to
+get the one into the other we must suppress details, and leave our
+words pregnant, as painters leave their touches when painting from
+nature.  If one factor concerns us greatly more than the other, we
+should emphasize it, and let the other go without saying, by force
+of association.  There is no fear of its being lost sight of;
+association is one of the few really liberal things in nature; by
+liberal, I mean precipitate and inaccurate; the power of words, as
+of pictures, and indeed the power to carry on life at all, vests in
+the fact that association does not stick to the letter of its bond,
+but will take the half for the whole without even looking closely at
+the coin given to make sure that it is not counterfeit.  Through the
+haste and high pressure of business, errors arise continually, and
+these errors give us the shocks of which our consciousness is
+compounded.  Our whole conscious life, therefore, grows out of
+memory and out of the power of association, in virtue of which not
+only does the right half pass for the whole, but the wrong half not
+infrequently passes current for it also, without being challenged
+and found out till, as it were, the accounts come to be balanced,
+and it is found that they will not do so.
+
+Variations are an organism's way of getting over an unexpected
+discrepancy between its resources as shown by the fly-leaves of its
+own cheques and the universe's passbook; the universe is generally
+right, or would be upheld as right if the matter were to come before
+the not too incorruptible courts of nature, and in nine cases out of
+ten the organism has made the error in its own favour, so that it
+must now pay or die.  It can only pay by altering its mode of life,
+and how long is it likely to be before a new departure in its mode
+of life comes out in its own person and in those of its family?
+Granted it will at first come out in their appearance only, but
+there can be no change in appearance without some slight
+corresponding organic modification.  In practice there is usually
+compromise in these matters.  The universe, if it does not give an
+organism short shrift and eat it at once, will commonly abate
+something of its claim; it gets tricked out of an additional moiety
+by the organism; the organism really does pay something by way of
+changed habits; this results in variation, in virtue of which the
+accounts are cooked, cobbled, and passed by a series of those
+miracles of inconsistency which was call compromises, and after this
+they cannot be reopened--not till next time.
+
+Surely of the two factors which go to the making up of development,
+cunning is the one more proper to be insisted on as determining the
+physical and psychical well or ill being, and hence, ere long, the
+future form of the organism.  We can hardly open a newspaper without
+seeing some sign of this; take, for example, the following extract
+from a letter in the Times of the day on which I am writing
+(February 8, 1886)-- "You may pass along a road which divides a
+settlement of Irish Celts from one of Germans.  They all came to the
+country equally without money, and have had to fight their way in
+the forest, but the difference in their condition is very
+remarkable; on the German side there is comfort, thrift, peace, but
+on the other side the spectacle is very different."  Few will deny
+that slight organic differences, corresponding to these differences
+of habit, are already perceptible; no Darwinian will deny that these
+differences are likely to be inherited, and, in the absence of
+intermarriage between the two colonies, to result in still more
+typical difference than that which exists at present.  According to
+Mr. Darwin, the improved type of the more successful race would not
+be due mainly to transmitted perseverance in well-doing, but to the
+fact that if any member of the German colony "happened" to be born
+"ever so slightly," &c.  Of course this last is true to a certain
+extent also; if any member of the German colony does "happen to be
+born," &c., then he will stand a better chance of surviving, and, if
+he marries a wife like himself, of transmitting his good qualities;
+but how about the happening?  How is it that this is of such
+frequent occurrence in the one colony, and is so rare in the other?
+Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis.  True, but how and why?  Through
+the race being favoured?  In one sense, doubtless, it is true that
+no man can have anything except it be given him from above, but it
+must be from an above into the composition of which he himself
+largely enters.  God gives us all things; but we are a part of God,
+and that part of Him, moreover, whose department it more especially
+is to look after ourselves.  It cannot be through luck, for luck is
+blind, and does not pick out the same people year after year and
+generation after generation; shall we not rather say, then, that it
+is because mind, or cunning, is a great factor in the achievement of
+physical results, and because there is an abiding memory between
+successive generations, in virtue of which the cunning of an earlier
+one enures to the benefit of its successors?
+
+It is one of the commonplaces of biology that the nature of the
+organism (which is mainly determined by ancestral antecedents) is
+greatly more important in determining its future than the conditions
+of its environment, provided, of course, that these are not too
+cruelly abnormal, so that good seed will do better on rather poor
+soil, than bad seed on rather good soil; this alone should be enough
+to show that cunning, or individual effort, is more important in
+determining organic results than luck is, and therefore that if
+either is to be insisted on to the exclusion of the other, it should
+be cunning, not luck.  Which is more correctly said to be the main
+means of the development of capital--Luck? or Cunning?  Of course
+there must be something to be developed--and luck, that is to say,
+the unknowable and unforeseeable, enters everywhere; but is it more
+convenient with our oldest and best-established ideas to say that
+luck is the main means of the development of capital, or that
+cunning is so?  Can there be a moment's hesitation in admitting that
+if capital is found to have been developed largely, continuously, by
+many people, in many ways, over a long period of time, it can only
+have been by means of continued application, energy, effort,
+industry, and good sense?  Granted there has been luck too; of
+course there has, but we let it go without saying, whereas we cannot
+let the skill or cunning go without saying, inasmuch as we feel the
+cunning to have been the essence of the whole matter.
+
+Granted, again, that there is no test more fallacious on a small
+scale than that of immediate success.  As applied to any particular
+individual, it breaks down completely.  It is unfortunately no rare
+thing to see the good man striving against fate, and the fool born
+with a silver spoon in his mouth.  Still on a large scale no test
+can be conceivably more reliable; a blockhead may succeed for a
+time, but a succession of many generations of blockheads does not go
+on steadily gaining ground, adding field to field and farm to farm,
+and becoming year by year more capable and prosperous.  Given time--
+of which there is no scant in the matter of organic development--and
+cunning will do more with ill luck than folly with good.  People do
+not hold six trumps every hand for a dozen games of whist running,
+if they do not keep a card or two up their sleeves.  Cunning, if it
+can keep its head above water at all, will beat mere luck unaided by
+cunning, no matter what start luck may have had, if the race be a
+fairly long one.  Growth is a kind of success which does indeed come
+to some organisms with less effort than to others, but it cannot be
+maintained and improved upon without pains and effort.  A foolish
+organism and its fortuitous variation will be soon parted, for, as a
+general rule, unless the variation has so much connection with the
+organism's past habits and ways of thought as to be in no proper
+sense of the word "fortuitous," the organism will not know what to
+do with it when it has got it, no matter how favourable it may be,
+and it is little likely to be handed down to descendants.  Indeed
+the kind of people who get on best in the world--and what test to a
+Darwinian can be comparable to this?--commonly do insist on cunning
+rather than on luck, sometimes perhaps even unduly; speaking, at
+least, from experience, I have generally found myself more or less
+of a failure with those Darwinians to whom I have endeavoured to
+excuse my shortcomings on the score of luck.
+
+It may be said that the contention that the nature of the organism
+does more towards determining its future than the conditions of its
+immediate environment do, is only another way of saying that the
+accidents which have happened to an organism in the persons of its
+ancestors throughout all time are more irresistible by it for good
+or ill than any of the more ordinary chances and changes of its own
+immediate life.  I do not deny this; but these ancestral accidents
+were either turned to account, or neglected where they might have
+been taken advantage of; they thus passed either into skill, or want
+of skill; so that whichever way the fact is stated the result is the
+same; and if simplicity of statement be regarded, there is no more
+convenient way of putting the matter than to say that though luck is
+mighty, cunning is mightier still.  Organism commonly shows its
+cunning by practising what Horace preached, and treating itself as
+more plastic than its surroundings; those indeed who have had the
+greatest the first to admit that they had gained their ends more by
+reputation as moulders of circumstances have ever been shaping their
+actions and themselves to suit events, than by trying to shape
+events to suit themselves and their actions.  Modification, like
+charity, begins at home.
+
+But however this may be, there can be no doubt that cunning is in
+the long run mightier than luck as regards the acquisition of
+property, and what applies to property applies to organism also.
+Property, as I have lately seen was said by Rosmini, is a kind of
+extension of the personality into the outside world.  He might have
+said as truly that it is a kind of penetration of the outside world
+within the limits of the personality, or that it is at any rate a
+prophesying of, and essay after, the more living phase of matter in
+the direction of which it is tending.  If approached from the
+dynamical or living side of the underlying substratum, it is the
+beginning of the comparatively stable equilibrium which we call
+brute matter; if from the statical side, that is to say, from that
+of brute matter, it is the beginning of that dynamical state which
+we associate with life; it is the last of ego and first of non ego,
+or vice versa, as the case may be; it is the ground whereon the two
+meet and are neither wholly one nor wholly the other, but a whirling
+mass of contradictions such as attends all fusion.
+
+What property is to a man's mind or soul that his body is also, only
+more so.  The body is property carried to the bitter end, or
+property is the body carried to the bitter end, whichever the reader
+chooses; the expression "organic wealth" is not figurative; none
+other is so apt and accurate; so universally, indeed, is this
+recognised that the fact has found expression in our liturgy, which
+bids us pray for all those who are any wise afflicted "in mind,
+body, or estate;" no inference, therefore, can be more simple and
+legitimate than the one in accordance with which the laws that
+govern the development of wealth generally are supposed also to
+govern the particular form of health and wealth which comes most
+closely home to us--I mean that of our bodily implements or organs.
+What is the stomach but a living sack, or purse of untanned leather,
+wherein we keep our means of subsistence?  Food is money made easy;
+it is petty cash in its handiest and most reduced form; it is our
+way of assimilating our possessions and making them indeed our own.
+What is the purse but a kind of abridged extra corporeal stomach
+wherein we keep the money which we convert by purchase into food, as
+we presently convert the food by digestion into flesh and blood?
+And what living form is there which is without a purse or stomach,
+even though it have to job it by the meal as the amoeba does, and
+exchange it for some other article as soon as it has done eating?
+How marvellously does the analogy hold between the purse and the
+stomach alike as regards form and function; and I may say in passing
+that, as usual, the organ which is the more remote from protoplasm
+is at once more special, more an object of our consciousness, and
+less an object of its own.
+
+Talk of ego and non ego meeting, and of the hopelessness of avoiding
+contradiction in terms--talk of this, and look, in passing, at the
+amoeba.  It is itself qua maker of the stomach and being fed; it is
+not itself qua stomach and qua its using itself as a mere tool or
+implement to feed itself with.  It is active and passive, object and
+subject, ego and non ego--every kind of Irish bull, in fact, which a
+sound logician abhors--and it is only because it has persevered, as
+I said in "Life and Habit," in thus defying logic and arguing most
+virtuously in a most vicious circle, that it has come in the persons
+of some of its descendants to reason with sufficient soundness.  And
+what the amoeba is man is also; man is only a great many amoebas,
+most of them dreadfully narrow-minded, going up and down the country
+with their goods and chattels like gipsies in a caravan; he is only
+a great many amoebas that have had much time and money spent on
+their education, and received large bequests of organised
+intelligence from those that have gone before them.
+
+The most incorporate tool--we will say an eye, or a tooth, or the
+closed fist when used to strike--has still something of the non ego
+about it in so far as it is used; those organs, again, that are the
+most completely separate from the body, as the locomotive engine,
+must still from time to time kiss the soil of the human body, and be
+handled and thus crossed with man again if they would remain in
+working order.  They cannot be cut adrift from the most living form
+of matter (I mean most living from our point of view), and remain
+absolutely without connection with it for any length of time, any
+more than a seal can live without coming up sometimes to breathe;
+and in so far as they become linked on to living beings they live.
+Everything is living which is in close communion with, and
+interpermeated by, that something which we call mind or thought.
+Giordano Bruno saw this long ago when he made an interlocutor in one
+of his dialogues say that a man's hat and cloak are alive when he is
+wearing them.  "Thy boots and spurs live," he exclaims, "when thy
+feet carry them; thy hat lives when thy head is within it; and so
+the stable lives when it contains the horse or mule, or even
+yourself;" nor is it easy to see how this is to be refuted except at
+a cost which no one in his senses will offer.
+
+It may be said that the life of clothes in wear and implements in
+use is no true life, inasmuch as it differs from flesh and blood
+life in too many and important respects; that we have made up our
+minds about not letting life outside the body too decisively to
+allow the question to be reopened; that if this be tolerated we
+shall have societies for the prevention of cruelty to chairs and
+tables, or cutting clothes amiss, or wearing them to tatters, or
+whatever other absurdity may occur to idle and unkind people; the
+whole discussion, therefore, should be ordered out of court at once.
+
+I admit that this is much the most sensible position to take, but it
+can only be taken by those who turn the deafest of deaf ears to the
+teachings of science, and tolerate no going even for a moment below
+the surface of things.  People who take this line must know how to
+put their foot down firmly in the matter of closing a discussion.
+Some one may perhaps innocently say that some parts of the body are
+more living and vital than others, and those who stick to common
+sense may allow this, but if they do they must close the discussion
+on the spot; if they listen to another syllable they are lost; if
+they let the innocent interlocutor say so much as that a piece of
+well-nourished healthy brain is more living than the end of a
+finger-nail that wants cutting, or than the calcareous parts of a
+bone, the solvent will have been applied which will soon make an end
+of common sense ways of looking at the matter.  Once even admit the
+use of the participle "dying," which involves degrees of death, and
+hence an entry of death in part into a living body, and common sense
+must either close the discussion at once, or ere long surrender at
+discretion.
+
+Common sense can only carry weight in respect of matters with which
+every one is familiar, as forming part of the daily and hourly
+conduct of affairs; if we would keep our comfortable hard and fast
+lines, our rough and ready unspecialised ways of dealing with
+difficult questions, our impatience of what St. Paul calls "doubtful
+disputations," we must refuse to quit the ground on which the
+judgments of mankind have been so long and often given that they are
+not likely to be questioned.  Common sense is not yet formulated in
+manners of science or philosophy, for only few consider them; few
+decisions, therefore, have been arrived at which all hold final.
+Science is, like love, "too young to know what conscience," or
+common sense, is.  As soon as the world began to busy itself with
+evolution it said good-bye to common sense, and must get on with
+uncommon sense as best it can.  The first lesson that uncommon sense
+will teach it is that contradiction in terms is the foundation of
+all sound reasoning--and, as an obvious consequence, compromise, the
+foundation of all sound practice.  This, it follows easily, involves
+the corollary that as faith, to be of any value, must be based on
+reason, so reason, to be of any value, must be based on faith, and
+that neither can stand alone or dispense with the other, any more
+than culture or vulgarity can stand unalloyed with one another
+without much danger of mischance.
+
+It may not perhaps be immediately apparent why the admission that a
+piece of healthy living brain is more living than the end of a
+finger-nail, is so dangerous to common sense ways of looking at life
+and death; I had better, therefore, be more explicit.  By this
+admission degrees of livingness are admitted within the body; this
+involves approaches to non-livingness.  On this the question arises,
+"Which are the most living parts?"  The answer to this was given a
+few years ago with a flourish of trumpets, and our biologists
+shouted with one voice, "Great is protoplasm.  There is no life but
+protoplasm, and Huxley is its prophet."  Read Huxley's "Physical
+Basis of Mind."  Read Professor Mivart's article, "What are Living
+Beings?" in the Contemporary Review, July, 1879.  Read Dr. Andrew
+Wilson's article in the Gentleman's Magazine, October, 1879.
+Remember Professor Allman's address to the British Association,
+1879; ask, again, any medical man what is the most approved
+scientific attitude as regards the protoplasmic and non-protoplasmic
+parts of the body, and he will say that the thinly veiled conclusion
+arrived at by all of them is, that the protoplasmic parts are alone
+truly living, and that the non-protoplasmic are non-living.
+
+It may suffice if I confine myself to Professor Allman's address to
+the British Association in 1879, as a representative utterance.
+Professor Allman said:-
+
+"Protoplasm lies at the base of every vital phenomenon.  It is, as
+Huxley has well expressed it, 'the physical basis of life;' wherever
+there is life from its lowest to its highest manifestation there is
+protoplasm; wherever there is protoplasm there is life." {122a}
+
+To say wherever there is life there is protoplasm, is to say that
+there can be no life without protoplasm, and this is saying that
+where there is no protoplasm there is no life.  But large parts of
+the body are non-protoplasmic; a bone is, indeed, permeated by
+protoplasm, but it is not protoplasm; it follows, therefore, that
+according to Professor Allman bone is not in any proper sense of
+words a living substance.  From this it should follow, and doubtless
+does follow in Professor Allman's mind, that large tracts of the
+human body, if not the greater part by weight (as bones, skin,
+muscular tissues, &c.), are no more alive than a coat or pair of
+boots in wear is alive, except in so far as the bones, &c., are more
+closely and nakedly permeated by protoplasm than the coat or boots,
+and are thus brought into closer, directer, and more permanent
+communication with that which, if not life itself, still has more of
+the ear of life, and comes nearer to its royal person than anything
+else does.  Indeed that this is Professor Allman's opinion appears
+from the passage on page 26 of the report, in which he says that in
+"protoplasm we find the only form of matter in which life can
+manifest itself."
+
+According to this view the skin and other tissues are supposed to be
+made from dead protoplasm which living protoplasm turns to account
+as the British Museum authorities are believed to stuff their new
+specimens with the skins of old ones; the matter used by the living
+protoplasm for this purpose is held to be entirely foreign to
+protoplasm itself, and no more capable of acting in concert with it
+than bricks can understand and act in concert with the bricklayer.
+As the bricklayer is held to be living and the bricks non-living, so
+the bones and skin which protoplasm is supposed to construct are
+held non-living and the protoplasm alone living.  Protoplasm, it is
+said, goes about masked behind the clothes or habits which it has
+fashioned.  It has habited itself as animals and plants, and we have
+mistaken the garment for the wearer--as our dogs and cats doubtless
+think with Giordano Bruno that our boots live when we are wearing
+them, and that we keep spare paws in our bedrooms which lie by the
+wall and go to sleep when we have not got them on.
+
+If, in answer to the assertion that the osseous parts of bone are
+non-living, it is said that they must be living, for they heal if
+broken, which no dead matter can do, it is answered that the broken
+pieces of bone do not grow together; they are mended by the
+protoplasm which permeates the Haversian canals; the bones
+themselves are no more living merely because they are tenanted by
+something which really does live, than a house lives because men and
+women inhabit it; and if a bone is repaired, it no more repairs
+itself than a house can be said to have repaired itself because its
+owner has sent for the bricklayer and seen that what was wanted was
+done.
+
+We do not know, it is said, by what means the structureless viscid
+substance which we call protoplasm can build for itself a solid
+bone; we do not understand how an amoeba makes its test; no one
+understands how anything is done unless he can do it himself; and
+even then he probably does not know how he has done it.  Set a man
+who has never painted, to watch Rembrandt paint the Burgomaster Six,
+and he will no more understand how Rembrandt can have done it, than
+we can understand how the amoeba makes its test, or the protoplasm
+cements two broken ends of a piece of bone.  Ces choses se font mais
+ne s'expliquent pas.  So some denizen of another planet looking at
+our earth through a telescope which showed him much, but still not
+quite enough, and seeing the St. Gothard tunnel plumb on end so that
+he could not see the holes of entry and exit, would think the trains
+there a kind of caterpillar which went through the mountain by a
+pure effort of the will--that enabled them in some mysterious way to
+disregard material obstacles and dispense with material means.  We
+know, of course, that it is not so, and that exemption from the toil
+attendant on material obstacles has been compounded for, in the
+ordinary way, by the single payment of a tunnel; and so with the
+cementing of a bone, our biologists say that the protoplasm, which
+is alone living, cements it much as a man might mend a piece of
+broken china, but that it works by methods and processes which elude
+us, even as the holes of the St. Gothard tunnel may be supposed to
+elude a denizen of another world.
+
+The reader will already have seen that the toils are beginning to
+close round those who, while professing to be guided by common
+sense, still parley with even the most superficial probers beneath
+the surface; this, however, will appear more clearly in the
+following chapter.  It will also appear how far-reaching were the
+consequences of the denial of design that was involved in Mr.
+Darwin's theory that luck is the main element in survival, and how
+largely this theory is responsible for the fatuous developments in
+connection alike with protoplasm and automatism which a few years
+ago seemed about to carry everything before them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX--Property, Common Sense, and Protoplasm (continued)
+
+
+
+The position, then, stands thus.  Common sense gave the inch of
+admitting some parts of the body to be less living than others, and
+philosophy took the ell of declaring the body to be almost all of it
+stone dead.  This is serious; still if it were all, for a quiet
+life, we might put up with it.  Unfortunately we know only too well
+that it will not be all.  Our bodies, which seemed so living and now
+prove so dead, have served us such a trick that we can have no
+confidence in anything connected with them.  As with skin and bones
+to-day, so with protoplasm to-morrow.  Protoplasm is mainly oxygen,
+hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon; if we do not keep a sharp look out,
+we shall have it going the way of the rest of the body, and being
+declared dead in respect, at any rate, of these inorganic
+components.  Science has not, I believe, settled all the components
+of protoplasm, but this is neither here nor there; she has settled
+what it is in great part, and there is no trusting her not to settle
+the rest at any moment, even if she has not already done so.  As
+soon as this has been done we shall be told that nine-tenths of the
+protoplasm of which we are composed must go the way of our non-
+protoplasmic parts, and that the only really living part of us is
+the something with a new name that runs the protoplasm that runs the
+flesh and bones that run the organs -
+
+Why stop here?  Why not add "which run the tools and properties
+which are as essential to our life and health as much that is
+actually incorporate with us?"  The same breach which has let the
+non-living effect a lodgment within the body must, in all equity,
+let the organic character--bodiliness, so to speak--pass out beyond
+its limits and effect a lodgment in our temporary and extra-
+corporeal limbs.  What, on the protoplasmic theory, the skin and
+bones are, that the hammer and spade are also; they differ in the
+degree of closeness and permanence with which they are associated
+with protoplasm, but both bones and hammers are alike non-living
+things which protoplasm uses for its own purposes and keeps closer
+or less close at hand as custom and convenience may determine.
+
+According to this view, the non-protoplasmic parts of the body are
+tools of the first degree; they are not living, but they are in such
+close and constant contact with that which really lives, that an
+aroma of life attaches to them.  Some of these, however, such as
+horns, hooves, and tusks, are so little permeated by protoplasm that
+they cannot rank much higher than the tools of the second degree,
+which come next to them in order.
+
+These tools of the second degree are either picked up ready-made, or
+are manufactured directly by the body, as being torn or bitten into
+shape, or as stones picked up to throw at prey or at an enemy.
+
+Tools of the third degree are made by the instrumentality of tools
+of the second and first degrees; as, for example, chipped flint,
+arrow-heads, &c.
+
+Tools of the fourth degree are made by those of the third, second,
+and first.  They consist of the simpler compound instruments that
+yet require to be worked by hand, as hammers, spades, and even hand
+flour-mills.
+
+Tools of the fifth degree are made by the help of those of the
+fourth, third, second, and first.  They are compounded of many
+tools, worked, it may be, by steam or water and requiring no
+constant contact with the body.
+
+But each one of these tools of the fifth degree was made in the
+first instance by the sole instrumentality of the four preceding
+kinds of tool.  They must all be linked on to protoplasm, which is
+the one original tool-maker, but which can only make the tools that
+are more remote from itself by the help of those that are nearer,
+that is to say, it can only work when it has suitable tools to work
+with, and when it is allowed to use them in its own way.  There can
+be no direct communication between protoplasm and a steam-engine;
+there may be and often is direct communication between machines of
+even the fifth order and those of the first, as when an engine-man
+turns a cock, or repairs something with his own hands if he has
+nothing better to work with.  But put a hammer, for example, to a
+piece of protoplasm, and the protoplasm will no more know what to do
+with it than we should be able to saw a piece of wood in two without
+a saw.  Even protoplasm from the hand of a carpenter who has been
+handling hammers all his life would be hopelessly put off its stroke
+if not allowed to work in its usual way but put bare up against a
+hammer; it would make a slimy mess and then dry up; still there can
+be no doubt (so at least those who uphold protoplasm as the one
+living substance would say) that the closer a machine can be got to
+protoplasm and the more permanent the connection, the more living it
+appears to be, or at any rate the more does it appear to be endowed
+with spontaneous and reasoning energy, so long, of course, as the
+closeness is of a kind which protoplasm understands and is familiar
+with.  This, they say, is why we do not like using any implement or
+tool with gloves on, for these impose a barrier between the tool and
+its true connection with protoplasm by means of the nervous system.
+For the same reason we put gloves on when we box so as to bar the
+connection.
+
+That which we handle most unglovedly is our food, which we handle
+with our stomachs rather than with our hands.  Our hands are so
+thickly encased with skin that protoplasm can hold but small
+conversation with what they contain, unless it be held for a long
+time in the closed fist, and even so the converse is impeded as in a
+strange language; the inside of our mouths is more naked, and our
+stomachs are more naked still; it is here that protoplasm brings its
+fullest powers of suasion to bear on those whom it would proselytise
+and receive as it were into its own communion--whom it would convert
+and bring into a condition of mind in which they shall see things as
+it sees them itself, and, as we commonly say, "agree with" it,
+instead of standing out stiffly for their own opinion.  We call this
+digesting our food; more properly we should call it being digested
+by our food, which reads, marks, learns, and inwardly digests us,
+till it comes to understand us and encourage us by assuring us that
+we were perfectly right all the time, no matter what any one might
+have said, or say, to the contrary.  Having thus recanted all its
+own past heresies, it sets to work to convert everything that comes
+near it and seems in the least likely to be converted.  Eating is a
+mode of love; it is an effort after a closer union; so we say we
+love roast beef.  A French lady told me once that she adored veal;
+and a nurse tells her child that she would like to eat it.  Even he
+who caresses a dog or horse pro tanto both weds and eats it.
+Strange how close the analogy between love and hunger; in each case
+the effort is after closer union and possession; in each case the
+outcome is reproduction (for nutrition is the most complete of
+reproductions), and in each case there are residua.  But to return.
+
+I have shown above that one consequence of the attempt so vigorously
+made a few years ago to establish protoplasm as the one living
+substance, is the making it clear that the non-protoplasmic parts of
+the body and the simpler extra-corporeal tools or organs must run on
+all fours in the matter of livingness and non-livingness.  If the
+protoplasmic parts of the body are held living in virtue of their
+being used by something that really lives, then so, though in a less
+degree, must tools and machines.  If, on the other hand, tools and
+machines are held non-living inasmuch as they only owe what little
+appearance of life they may present when in actual use to something
+else that lives, and have no life of their own--so, though in a less
+degree, must the non-protoplasmic parts of the body.  Allow an
+overflowing aroma of life to vivify the horny skin under the heel,
+and from this there will be a spilling which will vivify the boot in
+wear.  Deny an aroma of life to the boot in wear, and it must ere
+long be denied to ninety-nine per cent. of the body; and if the body
+is not alive while it can walk and talk, what in the name of all
+that is unreasonable can be held to be so?
+
+That the essential identity of bodily organs and tools is no
+ingenious paradoxical way of putting things is evident from the fact
+that we speak of bodily organs at all.  Organ means tool.  There is
+nothing which reveals our most genuine opinions to us so unerringly
+as our habitual and unguarded expressions, and in the case under
+consideration so completely do we instinctively recognise the
+underlying identity of tools and limbs, that scientific men use the
+word "organ" for any part of the body that discharges a function,
+practically to the exclusion of any other term.  Of course, however,
+the above contention as to the essential identity of tools and
+organs does not involve a denial of their obvious superficial
+differences--differences so many and so great as to justify our
+classing them in distinct categories so long as we have regard to
+the daily purposes of life without looking at remoter ones.
+
+If the above be admitted, we can reply to those who in an earlier
+chapter objected to our saying that if Mr. Darwin denied design in
+the eye he should deny it in the burglar's jemmy also.  For if
+bodily and non-bodily organs are essentially one in kind, being each
+of them both living and non-living, and each of them only a higher
+development of principles already admitted and largely acted on in
+the other, then the method of procedure observable in the evolution
+of the organs whose history is within our ken should throw light
+upon the evolution of that whose history goes back into so dim a
+past that we can only know it by way of inference.  In the absence
+of any show of reason to the contrary we should argue from the known
+to the unknown, and presume that even as our non-bodily organs
+originated and were developed through gradual accumulation of
+design, effort, and contrivance guided by experience, so also must
+our bodily organs have been, in spite of the fact that the
+contrivance has been, as it were, denuded of external evidences in
+the course of long time.  This at least is the most obvious
+inference to draw; the burden of proof should rest not with those
+who uphold function as the most important means of organic
+modification, but with those who impugn it; it is hardly necessary,
+however, to say that Mr. Darwin never attempted to impugn by way of
+argument the conclusions either of his grandfather or of Lamarck.
+He waved them both aside in one or two short semi-contemptuous
+sentences, and said no more about them--not, at least, until late in
+life he wrote his "Erasmus Darwin," and even then his remarks were
+purely biographical; he did not say one syllable by way of
+refutation, or even of explanation.
+
+I am free to confess that, overwhelming as is the evidence brought
+forward by Mr. Spencer in the articles already referred to, as
+showing that accidental variations, unguided by the helm of any main
+general principle which should as it were keep their heads straight,
+could never accumulate with the results supposed by Mr. Darwin; and
+overwhelming, again, as is the consideration that Mr. Spencer's most
+crushing argument was allowed by Mr. Darwin to go without reply,
+still the considerations arising from the discoveries of the last
+forty years or so in connection with protoplasm, seem to me almost
+more overwhelming still.  This evidence proceeds on different lines
+from that adduced by Mr. Spencer, but it points to the same
+conclusion, namely, that though luck will avail much if backed by
+cunning and experience, it is unavailing for any permanent result
+without them.  There is an irony which seems almost always to attend
+on those who maintain that protoplasm is the only living substance
+which ere long points their conclusions the opposite way to that
+which they desire--in the very last direction, indeed, in which they
+of all people in the world would willingly see them pointed.
+
+It may be asked why I should have so strong an objection to seeing
+protoplasm as the only living substance, when I find this view so
+useful to me as tending to substantiate design--which I admit that I
+have as much and as seriously at heart as I can allow myself to have
+any matter which, after all, can so little affect daily conduct; I
+reply that it is no part of my business to inquire whether this or
+that makes for my pet theories or against them; my concern is to
+inquire whether or no it is borne out by facts, and I find the
+opinion that protoplasm is the one living substance unstable,
+inasmuch as it is an attempt to make a halt where no halt can be
+made.  This is enough; but, furthermore, the fact that the
+protoplasmic parts of the body are MORE living than the non-
+protoplasmic--which I cannot deny, without denying that it is any
+longer convenient to think of life and death at all--will answer my
+purpose to the full as well or better.
+
+I pointed out another consequence, which, again, was cruelly the
+reverse of what the promoters of the protoplasm movement might be
+supposed anxious to arrive at--in a series of articles which
+appeared in the Examiner during the summer of 1879, and showed that
+if protoplasm were held to be the sole seat of life, then this unity
+in the substance vivifying all, both animals and plants, must be
+held as uniting them into a single corporation or body--especially
+when their community of descent is borne in mind--more effectually
+than any merely superficial separation into individuals can be held
+to disunite them, and that thus protoplasm must be seen as the life
+of the world--as a vast body corporate, never dying till the earth
+itself shall pass away.  This came practically to saying that
+protoplasm was God Almighty, who, of all the forms open to Him, had
+chosen this singularly unattractive one as the channel through which
+to make Himself manifest in the flesh by taking our nature upon Him,
+and animating us with His own Spirit.  Our biologists, in fact, were
+fast nearing the conception of a God who was both personal and
+material, but who could not be made to square with pantheistic
+notions inasmuch as no provision was made for the inorganic world;
+and, indeed, they seem to have become alarmed at the grotesqueness
+of the position in which they must ere long have found themselves,
+for in the autumn of 1879 the boom collapsed, and thenceforth the
+leading reviews and magazines have known protoplasm no more.  About
+the same time bathybius, which at one time bade fair to supplant it
+upon the throne of popularity, died suddenly, as I am told, at
+Norwich, under circumstances which did not transpire, nor has its
+name, so far as I am aware, been ever again mentioned.
+
+So much for the conclusions in regard to the larger aspect of life
+taken as a whole which must follow from confining life to
+protoplasm; but there is another aspect--that, namely, which regards
+the individual.  The inevitable consequences of confining life to
+the protoplasmic parts of the body were just as unexpected and
+unwelcome here as they had been with regard to life at large; for,
+as I have already pointed out, there is no drawing the line at
+protoplasm and resting at this point; nor yet at the next halting-
+point beyond; nor at the one beyond that.  How often is this process
+to be repeated? and in what can it end but in the rehabilitation of
+the soul as an ethereal, spiritual, vital principle, apart from
+matter, which, nevertheless, it animates, vivifying the clay of our
+bodies?  No one who has followed the course either of biology or
+psychology during this century, and more especially during the last
+five-and-twenty years, will tolerate the reintroduction of the soul
+as something apart from the substratum in which both feeling and
+action must be held to inhere.  The notion of matter being ever
+changed except by other matter in another state is so shocking to
+the intellectual conscience that it may be dismissed without
+discussion; yet if bathybius had not been promptly dealt with, it
+must have become apparent even to the British public that there were
+indeed but few steps from protoplasm, as the only living substance,
+to vital principle.  Our biologists therefore stifled bathybius,
+perhaps with justice, certainly with prudence, and left protoplasm
+to its fate.
+
+Any one who reads Professor Allman's address above referred to with
+due care will see that he was uneasy about protoplasm, even at the
+time of its greatest popularity.  Professor Allman never says
+outright that the non-protoplasmic parts of the body are no more
+alive than chairs and tables are.  He said what involved this as an
+inevitable consequence, and there can be no doubt that this is what
+he wanted to convey, but he never insisted on it with the
+outspokenness and emphasis with which so startling a paradox should
+alone be offered us for acceptance; nor is it easy to believe that
+his reluctance to express his conclusion totidem verbis was not due
+to a sense that it might ere long prove more convenient not to have
+done so.  When I advocated the theory of the livingness, or quasi-
+livingness of machines, in the chapters of "Erewhon" of which all
+else that I have written on biological subjects is a development, I
+took care that people should see the position in its extreme form;
+the non-livingness of bodily organs is to the full as startling a
+paradox as the livingness of non-bodily ones, and we have a right to
+expect the fullest explicitness from those who advance it.  Of
+course it must be borne in mind that a machine can only claim any
+appreciable even aroma of livingness so long as it is in actual use.
+In "Erewhon" I did not think it necessary to insist on this, and did
+not, indeed, yet fully know what I was driving at.
+
+The same disposition to avoid committing themselves to the assertion
+that any part of the body is non-living may be observed in the
+writings of the other authorities upon protoplasm above referred to;
+I have searched all they said, and cannot find a single passage in
+which they declare even the osseous parts of a bone to be non-
+living, though this conclusion was the raison d'etre of all they
+were saying and followed as an obvious inference.  The reader will
+probably agree with me in thinking that such reticence can only have
+been due to a feeling that the ground was one on which it behoved
+them to walk circumspectly; they probably felt, after a vague, ill-
+defined fashion, that the more they reduced the body to mechanism
+the more they laid it open to an opponent to raise mechanism to the
+body, but, however this may be, they dropped protoplasm, as I have
+said, in some haste with the autumn of 1879.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X--The Attempt to Eliminate Mind
+
+
+
+What, it may be asked, were our biologists really aiming at?--for
+men like Professor Huxley do not serve protoplasm for nought.  They
+wanted a good many things, some of them more righteous than others,
+but all intelligible.  Among the more lawful of their desires was a
+craving after a monistic conception of the universe.  We all desire
+this; who can turn his thoughts to these matters at all and not
+instinctively lean towards the old conception of one supreme and
+ultimate essence as the source from which all things proceed and
+have proceeded, both now and ever?  The most striking and apparently
+most stable theory of the last quarter of a century had been Sir
+William Grove's theory of the conservation of energy; and yet
+wherein is there any substantial difference between this recent
+outcome of modern amateur, and hence most sincere, science--pointing
+as it does to an imperishable, and as such unchangeable, and as
+such, again, for ever unknowable underlying substance the modes of
+which alone change--wherein, except in mere verbal costume, does
+this differ from the conclusions arrived at by the psalmist?
+
+"Of old," he exclaims, "hast Thou laid the foundation of the earth;
+and the heavens are the work of Thy hands.  They shall perish, but
+Thou shalt endure; yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment; as
+a vesture shalt Thou change them and they shall be changed; but Thou
+art the same, and Thy years shall have no end." {135a}
+
+I know not what theologians may think of this passage, but from a
+scientific point of view it is unassailable.  So again, "O Lord," he
+exclaims, "Thou hast searched me out, and known me:  Thou knowest my
+down-sitting and mine up-rising; Thou understandest my thoughts long
+before.  Thou art about my path, and about my bed:  and spiest out
+all my ways.  For lo, there is not a word in my tongue but Thou, O
+Lord, knowest it altogether . . . Whither shall I go, then, from Thy
+Spirit?  Or whither shall I go, then, from Thy presence?  If I climb
+up into heaven Thou art there:  if I go down to hell, Thou art there
+also.  If I take the wings of the morning, and remain in the
+uttermost parts of the sea, even there also shall Thy hand lead me
+and Thy right hand shall hold me.  If I say, Peradventure the
+darkness shall cover me, then shall my night be turned to day.  Yea,
+the darkness is no darkness with Thee, but . . . the darkness and
+light to Thee are both alike." {136a}
+
+What convention or short cut can symbolise for us the results of
+laboured and complicated chains of reasoning or bring them more
+aptly and concisely home to us than the one supplied long since by
+the word God?  What can approach more nearly to a rendering of that
+which cannot be rendered--the idea of an essence omnipresent in all
+things at all times everywhere in sky and earth and sea; ever
+changing, yet the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever; the
+ineffable contradiction in terms whose presence none can either ever
+enter, or ever escape?  Or rather, what convention would have been
+more apt if it had not been lost sight of as a convention and come
+to be regarded as an idea in actual correspondence with a more or
+less knowable reality?  A convention was converted into a fetish,
+and now that its worthlessness as a fetish is being generally felt,
+its great value as a hieroglyph or convention is in danger of being
+lost sight of.  No doubt the psalmist was seeking for Sir William
+Grove's conception, if haply he might feel after it and find it, and
+assuredly it is not far from every one of us.  But the course of
+true philosophy never did run smooth; no sooner have we fairly
+grasped the conception of a single eternal and for ever unknowable
+underlying substance, then we are faced by mind and matter.  Long-
+standing ideas and current language alike lead us to see these as
+distinct things--mind being still commonly regarded as something
+that acts on body from without as the wind blows upon a leaf, and as
+no less an actual entity than the body.  Neither body nor mind seems
+less essential to our existence than the other; not only do we feel
+this as regards our own existence, but we feel it also as pervading
+the whole world of life; everywhere we see body and mind working
+together towards results that must be ascribed equally to both; but
+they are two, not one; if, then, we are to have our monistic
+conception, it would seem as though one of these must yield to the
+other; which, therefore, is it to be?
+
+This is a very old question.  Some, from time immemorial, have tried
+to get rid of matter by reducing it to a mere concept of the mind,
+and their followers have arrived at conclusions that may be
+logically irrefragable, but are as far removed from common sense as
+they are in accord with logic; at any rate they have failed to
+satisfy, and matter is no nearer being got rid of now than it was
+when the discussion first began.  Others, again, have tried
+materialism, have declared the causative action of both thought and
+feeling to be deceptive, and posit matter obeying fixed laws of
+which thought and feeling must be admitted as concomitants, but with
+which they have no causal connection.  The same thing has happened
+to these men as to their opponents; they made out an excellent case
+on paper, but thought and feeling still remain the mainsprings of
+action that they have been always held to be.  We still say, "I gave
+him 5 pounds because I felt pleased with him, and thought he would
+like it;" or, "I knocked him down because I felt angry, and thought
+I would teach him better manners."  Omnipresent life and mind with
+appearances of brute non-livingness--which appearances are
+deceptive; this is one view.  Omnipresent non-livingness or
+mechanism with appearances as though the mechanism were guided and
+controlled by thought--which appearances are deceptive; this is the
+other.  Between these two views the slaves of logic have oscillated
+for centuries, and to all appearance will continue to oscillate for
+centuries more.
+
+People who think--as against those who feel and act--want hard and
+fast lines--without which, indeed, they cannot think at all; these
+lines are as it were steps cut on a slope of ice without which there
+would be no descending it.  When we have begun to travel the
+downward path of thought, we ask ourselves questions about life and
+death, ego and non ego, object and subject, necessity and free will,
+and other kindred subjects.  We want to know where we are, and in
+the hope of simplifying matters, strip, as it were, each subject to
+the skin, and finding that even this has not freed it from all
+extraneous matter, flay it alive in the hope that if we grub down
+deep enough we shall come upon it in its pure unalloyed state free
+from all inconvenient complication through intermixture with
+anything alien to itself.  Then, indeed, we can docket it, and
+pigeon-hole it for what it is; but what can we do with it till we
+have got it pure?  We want to account for things, which means that
+we want to know to which of the various accounts opened in our
+mental ledger we ought to carry them--and how can we do this if we
+admit a phenomenon to be neither one thing nor the other, but to
+belong to half-a-dozen different accounts in proportions which often
+cannot even approximately be determined?  If we are to keep accounts
+we must keep them in reasonable compass; and if keeping them within
+reasonable compass involves something of a Procrustean arrangement,
+we may regret it, but cannot help it; having set up as thinkers we
+have got to think, and must adhere to the only conditions under
+which thought is possible; life, therefore, must be life, all life,
+and nothing but life, and so with death, free will, necessity,
+design, and everything else.  This, at least, is how philosophers
+must think concerning them in theory; in practice, however, not even
+John Stuart Mill himself could eliminate all taint of its opposite
+from any one of these things, any more than Lady Macbeth could clear
+her hand of blood; indeed, the more nearly we think we have
+succeeded the more certain are we to find ourselves ere long mocked
+and baffled; and this, I take it, is what our biologists began in
+the autumn of 1879 to discover had happened to themselves.
+
+For some years they had been trying to get rid of feeling,
+consciousness, and mind generally, from active participation in the
+evolution of the universe.  They admitted, indeed, that feeling and
+consciousness attend the working of the world's gear, as noise
+attends the working of a steam-engine, but they would not allow that
+consciousness produced more effect in the working of the world than
+noise on that of the steam-engine.  Feeling and noise were alike
+accidental unessential adjuncts and nothing more.  Incredible as it
+may seem to those who are happy enough not to know that this attempt
+is an old one, they were trying to reduce the world to the level of
+a piece of unerring though sentient mechanism.  Men and animals must
+be allowed to feel and even to reflect; this much must be conceded,
+but granted that they do, still (so, at least, it was contended) it
+has no effect upon the result; it does not matter as far as this is
+concerned whether they feel and think or not; everything would go on
+exactly as it does and always has done, though neither man nor beast
+knew nor felt anything at all.  It is only by maintaining things
+like this that people will get pensions out of the British public.
+
+Some such position as this is a sine qua non for the Neo-Darwinistic
+doctrine of natural selection, which, as Von Hartmann justly
+observes, involves an essentially mechanical mindless conception of
+the universe; to natural selection's door, therefore, the blame of
+the whole movement in favour of mechanism must be justly laid.  It
+was natural that those who had been foremost in preaching mindless
+designless luck as the main means of organic modification, should
+lend themselves with alacrity to the task of getting rid of thought
+and feeling from all share in the direction and governance of the
+world.  Professor Huxley, as usual, was among the foremost in this
+good work, and whether influenced by Hobbes, or Descartes, or Mr.
+Spalding, or even by the machine chapters in "Erewhon" which were
+still recent, I do not know, led off with his article "On the
+hypothesis that animals are automata" (which it may be observed is
+the exact converse of the hypothesis that automata are animated) in
+the Fortnightly Review for November 1874.  Professor Huxley did not
+say outright that men and women were just as living and just as dead
+as their own watches, but this was what his article came to in
+substance.  The conclusion arrived at was that animals were
+automata; true, they were probably sentient, still they were
+automata pure and simple, mere sentient pieces of exceedingly
+elaborate clockwork, and nothing more.
+
+"Professor Huxley," says Mr. Romanes, in his Rede Lecture for 1885,
+{140a} "argues by way of perfectly logical deduction from this
+statement, that thought and feeling have nothing to do with
+determining action; they are merely the bye-products of cerebration,
+or, as he expresses it, the indices of changes which are going on in
+the brain.  Under this view we are all what he terms conscious
+automata, or machines which happen, as it were by chance, to be
+conscious of some of their own movements.  But the consciousness is
+altogether adventitious, and bears the same ineffectual relation to
+the activity of the brain as a steam whistle bears to the activity
+of a locomotive, or the striking of a clock to the time-keeping
+adjustments of the clockwork.  Here, again, we meet with an echo of
+Hobbes, who opens his work on the commonwealth with these words:-
+
+"'Nature, the art whereby God hath made and governs the world, is by
+the ART of man, as in many other things, in this also imitated, that
+it can make an artificial animal.  For seeing life is but a motion
+of limbs, the beginning whereof is in the principal part within; why
+may we not say that all automata (engines that move themselves by
+springs and wheels as doth a watch) have an artificial life?  For
+what is the HEART but a spring, and the NERVES but so many STRINGS;
+and the JOINTS but so many WHEELS giving motion to the whole body,
+such as was intended by the artificer?'
+
+"Now this theory of conscious automatism is not merely a legitimate
+outcome of the theory that nervous changes are the causes of mental
+changes, but it is logically the only possible outcome.  Nor do I
+see any way in which this theory can be fought on grounds of
+physiology."
+
+In passing, I may say the theory that living beings are conscious
+machines, can be fought just as much and just as little as the
+theory that machines are unconscious living beings; everything that
+goes to prove either of these propositions goes just as well to
+prove the other also.  But I have perhaps already said as much as is
+necessary on this head; the main point with which I am concerned is
+the fact that Professor Huxley was trying to expel consciousness and
+sentience from any causative action in the working of the universe.
+In the following month appeared the late Professor Clifford's hardly
+less outspoken article, "Body and Mind," to the same effect, also in
+the Fortnightly Review, then edited by Mr. John Morley.  Perhaps
+this view attained its frankest expression in an article by the late
+Mr. Spalding, which appeared in Nature, August 2, 1877; the
+following extracts will show that Mr. Spalding must be credited with
+not playing fast and loose with his own conclusions, and knew both
+how to think a thing out to its extreme consequences, and how to put
+those consequences clearly before his readers.  Mr. Spalding said:-
+
+"Against Mr. Lewes's proposition that the movements of living beings
+are prompted and guided by feeling, I urged that the amount and
+direction of every nervous discharge must depend solely on physical
+conditions.  And I contended that to see this clearly is to see that
+when we speak of movement being guided by feeling, we use the
+language of a less advanced stage of enlightenment.  This view has
+since occupied a good deal of attention.  Under the name of
+automatism it has been advocated by Professor Huxley, and with
+firmer logic by Professor Clifford.  In the minds of our savage
+ancestors feeling was the source of all movement . . . Using the
+word feeling in its ordinary sense . . . WE ASSERT NOT ONLY THAT NO
+EVIDENCE CAN BE GIVEN THAT FEELING EVER DOES GUIDE OR PROMPT ACTION,
+BUT THAT THE PROCESS OF ITS DOING SO IS INCONCEIVABLE.  (Italics
+mine.)  How can we picture to ourselves a state of consciousness
+putting in motion any particle of matter, large or small?  Puss,
+while dozing before the fire, hears a light rustle in the corner,
+and darts towards the spot.  What has happened?  Certain sound-waves
+have reached the ear, a series of physical changes have taken place
+within the organism, special groups of muscles have been called into
+play, and the body of the cat has changed its position on the floor.
+Is it asserted that this chain of physical changes is not at all
+points complete and sufficient in itself?"
+
+I have been led to turn to this article of Mr. Spalding's by Mr.
+Stewart Duncan, who, in his "Conscious Matter," {142a} quotes the
+latter part of the foregoing extract.  Mr. Duncan goes on to quote
+passages from Professor Tyndall's utterances of about the same date
+which show that he too took much the same line--namely, that there
+is no causative connection between mental and physical processes;
+from this it is obvious he must have supposed that physical
+processes would go on just as well if there were no accompaniment of
+feeling and consciousness at all.
+
+I have said enough to show that in the decade, roughly, between 1870
+and 1880 the set of opinion among our leading biologists was
+strongly against mind, as having in any way influenced the
+development of animal and vegetable life, and it is not likely to be
+denied that the prominence which the mindless theory of natural
+selection had assumed in men's thoughts since 1860 was one of the
+chief reasons, if not the chief, for the turn opinion was taking.
+Our leading biologists had staked so heavily upon natural selection
+from among fortuitous variations that they would have been more than
+human if they had not caught at everything that seemed to give it
+colour and support.  It was while this mechanical fit was upon them,
+and in the closest connection with it, that the protoplasm boom
+developed.  It was doubtless felt that if the public could be got to
+dislodge life, consciousness, and mind from any considerable part of
+the body, it would be no hard matter to dislodge it, presently, from
+the remainder; on this the deceptiveness of mind as a causative
+agent, and the sufficiency of a purely automatic conception of the
+universe, as of something that will work if a penny be dropped into
+the box, would be proved to demonstration.  It would be proved from
+the side of mind by considerations derivable from automatic and
+unconscious action where mind ex hypothesi was not, but where action
+went on as well or better without it than with it; it would be
+proved from the side of body by what they would doubtless call the
+"most careful and exhaustive" examination of the body itself by the
+aid of appliances more ample than had ever before been within the
+reach of man.
+
+This was all very well, but for its success one thing was a sine qua
+non--I mean the dislodgment must be thorough; the key must be got
+clean of even the smallest trace of blood, for unless this could be
+done all the argument went to the profit not of the mechanism, with
+which, for some reason or other, they were so much enamoured, but of
+the soul and design, the ideas which of all others were most
+distasteful to them.  They shut their eyes to this for a long time,
+but in the end appear to have seen that if they were in search of an
+absolute living and absolute non-living, the path along which they
+were travelling would never lead them to it.  They were driving life
+up into a corner, but they were not eliminating it, and, moreover,
+at the very moment of their thinking they had hedged it in and could
+throw their salt upon it, it flew mockingly over their heads and
+perched upon the place of all others where they were most
+scandalised to see it--I mean upon machines in use.  So they retired
+sulkily to their tents baffled but not ashamed.
+
+
+Some months subsequent to the completion of the foregoing chapter,
+and indeed just as this book is on the point of leaving my hands,
+there appears in Nature {144a} a letter from the Duke of Argyll,
+which shows that he too is impressed with the conviction expressed
+above--I mean that the real object our men of science have lately
+had in view has been the getting rid of mind from among the causes
+of evolution.  The Duke says:-
+
+"The violence with which false interpretations were put upon this
+theory (natural selection) and a function was assigned to it which
+it could never fulfil, will some day be recognised as one of the
+least creditable episodes in the history of science.  With a curious
+perversity it was the weakest elements in the theory which were
+seized upon as the most valuable, particularly the part assigned to
+blind chance in the occurrence of variations.  This was valued not
+for its scientific truth,--for it could pretend to none,--but
+because of its assumed bearing upon another field of thought and the
+weapon it afforded for expelling mind from the causes of evolution."
+
+The Duke, speaking of Mr. Herbert Spencer's two articles in the
+Nineteenth Century for April and May, 1886, to which I have already
+called attention, continues:-
+
+"In these two articles we have for the first time an avowed and
+definite declaration against some of the leading ideas on which the
+mechanical philosophy depends; and yet the caution, and almost
+timidity, with which a man so eminent approaches the announcement of
+conclusions of the most self-evident truth is a most curious proof
+of the reign of terror which has come to be established."
+
+Against this I must protest; the Duke cannot seriously maintain that
+the main scope and purpose of Mr. Herbert Spencer's articles is new.
+Their substance has been before us in Mr. Spencer's own writings for
+some two-and-twenty years, in the course of which Mr. Spencer has
+been followed by Professor Mivart, the Rev. J. J. Murphy, the Duke
+of Argyll himself, and many other writers of less note.  When the
+Duke talks about the establishment of a scientific reign of terror,
+I confess I regard such an exaggeration with something like
+impatience.  Any one who has known his own mind and has had the
+courage of his opinions has been able to say whatever he wanted to
+say with as little let or hindrance during the last twenty years, as
+during any other period in the history of literature.  Of course, if
+a man will keep blurting out unpopular truths without considering
+whose toes he may or may not be treading on, he will make enemies
+some of whom will doubtless be able to give effect to their
+displeasure; but that is part of the game.  It is hardly possible
+for any one to oppose the fallacy involved in the Charles-Darwinian
+theory of natural selection more persistently and unsparingly than I
+have done myself from the year 1877 onwards; naturally I have at
+times been very angrily attacked in consequence, and as a matter of
+business have made myself as unpleasant as I could in my rejoinders,
+but I cannot remember anything having been ever attempted against me
+which could cause fear in any ordinarily constituted person.  If,
+then, the Duke of Argyll is right in saying that Mr. Spencer has
+shown a caution almost amounting to timidity in attacking Mr.
+Darwin's theory, either Mr. Spencer must be a singularly timid
+person, or there must be some cause for his timidity which is not
+immediately obvious.  If terror reigns anywhere among scientific
+men, I should say it reigned among those who have staked imprudently
+on Mr. Darwin's reputation as a philosopher.  I may add that the
+discovery of the Duke's impression that there exists a scientific
+reign of terror, explains a good deal in his writings which it has
+not been easy to understand hitherto.
+
+As regards the theory of natural selection, the Duke says:-
+
+"From the first discussions which arose on this subject, I have
+ventured to maintain that . . . the phrase 'natural-selection'
+represented no true physical cause, still less the complete set of
+causes requisite to account for the orderly procession of organic
+forms in Nature; that in so far as it assumed variations to arise by
+accident it was not only essentially faulty and incomplete, but
+fundamentally erroneous; in short, that its only value lay in the
+convenience with which it groups under one form of words, highly
+charged with metaphor, an immense variety of causes, some purely
+mental, some purely vital, and others purely physical or
+mechanical."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI--The Way of Escape
+
+
+
+To sum up the conclusions hitherto arrived at.  Our philosophers
+have made the mistake of forgetting that they cannot carry the
+rough-and-ready language of common sense into precincts within which
+politeness and philosophy are supreme.  Common sense sees life and
+death as distinct states having nothing in common, and hence in all
+respects the antitheses of one another; so that with common sense
+there should be no degrees of livingness, but if a thing is alive at
+all it is as much alive as the most living of us, and if dead at all
+it is stone dead in every part of it.  Our philosophers have
+exercised too little consideration in retaining this view of the
+matter.  They say that an amoeba is as much a living being as a man
+is, and do not allow that a well-grown, highly educated man in
+robust health is more living than an idiot cripple.  They say he
+differs from the cripple in many important respects, but not in
+degree of livingness.  Yet, as we have seen already, even common
+sense by using the word "dying" admits degrees of life; that is to
+say, it admits a more and a less; those, then, for whom the
+superficial aspects of things are insufficient should surely find no
+difficulty in admitting that the degrees are more numerous than is
+dreamed of in the somewhat limited philosophy which common sense
+alone knows.  Livingness depends on range of power, versatility,
+wealth of body and mind--how often, indeed, do we not see people
+taking a new lease of life when they have come into money even at an
+advanced age; it varies as these vary, beginning with things that,
+though they have mind enough for an outsider to swear by, can hardly
+be said to have yet found it out themselves, and advancing to those
+that know their own minds as fully as anything in this world does
+so.  The more a thing knows its own mind the more living it becomes,
+for life viewed both in the individual and in the general as the
+outcome of accumulated developments, is one long process of
+specialising consciousness and sensation; that is to say, of getting
+to know one's own mind more and more fully upon a greater and
+greater variety of subjects.  On this I hope to touch more fully in
+another book; in the meantime I would repeat that the error of our
+philosophers consists in not having borne in mind that when they
+quitted the ground on which common sense can claim authority, they
+should have reconsidered everything that common sense had taught
+them.
+
+The votaries of common sense make the same mistake as philosophers
+do, but they make it in another way.  Philosophers try to make the
+language of common sense serve for purposes of philosophy,
+forgetting that they are in another world, in which another tongue
+is current; common sense people, on the other hand, every now and
+then attempt to deal with matters alien to the routine of daily
+life.  The boundaries between the two kingdoms being very badly
+defined, it is only by giving them a wide berth and being so
+philosophical as almost to deny that there is any either life or
+death at all, or else so full of common sense as to refuse to see
+one part of the body as less living than another, that we can hope
+to steer clear of doubt, inconsistency, and contradiction in terms
+in almost every other word we utter.  We cannot serve the God of
+philosophy and the Mammon of common sense at one and the same time,
+and yet it would almost seem as though the making the best that can
+be made of both these worlds were the whole duty of organism.
+
+It is easy to understand how the error of philosophers arose, for,
+slaves of habit as we all are, we are more especially slaves when
+the habit is one that has not been found troublesome.  There is no
+denying that it saves trouble to have things either one thing or the
+other, and indeed for all the common purposes of life if a thing is
+either alive or dead the small supplementary residue of the opposite
+state should be neglected as too small to be observable.  If it is
+good to eat we have no difficulty in knowing when it is dead enough
+to be eaten; if not good to eat, but valuable for its skin, we know
+when it is dead enough to be skinned with impunity; if it is a man,
+we know when he has presented enough of the phenomena of death to
+allow of our burying him and administering his estate; in fact, I
+cannot call to mind any case in which the decision of the question
+whether man or beast is alive or dead is frequently found to be
+perplexing; hence we have become so accustomed to think there can be
+no admixture of the two states, that we have found it almost
+impossible to avoid carrying this crude view of life and death into
+domains of thought in which it has no application.  There can be no
+doubt that when accuracy is required we should see life and death
+not as fundamentally opposed, but as supplementary to one another,
+without either's being ever able to exclude the other altogether;
+thus we should indeed see some things as more living than others,
+but we should see nothing as either unalloyedly living or
+unalloyedly non-living.  If a thing is living, it is so living that
+it has one foot in the grave already; if dead, it is dead as a thing
+that has already re-entered into the womb of Nature.  And within the
+residue of life that is in the dead there is an element of death;
+and within this there is an element of life, and so ad infinitum--
+again, as reflections in two mirrors that face one another.
+
+In brief, there is nothing in life of which there are not germs,
+and, so to speak, harmonics in death, and nothing in death of which
+germs and harmonics may not be found in life.  Each emphasizes what
+the other passes over most lightly--each carries to its extreme
+conceivable development that which in the other is only sketched in
+by a faint suggestion--but neither has any feature rigorously
+special to itself.  Granted that death is a greater new departure in
+an organism's life, than any since that congeries of births and
+deaths to which the name embryonic stages is commonly given, still
+it is a new departure of the same essential character as any other--
+that is to say, though there be much new there is much, not to say
+more, old along with it.  We shrink from it as from any other change
+to the unknown, and also perhaps from an instinctive sense that the
+fear of death is a sine qua non for physical and moral progress, but
+the fear is like all else in life, a substantial thing which, if its
+foundations be dug about, is found to rest on a superstitious basis.
+
+Where, and on what principle, are the dividing lines between living
+and non-living to be drawn?  All attempts to draw them hitherto have
+ended in deadlock and disaster; of this M. Vianna De Lima, in his
+"Expose Sommaire des Theories transformistes de Lamarck, Darwin, et
+Haeckel," {150a} says that all attempts to trace une ligne de
+demarcation nette et profonde entre la matiere vivante et la matiere
+inerte have broken down. {150b}  Il y a un reste de vie dans le
+cadavre, says Diderot, {150c} speaking of the more gradual decay of
+the body after an easy natural death, than after a sudden and
+violent one; and so Buffon begins his first volume by saying that
+"we can descend, by almost imperceptible degrees, from the most
+perfect creature to the most formless matter--from the most highly
+organised matter to the most entirely inorganic substance." {150d}
+
+Is the line to be so drawn as to admit any of the non-living within
+the body?  If we answer "yes," then, as we have seen, moiety after
+moiety is filched from us, till we find ourselves left face to face
+with a tenuous quasi immaterial vital principle or soul as animating
+an alien body, with which it not only has no essential underlying
+community of substance, but with which it has no conceivable point
+in common to render a union between the two possible, or give the
+one a grip of any kind over the other; in fact, the doctrine of
+disembodied spirits, so instinctively rejected by all who need be
+listened to, comes back as it would seem, with a scientific
+imprimatur; if, on the other hand, we exclude the non-living from
+the body, then what are we to do with nails that want cutting, dying
+skin, or hair that is ready to fall off?  Are they less living than
+brain?  Answer "yes," and degrees are admitted, which we have
+already seen prove fatal; answer "no," and we must deny that one
+part of the body is more vital than another--and this is refusing to
+go as far even as common sense does; answer that these things are
+not very important, and we quit the ground of equity and high
+philosophy on which we have given ourselves such airs, and go back
+to common sense as unjust judges that will hear those widows only
+who importune us.
+
+As with the non-living so also with the living.  Are we to let it
+pass beyond the limits of the body, and allow a certain temporary
+overflow of livingness to ordain as it were machines in use?  Then
+death will fare, if we once let life without the body, as life fares
+if we once let death within it.  It becomes swallowed up in life,
+just as in the other case life was swallowed up in death.  Are we to
+confine it to the body?  If so, to the whole body, or to parts?  And
+if to parts, to what parts, and why?  The only way out of the
+difficulty is to rehabilitate contradiction in terms, and say that
+everything is both alive and dead at one and the same time--some
+things being much living and little dead, and others, again, much
+dead and little living.  Having done this we have only got to settle
+what a thing is--when a thing is a thing pure and simple, and when
+it is only a congeries of things--and we shall doubtless then live
+very happily and very philosophically ever afterwards.
+
+But here another difficulty faces us.  Common sense does indeed know
+what is meant by a "thing" or "an individual," but philosophy cannot
+settle either of these two points.  Professor Mivart made the
+question "What are Living Beings?" the subject of an article in one
+of our leading magazines only a very few years ago.  He asked, but
+he did not answer.  And so Professor Moseley was reported (Times,
+January 16, 1885) as having said that it was "almost impossible" to
+say what an individual was.  Surely if it is only "almost"
+impossible for philosophy to determine this, Professor Moseley
+should have at any rate tried to do it; if, however, he had tried
+and failed, which from my own experience I should think most likely,
+he might have spared his "almost."  "Almost" is a very dangerous
+word.  I once heard a man say that an escape he had had from
+drowning was "almost" providential.  The difficulty about defining
+an individual arises from the fact that we may look at "almost"
+everything from two different points of view.  If we are in a
+common-sense humour for simplifying things, treating them broadly,
+and emphasizing resemblances rather than differences, we can find
+excellent reasons for ignoring recognised lines of demarcation,
+calling everything by a new name, and unifying up till we have
+united the two most distant stars in heaven as meeting and being
+linked together in the eyes and souls of men; if we are in this
+humour individuality after individuality disappears, and ere long,
+if we are consistent, nothing will remain but one universal whole,
+one true and only atom from which alone nothing can be cut off and
+thrown away on to something else; if, on the other hand, we are in a
+subtle philosophically accurate humour for straining at gnats and
+emphasizing differences rather than resemblances, we can draw
+distinctions, and give reasons for subdividing and subdividing,
+till, unless we violate what we choose to call our consistency
+somewhere, we shall find ourselves with as many names as atoms and
+possible combinations and permutations of atoms.  The lines we draw,
+the moments we choose for cutting this or that off at this or that
+place, and thenceforth the dubbing it by another name, are as
+arbitrary as the moments chosen by a South-Eastern Railway porter
+for leaving off beating doormats; in each case doubtless there is an
+approximate equity, but it is of a very rough and ready kind.
+
+What else, however, can we do?  We can only escape the Scylla of
+calling everything by one name, and recognising no individual
+existences of any kind, by falling into the Charybdis of having a
+name for everything, or by some piece of intellectual sharp practice
+like that of the shrewd but unprincipled Ulysses.  If we were
+consistent honourable gentlemen, into Charybdis or on to Scylla we
+should go like lambs; every subterfuge by the help of which we
+escape our difficulty is but an arbitrary high-handed act of
+classification that turns a deaf ear to everything not robust enough
+to hold its own; nevertheless even the most scrupulous of
+philosophers pockets his consistency at a pinch, and refuses to let
+the native hue of resolution be sicklied o'er with the pale cast of
+thought, nor yet fobbed by the rusty curb of logic.  He is right,
+for assuredly the poor intellectual abuses of the time want
+countenancing now as much as ever, but so far as he countenances
+them, he should bear in mind that he is returning to the ground of
+common sense, and should not therefore hold himself too stiffly in
+the matter of logic.
+
+As with life and death so with design and absence of design or luck.
+So also with union and disunion.  There is never either absolute
+design rigorously pervading every detail, nor yet absolute absence
+of design pervading any detail rigorously, so, as between
+substances, there is neither absolute union and homogeneity, not
+absolute disunion and heterogeneity; there is always a little place
+left for repentance; that is to say, in theory we should admit that
+both design and chance, however well defined, each have an aroma, as
+it were, of the other.  Who can think of a case in which his own
+design--about which he should know more than any other, and from
+which, indeed, all his ideas of design are derived--was so complete
+that there was no chance in any part of it?  Who, again, can bring
+forward a case even of the purest chance or good luck into which no
+element of design had entered directly or indirectly at any
+juncture?  This, nevertheless, does not involve our being unable
+ever to ascribe a result baldly either to luck or cunning.  In some
+cases a decided preponderance of the action, whether seen as a whole
+or looked at in detail, is recognised at once as due to design,
+purpose, forethought, skill, and effort, and then we properly
+disregard the undesigned element; in others the details cannot
+without violence be connected with design, however much the position
+which rendered the main action possible may involve design--as, for
+example, there is no design in the way in which individual pieces of
+coal may hit one another when shot out of a sack, but there may be
+design in the sack's being brought to the particular place where it
+is emptied; in others design may be so hard to find that we rightly
+deny its existence, nevertheless in each case there will be an
+element of the opposite, and the residuary element would, if seen
+through a mental microscope, be found to contain a residuary element
+of ITS opposite, and this again of ITS opposite, and so on ad
+infinitum, as with mirrors standing face to face.  This having been
+explained, and it being understood that when we speak of design in
+organism we do so with a mental reserve of exceptis excipiendis,
+there should be no hesitation in holding the various modifications
+of plants and animals to be in such preponderating measure due to
+function, that design, which underlies function, is the fittest idea
+with which to connect them in our minds.
+
+We will now proceed to inquire how Mr. Darwin came to substitute, or
+try to substitute, the survival of the luckiest fittest, for the
+survival of the most cunning fittest, as held by Erasmus Darwin and
+Lamarck; or more briefly how he came to substitute luck for cunning.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII--Why Darwin's Variations were Accidental
+
+
+
+Some may perhaps deny that Mr. Darwin did this, and say he laid so
+much stress on use and disuse as virtually to make function his main
+factor of evolution.
+
+If, indeed, we confine ourselves to isolated passages, we shall find
+little difficulty in making out a strong case to this effect.
+Certainly most people believe this to be Mr. Darwin's doctrine, and
+considering how long and fully he had the ear of the public, it is
+not likely they would think thus if Mr. Darwin had willed otherwise,
+nor could he have induced them to think as they do if he had not
+said a good deal that was capable of the construction so commonly
+put upon it; but it is hardly necessary, when addressing biologists,
+to insist on the fact that Mr. Darwin's distinctive doctrine is the
+denial of the comparative importance of function, or use and disuse,
+as a purveyor of variations,--with some, but not very considerable,
+exceptions, chiefly in the cases of domesticated animals.
+
+He did not, however, make his distinctive feature as distinct as he
+should have done.  Sometimes he said one thing, and sometimes the
+directly opposite.  Sometimes, for example, the conditions of
+existence "included natural selection" or the fact that the best
+adapted to their surroundings live longest and leave most offspring;
+{156a} sometimes "the principle of natural selection" "fully
+embraced" "the expression of conditions of existence." {156b}  It
+would not be easy to find more unsatisfactory writing than this is,
+nor any more clearly indicating a mind ill at ease with itself.
+Sometimes "ants work BY INHERITED INSTINCTS and inherited tools;"
+{157a} sometimes, again, it is surprising that the case of ants
+working by inherited instincts has not been brought as a
+demonstrative argument "against the well-known doctrine of INHERITED
+HABIT, as advanced by Lamarck." {157b}  Sometimes the winglessness
+of beetles inhabiting ocean islands is "mainly due to natural
+selection," {157c} and though we might be tempted to ascribe the
+rudimentary condition of the wing to disuse, we are on no account to
+do so--though disuse was probably to some extent "combined with"
+natural selection; at other times "it is probable that disuse has
+been the main means of rendering the wings of beetles living on
+small exposed islands" rudimentary. {157d}  We may remark in passing
+that if disuse, as Mr. Darwin admits on this occasion, is the main
+agent in rendering an organ rudimentary, use should have been the
+main agent in rendering it the opposite of rudimentary--that is to
+say, in bringing about its development.  The ostensible raison
+d'etre, however, of the "Origin of Species" is to maintain that this
+is not the case.
+
+There is hardly an opinion on the subject of descent with
+modification which does not find support in some one passage or
+another of the "Origin of Species."  If it were desired to show that
+there is no substantial difference between the doctrine of Erasmus
+Darwin and that of his grandson, it would be easy to make out a good
+case for this, in spite of Mr. Darwin's calling his grandfather's
+views "erroneous," in the historical sketch prefixed to the later
+editions of the "Origin of Species."  Passing over the passage
+already quoted on p. 62 of this book, in which Mr. Darwin declares
+"habit omnipotent and its effects hereditary"--a sentence, by the
+way, than which none can be either more unfalteringly Lamarckian or
+less tainted with the vices of Mr. Darwin's later style--passing
+this over as having been written some twenty years before the
+"Origin of Species"--the last paragraph of the "Origin of Species"
+itself is purely Lamarckian and Erasmus-Darwinian.  It declares the
+laws in accordance with which organic forms assumed their present
+shape to be--"Growth with reproduction; Variability from the
+indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life and
+from use and disuse, &c." {158a}  Wherein does this differ from the
+confession of faith made by Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck?  Where are
+the accidental fortuitous, spontaneous variations now?  And if they
+are not found important enough to demand mention in this peroration
+and stretto, as it were, of the whole matter, in which special
+prominence should be given to the special feature of the work, where
+ought they to be made important?
+
+Mr. Darwin immediately goes on:  "A ratio of existence so high as to
+lead to a struggle for life, and as a consequence to natural
+selection, entailing divergence of character and the extinction of
+less improved forms;" so that natural selection turns up after all.
+Yes--in the letters that compose it, but not in the spirit; not in
+the special sense up to this time attached to it in the "Origin of
+Species."  The expression as used here is one with which Erasmus
+Darwin would have found little fault, for it means not as elsewhere
+in Mr. Darwin's book and on his title-page the preservation of
+"favoured" or lucky varieties, but the preservation of varieties
+that have come to be varieties through the causes assigned in the
+preceding two or three lines of Mr. Darwin's sentence; and these are
+mainly functional or Erasmus-Darwinian; for the indirect action of
+the conditions of life is mainly functional, and the direct action
+is admitted on all hands to be but small.
+
+It now appears more plainly, as insisted upon on an earlier page,
+that there is not one natural selection and one survival of the
+fittest, but two, inasmuch as there are two classes of variations
+from which nature (supposing no exception taken to her
+personification) can select.  The bottles have the same labels, and
+they are of the same colour, but the one holds brandy, and the other
+toast and water.  Nature can, by a figure of speech, be said to
+select from variations that are mainly functional or from variations
+that are mainly accidental; in the first case she will eventually
+get an accumulation of variation, and widely different types will
+come into existence; in the second, the variations will not occur
+with sufficient steadiness for accumulation to be possible.  In the
+body of Mr. Darwin's book the variations are supposed to be mainly
+due to accident, and function, though not denied all efficacy, is
+declared to be the greatly subordinate factor; natural selection,
+therefore, has been hitherto throughout tantamount to luck; in the
+peroration the position is reversed in toto; the selection is now
+made from variations into which luck has entered so little that it
+may be neglected, the greatly preponderating factor being function;
+here, then, natural selection is tantamount to cunning.  We are such
+slaves of words that, seeing the words "natural selection" employed-
+-and forgetting that the results ensuing on natural selection will
+depend entirely on what it is that is selected from, so that the
+gist of the matter lies in this and not in the words "natural
+selection"--it escaped us that a change of front had been made, and
+a conclusion entirely alien to the tenor of the whole book smuggled
+into the last paragraph as the one which it had been written to
+support; the book preached luck, the peroration cunning.
+
+And there can be no doubt Mr. Darwin intended that the change of
+front should escape us; for it cannot be believed that he did not
+perfectly well know what he had done.  Mr. Darwin edited and re-
+edited with such minuteness of revision that it may be said no
+detail escaped him provided it was small enough; it is incredible
+that he should have allowed this paragraph to remain from first to
+last unchanged (except for the introduction of the words "by the
+Creator," which are wanting in the first edition) if they did not
+convey the conception he most wished his readers to retain.  Even if
+in his first edition he had failed to see that he was abandoning in
+his last paragraph all that it had been his ostensible object most
+especially to support in the body of his book, he must have become
+aware of it long before he revised the "Origin of Species" for the
+last time; still he never altered it, and never put us on our guard.
+
+It was not Mr. Darwin's manner to put his reader on his guard; we
+might as well expect Mr. Gladstone to put us on our guard about the
+Irish land bills.  Caveat lector seems to have been his motto.  Mr.
+Spencer, in the articles already referred to, is at pains to show
+that Mr. Darwin's opinions in later life underwent a change in the
+direction of laying greater stress on functionally produced
+modifications, and points out that in the sixth edition of the
+"Origin of Species" Mr. Darwin says, "I think there can be no doubt
+that use in our domestic animals has strengthened and enlarged
+certain parts, and disuse diminished them;" whereas in his first
+edition he said, "I think there can be LITTLE doubt" of this.  Mr.
+Spencer also quotes a passage from "The Descent of Man," in which
+Mr. Darwin said that EVEN IN THE FIRST EDITION of the "Origin of
+Species" he had attributed great effect to function, as though in
+the later ones he had attributed still more; but if there was any
+considerable change of position, it should not have been left to be
+toilsomely collected by collation of editions, and comparison of
+passages far removed from one another in other books.  If his mind
+had undergone the modification supposed by Mr. Spencer, Mr. Darwin
+should have said so in a prominent passage of some later edition of
+the "Origin of Species."  He should have said--"In my earlier
+editions I underrated, as now seems probable, the effects of use and
+disuse as purveyors of the slight successive modifications whose
+accumulation in the ordinary course of things results in specific
+difference, and I laid too much stress on the accumulation of merely
+accidental variations;" having said this, he should have summarised
+the reasons that had made him change his mind, and given a list of
+the most important cases in which he has seen fit to alter what he
+had originally written.  If Mr. Darwin had dealt thus with us we
+should have readily condoned all the mistakes he would have been at
+all likely to have made, for we should have known him as one who was
+trying to help us, tidy us up, keep us straight, and enable us to
+use our judgments to the best advantage.  The public will forgive
+many errors alike of taste and judgment, where it feels that a
+writer persistently desires this.
+
+I can only remember a couple of sentences in the later editions of
+the "Origin of Species" in which Mr. Darwin directly admits a change
+of opinion as regards the main causes of organic modification.  How
+shuffling the first of these is I have already shown in "Life and
+Habit," p. 260, and in "Evolution, Old and New," p. 359; I need not,
+therefore, say more here, especially as there has been no rejoinder
+to what I then said.  Curiously enough the sentence does not bear
+out Mr. Spencer's contention that Mr. Darwin in his later years
+leaned more decidedly towards functionally produced modifications,
+for it runs:  {161a}--"In the earlier editions of this work I
+underrated, as now seems probable, the frequency and importance of
+modifications due," not, as Mr. Spencer would have us believe, to
+use and disuse, but "to spontaneous variability," by which can only
+be intended, "to variations in no way connected with use and
+disuse," as not being assignable to any known cause of general
+application, and referable as far as we are concerned to accident
+only; so that he gives the natural survival of the luckiest, which
+is indeed his distinctive feature, if it deserve to be called a
+feature at all, greater prominence than ever.  Nevertheless there is
+no change in his concluding paragraph, which still remains an
+embodiment of the views of Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck.
+
+The other passage is on p. 421 of the edition of 1876.  It stands:-
+"I have now recapitulated the facts and considerations which have
+thoroughly" (why "thoroughly"?) "convinced me that species have been
+modified during a long course of descent.  This has been effected
+chiefly through the natural selection of numerous, successive,
+slight, favourable variations; aided in an important manner by the
+inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts; and in an
+unimportant manner, that is, in relation to adaptive structures,
+whether past or present, by the direct action of external
+conditions, and by variations which seem to us in our ignorance to
+arise spontaneously.  It appears that I formerly underrated the
+frequency and value of these latter forms of variation as leading to
+permanent modifications of structure independently of natural
+selection."
+
+Here, again, it is not use and disuse which Mr. Darwin declares
+himself to have undervalued, but spontaneous variations.  The
+sentence just given is one of the most confusing I ever read even in
+the works of Mr Darwin.  It is the essence of his theory that the
+"numerous successive, slight, favourable variations," above referred
+to, should be fortuitous, accidental, spontaneous; it is evident,
+moreover, that they are intended in this passage to be accidental or
+spontaneous, although neither of these words is employed, inasmuch
+as use and disuse and the action of the conditions of existence,
+whether direct or indirect, are mentioned specially as separate
+causes which purvey only the minor part of the variations from among
+which nature selects.  The words "that is, in relation to adaptive
+forms" should be omitted, as surplusage that draws the reader's
+attention from the point at issue; the sentence really amounts to
+this--that modification has been effected CHIEFLY THROUGH SELECTION
+in the ordinary course of nature FROM AMONG SPONTANEOUS VARIATIONS,
+AIDED IN AN UNIMPORTANT MANNER BY VARIATIONS WHICH QUa US ARE
+SPONTANEOUS.  Nevertheless, though these spontaneous variations are
+still so trifling in effect that they only aid spontaneous
+variations in an unimportant manner, in his earlier editions Mr.
+Darwin thought them still less important than he does now.
+
+This comes of tinkering.  We do not know whether we are on our heads
+or our heels.  We catch ourselves repeating "important,"
+"unimportant," "unimportant," "important," like the King when
+addressing the jury in "Alice in Wonderland;" and yet this is the
+book of which Mr. Grant Allen {163a} says that it is "one of the
+greatest, and most learned, the most lucid, the most logical, the
+most crushing, the most conclusive, that the world has ever seen.
+Step by step, and principle by principle, it proved every point in
+its progress triumphantly before it went on to the next.  So vast an
+array of facts so thoroughly in hand had never before been mustered
+and marshalled in favour of any biological theory."  The book and
+the eulogy are well mated.
+
+I see that in the paragraph following on the one just quoted, Mr.
+Allen says, that "to the world at large Darwinism and evolution
+became at once synonymous terms."  Certainly it was no fault of Mr.
+Darwin's if they did not, but I will add more on this head
+presently; for the moment, returning to Mr. Darwin, it is hardly
+credible, but it is nevertheless true, that Mr Darwin begins the
+paragraph next following on the one on which I have just reflected
+so severely, with the words, "It can hardly be supposed that a false
+theory would explain in so satisfactory a manner as does the theory
+of natural selection, the several large classes of facts above
+specified."  If Mr. Darwin found the large classes of facts
+"satisfactorily" explained by the survival of the luckiest
+irrespectively of the cunning which enabled them to turn their luck
+to account, he must have been easily satisfied.  Perhaps he was in
+the same frame of mind as when he said {164a} that "even an
+imperfect answer would be satisfactory," but surely this is being
+thankful for small mercies.
+
+On the following page Mr. Darwin says:- "Although I am fully" (why
+"fully"?) "convinced of the truth of the views given in this volume
+under the form of an abstract, I by no means expect to convince
+experienced naturalists," &c.  I have not quoted the whole of Mr.
+Darwin's sentence, but it implies that any experienced naturalist
+who remained unconvinced was an old-fashioned, prejudiced person.  I
+confess that this is what I rather feel about the experienced
+naturalists who differ in only too great numbers from myself, but I
+did not expect to find so much of the old Adam remaining in Mr.
+Darwin; I did not expect to find him support me in the belief that
+naturalists are made of much the same stuff as other people, and, if
+they are wise, will look upon new theories with distrust until they
+find them becoming generally accepted.  I am not sure that Mr.
+Darwin is not just a little bit flippant here.
+
+Sometimes I ask myself whether it is possible that, not being
+convinced, I may be an experienced naturalist after all; at other
+times, when I read Mr. Darwin's works and those of his eulogists, I
+wonder whether there is not some other Mr. Darwin, some other
+"Origin of Species," some other Professors Huxley, Tyndal, and Ray
+Lankester, and whether in each case some malicious fiend has not
+palmed off a counterfeit upon me that differs toto caelo from the
+original.  I felt exactly the same when I read Goethe's "Wilhelm
+Meister"; I could not believe my eyes, which nevertheless told me
+that the dull diseased trash I was so toilsomely reading was a work
+which was commonly held to be one of the great literary masterpieces
+of the world.  It seemed to me that there must be some other Goethe
+and some other Wilhelm Meister.  Indeed I find myself so
+depressingly out of harmony with the prevailing not opinion only,
+but spirit--if, indeed, the Huxleys, Tyndals, Miss Buckleys, Ray
+Lankesters, and Romaneses express the prevailing spirit as
+accurately as they appear to do--that at times I find it difficult
+to believe I am not the victim of hallucination; nevertheless I know
+that either every canon, whether of criticism or honourable conduct,
+which I have learned to respect is an impudent swindle, suitable for
+the cloister only, and having no force or application in the outside
+world; or else that Mr. Darwin and his supporters are misleading the
+public to the full as much as the theologians of whom they speak at
+times so disapprovingly.  They sin, moreover, with incomparably less
+excuse.  Right as they doubtless are in much, and much as we
+doubtless owe them (so we owe much also to the theologians, and they
+also are right in much), they are giving way to a temper which
+cannot be indulged with impunity.  I know the great power of
+academicism; I know how instinctively academicism everywhere must
+range itself on Mr. Darwin's side, and how askance it must look on
+those who write as I do; but I know also that there is a power
+before which even academicism must bow, and to this power I look not
+unhopefully for support.
+
+As regards Mr. Spencer's contention that Mr. Darwin leaned more
+towards function as he grew older, I do not doubt that at the end of
+his life Mr. Darwin believed modification to be mainly due to
+function, but the passage quoted on page 62 written in 1839, coupled
+with the concluding paragraph of the "Origin of Species" written in
+1859, and allowed to stand during seventeen years of revision,
+though so much else was altered--these passages, when their dates
+and surroundings are considered, suggest strongly that Mr. Darwin
+thought during all the forty years or so thus covered exactly as his
+grandfather and Lamarck had done, and indeed as all sensible people
+since Buffon wrote have done if they have accepted evolution at all.
+
+Then why should he not have said so?  What object could he have in
+writing an elaborate work to support a theory which he knew all the
+time to be untenable?  The impropriety of such a course, unless the
+work was, like Buffon's, transparently ironical, could only be
+matched by its fatuousness, or indeed by the folly of one who should
+assign action so motiveless to any one out of a lunatic asylum.
+
+This sounds well, but unfortunately we cannot forget that when Mr.
+Darwin wrote the "Origin of Species" he claimed to be the originator
+of the theory of descent with modification generally; that he did
+this without one word of reference either to Buffon or Erasmus
+Darwin until the first six thousand copies of his book had been
+sold, and then with as meagre, inadequate notice as can be well
+conceived.  Lamarck was just named in the first editions of the
+"Origin of Species," but only to be told that Mr. Darwin had not got
+anything to give him, and he must go away; the author of the
+"Vestiges of Creation" was also just mentioned, but only in a
+sentence full of such gross misrepresentation that Mr. Darwin did
+not venture to stand by it, and expunged it in later editions, as
+usual, without calling attention to what he had done.  It would have
+been in the highest degree imprudent, not to say impossible, for one
+so conscientious as Mr. Darwin to have taken the line he took in
+respect of descent with modification generally, if he were not
+provided with some ostensibly distinctive feature, in virtue of
+which, if people said anything, he might claim to have advanced
+something different, and widely different, from the theory of
+evolution propounded by his illustrious predecessors; a distinctive
+theory of some sort, therefore, had got to be looked for--and if
+people look in this spirit they can generally find.
+
+I imagine that Mr. Darwin, casting about for a substantial
+difference, and being unable to find one, committed the Gladstonian
+blunder of mistaking an unsubstantial for a substantial one.  It was
+doubtless because he suspected it that he never took us fully into
+his confidence, nor in all probability allowed even to himself how
+deeply he distrusted it.  Much, however, as he disliked the
+accumulation of accidental variations, he disliked not claiming the
+theory of descent with modification still more; and if he was to
+claim this, accidental his variations had got to be.  Accidental
+they accordingly were, but in as obscure and perfunctory a fashion
+as Mr. Darwin could make them consistently with their being to hand
+as accidental variations should later developments make this
+convenient.  Under these circumstances it was hardly to be expected
+that Mr. Darwin should help the reader to follow the workings of his
+mind--nor, again, that a book the writer of which was hampered as I
+have supposed should prove clear and easy reading.
+
+The attitude of Mr. Darwin's mind, whatever it may have been in
+regard to the theory of descent with modification generally, goes so
+far to explain his attitude in respect to the theory of natural
+selection (which, it cannot be too often repeated, is only one of
+the conditions of existence advanced as the main means of
+modification by the earlier evolutionists), that it is worth while
+to settle the question once for all whether Mr. Darwin did or did
+not believe himself justified in claiming the theory of descent as
+an original discovery of his own.  This will be a task of some
+little length, and may perhaps try the reader's patience, as it
+assuredly tried mine; if, however, he will read the two following
+chapters, he will probably be able to make up his mind upon much
+that will otherwise, if he thinks about it at all, continue to
+puzzle him.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII--Darwin's Claim to Descent with Modification
+
+
+
+Mr. Allen, in his "Charles Darwin," {168a} says that "in the public
+mind Mr. Darwin is commonly regarded as the discoverer and founder
+of the evolution hypothesis," and on p. 177 he says that to most men
+Darwinism and evolution mean one and the same thing.  Mr. Allen
+declares misconception on this matter to be "so extremely general"
+as to be "almost universal;" this is more true than creditable to
+Mr. Darwin.
+
+Mr. Allen says {168b} that though Mr. Darwin gained "far wider
+general acceptance" for both the doctrine of descent in general, and
+for that of the descent of man from a simious or semi-simious
+ancestor in particular, "he laid no sort of claim to originality or
+proprietorship in either theory."  This is not the case.  No one can
+claim a theory more frequently and more effectually than Mr. Darwin
+claimed descent with modification, nor, as I have already said, is
+it likely that the misconception of which Mr. Allen complains would
+be general, if he had not so claimed it.  The "Origin of Species"
+begins:-
+
+"When on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with
+certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South
+America, and in the geological relation of the present to the past
+inhabitants of that continent.  These facts seemed to me to throw
+some light on the origin of species--that mystery of mysteries, as
+it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers.  On my
+return home it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps
+be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and
+reflecting upon all sorts of facts which could possibly have any
+bearing on it.  After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate
+upon the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in
+1844 {169a} into a sketch of the conclusions which then seemed to me
+probable.  From that period to the present day I have steadily
+pursued the same object.  I hope I may be excused these personal
+details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming
+to a decision."
+
+This is bland, but peremptory.  Mr. Darwin implies that the mere
+asking of the question how species has come about opened up a field
+into which speculation itself had hardly yet ventured to intrude.
+It was the mystery of mysteries; one of our greatest philosophers
+had said so; not one little feeble ray of light had ever yet been
+thrown upon it.  Mr. Darwin knew all this, and was appalled at the
+greatness of the task that lay before him; still, after he had
+pondered on what he had seen in South America, it really did occur
+to him, that if he was very very patient, and went on reflecting for
+years and years longer, upon all sorts of facts, good, bad, and
+indifferent, which could possibly have any bearing on the subject--
+and what fact might not possibly have some bearing?--well,
+something, as against the nothing that had been made out hitherto,
+might by some faint far-away possibility be one day dimly seem.  It
+was only what he had seen in South America that made all this occur
+to him.  He had never seen anything about descent with modification
+in any book, nor heard any one talk about it as having been put
+forward by other people; if he had, he would, of course, have been
+the first to say so; he was not as other philosophers are; so the
+mountain went on for years and years gestating, but still there was
+no labour.
+
+"My work," continues Mr. Darwin, "is now nearly finished; but as it
+will take me two or three years to complete it, and as my health is
+far from strong, I have been urged to publish this abstract.  I have
+been more especially induced to do this, as Mr. Wallace, who is now
+studying the natural history of the Malay Archipelago, has arrived
+at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the
+origin of species."  Mr. Darwin was naturally anxious to forestall
+Mr. Wallace, and hurried up with his book.  What reader, on finding
+descent with modification to be its most prominent feature, could
+doubt--especially if new to the subject, as the greater number of
+Mr. Darwin's readers in 1859 were--that this same descent with
+modification was the theory which Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace had
+jointly hit upon, and which Mr. Darwin was so anxious to show that
+he had not been hasty in adopting?  When Mr. Darwin went on to say
+that his abstract would be very imperfect, and that he could not
+give references and authorities for his several statements, we did
+not suppose that such an apology could be meant to cover silence
+concerning writers who during their whole lives, or nearly so, had
+borne the burden and heat of the day in respect of descent with
+modification in its most extended application.  "I much regret,"
+says Mr. Darwin, "that want of space prevents my having the
+satisfaction of acknowledging the generous assistance I have
+received from very many naturalists, some of them personally unknown
+to me."  This is like what the Royal Academicians say when they do
+not intend to hang our pictures; they can, however, generally find
+space for a picture if they want to hang it, and we assume with
+safety that there are no master-works by painters of the very
+highest rank for which no space has been available.  Want of space
+will, indeed, prevent my quoting from more than one other paragraph
+of Mr. Darwin's introduction; this paragraph, however, should alone
+suffice to show how inaccurate Mr. Allen is in saying that Mr.
+Darwin "laid no sort of claim to originality or proprietorship" in
+the theory of descent with modification, and this is the point with
+which we are immediately concerned.  Mr. Darwin says:-
+
+"In considering the origin of species, it is quite conceivable that
+a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings,
+on their embryological relations, their geographical distribution,
+geological succession, and other such facts, might come to the
+conclusion that each species had not been independently created, but
+had descended like varieties from other species."
+
+It will be observed that not only is no hint given here that descent
+with modification was a theory which, though unknown to the general
+public, had been occupying the attention of biologists for a hundred
+years and more, but it is distinctly implied that this was not the
+case.  When Mr. Darwin said it was "conceivable that a naturalist
+might" arrive at the theory of descent, straightforward readers took
+him to mean that though this was conceivable, it had never, to Mr.
+Darwin's knowledge, been done.  If we had a notion that we had
+already vaguely heard of the theory that men and the lower animals
+were descended from common ancestors, we must have been wrong; it
+was not this that we had heard of, but something else, which, though
+doubtless a little like it, was all wrong, whereas this was
+obviously going to be all right.
+
+To follow the rest of the paragraph with the closeness that it
+merits would be a task at once so long and so unpleasant that I will
+omit further reference to any part of it except the last sentence.
+That sentence runs:-
+
+"In the case of the mistletoe, which draws its nourishment from
+certain trees, which has seeds that must be transported by certain
+birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes absolutely
+requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one
+flower to the other, it is equally preposterous to account for the
+structure of this parasite, with its relations to several distinct
+organic beings, by the effects of the external conditions, or of
+habit, or of the volition of the plant itself."
+
+Doubtless it would be preposterous to refer the structure of either
+woodpecker or mistletoe to the single agency of any one of these
+three causes; but neither Lamarck nor any other writer on evolution
+has, so far as I know, even contemplated this; the early
+evolutionists supposed organic modification to depend on the action
+and interaction of all three, and I venture to think that this will
+ere long be considered as, to say the least of it, not more
+preposterous than the assigning of the largely preponderating share
+in the production of such highly and variously correlated organisms
+as the mistletoe and woodpecker mainly to luck pure and simple, as
+is done by Mr. Charles Darwin's theory.
+
+It will be observed that in the paragraph last quoted from, Mr.
+Darwin, more suo, is careful not to commit himself.  All he has said
+is, that it would be preposterous to do something the
+preposterousness of which cannot be reasonably disputed; the
+impression, however, is none the less effectually conveyed, that
+some one of the three assigned agencies, taken singly, was the only
+cause of modification ever yet proposed, if, indeed, any writer had
+even gone so far as this.  We knew we did not know much about the
+matter ourselves, and that Mr. Darwin was a naturalist of long and
+high standing; we naturally, therefore, credited him with the same
+good faith as a writer that we knew in ourselves as readers; it
+never so much as crossed our minds to suppose that the head which he
+was holding up all dripping before our eyes as that of a fool, was
+not that of a fool who had actually lived and written, but only of a
+figure of straw which had been dipped in a bucket of red paint.
+Naturally enough we concluded, since Mr. Darwin seemed to say so,
+that if his predecessors had nothing better to say for themselves
+than this, it would not be worth while to trouble about them
+further; especially as we did not know who they were, nor what they
+had written, and Mr. Darwin did not tell us.  It would be better and
+less trouble to take the goods with which it was plain Mr. Darwin
+was going to provide us, and ask no questions.  We have seen that
+even tolerably obvious conclusions were rather slow in occurring to
+poor simple-minded Mr. Darwin, and may be sure that it never once
+occurred to him that the British public would be likely to argue
+thus; he had no intention of playing the scientific confidence trick
+upon us.  I dare say not, but unfortunately the result has closely
+resembled the one that would have ensued if Mr. Darwin had had such
+an intention.
+
+The claim to originality made so distinctly in the opening sentences
+of the" Origin of Species" is repeated in a letter to Professor
+Haeckel, written October 8, 1864, and giving an account of the
+development of his belief in descent with modification.  This
+letter, part of which is quoted by Mr. Allen, {173a} is given on p.
+134 of the English translation of Professor Haeckel's "History of
+Creation," {173b} and runs as follows:-
+
+"In South America three classes of facts were brought strongly
+before my mind.  Firstly, the manner in which closely allied species
+replace species in going southward.  Secondly, the close affinity of
+the species inhabiting the islands near South America to those
+proper to the continent.  This struck me profoundly, especially the
+difference of the species in the adjoining islets in the Galapagos
+Archipelago.  Thirdly, the relation of the living Edentata and
+Rodentia to the extinct species.  I shall never forget my
+astonishment when I dug out a gigantic piece of armour like that of
+the living armadillo.
+
+"Reflecting on these facts, and collecting analogous ones, it seemed
+to me probable that allied species were descended from a common
+ancestor.  But during several years I could not conceive how each
+form could have been modified so as to become admirably adapted to
+its place in nature.  I began, therefore, to study domesticated
+animals and cultivated plants, and after a time perceived that man's
+power of selecting and breeding from certain individuals was the
+most powerful of all means in the production of new races.  Having
+attended to the habits of animals and their relations to the
+surrounding conditions, I was able to realise the severe struggle
+for existence to which all organisms are subjected, and my
+geological observations had allowed me to appreciate to a certain
+extent the duration of past geological periods.  Therefore, when I
+happened to read Malthus on population, the idea of natural
+selection flashed on me.  Of all minor points, the last which I
+appreciated was the importance and cause of the principle of
+divergence."
+
+This is all very naive, and accords perfectly with the introductory
+paragraphs of the "Origin of Species;" it gives us the same picture
+of a solitary thinker, a poor, lonely, friendless student of nature,
+who had never so much as heard of Buffon, Erasmus Darwin, or
+Lamarck.  Unfortunately, however, we cannot forget the description
+of the influences which, according to Mr. Grant Allen, did in
+reality surround Mr. Darwin's youth, and certainly they are more
+what we should have expected than those suggested rather than
+expressly stated by Mr. Darwin.  "Everywhere around him," says Mr.
+Allen, {174a} "in his childhood and youth these great but formless"
+(why "formless"?) "evolutionary ideas were brewing and fermenting.
+The scientific society of his elders and of the contemporaries among
+whom he grew up was permeated with the leaven of Laplace and
+Lamarck, of Hutton and of Herschel.  Inquiry was especially
+everywhere rife as to the origin and nature of specific distinctions
+among plants and animals.  Those who believed in the doctrine of
+Buffon and of the 'Zoonomia,' and those who disbelieved in it,
+alike, were profoundly interested and agitated in soul by the far-
+reaching implications of that fundamental problem.  On every side
+evolutionism, in its crude form."  (I suppose Mr. Allen could not
+help saying "in its crude form," but descent with modification in
+1809 meant, to all intents and purposes, and was understood to mean,
+what it means now, or ought to mean, to most people.)  "The
+universal stir," says Mr. Allen on the following page, "and deep
+prying into evolutionary questions which everywhere existed among
+scientific men in his early days was naturally communicated to a lad
+born of a scientific family and inheriting directly in blood and
+bone the biological tastes and tendencies of Erasmus Darwin."
+
+I confess to thinking that Mr. Allen's account of the influences
+which surrounded Mr. Darwin's youth, if tainted with
+picturesqueness, is still substantially correct.  On an earlier page
+he had written:- "It is impossible to take up any scientific memoirs
+or treatises of the first half of our own century without seeing at
+a glance how every mind of high original scientific importance was
+permeated and disturbed by the fundamental questions aroused, but
+not fully answered, by Buffon, Lamarck, and Erasmus Darwin.  In
+Lyell's letters, and in Agassiz's lectures, in the 'Botanic Journal'
+and in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' in treatises on Madeira
+beetles and the Australian flora, we find everywhere the thoughts of
+men profoundly influenced in a thousand directions by this universal
+evolutionary solvent and leaven.
+
+"And while the world of thought was thus seething and moving
+restlessly before the wave of ideas set in motion by these various
+independent philosophers, another group of causes in another field
+was rendering smooth the path beforehand for the future champion of
+the amended evolutionism.  Geology on the one hand and astronomy on
+the other were making men's minds gradually familiar with the
+conception of slow natural development, as opposed to immediate and
+miraculous creation.
+
+. . .
+
+"The influence of these novel conceptions upon the growth and spread
+of evolutionary ideas was far-reaching and twofold.  In the first
+place, the discovery of a definite succession of nearly related
+organic forms following one another with evident closeness through
+the various ages, inevitably suggested to every inquiring observer
+the possibility of their direct descent one from the other.  In the
+second place, the discovery that geological formations were not
+really separated each from its predecessor by violent revolutions,
+but were the result of gradual and ordinary changes, discredited the
+old idea of frequent fresh creations after each catastrophe, and
+familiarised the minds of men of science with the alternative notion
+of slow and natural evolutionary processes.  The past was seen in
+effect to be the parent of the present; the present was recognised
+as the child of the past."
+
+This is certainly not Mr. Darwin's own account of the matter.
+Probably the truth will lie somewhere between the two extreme views:
+and on the one hand, the world of thought was not seething quite so
+badly as Mr. Allen represents it, while on the other, though "three
+classes of fact," &c., were undoubtedly "brought strongly before"
+Mr. Darwin's "mind in South America," yet some of them had perhaps
+already been brought before it at an earlier time, which he did not
+happen to remember at the moment of writing his letter to Professor
+Haeckel and the opening paragraph of the "Origin of Species."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV--Darwin and Descent with Modification (continued)
+
+
+
+I have said enough to show that Mr. Darwin claimed I to have been
+the originator of the theory of descent with modification as
+distinctly as any writer usually claims any theory; but it will
+probably save the reader trouble in the end if I bring together a
+good many, though not, probably, all (for I much disliked the task,
+and discharged it perfunctorily), of the passages in the "Origin of
+Species" in which the theory of descent with modification in its
+widest sense is claimed expressly or by implication.  I shall quote
+from the original edition, which, it should be remembered, consisted
+of the very unusually large number of four thousand copies, and from
+which no important deviation was made either by addition or
+otherwise until a second edition of two thousand further copies had
+been sold; the "Historical Sketch," &c., being first given with the
+third edition.  The italics, which I have employed so as to catch
+the reader's eye, are mine, not Mr. Darwin's.  Mr. Darwin writes:-
+
+"Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I CAN
+ENTERTAIN NO DOUBT, AFTER THE MOST DELIBERATE STUDY AND
+DISPASSIONATE JUDGMENT OF WHICH I AM CAPABLE, THAT THE VIEW WHICH
+MOST NATURALISTS ENTERTAIN, AND WHICH I FORMERLY ENTERTAINED--NAMELY
+THAT EACH SPECIES HAS BEEN INDEPENDENTLY CREATED--IS ERRONEOUS.  I
+am fully convinced that species are not immutable, but that those
+belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants
+of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as
+the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of
+that species.  Furthermore, I am convinced that natural selection"
+(or the preservation of fortunate races) "has been the main but not
+exclusive means of modification" (p. 6).
+
+It is not here expressly stated that the theory of the mutability of
+species is Mr. Darwin's own; this, nevertheless, is the inference
+which the great majority of his readers were likely to draw, and did
+draw, from Mr. Darwin's words.
+
+Again:-
+
+"It is not that all large genera are now varying much, and are thus
+increasing in the number of their species, or that no small genera
+are now multiplying and increasing; for if this had been so it would
+have been fatal to MY THEORY; inasmuch as geology," &c. (p. 56).
+
+The words "my theory" stand in all the editions.  Again:-
+
+"This relation has a clear meaning ON MY VIEW of the subject; I look
+upon all the species of any genus as having as certainly descended
+from the same progenitor, as have the two sexes of any one of the
+species" (p. 157).
+
+"My view" here, especially in the absence of reference to any other
+writer as having held the same opinion, implies as its most natural
+interpretation that descent pure and simple is Mr. Darwin's view.
+Substitute "the theory of descent" for "my view," and we do not feel
+that we are misinterpreting the author's meaning.  The words "my
+view" remain in all editions.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Long before having arrived at this part of my work, a crowd of
+difficulties will have occurred to the reader.  Some of them are so
+grave that to this day I can never reflect on them without being
+staggered; but to the best of my belief the greater number are only
+apparent, and those that are real are not, I think, FATAL TO MY
+THEORY.
+
+"These difficulties and objections may be classed under the
+following heads:- Firstly, if species have descended from other
+species by insensibly fine gradations, why do we not everywhere
+see?" &c. (p. 171).
+
+We infer from this that "my theory" is the theory "that species have
+descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations"--that is
+to say, that it is the theory of descent with modification; for the
+theory that is being objected to is obviously the theory of descent
+in toto, and not a mere detail in connection with that theory.
+
+The words "my theory" were altered in 1872, with the sixth edition
+of the "Origin of species," into "the theory;" but I am chiefly
+concerned with the first edition of the work, my object being to
+show that Mr. Darwin was led into his false position as regards
+natural selection by a desire to claim the theory of descent with
+modification; if he claimed it in the first edition, this is enough
+to give colour to the view which I take; but it must be remembered
+that descent with modification remained, by the passage just quoted
+"my theory," for thirteen years, and even when in 1869 and 1872, for
+a reason that I can only guess at, "my theory" became generally "the
+theory," this did not make it become any one else's theory.  It is
+hard to say whose or what it became, if the words are to be
+construed technically; practically, however, with all ingenuous
+readers, "the theory" remained as much Mr. Darwin's theory as though
+the words "my theory" had been retained, and Mr. Darwin cannot be
+supposed so simple-minded as not to have known this would be the
+case.  Moreover, it appears, from the next page but one to the one
+last quoted, that Mr. Darwin claimed the theory of descent with
+modification generally, even to the last, for we there read, "BY MY
+THEORY these allied species have descended from a common parent,"
+and the "my" has been allowed, for some reason not quite obvious, to
+survive the general massacre of Mr. Darwin's "my's" which occurred
+in 1869 and 1872.
+
+Again:-
+
+"He who believes that each being has been created as we now see it,
+must occasionally have felt surprise when he has met," &c. (p. 185).
+
+Here the argument evidently lies between descent and independent
+acts of creation.  This appears from the paragraph immediately
+following, which begins, "He who believes in separate and
+innumerable acts of creation," &c.  We therefore understand descent
+to be the theory so frequently spoken of by Mr. Darwin as "my."
+
+Again:-
+
+"He who will go thus far, if he find on finishing this treatise that
+large bodies of facts, otherwise inexplicable, can be explained BY
+THE THEORY OF DESCENT, ought not to hesitate to go farther, and to
+admit that a structure even as perfect as an eagle's eye might be
+formed BY NATURAL SELECTION, although in this case he does not know
+any of the transitional grades" (p. 188).
+
+The natural inference from this is that descent and natural
+selection are one and the same thing.
+
+Again:-
+
+"If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed which
+could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight
+modifications, MY THEORY would absolutely break down.  But I can
+find out no such case.  No doubt many organs exist of which we do
+not know the transitional grades, more especially if we look to
+much-isolated species, round which, according to my THEORY, there
+has been much extinction" (p. 189).
+
+This makes "my theory" to be "the theory that complex organs have
+arisen by numerous, successive, slight modifications;" that is to
+say, to be the theory of descent with modification.  The first of
+the two "my theory's" in the passage last quoted has been allowed to
+stand.  The second became "the theory" in 1872.  It is obvious,
+therefore, that "the theory" means "my theory;" it is not so obvious
+why the change should have been made at all, nor why the one "my
+theory" should have been taken and the other left, but I will return
+to this question.
+
+Again, Mr. Darwin writes:-
+
+"Although we must be extremely cautious in concluding that any organ
+could not possibly have been produced by small successive
+transitional gradations, yet, undoubtedly grave cases of difficulty
+occur, some of which will be discussed in my future work" (p. 192).
+
+This, as usual, implies descent with modification to be the theory
+that Mr. Darwin is trying to make good.
+
+Again:-
+
+"I have been astonished how rarely an organ can be named towards
+which no transitional variety is known to lead . . . Why, ON THE
+THEORY OF CREATION, should this be so?  Why should not nature have
+taken a leap from structure to structure?  ON THE THEORY OF NATURAL
+SELECTION we can clearly understand why she should not; for natural
+selection can act only by taking advantage of slight successive
+variations; she can never take a leap, but must advance by the
+slowest and shortest steps" (p. 194).
+
+Here "the theory of natural selection" is opposed to "the theory of
+creation;" we took it, therefore, to be another way of saying "the
+theory of descent with modification."
+
+Again:-
+
+"We have in this chapter discussed some of the difficulties and
+objections which may be urged against MY THEORY.  Many of them are
+very grave, but I think that in the discussion light has been thrown
+on several facts which, ON THE THEORY OF INDEPENDENT ACTS OF
+CREATION, are utterly obscure" (p. 203).
+
+Here we have, on the one hand, "my theory," on the other,
+"independent acts of creation."  The natural antithesis to
+independent acts of creation is descent, and we assumed with reason
+that Mr. Darwin was claiming this when he spoke of "my theory."  "My
+theory" became "the theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"On the theory of natural selection we can clearly understand the
+full meaning of that old canon in natural history, 'Natura non facit
+saltum.'  This canon, if we look only to the present inhabitants of
+the world is not strictly correct, but if we include all those of
+past times, it must BY MY THEORY be strictly true" (p. 206).
+
+Here the natural interpretation of "by my theory" is "by the theory
+of descent with modification;" the words "on the theory of natural
+selection," with which the sentence opens, lead us to suppose that
+Mr. Darwin regarded natural selection and descent as convertible
+terms.  "My theory" was altered to "this theory" in 1872.  Six lines
+lower down we read, "ON MY THEORY unity of type is explained by
+unity of descent."  The "my" here has been allowed to stand.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Again, as in the case of corporeal structure, and conformably with
+MY THEORY, the instinct of each species is good for itself, but has
+never," &c. (p. 210).
+
+Who was to see that "my theory" did not include descent with
+modification?  The "my" here has been allowed to stand.
+
+Again:-
+
+"The fact that instincts . . . are liable to make mistakes;--that no
+instinct has been produced for the exclusive good of other animals,
+but that each animal takes advantage of the instincts of others;--
+that the canon of natural history, 'Natura non facit saltum,' is
+applicable to instincts as well as to corporeal structure, and is
+plainly explicable on the foregoing views, but is otherwise
+inexplicable,--ALL TEND TO CORROBORATE THE THEORY OF NATURAL
+SELECTION" (p. 243).
+
+We feel that it is the theory of evolution, or descent with
+modification, that is here corroborated, and that it is this which
+Mr. Darwin is mainly trying to establish; the sentence should have
+ended "all tend to corroborate the theory of descent with
+modification;" the substitution of "natural selection" for descent
+tends to make us think that these conceptions are identical.  That
+they are so regarded, or at any rate that it is the theory of
+descent in full which Mr. Darwin has in his mind, appears from the
+immediately succeeding paragraph, which begins "THIS THEORY," and
+continues six lines lower, "For instance, we can understand, on the
+PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE, how it is that," &c.
+
+Again:-
+
+"In the first place, it should always be borne in mind what sort of
+intermediate forms must, ON MY THEORY, formerly have existed" (p.
+280).
+
+"My theory" became "the theory" in 1869.  No reader who read in good
+faith could doubt that the theory of descent with modification was
+being here intended.
+
+"It is just possible BY MY THEORY, that one of two living forms
+might have descended from the other; for instance, a horse from a
+tapir; but in this case DIRECT intermediate links will have existed
+between them" (p. 281).
+
+"My theory" became "the theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"BY THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION all living species have been
+connected with the parent species of each genus," &c.  We took this
+to mean, "By the theory of descent with modification all living
+species," &c. (p. 281).
+
+Again:-
+
+"Some experienced conchologists are now sinking many of the very
+fine species of D'Orbigny and others into the rank of varieties; and
+on this view we do find the kind of evidence of change which ON MY
+THEORY we ought to find" (p. 297).
+
+"My theory" became "the theory" in 1869.
+
+In the fourth edition (1866), in a passage which is not in either of
+the two first editions, we read (p. 359), "So that here again we
+have undoubted evidence of change in the direction required by MY
+THEORY."  "My theory" became "the theory" in 1869; the theory of
+descent with modification is unquestionably intended.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Geological research has done scarcely anything in breaking down the
+distinction between species, by connecting them together by
+numerous, fine, intermediate varieties; and this not having been
+effected, is probably the gravest and most obvious of all the many
+objections which may be urged against MY VIEWS" (p. 299).
+
+We naturally took "my views" to mean descent with modification.  The
+"my" has been allowed to stand.
+
+Again:-
+
+"If, then, there be some degree of truth in these remarks, we have
+no right to expect to find in our geological formations an infinite
+number of those transitional forms which ON MY THEORY assuredly have
+connected all the past and present species of the same group in one
+long and branching chain of life . . . But I do not pretend that I
+should ever have suspected how poor was the record in the best
+preserved geological sections, had not the absence of innumerable
+transitional links between the species which lived at the
+commencement and at the close of each formation pressed so hardly ON
+MY THEORY" (pp. 301, 302).
+
+Substitute "descent with modification" for "my theory" and the
+meaning does not suffer.  The first of the two "my theories" in the
+passage last quoted was altered in 1869 into "our theory;" the
+second has been allowed to stand.
+
+Again:-
+
+"The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear
+in some formations, has been urged by several palaeontologists . . .
+as a fatal objection TO THE BELIEF IN THE TRANSMUTATION OF SPECIES.
+If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have
+really started into life all at once, the fact would be fatal TO THE
+THEORY OF DESCENT WITH SLOW MODIFICATION THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION"
+(p. 302).
+
+Here "the belief in the transmutation of species," or descent with
+modification, is treated as synonymous with "the theory of descent
+with slow modification through natural selection; "but it has
+nowhere been explained that there are two widely different "theories
+of descent with slow modification through natural selection," the
+one of which may be true enough for all practical purposes, while
+the other is seen to be absurd as soon as it is examined closely.
+The theory of descent with modification is not properly convertible
+with either of these two views, for descent with modification deals
+with the question whether species are transmutable or no, and
+dispute as to the respective merits of the two natural selections
+deals with the question how it comes to be transmuted; nevertheless,
+the words "the theory of descent with slow modification through the
+ordinary course of things" (which is what "descent with modification
+through natural selection" comes to) may be considered as expressing
+the facts with practical accuracy, if the ordinary course of nature
+is supposed to be that modification is mainly consequent on the
+discharge of some correlated function, and that modification, if
+favourable, will tend to accumulate so long as the given function
+continues important to the wellbeing of the organism; the words,
+however, have no correspondence with reality if they are supposed to
+imply that variations which are mainly matters of pure chance and
+unconnected in any way with function will accumulate and result in
+specific difference, no matter how much each one of them may be
+preserved in the generation in which it appears.  In the one case,
+therefore, the expression natural selection may be loosely used as a
+synonym for descent with modification, and in the other it may not.
+Unfortunately with Mr. Charles Darwin the variations are mainly
+accidental.  The words "through natural selection," therefore, in
+the passage last quoted carry no weight, for it is the wrong natural
+selection that is, or ought to be, intended; practically, however,
+they derived a weight from Mr. Darwin's name to which they had no
+title of their own, and we understood that "the theory of descent
+with slow modification" through the kind of natural selection
+ostensibly intended by Mr. Darwin was a quasi-synonymous expression
+for the transmutation of species.  We understood--so far as we
+understood anything beyond that we were to believe in descent with
+modification--that natural selection was Mr. Darwin's theory; we
+therefore concluded, since Mr. Darwin seemed to say so, that the
+theory of the transmutation of species generally was so also.  At
+any rate we felt as regards the passage last quoted that the theory
+of descent with modification was the point of attack and defence,
+and we supposed it to be the theory so often referred to by Mr.
+Darwin as "my."
+
+Again:-
+
+"Some of the most ancient Silurian animals, as the Nautilus,
+Lingula, &c., do not differ much from the living species; and it
+cannot ON MY THEORY be supposed that these old species were the
+progenitors," &c. (p. 306) . . . "Consequently IF MY THEORY BE TRUE,
+it is indisputable," &c. (p. 307).
+
+Here the two "my theories" have been altered, the first into "our
+theory," and the second into "the theory," both in 1869; but, as
+usual, the thing that remains with the reader is the theory of
+descent, and it remains morally and practically as much claimed when
+called "the theory"--as during the many years throughout which the
+more open "my" distinctly claimed it.
+
+Again:-
+
+"All the most eminent palaeontologists, namely, Cuvier, Owen,
+Agassiz, Barrande, E. Forbes, &c., and all our greatest geologists,
+as Lyell, Murchison, Sedgwick, &c., have unanimously, often
+vehemently, maintained THE IMMUTABILITY OF SPECIES. . . . I feel how
+rash it is to differ from these great authorities . . . Those who
+think the natural geological record in any degree perfect, and who
+do not attach much weight to the facts and arguments of other kinds
+brought forward in this volume, will undoubtedly at once REJECT MY
+THEORY" (p. 310).
+
+What is "my theory" here, if not that of the mutability of species,
+or the theory of descent with modification?  "My theory" became "the
+theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Let us now see whether the several facts and rules relating to the
+geological succession of organic beings, better accord with the
+common view of the immutability of species, or with that of their
+SLOW AND GRADUAL MODIFICATION, THROUGH DESCENT AND NATURAL
+SELECTION" (p. 312).
+
+The words "natural selection" are indeed here, but they might as
+well be omitted for all the effect they produce.  The argument is
+felt to be about the two opposed theories of descent, and
+independent creative efforts.
+
+Again:-
+
+"These several facts accord well with MY THEORY" (p. 314).  That "my
+theory" is the theory of descent is the conclusion most naturally
+drawn from the context.  "My theory" became "our theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"This gradual increase in the number of the species of a group is
+strictly conformable WITH MY THEORY; for the process of modification
+and the production of a number of allied forms must be slow and
+gradual, . . . like the branching of a great tree from a single
+stem, till the group becomes large" (p. 314).
+
+"My theory" became "the theory" in 1869.  We took "my theory" to be
+the theory of descent; that Mr. Darwin treats this as synonymous
+with the theory of natural selection appears from the next
+paragraph, on the third line of which we read, "On THE THEORY OF
+NATURAL SELECTION the extinction of old forms," &c.
+
+Again:-
+
+"THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION is grounded on the belief that each
+new variety and ultimately each new species, is produced and
+maintained by having some advantage over those with which it comes
+into competition; and the consequent extinction of less favoured
+forms almost inevitably follows" (p. 320).  Sense and consistency
+cannot be made of this passage.  Substitute "The theory of the
+preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life" for "The
+theory of natural selection" (to do this is only taking Mr. Darwin's
+own synonym for natural selection) and see what the passage comes
+to.  "The preservation of favoured races" is not a theory, it is a
+commonly observed fact; it is not "grounded on the belief that each
+new variety," &c., it is one of the ultimate and most elementary
+principles in the world of life.  When we try to take the passage
+seriously and think it out, we soon give it up, and pass on,
+substituting "the theory of descent" for "the theory of natural
+selection," and concluding that in some way these two things must be
+identical.
+
+Again:-
+
+"The manner in which single species and whole groups of species
+become extinct accords well with THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION"
+(p. 322).
+
+Again:-
+
+"This great fact of the parallel succession of the forms of life
+throughout the world, is explicable ON THE THEORY OF NATURAL
+SELECTION" (p. 325).
+
+Again:-
+
+"Let us now look to the mutual affinities of extinct and living
+species.  They all fall into one grand natural system; and this is
+at once explained ON THE PRINCIPLE OF DESCENT" (p. 329).
+
+Putting the three preceding passages together, we naturally inferred
+that "the theory of natural selection" and "the principle of
+descent" were the same things.  We knew Mr. Darwin claimed the
+first, and therefore unhesitatingly gave him the second at the same
+time.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Let us see how far these several facts and inferences accord with
+THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION" (p. 331)
+
+Again:-
+
+"Thus, ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, the main facts
+with regard to the mutual affinities of the extinct forms of life to
+each other and to living forms, seem to me explained in a
+satisfactory manner.  And they are wholly inexplicable ON ANY OTHER
+VIEW" (p. 333).
+
+The words "seem to me" involve a claim in the absence of so much as
+a hint in any part of the book concerning indebtedness to earlier
+writers.
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT, the full meaning of the fossil remains,"
+&c. (p. 336).
+
+In the following paragraph we read:-
+
+"But in one particular sense the more recent forms must, ON MY
+THEORY, be higher than the more ancient."
+
+Again:-
+
+"Agassiz insists that ancient animals resemble to a certain extent
+the embryos of recent animals of the same classes; or that the
+geological succession of extinct forms is in some degree parallel to
+the embryological development of recent forms. . . . This doctrine
+of Agassiz accords well with THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION" (p.
+338).
+
+"The theory of natural selection" became "our theory" in 1869.  The
+opinion of Agassiz accords excellently with the theory of descent
+with modification, but it is not easy to see how it bears upon the
+fact that lucky races are preserved in the struggle for life--which,
+according to Mr. Darwin's title-page, is what is meant by natural
+selection.
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, the great law of the
+long-enduring but not immutable succession of the same types within
+the same areas, is at once explained" (p. 340).
+
+Again:-
+
+"It must not be forgotten that, ON MY THEORY, all the species of the
+same genus have descended from some one species" (p. 341).
+
+"My theory" became "our theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"He who rejects these views on the nature of the geological record,
+will rightly reject MY WHOLE THEORY" (p. 342).
+
+"My" became "our" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Passing from these difficulties, the other great leading facts in
+palaeontology agree admirably with THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH
+MODIFICATION THROUGH VARIATION AND NATURAL SELECTION" (p. 343).
+
+Again:-
+
+The succession of the same types of structure within the same areas
+during the later geological periods CEASES TO BE MYSTERIOUS, and IS
+SIMPLY EXPLAINED BY INHERITANCE (p. 345).
+
+I suppose inheritance was not when Mr. Darwin wrote considered
+mysterious.  The last few words have been altered to "and is
+intelligible on the principle of inheritance."  It seems as though
+Mr. Darwin did not like saying that inheritance was not mysterious,
+but had no objection to implying that it was intelligible.
+
+The next paragraph begins--"If, then, the geological record be as
+imperfect as I believe it to be, . . . the main objections TO THE
+THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION are greatly diminished or disappear.  On
+the other hand, all the chief laws of palaeontology plainly
+proclaim, AS IT SEEMS TO ME, THAT SPECIES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED BY
+ORDINARY GENERATION."
+
+Here again the claim to the theory of descent with modification is
+unmistakable; it cannot, moreover, but occur to us that if species
+"have been produced by ordinary generation," then ordinary
+generation has as good a claim to be the main means of originating
+species as natural selection has.  It is hardly necessary to point
+out that ordinary generation involves descent with modification, for
+all known offspring differ from their parents, so far, at any rate,
+as that practised judges can generally tell them apart.
+
+Again:-
+
+"We see in these facts some deep organic bond, prevailing throughout
+space and time, over the same areas of land and water, and
+independent of their physical condition.  The naturalist must feel
+little curiosity who is not led to inquire what this bond is.
+
+"This bond, ON MY THEORY, IS SIMPLY INHERITANCE, that cause which
+alone," &c. (p. 350).
+
+This passage was altered in 1869 to "The bond is simply
+inheritance."  The paragraph concludes, "ON THIS PRINCIPLE OF
+INHERITANCE WITH MODIFICATION, we can understand how it is that
+sections of genera . . . are confined to the same areas," &c.
+
+Again:-
+
+"He who rejects it rejects the vera causa of ordinary generation,"
+&c. (p. 352).
+
+We naturally ask, Why call natural selection the "main means of
+modification," if "ordinary generation" is a vera causa?
+
+Again:-
+
+"In discussing this subject, we shall be enabled at the same time to
+consider a point equally important for us, namely, whether the
+several distinct species of a genus, WHICH ON MY THEORY HAVE ALL
+DESCENDED FROM A COMMON ANCESTOR, can have migrated (undergoing
+modification during some part of their migration) from the area
+inhabited by their progenitor" (p. 354).
+
+The words "on my theory" became "on our theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"With those organic beings which never intercross (if such exist)
+THE SPECIES, ON MY THEORY, MUST HAVE DESCENDED FROM A SUCCESSION OF
+IMPROVED VARIETIES," &c. (p. 355).
+
+The words "on my theory" were cut out in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"A slow southern migration of a marine fauna will account, ON THE
+THEORY OF MODIFICATION, for many closely allied forms," &c. (p.
+372).
+
+Again:-
+
+"But the existence of several quite distinct species, belonging to
+genera exclusively confined to the southern hemisphere, is, ON MY
+THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, a far more remarkable case of
+difficulty" (p. 381).
+
+"My" became "the" in 1866 with the fourth edition.  This was the
+most categorical claim to the theory of descent with modification in
+the "Origin of Species."  The "my" here is the only one that was
+taken out before 1869.  I suppose Mr. Darwin thought that with the
+removal of this "my" he had ceased to claim the theory of descent
+with modification.  Nothing, however, could be gained by calling the
+reader's attention to what had been done, so nothing was said about
+it.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Some species of fresh-water shells have a very wide range, AND
+ALLIED SPECIES, WHICH, ON MY THEORY, ARE DESCENDED FROM A SINGLE
+SOURCE, prevail throughout the world" (p. 385).
+
+"My theory" became "our theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"In the following remarks I shall not confine myself to the mere
+question of dispersal, but shall consider some other facts which
+bear upon the truth of THE TWO THEORIES OF INDEPENDENT CREATION AND
+OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION" (p. 389).  What can be plainer than
+that the theory which Mr. Darwin espouses, and has so frequently
+called "my," is descent with modification?
+
+Again:-
+
+"But as these animals and their spawn are known to be immediately
+killed by sea-water, ON MY VIEW, we can see that there would be
+great difficulty in their transportal across the sea, and therefore
+why they do not exist on any oceanic island.  But why, ON THE THEORY
+OF CREATION, they should not have been created there, it would be
+very difficult to explain" (p. 393).
+
+"On my view" was cut out in 1869.
+
+On the following page we read--"On my view this question can easily
+be answered."  "On my view" is retained in the latest edition.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Yet there must be, ON MY VIEW, some unknown but highly efficient
+means for their transportation" (p. 397).
+
+"On my view" became "according to our view" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"I believe this grand fact can receive no sort of explanation ON THE
+ORDINARY VIEW OF INDEPENDENT CREATION; whereas, ON THE VIEW HERE
+MAINTAINED, it is obvious that the Galapagos Islands would be likely
+to receive colonists . . . from America, and the Cape de Verde
+Islands from Africa; and that such colonists would be liable to
+modification; the principle of inheritance still betraying their
+original birth-place" (p. 399).
+
+Again:-
+
+"With respect to the distinct species of the same genus which, ON MY
+THEORY, must have spread from one parent source, if we make the same
+allowances as before," &c.
+
+"On my theory" became "on our theory" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON MY THEORY these several relations throughout time and space are
+intelligible; . . . the forms within each class have been connected
+by the same bond of ordinary generation; . . . in both cases the
+laws of variation have been the same, and modifications have been
+accumulated by the same power of natural selection" (p. 410).
+
+"On my theory" became "according to our theory" in 1869, and natural
+selection is no longer a power, but has become a means.
+
+Again:-
+
+"I BELIEVE THAT SOMETHING MORE IS INCLUDED, and that propinquity of
+descent--the only known cause of the similarity of organic beings--
+is the bond, hidden as it is by various degrees of modification,
+which is partially revealed to us by our classification" (p. 418).
+
+Again:-
+
+"THUS, ON THE VIEW WHICH I HOLD, the natural system is genealogical
+in its arrangement, like a pedigree" (p. 422).
+
+"On the view which I hold" was cut out in 1872.
+
+Again:-
+
+"We may feel almost sure, ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT, that these
+characters have been inherited from a common ancestor" (p. 426).
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON MY VIEW OF CHARACTERS BEING OF REAL IMPORTANCE FOR
+CLASSIFICATION ONLY IN SO FAR AS THEY REVEAL DESCENT, we can clearly
+understand," &c. (p. 427).
+
+"On my view" became "on the view" in 1872.
+
+Again:-
+
+"The more aberrant any form is, the greater must be the number of
+connecting forms which, ON MY THEORY, have been exterminated and
+utterly lost" (p. 429).
+
+The words "on my theory" were excised in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Finally, we have seen that NATURAL SELECTION. . . EXPLAINS that
+great and universal feature in the affinities of all organic beings,
+namely, their subordination in group under group.  WE USE THE
+ELEMENT OF DESCENT in classing the individuals of both sexes, &c.; .
+. . WE USE DESCENT in classing acknowledged varieties; . . . and I
+believe this element of descent is the hidden bond of connection
+which naturalists have sought under the term of the natural system"
+(p. 433).
+
+Lamarck was of much the same opinion, as I showed in "Evolution Old
+and New."  He wrote:- "An arrangement should be considered
+systematic, or arbitrary, when it does not conform to the
+genealogical order taken by nature in the development of the things
+arranged, and when, by consequence, it is not founded on well-
+considered analogies.  There is a natural order in every department
+of nature; it is the order in which its several component items have
+been successively developed." {195a}  The point, however, which
+should more particularly engage our attention is that Mr. Darwin in
+the passage last quoted uses "natural selection" and "descent" as
+though they were convertible terms.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Nothing can be more hopeless than to attempt to explain this
+similarity of pattern in members of the same class by utility or the
+doctrine of final causes . . .  ON THE ORDINARY VIEW OF THE
+INDEPENDENT CREATION OF EACH BEING, we can only say that so it is .
+. . THE EXPLANATION IS MANIFEST ON THE THEORY OF THE NATURAL
+SELECTION OF SUCCESSIVE SLIGHT modifications," &c. (p. 435).
+
+This now stands--"The explanation is to a large extent simple, on
+the theory of the selection of successive, slight modifications."  I
+do not like "a large extent" of simplicity; but, waiving this, the
+point at issue is not whether the ordinary course of things ensures
+a quasi-selection of the types that are best adapted to their
+surroundings, with accumulation of modification in various
+directions, and hence wide eventual difference between species
+descended from common progenitors--no evolutionist since 1750 has
+doubted this--but whether a general principle underlies the
+modifications from among which the quasi-selection is made, or
+whether they are destitute of such principle and referable, as far
+as we are concerned, to chance only.  Waiving this again, we note
+that the theories of independent creation and of natural selection
+are contrasted, as though they were the only two alternatives;
+knowing the two alternatives to be independent creation and descent
+with modification, we naturally took natural selection to mean
+descent with modification.
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION we can satisfactorily answer
+these questions" (p. 437).
+
+"Satisfactorily" now stands "to a certain extent."
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON MY VIEW these terms may be used literally" (pp. 438, 439).
+
+"On my view" became "according to the views here maintained such
+language may be," &c., in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"I believe all these facts can be explained as follows, ON THE VIEW
+OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION" (p. 443).
+
+This sentence now ends at "follows."
+
+Again:-
+
+"Let us take a genus of birds, DESCENDED, ON MY THEORY, FROM SOME
+ONE PARENT SPECIES, and of which the several new species HAVE BECOME
+MODIFIED THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION in accordance with their divers
+habits" (p. 446).
+
+The words "on my theory" were cut out in 1869, and the passage now
+stands, "Let us take a group of birds, descended from some ancient
+form and modified through natural selection for different habits."
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON MY VIEW OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, the origin of rudimentary
+organs is simple" (p. 454).
+
+"On my view" became "ON THE VIEW" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THE VIEW OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION," &c. (p. 455).
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THIS SAME VIEW OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION all the great facts
+of morphology become intelligible" (p. 456).
+
+Again:-
+
+"That many and grave objections may be advanced against THE THEORY
+OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION, I do not
+deny" (p. 459).
+
+This now stands, "That many and serious objections may be advanced
+against THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION THROUGH VARIATION
+AND NATURAL SELECTION, I do not deny."
+
+Again:-
+
+"There are, it must be admitted, cases of special difficulty ON THE
+THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION" (p. 460).
+
+"On" has become "opposed to;" it is not easy to see why this
+alteration was made, unless because "opposed to" is longer.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Turning to geographical distribution, the difficulties encountered
+ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION are grave enough."
+
+"Grave" has become "serious," but there is no other change (p. 461).
+
+Again:-
+
+"As ON THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION an interminable number of
+intermediate forms must have existed," &c.
+
+"On" has become "according to"--which is certainly longer, but does
+not appear to possess any other advantage over "on."  It is not easy
+to understand why Mr. Darwin should have strained at such a gnat as
+"on," though feeling no discomfort in such an expression as "an
+interminable number."
+
+Again:-
+
+"This is the most forcible of the many objections which may be urged
+AGAINST MY THEORY . . . For certainly, ON MY THEORY," &c. (p. 463).
+
+The "my" in each case became "the" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Such is the sum of the several chief objections and difficulties
+which may be justly urged AGAINST MY THEORY" (p. 465).
+
+"My" became "the" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Grave as these several difficulties are, IN MY JUDGMENT they do not
+overthrow THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATIONS" (p. 466).
+
+This now stands, "Serious as these several objections are, in my
+judgment they are by no means sufficient to overthrow THE THEORY OF
+DESCENT WITH SUBSEQUENT MODIFICATION;" which, again, is longer, and
+shows at what little, little gnats Mr. Darwin could strain, but is
+no material amendment on the original passage.
+
+Again:-
+
+"THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION, even if we looked no further than
+this, SEEMS TO ME TO BE IN ITSELF PROBABLE" (p. 469).
+
+This now stands, "The theory of natural selection, even if we look
+no further than this, SEEMS TO BE IN THE HIGHEST DEGREE PROBABLE."
+It is not only probable, but was very sufficiently proved long
+before Mr. Darwin was born, only it must be the right natural
+selection and not Mr. Charles Darwin's.
+
+Again:-
+
+"It is inexplicable, ON THE THEORY OF CREATION, why a part
+developed, &c., . . . BUT, ON MY VIEW, this part has undergone," &c.
+(p. 474).
+
+"On my view" became "on our view" in 1869.
+
+Again:-
+
+"Glancing at instincts, marvellous as some are, they offer no
+greater difficulty than does corporeal structure ON THE THEORY OF
+THE NATURAL SELECTION OF SUCCESSIVE, SLIGHT, BUT PROFITABLE
+MODIFICATIONS" (p. 474).
+
+Again:-
+
+"ON THE VIEW OF ALL THE SPECIES OF THE SAME GENUS HAVING DESCENDED
+FROM A COMMON PARENT, and having inherited much in common, we can
+understand how it is," &c. (p. 474).
+
+Again:-
+
+"If we admit that the geological record is imperfect in an extreme
+degree, then such facts as the record gives, support THE THEORY OF
+DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION.
+
+" . . . The extinction of species . . . almost inevitably follows on
+THE PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION" (p. 475).
+
+The word "almost" has got a great deal to answer for.
+
+Again:-
+
+"We can understand, ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, most
+of the great leading facts in Distribution" (p. 476).
+
+Again:-
+
+"The existence of closely allied or representative species in any
+two areas, implies, ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, that
+the same parents formerly inhabited both areas . . . It must be
+admitted that these facts receive no explanation ON THE THEORY OF
+CREATION . . . The fact . . . is intelligible ON THE THEORY OF
+NATURAL SELECTION, with its contingencies of extinction and
+divergence of character" (p. 478).
+
+Again:-
+
+"Innumerable other such facts at once explain themselves ON THE
+THEORY OF DESCENT WITH SLOW AND SLIGHT SUCCESSIVE MODIFICATIONS" (p.
+479).
+
+"Any one whose disposition leads him to attach more weight to
+unexplained difficulties than to the explanation of a certain number
+of facts, WILL CERTAINLY REJECT MY THEORY" (p. 482).
+
+"My theory" became "the theory" in 1869.
+
+
+From this point to the end of the book the claim is so ubiquitous,
+either expressly or by implication, that it is difficult to know
+what not to quote.  I must, however, content myself with only a few
+more extracts.  Mr. Darwin says:-
+
+"It may be asked HOW FAR I EXTEND THE DOCTRINE OF THE MODIFICATION
+OF SPECIES" (p. 482).
+
+Again:-
+
+"Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that
+all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype . . .
+Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic
+beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some
+one primordial form, into which life was first breathed."
+
+From an amoeba--Adam, in fact, though not in name.  This last
+sentence is now completely altered, as well it might be.
+
+Again:-
+
+"When THE VIEWS ENTERTAINED IN THIS VOLUME ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES,
+OR WHEN ANALOGOUS VIEWS ARE GENERALLY ADMITTED, we can dimly foresee
+that there will be a considerable revolution in natural history" (p.
+434).
+
+Possibly.  This now stands, "When the views advanced by me in this
+volume, and by Mr. Wallace, or when analogous views on the origin of
+species are generally admitted, we can dimly foresee," &c.  When the
+"Origin of Species" came out we knew nothing of any analogous views,
+and Mr. Darwin's words passed unnoticed.  I do not say that he knew
+they would, but he certainly ought to have known.
+
+Again:-
+
+"A GRAND AND ALMOST UNTRODDEN FIELD OF INQUIRY WILL BE OPENED, on
+the causes and laws of variation, on correlation of growth, on the
+effects of use and disuse, on the direct action of external
+conditions, and so forth" (p. 486).
+
+Buffon and Lamarck had trodden this field to some purpose, but not a
+hint to this effect is vouchsafed to us.  Again; -
+
+"WHEN I VIEW ALL BEINGS NOT AS SPECIAL CREATIONS, BUT AS THE LINEAL
+DESCENDANTS OF SOME FEW BEINGS WHICH LIVED LONG BEFORE the first bed
+of the Silurian system was deposited, they seem to me to become
+ennobled . . . We can so far take a prophetic glance into futurity
+as to foretell that it will be the common and widely spread species,
+belonging to the larger and dominant groups, which will ultimately
+prevail and procreate new and dominant species."
+
+There is no alteration in this except that "Silurian" has become
+"Cambrian."
+
+The idyllic paragraph with which Mr. Darwin concludes his book
+contains no more special claim to the theory of descent en bloc than
+many another which I have allowed to pass unnoticed; it has been,
+moreover, dealt with in an earlier chapter (Chapter XII.)
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV--The Excised "My's"
+
+
+
+I have quoted in all ninety-seven passages, as near as I can make
+them, in which Mr. Darwin claimed the theory of descent, either
+expressly by speaking of "my theory" in such connection that the
+theory of descent ought to be, and, as the event has shown, was,
+understood as being intended, or by implication, as in the opening
+passages of the "Origin of Species," in which he tells us how he had
+thought the matter out without acknowledging obligation of any kind
+to earlier writers.  The original edition of the "Origin of Species"
+contained 490 pp., exclusive of index; a claim, therefore, more or
+less explicit, to the theory of descent was made on the average
+about once in every five pages throughout the book from end to end;
+the claims were most prominent in the most important parts, that is
+to say, at the beginning and end of the work, and this made them
+more effective than they are made even by their frequency.  A more
+ubiquitous claim than this it would be hard to find in the case of
+any writer advancing a new theory; it is difficult, therefore, to
+understand how Mr. Grant Allen could have allowed himself to say
+that Mr. Darwin "laid no sort of claim to originality or
+proprietorship" in the theory of descent with modification.
+
+Nevertheless I have only found one place where Mr. Darwin pinned
+himself down beyond possibility of retreat, however ignominious, by
+using the words "my theory of descent with modification." {202a}  He
+often, as I have said, speaks of "my theory," and then shortly
+afterwards of "descent with modification," under such circumstances
+that no one who had not been brought up in the school of Mr.
+Gladstone could doubt that the two expressions referred to the same
+thing.  He seems to have felt that he must be a poor wriggler if he
+could not wriggle out of this; give him any loophole, however small,
+and Mr. Darwin could trust himself to get out through it; but he did
+not like saying what left no loophole at all, and "my theory of
+descent with modification" closed all exits so firmly that it is
+surprising he should ever have allowed himself to use these words.
+As I have said, Mr. Darwin only used this direct categorical form of
+claim in one place; and even here, after it had stood through three
+editions, two of which had been largely altered, he could stand it
+no longer, and altered the "my" into "the" in 1866, with the fourth
+edition of the "Origin of Species."
+
+This was the only one of the original forty-five my's that was cut
+out before the appearance of the fifth edition in 1869, and its
+excision throws curious light upon the working of Mr. Darwin's mind.
+The selection of the most categorical my out of the whole forty-
+five, shows that Mr. Darwin knew all about his my's, and, while
+seeing reason to remove this, held that the others might very well
+stand.  He even left "On my VIEW of descent with modification,"
+{203a} which, though more capable of explanation than "my theory,"
+&c., still runs it close; nevertheless the excision of even a single
+my that had been allowed to stand through such close revision as
+those to which the "Origin of Species" had been subjected betrays
+uneasiness of mind, for it is impossible that even Mr. Darwin should
+not have known that though the my excised in 1866 was the most
+technically categorical, the others were in reality just as guilty,
+though no tower of Siloam in the shape of excision fell upon them.
+If, then, Mr. Darwin was so uncomfortable about this one as to cut
+it out, it is probable he was far from comfortable about the others.
+
+This view derives confirmation from the fact that in 1869, with the
+fifth edition of the "Origin of Species," there was a stampede of
+my's throughout the whole work, no less than thirty out of the
+original forty-five being changed into "the," "our," "this," or some
+other word, which, though having all the effect of my, still did not
+say "my" outright.  These my's were, if I may say so, sneaked out;
+nothing was said to explain their removal to the reader or call
+attention to it.  Why, it may be asked, having been considered
+during the revisions of 1861 and 1866, and with only one exception
+allowed to stand, why should they be smitten with a homing instinct
+in such large numbers with the fifth edition?  It cannot be
+maintained that Mr. Darwin had had his attention called now for the
+first time to the fact that he had used my perhaps a little too
+freely, and had better be more sparing of it for the future.  The my
+excised in 1866 shows that Mr. Darwin had already considered this
+question, and saw no reason to remove any but the one that left him
+no loophole.  Why, then, should that which was considered and
+approved in 1859, 1861, and 1866 (not to mention the second edition
+of 1859 or 1860) be retreated from with every appearance of panic in
+1869?  Mr. Darwin could not well have cut out more than he did--not
+at any rate without saying something about it, and it would not be
+easy to know exactly what say.  Of the fourteen my's that were left
+in 1869, five more were cut out in 1872, and nine only were allowed
+eventually to remain.  We naturally ask, Why leave any if thirty-six
+ought to be cut out, or why cut out thirty-six if nine ought to be
+left--especially when the claim remains practically just the same
+after the excision as before it?
+
+I imagine complaint had early reached Mr. Darwin that the difference
+between himself and his predecessors was unsubstantial and hard to
+grasp; traces of some such feeling appear even in the late Sir
+Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," in which he writes that he
+had reprinted his abstract of Lamarck's doctrine word for word, "in
+justice to Lamarck, in order to show how nearly the opinions taught
+by him at the beginning of this century resembled those now in vogue
+among a large body of naturalists respecting the infinite
+variability of species, and the progressive development in past time
+of the organic world." {205a}  Sir Charles Lyell could not have
+written thus if he had thought that Mr. Darwin had already done
+"justice to Lamarck," nor is it likely that he stood alone in
+thinking as he did.  It is probable that more reached Mr. Darwin
+than reached the public, and that the historical sketch prefixed to
+all editions after the first six thousand copies had been sold--
+meagre and slovenly as it is--was due to earlier manifestation on
+the part of some of Mr. Darwin's friends of the feeling that was
+afterwards expressed by Sir Charles Lyell in the passage quoted
+above.  I suppose the removal of the my that was cut out in 1866 to
+be due partly to the Gladstonian tendencies of Mr. Darwin's mind,
+which would naturally make that particular my at all times more or
+less offensive to him, and partly to the increase of objection to it
+that must have ensued on the addition of the "brief but imperfect"
+historical sketch in 1861; it is doubtless only by an oversight that
+this particular my was not cut out in 1861.  The stampede of 1869
+was probably occasioned by the appearance in Germany of Professor
+Haeckel's "History of Creation."  This was published in 1868, and
+Mr. Darwin no doubt foresaw that it would be translated into
+English, as indeed it subsequently was.  In this book some account
+is given--very badly, but still much more fully than by Mr. Darwin--
+of Lamarck's work; and even Erasmus Darwin is mentioned--
+inaccurately--but still he is mentioned.  Professor Haeckel says:-
+
+"Although the theory of development had been already maintained at
+the beginning of this century by several great naturalists,
+especially by Lamarck and Goethe, it only received complete
+demonstration and causal foundation nine years ago through Darwin's
+work, and it is on this account that it is now generally (though not
+altogether rightly) regarded as exclusively Mr. Darwin's theory."
+{206a}
+
+Later on, after giving nearly a hundred pages to the works of the
+early evolutionists--pages that would certainly disquiet the
+sensitive writer who had cut out the "my" which disappeared in 1866-
+-he continued:-
+
+"We must distinguish clearly (though this is not usually done)
+between, firstly, the theory of descent as advanced by Lamarck,
+which deals only with the fact of all animals and plants being
+descended from a common source, and secondly, Darwin's theory of
+natural selection, which shows us WHY this progressive modification
+of organic forms took place" (p. 93).
+
+This passage is as inaccurate as most of those by Professor Haeckel
+that I have had occasion to examine have proved to be.  Letting
+alone that Buffon, not Lamarck, is the foremost name in connection
+with descent, I have already shown in "Evolution Old and New" that
+Lamarck goes exhaustively into the how and why of modification.  He
+alleges the conservation, or preservation, in the ordinary course of
+nature, of the most favourable among variations that have been
+induced mainly by function; this, I have sufficiently explained, is
+natural selection, though the words "natural selection" are not
+employed; but it is the true natural selection which (if so
+metaphorical an expression is allowed to pass) actually does take
+place with the results ascribed to it by Lamarck, and not the false
+Charles-Darwinian natural selection that does not correspond with
+facts, and cannot result in specific differences such as we now
+observe.  But, waiving this, the "my's," within which a little rift
+had begun to show itself in 1866, might well become as mute in 1869
+as they could become without attracting attention, when Mr. Darwin
+saw the passages just quoted, and the hundred pages or so that lie
+between them.
+
+I suppose Mr. Darwin cut out the five more my's that disappeared in
+1872 because he had not yet fully recovered from his scare, and
+allowed nine to remain in order to cover his retreat, and tacitly
+say that he had not done anything and knew nothing whatever about
+it.  Practically, indeed, he had not retreated, and must have been
+well aware that he was only retreating technically; for he must have
+known that the absence of acknowledgment to any earlier writers in
+the body of his work, and the presence of the many passages in which
+every word conveyed the impression that the writer claimed descent
+with modification, amounted to a claim as much when the actual word
+"my" had been taken out as while it was allowed to stand.  We took
+Mr. Darwin at his own estimate because we could not for a moment
+suppose that a man of means, position, and education,--one,
+moreover, who was nothing if he was not unself-seeking--could play
+such a trick upon us while pretending to take us into his
+confidence; hence the almost universal belief on the part of the
+public, of which Professors Haeckel and Ray Lankester and Mr. Grant
+Allen alike complain--namely, that Mr. Darwin is the originator of
+the theory of descent, and that his variations are mainly
+functional.  Men of science must not be surprised if the readiness
+with which we responded to Mr. Darwin's appeal to our confidence is
+succeeded by a proportionate resentment when the peculiar shabbiness
+of his action becomes more generally understood.  For myself, I know
+not which most to wonder at--the meanness of the writer himself, or
+the greatness of the service that, in spite of that meanness, he
+unquestionably rendered.
+
+If Mr. Darwin had been dealing fairly by us, when he saw that we had
+failed to catch the difference between the Erasmus-Darwinian theory
+of descent through natural selection from among variations that are
+mainly functional, and his own alternative theory of descent through
+natural selection from among variations that are mainly accidental,
+and, above all, when he saw we were crediting him with other men's
+work, he would have hastened to set us right.  "It is with great
+regret," he might have written, "and with no small surprise, that I
+find how generally I have been misunderstood as claiming to be the
+originator of the theory of descent with modification; nothing can
+be further from my intention; the theory of descent has been
+familiar to all biologists from the year 1749, when Buffon advanced
+it in its most comprehensive form, to the present day."  If Mr.
+Darwin had said something to the above effect, no one would have
+questioned his good faith, but it is hardly necessary to say that
+nothing of the kind is to be found in any one of Mr. Darwin's many
+books or many editions; nor is the reason why the requisite
+correction was never made far to seek.  For if Mr. Darwin had said
+as much as I have put into his mouth above, he should have said
+more, and would ere long have been compelled to have explained to us
+wherein the difference between himself and his predecessors
+precisely lay, and this would not have been easy.  Indeed, if Mr.
+Darwin had been quite open with us he would have had to say much as
+follows:-
+
+"I should point out that, according to the evolutionists of the last
+century, improvement in the eye, as in any other organ, is mainly
+due to persistent, rational, employment of the organ in question, in
+such slightly modified manner as experience and changed surroundings
+may suggest.  You will have observed that, according to my system,
+this goes for very little, and that the accumulation of fortunate
+accidents, irrespectively of the use that may be made of them, is by
+far the most important means of modification.  Put more briefly
+still, the distinction between me and my predecessors lies in this;-
+-my predecessors thought they knew the main normal cause or
+principle that underlies variation, whereas I think that there is no
+general principle underlying it at all, or that even if there is, we
+know hardly anything about it.  This is my distinctive feature;
+there is no deception; I shall not consider the arguments of my
+predecessors, nor show in what respect they are insufficient; in
+fact, I shall say nothing whatever about them.  Please to understand
+that I alone am in possession of the master key that can unlock the
+bars of the future progress of evolutionary science; so great an
+improvement, in fact, is my discovery that it justifies me in
+claiming the theory of descent generally, and I accordingly claim
+it.  If you ask me in what my discovery consists, I reply in this;--
+that the variations which we are all agreed accumulate are caused--
+by variation. {209a}  I admit that this is not telling you much
+about them, but it is as much as I think proper to say at present;
+above all things, let me caution you against thinking that there is
+any principle of general application underlying variation."
+
+This would have been right.  This is what Mr. Darwin would have had
+to have said if he had been frank with us; it is not surprising,
+therefore, that he should have been less frank than might have been
+wished.  I have no doubt that many a time between 1859 and 1882, the
+year of his death, Mr. Darwin bitterly regretted his initial error,
+and would have been only too thankful to repair it, but he could
+only put the difference between himself and the early evolutionists
+clearly before his readers at the cost of seeing his own system come
+tumbling down like a pack of cards; this was more than he could
+stand, so he buried his face, ostrich-like, in the sand.  I know no
+more pitiable figure in either literature or science.
+
+As I write these lines (July 1886) I see a paragraph in Nature which
+I take it is intended to convey the impression that Mr. Francis
+Darwin's life and letters of his father will appear shortly.  I can
+form no idea whether Mr. F. Darwin's forthcoming work is likely to
+appear before this present volume; still less can I conjecture what
+it may or may not contain; but I can give the reader a criterion by
+which to test the good faith with which it is written.  If Mr. F.
+Darwin puts the distinctive feature that differentiates Mr. C.
+Darwin from his predecessors clearly before his readers, enabling
+them to seize and carry it away with them once for all--if he shows
+no desire to shirk this question, but, on the contrary, faces it and
+throws light upon it, then we shall know that his work is sincere,
+whatever its shortcomings may be in other respects; and when people
+are doing their best to help us and make us understand all that they
+understand themselves, a great deal may be forgiven them.  If, on
+the other hand, we find much talk about the wonderful light which
+Mr. Charles Darwin threw on evolution by his theory of natural
+selection, without any adequate attempt to make us understand the
+difference between the natural selection, say, of Mr. Patrick
+Matthew, and that of his more famous successor, then we may know
+that we are being trifled with; and that an attempt is being again
+made to throw dust in our eyes.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI--Mr. Grant Allen's "Charles Darwin"
+
+
+
+It is here that Mr. Grant Allen's book fails.  It is impossible to
+believe it written in good faith, with no end in view, save to make
+something easy which might otherwise be found difficult; on the
+contrary, it leaves the impression of having been written with a
+desire to hinder us, as far as possible, from understanding things
+that Mr. Allen himself understood perfectly well.
+
+After saying that "in the public mind Mr. Darwin is perhaps most
+commonly regarded as the discoverer and founder of the evolution
+hypothesis," he continues that "the grand idea which he did really
+originate was not the idea of 'descent with modification,' but the
+idea of 'natural selection,'" and adds that it was Mr. Darwin's
+"peculiar glory" to have shown the "nature of the machinery" by
+which all the variety of animal and vegetable life might have been
+produced by slow modifications in one or more original types.  "The
+theory of evolution," says Mr. Allen, "already existed in a more or
+less shadowy and undeveloped shape;" it was Mr. Darwin's "task in
+life to raise this theory from the rank of a mere plausible and
+happy guess to the rank of a highly elaborate and almost universally
+accepted biological system" (pp. 3-5).
+
+We all admit the value of Mr. Darwin's work as having led to the
+general acceptance of evolution.  No one who remembers average
+middle-class opinion on this subject before 1860 will deny that it
+was Mr. Darwin who brought us all round to descent with
+modification; but Mr. Allen cannot rightly say that evolution had
+only existed before Mr. Darwin's time in "a shadowy, undeveloped
+state," or as "a mere plausible and happy guess."  It existed in the
+same form as that in which most people accept it now, and had been
+carried to its extreme development, before Mr. Darwin's father had
+been born.  It is idle to talk of Buffon's work as "a mere plausible
+and happy guess," or to imply that the first volume of the
+"Philosophie Zoologique" of Lamarck was a less full and sufficient
+demonstration of descent with modification than the "Origin of
+Species" is.  It has its defects, shortcomings, and mistakes, but it
+is an incomparably sounder work than the "Origin of Species;" and
+though it contains the deplorable omission of any reference to
+Buffon, Lamarck does not first grossly misrepresent Buffon, and then
+tell him to go away, as Mr. Darwin did to the author of the
+"Vestiges" and to Lamarck.  If Mr. Darwin was believed and honoured
+for saying much the same as Lamarck had said, it was because Lamarck
+had borne the brunt of the laughing.  The "Origin of Species" was
+possible because the "Vestiges" had prepared the way for it.  The
+"Vestiges" were made possible by Lamarck and Erasmus Darwin, and
+these two were made possible by Buffon.  Here a somewhat sharper
+line can be drawn than is usually found possible when defining the
+ground covered by philosophers.  No one broke the ground for Buffon
+to anything like the extent that he broke it for those who followed
+him, and these broke it for one another.
+
+Mr. Allen says (p. 11) that, "in Charles Darwin's own words, Lamarck
+'first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the
+probability of all change in the organic as well as in the inorganic
+world being the result of law, and not of miraculous
+interposition.'"  Mr. Darwin did indeed use these words, but Mr.
+Allen omits the pertinent fact that he did not use them till six
+thousand copies of his work had been issued, and an impression been
+made as to its scope and claims which the event has shown to be not
+easily effaced; nor does he say that Mr. Darwin only pays these few
+words of tribute in a quasi-preface, which, though prefixed to his
+later editions of the "Origin of Species," is amply neutralised by
+the spirit which I have shown to be omnipresent in the body of the
+work itself.  Moreover, Mr. Darwin's statement is inaccurate to an
+unpardonable extent; his words would be fairly accurate if applied
+to Buffon, but they do not apply to Lamarck.
+
+Mr. Darwin continues that Lamarck "seems to attribute all the
+beautiful adaptations in nature, such as the long neck of the
+giraffe for browsing on the branches of trees," to the effects of
+habit.  Mr. Darwin should not say that Lamarck "seems" to do this.
+It was his business to tell us what led Lamarck to his conclusions,
+not what "seemed" to do so.  Any one who knows the first volume of
+the "Philosophie Zoologique" will be aware that there is no "seems"
+in the matter.  Mr. Darwin's words "seem" to say that it really
+could not be worth any practical naturalist's while to devote
+attention to Lamarck's argument; the inquiry might be of interest to
+antiquaries, but Mr. Darwin had more important work in hand than
+following the vagaries of one who had been so completely exploded as
+Lamarck had been.  "Seem" is to men what "feel" is to women; women
+who feel, and men who grease every other sentence with a "seem," are
+alike to be looked on with distrust.
+
+"Still," continues Mr. Allen, "Darwin gave no sign.  A flaccid,
+cartilaginous, unphilosophic evolutionism had full possession of the
+field for the moment, and claimed, as it were, to be the genuine
+representative of the young and vigorous biological creed, while he
+himself was in truth the real heir to all the honours of the
+situation.  He was in possession of the master-key which alone could
+unlock the bars that opposed the progress of evolution, and still he
+waited.  He could afford to wait.  He was diligently collecting,
+amassing, investigating; eagerly reading every new systematic work,
+every book of travels, every scientific journal, every record of
+sport, or exploration, or discovery, to extract from the dead mass
+of undigested fact whatever item of implicit value might swell the
+definite co-ordinated series of notes in his own commonplace books
+for the now distinctly contemplated 'Origin of Species.'  His way
+was to make all sure behind him, to summon up all his facts in
+irresistible array, and never to set out upon a public progress
+until he was secure against all possible attacks of the ever-
+watchful and alert enemy in the rear," &c. (p. 73).
+
+It would not be easy to beat this.  Mr. Darwin's worst enemy could
+wish him no more damaging eulogist.
+
+Of the "Vestiges" Mr. Allen says that Mr. Darwin "felt sadly" the
+inaccuracy and want of profound technical knowledge everywhere
+displayed by the anonymous author.  Nevertheless, long after, in the
+"Origin of Species," the great naturalist wrote with generous
+appreciation of the "Vestiges of Creation"--"In my opinion it has
+done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the
+subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for
+the reception of analogous views."
+
+I have already referred to the way in which Mr. Darwin treated the
+author of the "Vestiges," and have stated the facts at greater
+length in "Evolution Old and New," but it may be as well to give Mr.
+Darwin's words in full; he wrote as follows on the third page of the
+original edition of the "Origin of Species":-
+
+"The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say
+that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had
+given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the mistletoe, and
+that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this
+assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case
+of the coadaptation of organic beings to each other and to their
+physical conditions of life untouched and unexplained."
+
+The author of the "Vestiges" did, doubtless, suppose that "SOME
+bird" had given birth to a woodpecker, or more strictly, that a
+couple of birds had done so--and this is all that Mr. Darwin has
+committed himself to--but no one better knew that these two birds
+would, according to the author of the "Vestiges," be just as much
+woodpeckers, and just as little woodpeckers, as they would be with
+Mr. Darwin himself.  Mr. Chambers did not suppose that a woodpecker
+became a woodpecker per saltum though born of some widely different
+bird, but Mr. Darwin's words have no application unless they convey
+this impression.  The reader will note that though the impression is
+conveyed, Mr. Darwin avoids conveying it categorically.  I suppose
+this is what Mr. Allen means by saying that he "made all things sure
+behind him."  Mr. Chambers did indeed believe in occasional sports;
+so did Mr. Darwin, and we have seen that in the later editions of
+the "Origin of Species" he found himself constrained to lay greater
+stress on these than he had originally done.  Substantially, Mr.
+Chambers held much the same opinion as to the suddenness or slowness
+of modification as Mr. Darwin did, nor can it be doubted that Mr.
+Darwin knew this perfectly well.
+
+What I have said about the woodpecker applies also to the mistletoe.
+Besides, it was Mr. Darwin's business not to presume anything about
+the matter; his business was to tell us what the author of the
+"Vestiges" had said, or to refer us to the page of the "Vestiges" on
+which we should find this.  I suppose he was too busy "collecting,
+amassing, investigating," &c., to be at much pains not to
+misrepresent those who had been in the field before him.  There is
+no other reference to the "Vestiges" in the "Origin of Species" than
+this suave but singularly fraudulent passage.
+
+In his edition of 1860 the author of the "Vestiges" showed that he
+was nettled, and said it was to be regretted Mr. Darwin had read the
+"Vestiges" "almost as much amiss as if, like its declared opponents,
+he had an interest in misunderstanding it;" and a little lower he
+adds that Mr. Darwin's book "in no essential respect contradicts the
+'Vestiges,'" but that, on the contrary, "while adding to its
+explanations of nature, it expressed the same general ideas." {216a}
+This is substantially true; neither Mr. Darwin's nor Mr. Chambers's
+are good books, but the main object of both is to substantiate the
+theory of descent with modification, and, bad as the "Vestiges" is,
+it is ingenuous as compared with the "Origin of Species."
+Subsequently to Mr. Chambers' protest, and not till, as I have said,
+six thousand copies of the "Origin of Species" had been issued, the
+sentence complained of by Mr. Chambers was expunged, but without a
+word of retractation, and the passage which Mr. Allen thinks so
+generous was inserted into the "brief but imperfect" sketch which
+Mr. Darwin prefixed--after Mr. Chambers had been effectually snuffed
+out--to all subsequent editions of his "Origin of Species."  There
+is no excuse for Mr. Darwin's not having said at least this much
+about the author of the "Vestiges" in his first edition; and on
+finding that he had misrepresented him in a passage which he did not
+venture to retain, he should not have expunged it quietly, but
+should have called attention to his mistake in the body of his book,
+and given every prominence in his power to the correction.
+
+Let us now examine Mr. Allen's record in the matter of natural
+selection.  For years he was one of the foremost apostles of Neo-
+Darwinism, and any who said a good word for Lamarck were told that
+this was the "kind of mystical nonsense" from which Mr. Allen "had
+hoped Mr. Darwin had for ever saved us." {216b}  Then in October
+1883 came an article in "Mind," from which it appeared as though Mr.
+Allen had abjured Mr. Darwin and all his works.
+
+"There are only two conceivable ways," he then wrote, "in which any
+increment of brain power can ever have arisen in any individual.
+The one is the Darwinian way, by spontaneous variation, that is to
+say, by variation due to minute physical circumstances affecting the
+individual in the germ.  The other is the Spencerian way, by
+functional increment, that is to say, by the effect of increased use
+and constant exposure to varying circumstances during conscious
+life."
+
+Mr. Allen calls this the Spencerian view, and so it is in so far as
+that Mr. Spencer has adopted it.  Most people will call it
+Lamarckian.  This, however, is a detail.  Mr. Allen continues:-
+
+"I venture to think that the first way, if we look it clearly in the
+face, will be seen to be practically unthinkable; and that we have
+no alternative, therefore, but to accept the second."
+
+I like our looking a "way" which is "practically unthinkable"
+"clearly in the face."  I particularly like "practically
+unthinkable."  I suppose we can think it in theory, but not in
+practice.  I like almost everything Mr. Allen says or does; it is
+not necessary to go far in search of his good things; dredge up any
+bit of mud from him at random and we are pretty sure to find an
+oyster with a pearl in it, if we look it clearly in the face; I
+mean, there is sure to be something which will be at any rate
+"almost" practically unthinkable.  But however this may be, when Mr.
+Allen wrote his article in "Mind" two years ago, he was in
+substantial agreement with myself about the value of natural
+selection as a means of modification--by natural selection I mean,
+of course, the commonly known Charles-Darwinian natural selection
+from fortuitous variations; now, however, in 1885, he is all for
+this same natural selection again, and in the preface to his
+"Charles Darwin" writes (after a handsome acknowledgment of
+"Evolution Old and New") that he "differs from" me "fundamentally
+in" my "estimate of the worth of Charles Darwin's distinctive
+discovery of natural selection."
+
+This he certainly does, for on page 81 of the work itself he speaks
+of "the distinctive notion of natural selection" as having, "like
+all true and fruitful ideas, more than once flashed," &c.  I have
+explained usque ad nauseam, and will henceforth explain no longer,
+that natural selection is no "distinctive notion" of Mr. Darwin's.
+Mr. Darwin's "distinctive notion" is natural selection from among
+fortuitous variations.
+
+Writing again (p. 89) of Mr. Spencer's essay in the "Leader," {218a}
+Mr. Allen says:-
+
+"It contains, in a very philosophical and abstract form, the theory
+of 'descent with modification' without the distinctive Darwinian
+adjunct of 'natural selection' or survival of the fittest.  Yet it
+was just that lever dexterously applied, and carefully weighted with
+the whole weight of his endlessly accumulated inductive instances,
+that finally enabled our modern Archimedes to move the world."
+
+Again:-
+
+"To account for adaptation, for the almost perfect fitness of every
+plant and every animal to its position in life, for the existence
+(in other words) of definitely correlated parts and organs, we must
+call in the aid of survival of the fittest.  Without that potent
+selective agent, our conception of the becoming of life is a mere
+chaos; order and organisation are utterly inexplicable save by the
+brilliant illuminating ray of the Darwinian principle" (p. 93).
+
+And yet two years previously this same principle, after having been
+thinkable for many years, had become "unthinkable."
+
+Two years previously, writing of the Charles-Darwinian scheme of
+evolution, Mr. Allen had implied it as his opinion "that all brains
+are what they are in virtue of antecedent function."  "The one
+creed," he wrote--referring to Mr Darwin's--"makes the man depend
+mainly upon the accidents of molecular physics in a colliding germ
+cell and sperm cell; the other makes him depend mainly on the doings
+and gains of his ancestors as modified and altered by himself."
+
+This second creed is pure Erasmus-Darwinism and Lamarck.
+
+Again:-
+
+"It seems to me easy to understand how survival of the fittest may
+result in progress STARTING FROM SUCH FUNCTIONALLY PRODUCED GAINS
+(italics mine), but impossible to understand how it could result in
+progress, if it had to start in mere accidental structural
+increments due to spontaneous variation alone." {219a}
+
+Which comes to saying that it is easy to understand the Lamarckian
+system of evolution, but not the Charles-Darwinian.  Mr. Allen
+concluded his article a few pages later on by saying
+
+"The first hypothesis" (Mr. Darwin's) "is one that throws no light
+upon any of the facts.  The second hypothesis" (which is unalloyed
+Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck) "is one that explains them all with
+transparent lucidity."  Yet in his "Charles Darwin" Mr. Allen tells
+us that though Mr. Darwin "did not invent the development theory, he
+made it believable and comprehensible" (p. 4).
+
+In his "Charles Darwin" Mr. Allen does not tell us how recently he
+had, in another place, expressed an opinion about the value of Mr.
+Darwin's "distinctive contribution" to the theory of evolution, so
+widely different from the one he is now expressing with
+characteristic appearance of ardour.  He does not explain how he is
+able to execute such rapid changes of front without forfeiting his
+claim on our attention; explanations on matters of this sort seem
+out of date with modern scientists.  I can only suppose that Mr.
+Allen regards himself as having taken a brief, as it were, for the
+production of a popular work, and feels more bound to consider the
+interests of the gentleman who pays him than to say what he really
+thinks; for surely Mr. Allen would not have written as he did in
+such a distinctly philosophical and scientific journal as "Mind"
+without weighing his words, and nothing has transpired lately,
+apropos of evolution, which will account for his present
+recantation.  I said in my book "Selections," &c., that when Mr.
+Allen made stepping-stones of his dead selves, he jumped upon them
+to some tune.  I was a little scandalised then at the completeness
+and suddenness of the movement he executed, and spoke severely; I
+have sometimes feared I may have spoken too severely, but his recent
+performance goes far to warrant my remarks.
+
+If, however, there is no dead self about it, and Mr. Allen has only
+taken a brief, I confess to being not greatly edified.  I grant that
+a good case can be made out for an author's doing as I suppose Mr.
+Allen to have done; indeed I am not sure that both science and
+religion would not gain if every one rode his neighbour's theory, as
+at a donkey-race, and the least plausible were held to win; but
+surely, as things stand, a writer by the mere fact of publishing a
+book professes to be giving a bona fide opinion.  The analogy of the
+bar does not hold, for not only is it perfectly understood that a
+barrister does not necessarily state his own opinions, but there
+exists a strict though unwritten code to protect the public against
+the abuses to which such a system must be liable.  In religion and
+science no such code exists--the supposition being that these two
+holy callings are above the necessity for anything of the kind.
+Science and religion are not as business is; still, if the public do
+not wish to be taken in, they must be at some pains to find out
+whether they are in the hands of one who, while pretending to be a
+judge, is in reality a paid advocate, with no one's interests at
+heart except his client's, or in those of one who, however warmly he
+may plead, will say nothing but what springs from mature and genuine
+conviction.
+
+The present unsettled and unsatisfactory state of the moral code in
+this respect is at the bottom of the supposed antagonism between
+religion and science.  These two are not, or never ought to be,
+antagonistic.  They should never want what is spoken of as
+reconciliation, for in reality they are one.  Religion is the
+quintessence of science, and science the raw material of religion;
+when people talk about reconciling religion and science they do not
+mean what they say; they mean reconciling the statements made by one
+set of professional men with those made by another set whose
+interests lie in the opposite direction--and with no recognised
+president of the court to keep them within due bounds this is not
+always easy.
+
+Mr. Allen says:-
+
+"At the same time it must be steadily remembered that there are many
+naturalists at the present day, especially among those of the lower
+order of intelligence, who, while accepting evolutionism in a
+general way, and therefore always describing themselves as
+Darwinians, do not believe, and often cannot even understand, the
+distinctive Darwinian addition to the evolutionary doctrine--namely,
+the principle of natural selection.  Such hazy and indistinct
+thinkers as these are still really at the prior stage of Lamarckian
+evolution" (p. 199).
+
+Considering that Mr. Allen was at that stage himself so recently, he
+might deal more tenderly with others who still find "the distinctive
+Darwinian adjunct" "unthinkable."  It is perhaps, however, because
+he remembers his difficulties that Mr. Allen goes on as follows:-
+
+"It is probable that in the future, while a formal acceptance of
+Darwinism becomes general, the special theory of natural selection
+will be thoroughly understood and assimilated only by the more
+abstract and philosophical minds."
+
+By the kind of people, in fact, who read the Spectator and are
+called thoughtful; and in point of fact less than a twelvemonth
+after this passage was written, natural selection was publicly
+abjured as "a theory of the origin of species" by Mr. Romanes
+himself, with the implied approval of the Times.
+
+"Thus," continues Mr. Allen, "the name of Darwin will often no doubt
+be tacked on to what are in reality the principles of Lamarck."
+
+It requires no great power of prophecy to foretell this, considering
+that it is done daily by nine out of ten who call themselves
+Darwinians.  Ask ten people of ordinary intelligence how Mr. Darwin
+explains the fact that giraffes have long necks, and nine of them
+will answer "through continually stretching them to reach higher and
+higher boughs."  They do not understand that this is the Lamarckian
+view of evolution, not the Darwinian; nor will Mr. Allen's book
+greatly help the ordinary reader to catch the difference between the
+two theories, in spite of his frequent reference to Mr. Darwin's
+"distinctive feature," and to his "master-key."  No doubt the
+British public will get to understand all about it some day, but it
+can hardly be expected to do so all at once, considering the way in
+which Mr. Allen and so many more throw dust in its eyes, and will
+doubtless continue to throw it as long as an honest penny is to be
+turned by doing so.  Mr. Allen, then, is probably right in saying
+that "the name of Darwin will no doubt be often tacked on to what
+are in reality the principles of Lamarck," nor can it be denied that
+Mr. Darwin, by his practice of using "the theory of natural
+selection" as though it were a synonym for "the theory of descent
+with modification," contributed to this result.
+
+I do not myself doubt that he intended to do this, but Mr. Allen
+would say no less confidently he did not.  He writes of Mr. Darwin
+as follows:-
+
+"Of Darwin's pure and exalted moral nature no Englishman of the
+present generation can trust himself to speak with becoming
+moderation."
+
+He proceeds to trust himself thus:-
+
+"His love of truth, his singleness of heart, his sincerity, his
+earnestness, his modesty, his candour, his absolute sinking of self
+and selfishness--these, indeed are all conspicuous to every reader
+on the very face of every word he ever printed."
+
+This "conspicuous sinking of self" is of a piece with the
+"delightful unostentatiousness WHICH EVERY ONE MUST HAVE NOTICED"
+about which Mr. Allen writes on page 65.  Does he mean that Mr.
+Darwin was "ostentatiously unostentatious," or that he was
+"unostentatiously ostentatious"?  I think we may guess from this
+passage who it was that in the old days of the Pall Mall Gazelle
+called Mr. Darwin "a master of a certain happy simplicity."
+
+Mr. Allen continues:-
+
+"Like his works themselves, they must long outlive him.  But his
+sympathetic kindliness, his ready generosity, the staunchness of his
+friendship, the width and depth and breadth of his affections, the
+manner in which 'he bore with those who blamed him unjustly without
+blaming them again'--these things can never be so well known to any
+other generation of men as to the three generations that walked the
+world with him" (pp. 174, 175).
+
+Again:-
+
+"He began early in life to collect and arrange a vast encyclopaedia
+of facts, all finally focussed with supreme skill upon the great
+principle he so clearly perceived and so lucidly expounded.  He
+brought to bear upon the question an amount of personal observation,
+of minute experiment, of world-wide book knowledge, of universal
+scientific ability, such as never, perhaps, was lavished by any
+other man upon any other department of study.  His conspicuous and
+beautiful love of truth, his unflinching candour, his transparent
+fearlessness and honesty of purpose, his childlike simplicity, his
+modesty of demeanour, his charming manner, his affectionate
+disposition, his kindliness to friends, his courtesy to opponents,
+his gentleness to harsh and often bitter assailants, kindled in the
+minds of men of science everywhere throughout the world a contagious
+enthusiasm only equalled perhaps among the disciples of Socrates and
+the great teachers of the revival of learning.  His name became a
+rallying-point for the children of light in every country" (pp. 196,
+197).
+
+I need not quote more; the sentence goes on to talk about "firmly
+grounding" something which philosophers and speculators might have
+taken a century or two more "to establish in embryo;" but those who
+wish to see it must turn to Mr. Allen's book.
+
+If I have formed too severe an estimate of Mr. Darwin's work and
+character--and this is more than likely--the fulsomeness of the
+adulation lavished on him by his admirers for many years past must
+be in some measure my excuse.  We grow tired even of hearing
+Aristides called just, but what is so freely said about Mr. Darwin
+puts us in mind more of what the people said about Herod--that he
+spoke with the voice of a God, not of a man.  So we saw Professor
+Ray Lankester hail him not many years ago as the "greatest of living
+men." {224a}
+
+It is ill for any man's fame that he should be praised so
+extravagantly.  Nobody ever was as good as Mr. Darwin looked, and a
+counterblast to such a hurricane of praise as has been lately
+blowing will do no harm to his ultimate reputation, even though it
+too blow somewhat fiercely.  Art, character, literature, religion,
+science (I have named them in alphabetical order), thrive best in a
+breezy, bracing air; I heartily hope I may never be what is commonly
+called successful in my own lifetime--and if I go on as I am doing
+now, I have a fair chance of succeeding in not succeeding.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII--Professor Ray Lankester and Lamarck
+
+
+
+Being anxious to give the reader a sample of the arguments against
+the theory of natural selection from among variations that are
+mainly either directly or indirectly functional in their inception,
+or more briefly against the Erasmus-Darwinian and Lamarckian
+systems, I can find nothing more to the point, or more recent, than
+Professor Ray Lankester's letter to the Athenaeum of March 29, 1884,
+to the latter part of which, however, I need alone call attention.
+Professor Ray Lankester says:-
+
+"And then we are introduced to the discredited speculations of
+Lamarck, which have found a worthy advocate in Mr. Butler, as really
+solid contributions to the discovery of the verae causae of
+variation!  A much more important attempt to do something for
+Lamarck's hypothesis, of the transmission to offspring of structural
+peculiarities acquired by the parents, was recently made by an able
+and experienced naturalist, Professor Semper of Wurzburg.  His book
+on 'Animal Life,' &c., is published in the 'International Scientific
+Series.'  Professor Semper adduces an immense number and variety of
+cases of structural change in animals and plants brought about in
+the individual by adaptation (during its individual life-history) to
+new conditions.  Some of these are very marked changes, such as the
+loss of its horny coat in the gizzard of a pigeon fed on meat; BUT
+IN NO SINGLE INSTANCE COULD PROFESSOR SEMPER SHOW--although it was
+his object and desire to do so if possible--that such change was
+transmitted from parent to offspring.  Lamarckism looks all very
+well on paper, but, as Professor Semper's book shows, when put to
+the test of observation and experiment it collapses absolutely."
+
+I should have thought it would have been enough if it had collapsed
+without the "absolutely," but Professor Ray Lankester does not like
+doing things by halves.  Few will be taken in by the foregoing
+quotation, except those who do not greatly care whether they are
+taken in or not; but to save trouble to readers who may have neither
+Lamarck nor Professor Semper at hand, I will put the case as
+follows:-
+
+Professor Semper writes a book to show, we will say, that the hour-
+hand of the clock moves gradually forward, in spite of its appearing
+stationary.  He makes his case sufficiently clear, and then might
+have been content to leave it; nevertheless, in the innocence of his
+heart, he adds the admission that though he had often looked at the
+clock for a long time together, he had never been able actually to
+see the hour-hand moving.  "There now," exclaims Professor Ray
+Lankester on this, "I told you so; the theory collapses absolutely;
+his whole object and desire is to show that the hour-hand moves, and
+yet when it comes to the point, he is obliged to confess that he
+cannot see it do so."  It is not worth while to meet what Professor
+Ray Lankester has been above quoted as saying about Lamarckism
+beyond quoting the following passage from a review of "The
+Neanderthal Skull on Evolution" in the "Monthly Journal of Science"
+for June, 1885 (p. 362):-
+
+"On the very next page the author reproduces the threadbare
+objection that the 'supporters of the theory have never yet
+succeeded in observing a single instance in all the millions of
+years invented (!) in its support of one species of animal turning
+into another.'  Now, ex hypothesi, one species turns into another
+not rapidly, as in a transformation scene, but in successive
+generations, each being born a shade different from its progenitors.
+Hence to observe such a change is excluded by the very terms of the
+question.  Does Mr. Saville forget Mr. Herbert Spencer's apologue of
+the ephemeron which had never witnessed the change of a child into a
+man?"
+
+The apologue, I may say in passing, is not Mr. Spencer's; it is by
+the author of the "Vestiges," and will be found on page 161 of the
+1853 edition of that book; but let this pass.  How impatient
+Professor Ray Lankester is of any attempt to call attention to the
+older view of evolution appears perhaps even more plainly in a
+review of this same book of Professor Semper's that appeared in
+"Nature," March 3, 1881.  The tenor of the remarks last quoted shows
+that though what I am about to quote is now more than five years
+old, it may be taken as still giving us the position which Professor
+Ray Lankester takes on these matters.  He wrote:-
+
+"It is necessary," he exclaims, "to plainly and emphatically state"
+(Why so much emphasis?  Why not "it should be stated"?) "that
+Professor Semper and a few other writers of similar views" {227a} (I
+have sent for the number of "Modern Thought" referred to by
+Professor Ray Lankester but find no article by Mr. Henslow, and do
+not, therefore, know what he had said) "are not adding to or
+building on Mr. Darwin's theory, but are actually opposing all that
+is essential and distinctive in that theory, by the revival of the
+exploded notion of 'directly transforming agents' advocated by
+Lamarck and others."
+
+It may be presumed that these writers know they are not "adding to
+or building on" Mr. Darwin's theory, and do not wish to build on it,
+as not thinking it a sound foundation.  Professor Ray Lankester says
+they are "actually opposing," as though there were something
+intolerably audacious in this; but it is not easy to see why he
+should be more angry with them for "actually opposing" Mr. Darwin
+than they may be with him, if they think it worth while, for
+"actually defending" the exploded notion of natural selection--for
+assuredly the Charles-Darwinian system is now more exploded than
+Lamarck's is.
+
+What Professor Ray Lankester says about Lamarck and "directly
+transforming agents" will mislead those who take his statement
+without examination.  Lamarck does not say that modification is
+effected by means of "directly transforming agents;" nothing can be
+more alien to the spirit of his teaching.  With him the action of
+the external conditions of existence (and these are the only
+transforming agents intended by Professor Ray Lankester) is not
+direct, but indirect.  Change in surroundings changes the organism's
+outlook, and thus changes its desires; desires changing, there is
+corresponding change in the actions performed; actions changing, a
+corresponding change is by-and-by induced in the organs that perform
+them; this, if long continued, will be transmitted; becoming
+augmented by accumulation in many successive generations, and
+further modifications perhaps arising through further changes in
+surroundings, the change will amount ultimately to specific and
+generic difference.  Lamarck knows no drug, nor operation, that will
+medicine one organism into another, and expects the results of
+adaptive effort to be so gradual as to be only perceptible when
+accumulated in the course of many generations.  When, therefore,
+Professor Ray Lankester speaks of Lamarck as having "advocated
+directly transforming agents," he either does not know what he is
+talking about, or he is trifling with his readers.  Professor Ray
+Lankester continues:-
+
+"They do not seem to be aware of this, for they make no attempt to
+examine Mr. Darwin's accumulated facts and arguments."  Professor
+Ray Lankester need not shake Mr. Darwin's "accumulated facts and
+arguments" at us.  We have taken more pains to understand them than
+Professor Ray Lankester has taken to understand Lamarck, and by this
+time know them sufficiently.  We thankfully accept by far the
+greater number, and rely on them as our sheet-anchors to save us
+from drifting on to the quicksands of Neo-Darwinian natural
+selection; few of them, indeed, are Mr. Darwin's, except in so far
+as he has endorsed them and given them publicity, but I do not know
+that this detracts from their value.  We have paid great attention
+to Mr. Darwin's facts, and if we do not understand all his
+arguments--for it is not always given to mortal man to understand
+these--yet we think we know what he was driving at.  We believe we
+understand this to the full as well as Mr. Darwin intended us to do,
+and perhaps better.  Where the arguments tend to show that all
+animals and plants are descended from a common source we find them
+much the same as Buffon's, or as those of Erasmus Darwin or Lamarck,
+and have nothing to say against them; where, on the other hand, they
+aim at proving that the main means of modification has been the fact
+that if an animal has been "favoured" it will be "preserved"--then
+we think that the animal's own exertions will, in the long run, have
+had more to do with its preservation than any real or fancied
+"favour."  Professor Ray Lankester continues:-
+
+"The doctrine of evolution has become an accepted truth" (Professor
+Ray Lankester writes as though the making of truth and falsehood lay
+in the hollow of Mr. Darwin's hand.  Surely "has become accepted"
+should be enough; Mr. Darwin did not make the doctrine true)
+"entirely in consequence of Mr. Darwin's having demonstrated the
+mechanism."  (There is no mechanism in the matter, and if there is,
+Mr. Darwin did not show it.  He made some words which confused us
+and prevented us from seeing that "the preservation of favoured
+races" was a cloak for "luck," and that this was all the explanation
+he was giving) "by which the evolution is possible; it was almost
+universally rejected, while such undemonstrable agencies as those
+arbitrarily asserted to exist by Professor Semper and Mr. George
+Henslow were the only means suggested by its advocates."
+
+Undoubtedly the theory of descent with modification, which received
+its first sufficiently ample and undisguised exposition in 1809 with
+the "Philosophie Zoologique" of Lamarck, shared the common fate of
+all theories that revolutionise opinion on important matters, and
+was fiercely opposed by the Huxleys, Romaneses, Grant Allens, and
+Ray Lankesters of its time.  It had to face the reaction in favour
+of the Church which began in the days of the First Empire, as a
+natural consequence of the horrors of the Revolution; it had to face
+the social influence and then almost Darwinian reputation of Cuvier,
+whom Lamarck could not, or would not, square; it was put forward by
+one who was old, poor, and ere long blind.  What theory could do
+more than just keep itself alive under conditions so unfavourable?
+Even under the most favourable conditions descent with modification
+would have been a hard plant to rear, but, as things were, the
+wonder is that it was not killed outright at once.  We all know how
+large a share social influences have in deciding what kind of
+reception a book or theory is to meet with; true, these influences
+are not permanent, but at first they are almost irresistible; in
+reality it was not the theory of descent that was matched against
+that of fixity, but Lamarck against Cuvier; who can be surprised
+that Cuvier for a time should have had the best of it?
+
+And yet it is pleasant to reflect that his triumph was not, as
+triumphs go, long lived.  How is Cuvier best known now?  As one who
+missed a great opportunity; as one who was great in small things,
+and stubbornly small in great ones.  Lamarck died in 1831; in 1861
+descent with modification was almost universally accepted by those
+most competent to form an opinion.  This result was by no means so
+exclusively due to Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species" as is commonly
+believed.  During the thirty years that followed 1831 Lamarck's
+opinions made more way than Darwinians are willing to allow.
+Granted that in 1861 the theory was generally accepted under the
+name of Darwin, not under that of Lamarck, still it was Lamarck and
+not Darwin that was being accepted; it was descent, not descent with
+modification by means of natural selection from among fortuitous
+variations, that we carried away with us from the "Origin of
+Species."  The thing triumphed whether the name was lost or not.  I
+need not waste the reader's time by showing further how little
+weight he need attach to the fact that Lamarckism was not
+immediately received with open arms by an admiring public.  The
+theory of descent has become accepted as rapidly, if I am not
+mistaken, as the Copernican theory, or as Newton's theory of
+gravitation.
+
+When Professor Ray Lankester goes on to speak of the "undemonstrable
+agencies" "arbitrarily asserted" to exist by Professor Semper, he is
+again presuming on the ignorance of his readers.  Professor Semper's
+agencies are in no way more undemonstrable than Mr. Darwin's are.
+Mr. Darwin was perfectly cogent as long as he stuck to Lamarck's
+demonstration; his arguments were sound as long as they were
+Lamarck's, or developments of, and riders upon, Buffon, Erasmus
+Darwin, and Lamarck, and almost incredibly silly when they were his
+own.  Fortunately the greater part of the "Origin of Species" is
+devoted to proving the theory of descent with modification, by
+arguments against which no exception would have been taken by Mr.
+Darwin's three great precursors, except in so far as the variations
+whose accumulation results in specific difference are supposed to be
+fortuitous--and, to do Mr. Darwin justice, the fortuitousness,
+though always within hail, is kept as far as possible in the
+background.
+
+"Mr. Darwin's arguments," says Professor Ray Lankester, "rest on the
+PROVED existence of minute, many-sided, irrelative variations NOT
+produced by directly transforming agents."  Mr. Darwin throughout
+the body of the "Origin of Species" is not supposed to know what his
+variations are or are not produced by; if they come, they come, and
+if they do not come, they do not come.  True, we have seen that in
+the last paragraph of the book all this was changed, and the
+variations were ascribed to the conditions of existence, and to use
+and disuse, but a concluding paragraph cannot be allowed to override
+a whole book throughout which the variations have been kept to hand
+as accidental.  Mr. Romanes is perfectly correct when he says {232a}
+that "natural selection" (meaning the Charles-Darwinian natural
+selection) "trusts to the chapter of accidents in the matter of
+variation" this is all that Mr. Darwin can tell us; whether they
+come from directly transforming agents or no he neither knows nor
+says.  Those who accept Lamarck will know that the agencies are not,
+as a rule, directly transforming, but the followers of Mr. Darwin
+cannot.
+
+"But showing themselves," continues Professor Ray Lankester, "at
+each new act of reproduction, as part of the phenomena of heredity
+such minute 'sports' or 'variations' are due to constitutional
+disturbance" (No doubt.  The difference, however, between Mr. Darwin
+and Lamarck consists in the fact that Lamarck believes he knows what
+it is that so disturbs the constitution as generally to induce
+variation, whereas Mr. Darwin says he does not know), "and appear
+not in individuals subjected to new conditions" (What organism can
+pass through life without being subjected to more or less new
+conditions?  What life is ever the exact fac-simile of another?  And
+in a matter of such extreme delicacy as the adjustment of psychical
+and physical relations, who can say how small a disturbance of
+established equilibrium may not involve how great a rearrangement?),
+"but in the offspring of all, though more freely in the offspring of
+those subjected to special causes of constitutional disturbance.
+Mr. Darwin has further proved that these slight variations can be
+transmitted and intensified by selective breeding."
+
+Mr. Darwin did, indeed, follow Buffon and Lamarck in at once turning
+to animals and plants under domestication in order to bring the
+plasticity of organic forms more easily home to his readers, but the
+fact that variations can be transmitted and intensified by selective
+breeding had been so well established and was so widely known long
+before Mr. Darwin was born, that he can no more be said to have
+proved it than Newton can be said to have proved the revolution of
+the earth on its own axis.  Every breeder throughout the world had
+known it for centuries.  I believe even Virgil knew it.
+
+"They have," continues Professor Ray Lankester, "in reference to
+breeding, a remarkably tenacious, persistent character, as might be
+expected from their origin in connection with the reproductive
+process."
+
+The variations do not normally "originate in connection with the
+reproductive process," though it is during this process that they
+receive organic expression.  They originate mainly, so far as
+anything originates anywhere, in the life of the parent or parents.
+Without going so far as to say that no variation can arise in
+connection with the reproductive system--for, doubtless, striking
+and successful sports do occasionally so arise--it is more probable
+that the majority originate earlier.  Professor Ray Lankester
+proceeds:-
+
+"On the other hand, mutilations and other effects of directly
+transforming agents are rarely, if ever, transmitted."  Professor
+Ray Lankester ought to know the facts better than to say that the
+effects of mutilation are rarely, if ever, transmitted.  The rule
+is, that they will not be transmitted unless they have been followed
+by disease, but that where disease has supervened they not
+uncommonly descend to offspring. {234a}  I know Brown-Sequard
+considered it to be the morbid state of the nervous system
+consequent upon the mutilation that is transmitted, rather than the
+immediate effects of the mutilation, but this distinction is
+somewhat finely drawn.
+
+When Professor Ray Lankester talks about the "other effects of
+directly transforming agents" being rarely transmitted, he should
+first show us the directly transforming agents.  Lamarck, as I have
+said, knows them not.  "It is little short of an absurdity," he
+continues, "for people to come forward at this epoch, when evolution
+is at length accepted solely because of Mr. Darwin's doctrine, and
+coolly to propose to replace that doctrine by the old notion so
+often tried and rejected."
+
+Whether this is an absurdity or no, Professor Lankester will do well
+to learn to bear it without showing so much warmth, for it is one
+that is becoming common.  Evolution has been accepted not "because
+of" Mr. Darwin's doctrine, but because Mr. Darwin so fogged us about
+his doctrine that we did not understand it.  We thought we were
+backing his bill for descent with modification, whereas we were in
+reality backing it for descent with modification by means of natural
+selection from among fortuitous variations.  This last really is Mr.
+Darwin's theory, except in so far as it is also Mr. A. R. Wallace's;
+descent, alone, is just as much and just as little Mr. Darwin's
+doctrine as it is Professor Ray Lankester's or mine.  I grant it is
+in great measure through Mr. Darwin's books that descent has become
+so widely accepted; it has become so through his books, but in spite
+of, rather than by reason of, his doctrine.  Indeed his doctrine was
+no doctrine, but only a back-door for himself to escape by in the
+event of flood or fire; the flood and fire have come; it remains to
+be seen how far the door will work satisfactorily.
+
+Professor Ray Lankester, again, should not say that Lamarck's
+doctrine has been "so often tried and rejected."  M. Martins, in his
+edition of the "Philosophie Zoologique," {235a} said truly that
+Lamarck's theory had never yet had the honour of being seriously
+discussed.  It never has--not at least in connection with the name
+of its propounder.  To mention Lamarck's name in the presence of the
+conventional English society naturalist has always been like shaking
+a red rag at a cow; he is at once infuriated; "as if it were
+possible," to quote from Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, whose defence
+of Lamarck is one of the best things in his book, {235b} "that so
+great labour on the part of so great a naturalist should have led
+him to 'a fantastic conclusion' only--to 'a flighty error,' and, as
+has been often said, though not written, to 'one absurdity the
+more.'  Such was the language which Lamarck heard during his
+protracted old age, saddened alike by the weight of years and
+blindness; this was what people did not hesitate to utter over his
+grave, yet barely closed, and what, indeed, they are still saying--
+commonly too, without any knowledge of what Lamarck maintained, but
+merely repeating at second hand bad caricatures of his teaching.
+
+"When will the time come when we may see Lamarck's theory discussed,
+and I may as well at once say refuted, in some important points,
+with at any rate the respect due to one of the most illustrious
+masters of our science?  And when will this theory, the hardihood of
+which has been greatly exaggerated, become freed from the
+interpretations and commentaries by the false light of which so many
+naturalists have formed their opinion concerning it?  If its author
+is to be condemned, let it, at any rate, not be before he has been
+heard."
+
+Lamarck was the Lazarus of biology.  I wish his more fortunate
+brethren, instead of intoning the old Church argument that he has
+"been refuted over and over again," would refer us to some of the
+best chapters in the writers who have refuted him.  My own reading
+has led me to become moderately well acquainted with the literature
+of evolution, but I have never come across a single attempt fairly
+to grapple with Lamarck, and it is plain that neither Isidore
+Geoffroy nor M. Martins knows of such an attempt any more than I do.
+When Professor Ray Lankester puts his finger on Lamarck's weak
+places, then, but not till then, may he complain of those who try to
+replace Mr. Darwin's doctrine by Lamarck's.
+
+Professor Ray Lankester concludes his note thus:-
+
+"That such an attempt should be made is an illustration of a curious
+weakness of humanity.  Not infrequently, after a long contested
+cause has triumphed, and all have yielded allegiance thereto, you
+will find, when few generations have passed, that men have clean
+forgotten what and who it was that made that cause triumphant, and
+ignorantly will set up for honour the name of a traitor or an
+impostor, or attribute to a great man as a merit deeds and thoughts
+which he spent a long life in opposing."
+
+Exactly so; that is what one rather feels, but surely Professor Ray
+Lankester should say "in trying to filch while pretending to oppose
+and to amend."  He is complaining here that people persistently
+ascribe Lamarck's doctrine to Mr. Darwin.  Of course they do; but,
+as I have already perhaps too abundantly asked, whose fault is this?
+If a man knows his own mind, and wants others to understand it, it
+is not often that he is misunderstood for any length of time.  If he
+finds he is being misapprehended in a way he does not like, he will
+write another book and make his meaning plainer.  He will go on
+doing this for as long time as he thinks necessary.  I do not
+suppose, for example, that people will say I originated the theory
+of descent by means of natural selection from among fortunate
+accidents, or even that I was one of its supporters as a means of
+modification; but if this impression were to prevail, I cannot think
+I should have much difficulty in removing it.  At any rate no such
+misapprehension could endure for more than twenty years, during
+which I continued to address a public who welcomed all I wrote,
+unless I myself aided and abetted the mistake.  Mr. Darwin wrote
+many books, but the impression that Darwinism and evolution, or
+descent with modification, are identical is still nearly as
+prevalent as it was soon after the appearance of the "Origin of
+Species;" the reason of this is, that Mr. Darwin was at no pains to
+correct us.  Where, in any one of his many later books, is there a
+passage which sets the matter in its true light, and enters a
+protest against the misconception of which Professor Ray Lankester
+complains so bitterly?  The only inference from this is, that Mr.
+Darwin was not displeased at our thinking him to be the originator
+of the theory of descent with modification, and did not want us to
+know more about Lamarck than he could help.  If we wanted to know
+about him, we must find out what he had said for ourselves, it was
+no part of Mr. Darwin's business to tell us; he had no interest in
+our catching the distinctive difference between himself and that
+writer; perhaps not; but this approaches closely to wishing us to
+misunderstand it.  When Mr. Darwin wished us to understand this or
+that, no one knew better how to show it to us.
+
+We were aware, on reading the "Origin of Species," that there was a
+something about it of which we had not full hold; nevertheless we
+gave Mr. Darwin our confidence at once, partly because he led off by
+telling us that we must trust him to a great extent, and explained
+that the present book was only an instalment of a larger work which,
+when it came out, would make everything perfectly clear; partly,
+again, because the case for descent with modification, which was the
+leading idea throughout the book, was so obviously strong, but
+perhaps mainly because every one said Mr. Darwin was so good, and so
+much less self-heeding than other people; besides, he had so
+"patiently" and "carefully" accumulated "such a vast store of facts"
+as no other naturalist, living or dead, had ever yet even tried to
+get together; he was so kind to us with his, "May we not believe?"
+and his "Have we any right to infer that the Creator?" &c.  "Of
+course we have not," we exclaimed, almost with tears in our eyes--
+"not if you ask us in that way."  Now that we understand what it was
+that puzzled us in Mr. Darwin's work we do not think highly either
+of the chief offender, or of the accessories after the fact, many of
+whom are trying to brazen the matter out, and on a smaller scale to
+follow his example.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII--Per Contra
+
+
+
+"'The evil that men do lives after them" {239a} is happily not so
+true as that the good lives after them, while the ill is buried with
+their bones, and to no one does this correction of Shakespeare's
+unwonted spleen apply more fully than to Mr. Darwin.  Indeed it was
+somewhat thus that we treated his books even while he was alive; the
+good, descent, remained with us, while the ill, the deification of
+luck, was forgotten as soon as we put down his work.  Let me now,
+therefore, as far as possible, quit the ungrateful task of dwelling
+on the defects of Mr. Darwin's work and character, for the more
+pleasant one of insisting upon their better side, and of explaining
+how he came to be betrayed into publishing the "Origin of Species"
+without reference to the works of his predecessors.
+
+In the outset I would urge that it is not by any single book that
+Mr. Darwin should be judged.  I do not believe that any one of the
+three principal works on which his reputation is founded will
+maintain with the next generation the place it has acquired with
+ourselves; nevertheless, if asked to say who was the man of our own
+times whose work had produced the most important, and, on the whole,
+beneficial effect, I should perhaps wrongly, but still both
+instinctively and on reflection, name him to whom I have,
+unfortunately, found myself in more bitter opposition than to any
+other in the whole course of my life.  I refer, of course, to Mr.
+Darwin.
+
+His claim upon us lies not so much in what is actually found within
+the four corners of any one of his books, as in the fact of his
+having written them at all--in the fact of his having brought out
+one after another, with descent always for its keynote, until the
+lesson was learned too thoroughly to make it at all likely that it
+will be forgotten.  Mr. Darwin wanted to move his generation, and
+had the penetration to see that this is not done by saying a thing
+once for all and leaving it.  It almost seems as though it matters
+less what a man says than the number of times he repeats it, in a
+more or less varied form.  It was here the author of the "Vestiges
+of Creation" made his most serious mistake.  He relied on new
+editions, and no one pays much attention to new editions--the mark a
+book makes is almost always made by its first edition.  If, instead
+of bringing out a series of amended editions during the fifteen
+years' law which Mr. Darwin gave him, Mr. Chambers had followed up
+the "Vestiges" with new book upon new book, he would have learned
+much more, and, by consequence, not have been snuffed out so easily
+once for all as he was in 1859 when the "Origin of Species"
+appeared.
+
+The tenacity of purpose which appears to have been one of Mr.
+Darwin's most remarkable characteristics was visible even in his
+outward appearance.  He always reminded me of Raffaelle's portrait
+of Pope Julius the Second, which, indeed, would almost do for a
+portrait of Mr. Darwin himself.  I imagine that these two men,
+widely as the sphere of their action differed, must have been like
+each other in more respects than looks alone.  Each, certainly, had
+a hand of iron; whether Pope Julius wore a velvet glove or no, I do
+not know; I rather think not, for, if I remember rightly, he boxed
+Michael Angelo's ears for giving him a saucy answer.  We cannot
+fancy Mr. Darwin boxing any one's ears; indeed there can be no doubt
+he wore a very thick velvet glove, but the hand underneath it was
+none the less of iron.  It was to his tenacity of purpose,
+doubtless, that his success was mainly due; but for this he must
+inevitably have fallen before the many inducements to desist from
+the pursuit of his main object, which beset him in the shape of ill
+health, advancing years, ample private means, large demands upon his
+time, and a reputation already great enough to satisfy the ambition
+of any ordinary man.
+
+I do not gather from those who remember Mr. Darwin as a boy, and as
+a young man, that he gave early signs of being likely to achieve
+greatness; nor, as it seems to me, is there any sign of unusual
+intellectual power to be detected in his earliest book.  Opening
+this "almost" at random I read--"Earthquakes alone are sufficient to
+destroy the prosperity of any country.  If, for instance, beneath
+England the now inert subterraneous forces should exert those powers
+which most assuredly in former geological ages they have exerted,
+how completely would the entire condition of the country be changed!
+What would become of the lofty houses, thickly-packed cities, great
+manufacturies (sic), the beautiful public and private edifices?  If
+the new period of disturbance were to commence by some great
+earthquake in the dead of night, how terrific would be the carnage!
+England would be at once bankrupt; all papers, records, and accounts
+would from that moment be lost.  Government being unable to collect
+the taxes, and failing to maintain its authority, the hand of
+violence and rapine would go uncontrolled.  In every large town
+famine would be proclaimed, pestilence and death following in its
+train." {240a}  Great allowance should be made for a first work, and
+I admit that much interesting matter is found in Mr. Darwin's
+journal; still, it was hardly to be expected that the writer who at
+the age of thirty-three could publish the foregoing passage should
+twenty years later achieve the reputation of being the profoundest
+philosopher of his time.
+
+I have not sufficient technical knowledge to enable me to speak
+certainly, but I question his having been the great observer and
+master of experiment which he is generally believed to have been.
+His accuracy was, I imagine, generally to be relied upon as long as
+accuracy did not come into conflict with his interests as a leader
+in the scientific world; when these were at stake he was not to be
+trusted for a moment.  Unfortunately they were directly or
+indirectly at stake more often than one could wish.  His book on the
+action of worms, however, was shown by Professor Paley and other
+writers {242a} to contain many serious errors and omissions, though
+it involved no personal question; but I imagine him to have been
+more or less hebete when he wrote this book.  On the whole I should
+doubt his having been a better observer of nature than nine country
+gentlemen out of ten who have a taste for natural history.
+
+Presumptuous as I am aware it must appear to say so, I am unable to
+see more than average intellectual power even in Mr. Darwin's later
+books.  His great contribution to science is supposed to have been
+the theory of natural selection, but enough has been said to show
+that this, if understood as he ought to have meant it to be
+understood, cannot be rated highly as an intellectual achievement.
+His other most important contribution was his provisional theory of
+pan-genesis, which is admitted on all hands to have been a failure.
+Though, however, it is not likely that posterity will consider him
+as a man of transcendent intellectual power, he must be admitted to
+have been richly endowed with a much more valuable quality than
+either originality or literary power--I mean with savoir faire.  The
+cards he held--and, on the whole, his hand was a good one--he played
+with judgment; and though not one of those who would have achieved
+greatness under any circumstances, he nevertheless did achieve
+greatness of no mean order.  Greatness, indeed, of the highest kind-
+-that of one who is without fear and without reproach--will not
+ultimately be allowed him, but greatness of a rare kind can only be
+denied him by those whose judgment is perverted by temper or
+personal ill-will.  He found the world believing in fixity of
+species, and left it believing--in spite of his own doctrine--in
+descent with modification.
+
+I have said on an earlier page that Mr. Darwin was heir to a
+discredited truth, and left behind him an accredited fallacy.  This
+is true as regards men of science and cultured classes who
+understood his distinctive feature, or thought they did, and so long
+as Mr. Darwin lived accepted it with very rare exceptions; but it is
+not true as regards the unreading, unreflecting public, who seized
+the salient point of descent with modification only, and troubled
+themselves little about the distinctive feature.  It would almost
+seem as if Mr. Darwin had reversed the usual practice of
+philosophers and given his esoteric doctrine to the world, while
+reserving the exoteric for his most intimate and faithful adherents.
+This, however, is a detail; the main fact is, that Mr. Darwin
+brought us all round to evolution.  True, it was Mr. Darwin backed
+by the Times and the other most influential organs of science and
+culture, but it was one of Mr. Darwin's great merits to have
+developed and organised this backing, as part of the work which he
+knew was essential if so great a revolution was to be effected.
+
+This is an exceedingly difficult and delicate thing to do.  If
+people think they need only write striking and well-considered
+books, and that then the Times will immediately set to work to call
+attention to them, I should advise them not to be too hasty in
+basing action upon this hypothesis.  I should advise them to be even
+less hasty in basing it upon the assumption that to secure a
+powerful literary backing is a matter within the compass of any one
+who chooses to undertake it.  No one who has not a strong social
+position should ever advance a new theory, unless a life of hard
+fighting is part of what he lays himself out for.  It was one of Mr.
+Darwin's great merits that he had a strong social position, and had
+the good sense to know how to profit by it.  The magnificent feat
+which he eventually achieved was unhappily tarnished by much that
+detracts from the splendour that ought to have attended it, but a
+magnificent feat it must remain.
+
+Whose work in this imperfect world is not tarred and tarnished by
+something that detracts from its ideal character?  It is enough that
+a man should be the right man in the right place, and this Mr.
+Darwin pre-eminently was.  If he had been more like the ideal
+character which Mr. Allen endeavours to represent him, it is not
+likely that he would have been able to do as much, or nearly as
+much, as he actually did; he would have been too wide a cross with
+his generation to produce much effect upon it.  Original thought is
+much more common than is generally believed.  Most people, if they
+only knew it, could write a good book or play, paint a good picture,
+compose a fine oratorio; but it takes an unusually able person to
+get the book well reviewed, persuade a manager to bring the play
+out, sell the picture, or compass the performance of the oratorio;
+indeed, the more vigorous and original any one of these things may
+be, the more difficult will it prove to even bring it before the
+notice of the public.  The error of most original people is in being
+just a trifle too original.  It was in his business qualities--and
+these, after all, are the most essential to success, that Mr. Darwin
+showed himself so superlative.  These are not only the most
+essential to success, but it is only by blaspheming the world in a
+way which no good citizen of the world will do, that we can deny
+them to be the ones which should most command our admiration.  We
+are in the world; surely so long as we are in it we should be of it,
+and not give ourselves airs as though we were too good for our
+generation, and would lay ourselves out to please any other by
+preference.  Mr. Darwin played for his own generation, and he got in
+the very amplest measure the recognition which he endeavoured, as we
+all do, to obtain.
+
+His success was, no doubt, in great measure due to the fact that he
+knew our little ways, and humoured them; but if he had not had
+little ways of his own, he never could have been so much au fait
+with ours.  He knew, for example, we should be pleased to hear that
+he had taken his boots off so as not to disturb his worms when
+watching them by night, so he told us of this, and we were
+delighted.  He knew we should like his using the word "sag," so he
+used it, {245a} and we said it was beautiful.  True, he used it
+wrongly, for he was writing about tesselated pavement, and builders
+assure me that "sag" is a word which applies to timber only, but
+this is not to the point; the point was, that Mr. Darwin should have
+used a word that we did not understand; this showed that he had a
+vast fund of knowledge at his command about all sorts of practical
+details with which he might have well been unacquainted.  We do not
+deal the same measure to man and to the lower animals in the matter
+of intelligence; the less we understand these last, the less, we
+say, not we, but they can understand; whereas the less we can
+understand a man, the more intelligent we are apt to think him.  No
+one should neglect by-play of this description; if I live to be
+strong enough to carry it through, I mean to play "cambre," and I
+shall spell it "camber."  I wonder Mr. Darwin never abused this
+word.  Laugh at him, however, as we may for having said "sag," if he
+had not been the kind of man to know the value of these little hits,
+neither would he have been the kind of man to persuade us into first
+tolerating, and then cordially accepting, descent with modification.
+There is a correlation of mental as well as of physical growth, and
+we could not probably have had one set of Mr. Darwin's qualities
+without the other.  If he had been more faultless, he might have
+written better books, but we should have listened worse.  A book's
+prosperity is like a jest's--in the ear of him that hears it.
+
+Mr. Spencer would not--at least one cannot think he would--have been
+able to effect the revolution which will henceforth doubtless be
+connected with Mr. Darwin's name.  He had been insisting on
+evolution for some years before the "Origin of Species" came out,
+but he might as well have preached to the winds, for all the visible
+effect that had been produced.  On the appearance of Mr. Darwin's
+book the effect was instantaneous; it was like the change in the
+condition of a patient when the right medicine has been hit on after
+all sorts of things have been tried and failed.  Granted that it was
+comparatively easy for Mr. Darwin, as having been born into the
+household of one of the prophets of evolution, to arrive at
+conclusions about the fixity of species which, if not so born, he
+might never have reached at all; this does not make it any easier
+for him to have got others to agree with him.  Any one, again, may
+have money left him, or run up against it, or have it run up against
+him, as it does against some people, but it is only a very sensible
+person who does not lose it.  Moreover, once begin to go behind
+achievement and there is an end of everything.  Did the world give
+much heed to or believe in evolution before Mr. Darwin's time?
+Certainly not.  Did we begin to attend and be persuaded soon after
+Mr. Darwin began to write?  Certainly yes.  Did we ere long go over
+en masse?  Assuredly.  If, as I said in "Life and Habit," any one
+asks who taught the world to believe in evolution, the answer to the
+end of time must be that it was Mr. Darwin.  And yet the more his
+work is looked at, the more marvellous does its success become.  It
+seems as if some organisms can do anything with anything.  Beethoven
+picked his teeth with the snuffers, and seems to have picked them
+sufficiently to his satisfaction.  So Mr. Darwin with one of the
+worst styles imaginable did all that the clearest, tersest writer
+could have done.  Strange, that such a master of cunning (in the
+sense of my title) should have been the apostle of luck, and one so
+terribly unlucky as Lamarck, of cunning, but such is the irony of
+nature.  Buffon planted, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck watered, but it
+was Mr. Darwin who said, "That fruit is ripe," and shook it into his
+lap.
+
+With this Mr. Darwin's best friends ought to be content; his
+admirers are not well advised in representing him as endowed with
+all sorts of qualities which he was very far from possessing.  Thus
+it is pretended that he was one of those men who were ever on the
+watch for new ideas, ever ready to give a helping hand to those who
+were trying to advance our knowledge, ever willing to own to a
+mistake and give up even his most cherished ideas if truth required
+them at his hands.  No conception can be more wantonly inexact.  I
+grant that if a writer was sufficiently at once incompetent and
+obsequious Mr. Darwin was "ever ready," &c.  So the Emperors of
+Austria wash a few poor people's feet on some one of the festivals
+of the Church, but it would not be safe to generalise from this
+yearly ceremony, and conclude that the Emperors of Austria are in
+the habit of washing poor people's feet.  I can understand Mr.
+Darwin's not having taken any public notice, for example, of "Life
+and Habit," for though I did not attack him in force in that book,
+it was abundantly clear that an attack could not be long delayed,
+and a man may be pardoned for not doing anything to advertise the
+works of his opponents; but there is no excuse for his never having
+referred to Professor Hering's work either in "Nature," when
+Professor Ray Lankester first called attention to it (July 13,
+1876), or in some one of his subsequent books.  If his attitude
+towards those who worked in the same field as himself had been the
+generous one which his admirers pretend, he would have certainly
+come forward, not necessarily as adopting Professor Hering's theory,
+but still as helping it to obtain a hearing.
+
+His not having done so is of a piece with his silence about Buffon,
+Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck in the early editions of the "Origin of
+Species," and with the meagre reference to them which is alone found
+in the later ones.  It is of a piece also with the silence which Mr.
+Darwin invariably maintained when he saw his position irretrievably
+damaged, as, for example, by Mr. Spencer's objection already
+referred to, and by the late Professor Fleeming Jenkin in the North
+British Review (June 1867).  Science, after all, should form a
+kingdom which is more or less not of this world.  The ideal
+scientist should know neither self nor friend nor foe--he should be
+able to hob-nob with those whom he most vehemently attacks, and to
+fly at the scientific throat of those to whom he is personally most
+attached; he should be neither grateful for a favourable review nor
+displeased at a hostile one; his literary and scientific life should
+be something as far apart as possible from his social; it is thus,
+at least, alone that any one will be able to keep his eye single for
+facts, and their legitimate inferences.  We have seen Professor
+Mivart lately taken to task by Mr. Romanes for having said {248a}
+that Mr. Darwin was singularly sensitive to criticism, and made it
+impossible for Professor Mivart to continue friendly personal
+relations with him after he had ventured to maintain his own
+opinion.  I see no reason to question Professor Mivart's accuracy,
+and find what he has said to agree alike with my own personal
+experience of Mr. Darwin, and with all the light that his works
+throw upon his character.
+
+The most substantial apology that can be made for his attempt to
+claim the theory of descent with modification is to be found in the
+practice of Lamarck, Mr. Patrick Matthew, the author of the
+"Vestiges of Creation," and Mr. Herbert Spencer, and, again, in the
+total absence of complaint which this practice met with.  If Lamarck
+might write the "Philosophie Zoologique" without, so far as I
+remember, one word of reference to Buffon, and without being
+complained of, why might not Mr. Darwin write the "Origin of
+Species" without more than a passing allusion to Lamarck?  Mr.
+Patrick Matthew, again, though writing what is obviously a resume of
+the evolutionary theories of his time, makes no mention of Lamarck,
+Erasmus Darwin, or Buffon.  I have not the original edition of the
+"Vestiges of Creation" before me, but feel sure I am justified in
+saying that it claimed to be a more or less Minerva-like work, that
+sprang full armed from the brain of Mr. Chambers himself.  This at
+least is how it was received by the public; and, however violent the
+opposition it met with, I cannot find that its author was blamed for
+not having made adequate mention of Lamarck.  When Mr. Spencer wrote
+his first essay on evolution in the Leader (March 20, 1852) he did
+indeed begin his argument, "Those who cavalierly reject the doctrine
+of Lamarck," &c., so that his essay purports to be written in
+support of Lamarck; but when he republished his article in 1858, the
+reference to Lamarck was cut out.
+
+I make no doubt that it was the bad example set him by the writers
+named in the preceding paragraph which betrayed Mr. Darwin into
+doing as they did, but being more conscientious than they, he could
+not bring himself to do it without having satisfied himself that he
+had got hold of a more or less distinctive feature, and this, of
+course, made matters worse.  The distinctive feature was not due to
+any deep-laid plan for pitchforking mind out of the universe, or as
+part of a scheme of materialistic philosophy, though it has since
+been made to play an important part in the attempt to further this;
+Mr. Darwin was perfectly innocent of any intention of getting rid of
+mind, and did not, probably, care the toss of sixpence whether the
+universe was instinct with mind or no--what he did care about was
+carrying off the palm in the matter of descent with modification,
+and the distinctive feature was an adjunct with which his nervous,
+sensitive, Gladstonian nature would not allow him to dispense.
+
+And why, it may be asked, should not the palm be given to Mr. Darwin
+if he wanted it, and was at so much pains to get it?  Why, if
+science is a kingdom not of this world, make so much fuss about
+settling who is entitled to what?  At best such questions are of a
+sorry personal nature, that can have little bearing upon facts, and
+it is these that alone should concern us.  The answer is, that if
+the question is so merely personal and unimportant, Mr. Darwin may
+as well yield as Buffon, Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck; Mr. Darwin's
+admirers find no difficulty in appreciating the importance of a
+personal element as far as he is concerned; let them not wonder,
+then, if others, while anxious to give him the laurels to which he
+is entitled, are somewhat indignant at the attempt to crown him with
+leaves that have been filched from the brows of the great dead who
+went before him.  Palmam qui meruit ferat.  The instinct which tells
+us that no man in the scientific or literary world should claim more
+than his due is an old and, I imagine, a wholesome one, and if a
+scientific self-denying ordinance is demanded, we may reply with
+justice, Que messieurs les Charles-Darwinies commencent.  Mr. Darwin
+will have a crown sufficient for any ordinary brow remaining in the
+achievement of having done more than any other writer, living or
+dead, to popularise evolution.  This much may be ungrudgingly
+conceded to him, but more than this those who have his scientific
+position most at heart will be well advised if they cease henceforth
+to demand.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX--Conclusion
+
+
+
+And now I bring this book to a conclusion.  So many things requiring
+attention have happened since it was begun that I leave it in a very
+different shape to the one which it was originally intended to bear.
+I have omitted much that I had meant to deal with, and have been
+tempted sometimes to introduce matter the connection of which with
+my subject is not immediately apparent.  Such however, as the book
+is, it must now go in the form into which it has grown almost more
+in spite of me than from malice prepense on my part.  I was afraid
+that it might thus set me at defiance, and in an early chapter
+expressed a doubt whether I should find it redound greatly to my
+advantage with men of science; in this concluding chapter I may say
+that doubt has deepened into something like certainty.  I regret
+this, but cannot help it.
+
+Among the points with which it was most incumbent upon me to deal
+was that of vegetable intelligence.  A reader may well say that
+unless I give plants much the same sense of pleasure and pain,
+memory, power of will, and intelligent perception of the best way in
+which to employ their opportunities that I give to low animals, my
+argument falls to the ground.  If I declare organic modification to
+be mainly due to function, and hence in the closest correlation with
+mental change, I must give plants, as well as animals, a mind, and
+endow them with power to reflect and reason upon all that most
+concerns them.  Many who will feel little difficulty about admitting
+that animal modification is upon the whole mainly due to the secular
+cunning of the animals themselves will yet hesitate before they
+admit that plants also can have a reason and cunning of their own.
+
+Unwillingness to concede this is based principally upon the error
+concerning intelligence to which I have already referred--I mean to
+our regarding intelligence not so much as the power of understanding
+as that of being understood by ourselves.  Once admit that the
+evidence in favour of a plant's knowing its own business depends
+more on the efficiency with which that business is conducted than
+either on our power of understanding how it can be conducted, or on
+any signs on the plant's part of a capacity for understanding things
+that do not concern it, and there will be no further difficulty
+about supposing that in its own sphere a plant is just as
+intelligent as an animal, and keeps a sharp look-out upon its own
+interests, however indifferent it may seem to be to ours.  So strong
+has been the set of recent opinion in this direction that with
+botanists the foregoing now almost goes without saying, though few
+five years ago would have accepted it.
+
+To no one of the several workers in this field are we more indebted
+for the change which has been brought about in this respect than to
+my late valued and lamented friend Mr. Alfred Tylor.  Mr. Tylor was
+not the discoverer of the protoplasmic continuity that exists in
+plants, but he was among the very first to welcome this discovery,
+and his experiments at Carshalton in the years 1883 and 1884
+demonstrated that, whether there was protoplasmic continuity in
+plants or no, they were at any rate endowed with some measure of
+reason, forethought, and power of self-adaptation to varying
+surroundings.  It is not for me to give the details of these
+experiments.  I had the good fortune to see them more than once
+while they were in progress, and was present when they were made the
+subject of a paper read by Mr. Sydney B. J. Skertchly before the
+Linnean Society, Mr. Tylor being then too ill to read it himself.
+The paper has since been edited by Mr. Skertchly, and published.
+{253a}  Anything that should be said further about it will come best
+from Mr. Skertchly; it will be enough here if I give the resume of
+it prepared by Mr. Tylor himself.
+
+In this Mr. Tylor said:- "The principles which underlie this paper
+are the individuality of plants, the necessity for some co-
+ordinating system to enable the parts to act in concert, and the
+probability that this also necessitates the admission that plants
+have a dim sort of intelligence.
+
+"It is shown that a tree, for example, is something more than an
+aggregation of tissues, but is a complex being performing acts as a
+whole, and not merely responsive to the direct influence of light,
+&c.  The tree knows more than its branches, as the species know more
+than the individual, the community than the unit.
+
+"Moreover, inasmuch as my experiments show that many plants and
+trees possess the power of adapting themselves to unfamiliar
+circumstances, such as, for instance, avoiding obstacles by bending
+aside before touching, or by altering the leaf arrangement, it seems
+probable that at least as much voluntary power must be accorded to
+such plants as to certain lowly organised animals.
+
+"Finally, a connecting system by means of which combined movements
+take place is found in the threads of protoplasm which unite the
+various cells, and which I have now shown to exist even in the wood
+of trees.
+
+"One of the important facts seems to be the universality of the
+upward curvature of the tips of growing branches of trees, and the
+power possessed by the tree to straighten its branches afterwards,
+so that new growth shall by similar means be able to obtain the
+necessary light and air.
+
+"A house, to use a sanitary analogy, is functionally useless without
+it obtains a good supply of light and air.  The architect strives so
+to produce the house as to attain this end, and still leave the
+house comfortable.  But the house, though dependent upon, is not
+produced by, the light and air.  So a tree is functionally useless,
+and cannot even exist without a proper supply of light and air; but,
+whereas it has been the custom to ascribe the heliotropic and other
+motions to the direct influence of those agents, I would rather
+suggest that the movements are to some extent due to the desire of
+the plant to acquire its necessaries of life."
+
+The more I have reflected upon Mr. Tylor's Carshalton experiments,
+the more convinced I am of their great value.  No one, indeed, ought
+to have doubted that plants were intelligent, but we all of us do
+much that we ought not to do, and Mr. Tylor supplied a demonstration
+which may be henceforth authoritatively appealed to.
+
+I will take the present opportunity of insisting upon a suggestion
+which I made in "Alps and Sanctuaries" (New edition, pp. 152, 153),
+with which Mr. Tylor was much pleased, and which, at his request, I
+made the subject of a few words that I ventured to say at the
+Linnean Society's rooms after his paper had been read.  "Admitting,"
+I said, "the common protoplasmic origin of animals and plants, and
+setting aside the notion that plants preceded animals, we are still
+faced by the problem why protoplasm should have developed into the
+organic life of the world, along two main lines, and only two--the
+animal and the vegetable.  Why, if there was an early schism--and
+this there clearly was--should there not have been many subsequent
+ones of equal importance?  We see innumerable sub-divisions of
+animals and plants, but we see no other such great subdivision of
+organic life as that whereby it ranges itself, for the most part
+readily, as either animal or vegetable.  Why any subdivision?--but
+if any, why not more than two great classes?"
+
+The two main stems of the tree of life ought, one would think, to
+have been formed on the same principle as the boughs which represent
+genera, and the twigs which stand for species and varieties.  If
+specific differences arise mainly from differences of action taken
+in consequence of differences of opinion, then, so ultimately do
+generic; so, therefore, again, do differences between families; so
+therefore, by analogy, should that greatest of differences in virtue
+of which the world of life is mainly animal, or vegetable.  In this
+last case as much as in that of specific difference, we ought to
+find divergent form the embodiment and organic expression of
+divergent opinion.  Form is mind made manifest in flesh through
+action:  shades of mental difference being expressed in shades of
+physical difference, while broad fundamental differences of opinion
+are expressed in broad fundamental differences of bodily shape.
+
+Or to put it thus:-
+
+If form and habit be regarded as functionally interdependent, that
+is to say, if neither form nor habit can vary without corresponding
+variation in the other, and if habit and opinion concerning
+advantage are also functionally interdependent, it follows self-
+evidently that form and opinion concerning advantage (and hence form
+and cunning) will be functionally interdependent also, and that
+there can be no great modification of the one without corresponding
+modification of the other.  Let there, then, be a point in respect
+of which opinion might be early and easily divided--a point in
+respect of which two courses involving different lines of action
+presented equally-balanced advantages--and there would be an early
+subdivision of primordial life, according as the one view or the
+other was taken.
+
+It is obvious that the pros and cons for either course must be
+supposed very nearly equal, otherwise the course which presented the
+fewest advantages would be attended with the probable gradual
+extinction of the organised beings that adopted it, but there being
+supposed two possible modes of action very evenly balanced as
+regards advantage and disadvantages, then the ultimate appearance of
+two corresponding forms of life is a sequitur from the admission
+that form varies as function, and function as opinion concerning
+advantage.  If there are three, four, five, or six such opinions
+tenable, we ought to have three, four, five, or six main
+subdivisions of life.  As things are, we have two only.  Can we,
+then, see a matter on which opinion was likely to be easily and
+early divided into two, and only two, main divisions--no third
+course being conceivable?  If so, this should suggest itself as the
+probable source from which the two main forms of organic life have
+been derived.
+
+I submit that we can see such a matter in the question whether it
+pays better to sit still and make the best of what comes in one's
+way, or to go about in search of what one can find.  Of course we,
+as animals, naturally hold that it is better to go about in search
+of what we can find than to sit still and make the best of what
+comes; but there is still so much to be said on the other side, that
+many classes of animals have settled down into sessile habits, while
+a perhaps even larger number are, like spiders, habitual liers in
+wait rather than travellers in search of food.  I would ask my
+reader, therefore, to see the opinion that it is better to go in
+search of prey as formulated, and finding its organic expression, in
+animals; and the other--that it is better to be ever on the look-out
+to make the best of what chance brings up to them--in plants.  Some
+few intermediate forms still record to us the long struggle during
+which the schism was not yet complete, and the halting between two
+opinions which it might be expected that some organisms should
+exhibit.
+
+"Neither class," I said in "Alps and Sanctuaries," "has been quite
+consistent.  Who ever is or can be?  Every extreme--every opinion
+carried to its logical end--will prove to be an absurdity.  Plants
+throw out roots and boughs and leaves; this is a kind of locomotion;
+and, as Dr.  Erasmus Darwin long since pointed out, they do
+sometimes approach nearly to what may be called travelling; a man of
+consistent character will never look at a bough, a root, or a
+tendril without regarding it as a melancholy and unprincipled
+compromise" (New edition, p. 153).
+
+Having called attention to this view, and commended it to the
+consideration of my readers, I proceed to another which should not
+have been left to be touched upon only in a final chapter, and
+which, indeed, seems to require a book to itself--I refer to the
+origin and nature of the feelings, which those who accept volition
+as having had a large share in organic modification must admit to
+have had a no less large share in the formation of volition.
+Volition grows out of ideas, ideas from feelings.  What, then, is
+feeling, and the subsequent mental images or ideas?
+
+The image of a stone formed in our minds is no representation of the
+object which has given rise to it.  Not only, as has been often
+remarked, is there no resemblance between the particular thought and
+the particular thing, but thoughts and things generally are too
+unlike to be compared.  An idea of a stone may be like an idea of
+another stone, or two stones may be like one another; but an idea of
+a stone is not like a stone; it cannot be thrown at anything, it
+occupies no room in space, has no specific gravity, and when we come
+to know more about stones, we find our ideas concerning them to be
+but rude, epitomised, and highly conventional renderings of the
+actual facts, mere hieroglyphics, in fact, or, as it were, counters
+or bank-notes, which serve to express and to convey commodities with
+which they have no pretence of analogy.
+
+Indeed we daily find that, as the range of our perceptions becomes
+enlarged either by invention of new appliances or after use of old
+ones, we change our ideas though we have no reason to think that the
+thing about which we are thinking has changed.  In the case of a
+stone, for instance, the rude, unassisted, uneducated senses see it
+as above all things motionless, whereas assisted and trained ideas
+concerning it represent motion as its most essential characteristic;
+but the stone has not changed.  So, again, the uneducated idea
+represents it as above all things mindless, and is as little able to
+see mind in connection with it as it lately was to see motion; it
+will be no greater change of opinion than we have most of us
+undergone already if we come presently to see it as no less full of
+elementary mind than of elementary motion, but the stone will not
+have changed.
+
+The fact that we modify our opinions suggests that our ideas are
+formed not so much in involuntary self-adjusting mimetic
+correspondence with the objects that we believe to give rise to
+them, as by what was in the outset voluntary, conventional
+arrangement in whatever way we found convenient, of sensation and
+perception-symbols, which had nothing whatever to do with the
+objects, and were simply caught hold of as the only things we could
+grasp.  It would seem as if, in the first instance, we must have
+arbitrarily attached some one of the few and vague sensations which
+we could alone at first command, to certain motions of outside
+things as echoed by our brain, and used them to think and feel the
+things with, so as to docket them, and recognise them with greater
+force, certainty, and clearness--much as we use words to help us to
+docket and grasp our feelings and thoughts, or written characters to
+help us to docket and grasp our words.
+
+If this view be taken we stand in much the same attitude towards our
+feelings as a dog may be supposed to do towards our own reading and
+writing.  The dog may be supposed to marvel at the wonderful
+instinctive faculty by which we can tell the price of the different
+railway stocks merely by looking at a sheet of paper; he supposes
+this power to be a part of our nature, to have come of itself by
+luck and not by cunning, but a little reflection will show that
+feeling is not more likely to have "come by nature" than reading and
+writing are.  Feeling is in all probability the result of the same
+kind of slow laborious development as that which has attended our
+more recent arts and our bodily organs; its development must be
+supposed to have followed the same lines as that of our other arts,
+and indeed of the body itself, which is the ars artium--for growth
+of mind is throughout coincident with growth of organic resources,
+and organic resources grow with growing mind.
+
+Feeling is the art the possession of which differentiates the
+civilised organic world from that of brute inorganic matter, but
+still it is an art; it is the outcome of a mind that is common both
+to organic and inorganic, and which the organic has alone
+cultivated.  It is not a part of mind itself; it is no more this
+than language and writing are parts of thought.  The organic world
+can alone feel, just as man can alone speak; but as speech is only
+the development of powers the germs of which are possessed by the
+lower animals, so feeling is only a sign of the employment and
+development of powers the germs of which exist in inorganic
+substances.  It has all the characteristics of an art, and though it
+must probably rank as the oldest of those arts that are peculiar to
+the organic world, it is one which is still in process of
+development.  None of us, indeed, can feel well on more than a very
+few subjects, and many can hardly feel at all.
+
+But, however this may be, our sensations and perceptions of material
+phenomena are attendant on the excitation of certain motions in the
+anterior parts of the brain.  Whenever certain motions are excited
+in this substance, certain sensations and ideas of resistance,
+extension, &c., are either concomitant, or ensue within a period too
+brief for our cognisance.  It is these sensations and ideas that we
+directly cognise, and it is to them that we have attached the idea
+of the particular kind of matter we happen to be thinking of.  As
+this idea is not like the thing itself, so neither is it like the
+motions in our brain on which it is attendant.  It is no more like
+these than, say, a stone is like the individual characters, written
+or spoken, that form the word "stone," or than these last are, in
+sound, like the word "stone" itself, whereby the idea of a stone is
+so immediately and vividly presented to us.  True, this does not
+involve that our idea shall not resemble the object that gave rise
+to it, any more than the fact that a looking-glass bears no
+resemblance to the things reflected in it involves that the
+reflection shall not resemble the things reflected; the shifting
+nature, however, of our ideas and conceptions is enough to show that
+they must be symbolical, and conditioned by changes going on within
+ourselves as much as by those outside us; and if, going behind the
+ideas which suffice for daily use, we extend our inquiries in the
+direction of the reality underlying our conception, we find reason
+to think that the brain-motions which attend our conception
+correspond with exciting motions in the object that occasions it,
+and that these, rather than anything resembling our conception
+itself, should be regarded as the reality.
+
+This leads to a third matter, on which I can only touch with extreme
+brevity.
+
+Different modes of motion have long been known as the causes of our
+different colour perceptions, or at any rate as associated
+therewith, and of late years, more especially since the promulgation
+of Newlands' {260a} law, it has been perceived that what we call the
+kinds or properties of matter are not less conditioned by motion
+than colour is.  The substance or essence of unconditioned matter,
+as apart from the relations between its various states (which we
+believe to be its various conditions of motion) must remain for ever
+unknown to us, for it is only the relations between the conditions
+of the underlying substance that we cognise at all, and where there
+are no conditions, there is nothing for us to seize, compare, and,
+hence, cognise; unconditioned matter must, therefore, be as
+inconceivable by us as unmattered condition; {261a} but though we
+can know nothing about matter as apart from its conditions or
+states, opinion has been for some time tending towards the belief
+that what we call the different states, or kinds, of matter are only
+our ways of mentally characterising and docketing our estimates of
+the different kinds of motion going on in this otherwise
+uncognisable substratum.
+
+Our conception, then, concerning the nature of any matter depends
+solely upon its kind and degree of unrest, that is to say, on the
+characteristics of the vibrations that are going on within it.  The
+exterior object vibrating in a certain way imparts some of its
+vibrations to our brain--but if the state of the thing itself
+depends upon its vibrations, it must be considered as to all intents
+and purposes the vibrations themselves--plus, of course, the
+underlying substance that is vibrating.  If, for example, a pat of
+butter is a portion of the unknowable underlying substance in such-
+and-such a state of molecular disturbance, and it is only by
+alteration of the disturbance that the substance can be altered--the
+disturbance of the substance is practically equivalent to the
+substance:  a pat of butter is such-and-such a disturbance of the
+unknowable underlying substance, and such-and-such a disturbance of
+the underlying substance is a pat of butter.  In communicating its
+vibrations, therefore, to our brain a substance does actually
+communicate what is, as far as we are concerned, a portion of
+itself.  Our perception of a thing and its attendant feeling are
+symbols attaching to an introduction within our brain of a feeble
+state of the thing itself.  Our recollection of it is occasioned by
+a feeble continuance of this feeble state in our brains, becoming
+less feeble through the accession of fresh but similar vibrations
+from without.  The molecular vibrations which make the thing an idea
+of which is conveyed to our minds, put within our brain a little
+feeble emanation from the thing itself--if we come within their
+reach.  This being once put there, will remain as it were dust, till
+dusted out, or till it decay, or till it receive accession of new
+vibrations.
+
+The vibrations from a pat of butter do, then, actually put butter
+into a man's head.  This is one of the commonest of expressions, and
+would hardly be so common if it were not felt to have some
+foundation in fact.  At first the man does not know what feeling or
+complex of feelings to employ so as to docket the vibrations, any
+more than he knows what word to employ so as to docket the feelings,
+or with what written characters to docket his word; but he gets over
+this, and henceforward the vibrations of the exterior object (that
+is to say, the thing) never set up their characteristic
+disturbances, or, in other words, never come into his head, without
+the associated feeling presenting itself as readily as word and
+characters present themselves, on the presence of the feeling.  The
+more butter a man sees and handles, the more he gets butter on the
+brain--till, though he can never get anything like enough to be
+strictly called butter, it only requires the slightest molecular
+disturbance with characteristics like those of butter to bring up a
+vivid and highly sympathetic idea of butter in the man's mind.
+
+If this view is adopted, our memory of a thing is our retention
+within the brain of a small leaven of the actual thing itself, or of
+what qua us is the thing that is remembered, and the ease with which
+habitual actions come to be performed is due to the power of the
+vibrations having been increased and modified by continual accession
+from without till they modify the molecular disturbances of the
+nervous system, and therefore its material substance, which we have
+already settled to be only our way of docketing molecular
+disturbances.  The same vibrations, therefore, form the substance
+remembered, introduce an infinitesimal dose of it within the brain,
+modify the substance remembering, and, in the course of time, create
+and further modify the mechanism of both the sensory and motor
+nerves.  Thought and thing are one.
+
+I commend these two last speculations to the reader's charitable
+consideration, as feeling that I am here travelling beyond the
+ground on which I can safely venture; nevertheless, as it may be
+some time before I have another opportunity of coming before the
+public, I have thought it, on the whole, better not to omit them,
+but to give them thus provisionally.  I believe they are both
+substantially true, but am by no means sure that I have expressed
+them either clearly or accurately; I cannot, however, further delay
+the issue of my book.
+
+Returning to the point raised in my title, is luck, I would ask, or
+cunning, the more fitting matter to be insisted upon in connection
+with organic modification?  Do animals and plants grow into
+conformity with their surroundings because they and their fathers
+and mothers take pains, or because their uncles and aunts go away?
+For the survival of the fittest is only the non-survival or going
+away of the unfittest--in whose direct line the race is not
+continued, and who are therefore only uncles and aunts of the
+survivors.  I can quite understand its being a good thing for any
+race that its uncles and aunts should go away, but I do not believe
+the accumulation of lucky accidents could result in an eye, no
+matter how many uncles and aunts may have gone away during how many
+generations.
+
+I would ask the reader to bear in mind the views concerning life and
+death expressed in an early chapter.  They seem to me not, indeed,
+to take away any very considerable part of the sting from death;
+this should not be attempted or desired, for with the sting of death
+the sweets of life are inseparably bound up so that neither can be
+weakened without damaging the other.  Weaken the fear of death, and
+the love of life would be weakened.  Strengthen it, and we should
+cling to life even more tenaciously than we do.  But though death
+must always remain as a shock and change of habits from which we
+must naturally shrink--still it is not the utter end of our being,
+which, until lately, it must have seemed to those who have been
+unable to accept the grosser view of the resurrection with which we
+were familiarised in childhood.  We too now know that though worms
+destroy this body, yet in our flesh shall we so far see God as to be
+still in Him and of Him--biding our time for a resurrection in a new
+and more glorious body; and, moreover, that we shall be to the full
+as conscious of this as we are at present of much that concerns us
+as closely as anything can concern us.
+
+The thread of life cannot be shorn between successive generations,
+except upon grounds which will in equity involve its being shorn
+between consecutive seconds, and fractions of seconds.  On the other
+hand, it cannot be left unshorn between consecutive seconds without
+necessitating that it should be left unshorn also beyond the grave,
+as well as in successive generations.  Death is as salient a feature
+in what we call our life as birth was, but it is no more than this.
+As a salient feature, it is a convenient epoch for the drawing of a
+defining line, by the help of which we may better grasp the
+conception of life, and think it more effectually, but it is a facon
+de parler only; it is, as I said in "Life and Habit," {264a} "the
+most inexorable of all conventions," but our idea of it has no
+correspondence with eternal underlying realities.
+
+Finally, we must have evolution; consent is too spontaneous,
+instinctive, and universal among those most able to form an opinion,
+to admit of further doubt about this.  We must also have mind and
+design.  The attempt to eliminate intelligence from among the main
+agencies of the universe has broken down too signally to be again
+ventured upon--not until the recent rout has been forgotten.
+Nevertheless the old, far-foreseeing Deus ex machina design as from
+a point outside the universe, which indeed it directs, but of which
+it is no part, is negatived by the facts of organism.  What, then,
+remains, but the view that I have again in this book endeavoured to
+uphold--I mean, the supposition that the mind or cunning of which we
+see such abundant evidence all round us, is, like the kingdom of
+heaven, within us, and within all things at all times everywhere?
+There is design, or cunning, but it is a cunning not despotically
+fashioning us from without as a potter fashions his clay, but
+inhering democratically within the body which is its highest
+outcome, as life inheres within an animal or plant.
+
+All animals and plants are corporations, or forms of democracy, and
+may be studied by the light of these, as democracies, not
+infrequently, by that of animals and plants.  The solution of the
+difficult problem of reflex action, for example, is thus
+facilitated, by supposing it to be departmental in character; that
+is to say, by supposing it to be action of which the department that
+attends to it is alone cognisant, and which is not referred to the
+central government so long as things go normally.  As long,
+therefore, as this is the case, the central government is
+unconscious of what is going on, but its being thus unconscious is
+no argument that the department is unconscious also.
+
+I know that contradiction in terms lurks within much that I have
+said, but the texture of the world is a warp and woof of
+contradiction in terms; of continuity in discontinuity, and
+discontinuity in continuity; of unity in diversity, and of diversity
+in unity.  As in the development of a fugue, where, when the subject
+and counter subject have been enounced, there must henceforth be
+nothing new, and yet all must be new, so throughout organic life--
+which is as a fugue developed to great length from a very simple
+subject--everything is linked on to and grows out of that which
+comes next to it in order--errors and omissions excepted.  It
+crosses and thwarts what comes next to it with difference that
+involves resemblance, and resemblance that involves difference, and
+there is no juxtaposition of things that differ too widely by
+omission of necessary links, or too sudden departure from recognised
+methods of procedure.
+
+To conclude; bodily form may be almost regarded as idea and memory
+in a solidified state--as an accumulation of things each one of them
+so tenuous as to be practically without material substance.  It is
+as a million pounds formed by accumulated millionths of farthings;
+more compendiously it arises normally from, and through, action.
+Action arises normally from, and through, opinion.  Opinion, from,
+and through, hypothesis.  "Hypothesis," as the derivation of the
+word itself shows, is singularly near akin to "underlying, and only
+in part knowable, substratum;" and what is this but "God" translated
+from the language of Moses into that of Mr. Herbert Spencer?  The
+conception of God is like nature--it returns to us in another shape,
+no matter how often we may expel it.  Vulgarised as it has been by
+Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, and others who shall be nameless, it has
+been like every other corruptio optimi--pessimum:  used as a
+hieroglyph by the help of which we may better acknowledge the height
+and depth of our own ignorance, and at the same time express our
+sense that there is an unseen world with which we in some mysterious
+way come into contact, though the writs of our thoughts do not run
+within it--used in this way, the idea and the word have been found
+enduringly convenient.  The theory that luck is the main means of
+organic modification is the most absolute denial of God which it is
+possible for the human mind to conceive--while the view that God is
+in all His creatures, He in them and they in Him, is only expressed
+in other words by declaring that the main means of organic
+modification is, not luck, but cunning.
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+{17a}  "Nature," Nov. 12, 1885.
+
+{20a}  "Hist. Nat. Gen.," tom. ii. p. 411, 1859.
+
+{23a}  "Selections, &c."  Trubner & Co., 1884.  [Out of print.]
+
+{29a}  "Selections, &c., and Remarks on Romanes' 'Mental
+Intelligence in Animals,'" Trubner & Co., 1884. pp. 228, 229.  [Out
+of print.]
+
+{35a}  Quoted by M. Vianna De Lima in his "Expose Sommaire," &c., p.
+6.  Paris, Delagrave, 1886.
+
+{40a}  I have given the passage in full on p. 254a of my
+"Selections," &c.  [Now out of print.]  I observe that Canon
+Kingsley felt exactly the same difficulty that I had felt myself,
+and saw also how alone it could be met.  He makes the wood-wren say,
+"Something told him his mother had done it before him, and he was
+flesh of her flesh, life of her life, and had inherited her instinct
+(as we call hereditary memory, to avoid the trouble of finding out
+what it is and how it comes)." --Fraser, June, 1867.  Canon Kingsley
+felt he must insist on the continued personality of the two
+generations before he could talk about inherited memory.  On the
+other hand, though he does indeed speak of this as almost a synonym
+for instinct, he seems not to have realised how right he was, and
+implies that we should find some fuller and more satisfactory
+explanation behind this, only that we are too lazy to look for it.
+
+{44a}  26 Sept., 1877.  "Unconscious Memory."  ch. ii.
+
+{52a}  This chapter is taken almost entirely from my book,
+"Selections, &c.. and Remarks on Romanes' 'Mental Evolution in
+Animals.'"  Trubner, 1884.  [Now out of print.]
+
+{52b}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 113.  Kegan Paul, Nov.,
+1883.
+
+{52c}  Ibid. p. 115.
+
+{52d}  Ibid. p. 116.
+
+{53a}  "Mental Evolution in Animals."  p. 131.  Kegan Paul, Nov.,
+1883.
+
+{54a}  Vol.  I, 3rd ed., 1874, p. 141, and Problem I. 21.
+
+{54b}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," pp. 177, 178.  Nov., 1883.
+
+{55a}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 192.
+
+{55b}  Ibid. p. 195.
+
+{55c}  Ibid. p. 296.  Nov., 1883.
+
+{56a}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 33.  Nov., 1883.
+
+{56b}  Ibid., p. 116.
+
+{56c}  Ibid., p. 178.
+
+{59a}  "Evolution Old and New," pp. 357, 358.
+
+{60a}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 159.  Kegan Paul & Co.,
+1883.
+
+{61a}  "Zoonomia," vol. i. p. 484.
+
+{61b}   "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 297.  Kegan Paul & Co.,
+1883.
+
+{61c}  Ibid., p. 201.  Kegan Paul & Co., 1883.
+
+{62a}  "Mental Evolution in Animals," p. 301.  November, 1883.
+
+{62b}  Origin of Species," ed. i. p. 209.
+
+{62c}  Ibid., ed. vi., 1876. p. 206.
+
+{62d}  "Formation of Vegetable Mould," etc., p. 98.
+
+{62e}  Quoted by Mr. Romanes as written in the last year of Mr.
+Darwin's life.
+
+{63a}  Macmillan, 1883.
+
+{66a}  "Nature," August 5, 1886.
+
+{67a}  London, H. K. Lewis, 1886.
+
+{70a}  "Charles Darwin."  Longmans, 1885.
+
+{70b}  Lectures at the London Institution, Feb., 1886.
+
+{70c}  "Charles Darwin."  Leipzig. 1885.
+
+{72a}  See Professor Hering's "Zur Lehre von der Beziehung zwischen
+Leib und Seele.  Mittheilung uber Fechner's psychophysisches
+Gesetz."
+
+{73a}  Quoted by M. Vianna De Lima in his "Expose Sommaire des
+Theories Transformistes de Lamarck, Darwin, et Haeckel."  Paris,
+1886, p. 23.
+
+{81a}  "Origin of Species," ed. i., p. 6; see also p. 43.
+
+{83a}  "I think it can be shown that there is such a power at work
+in 'Natural Selection' (the title of my book)."--"Proceedings of the
+Linnean Society for 1858," vol. iii., p. 51.
+
+{86a}  "On Naval Timber and Arboriculture," 1831, pp. 384, 385.  See
+also "Evolution Old and New," pp. 320, 321.
+
+{87a}  "Origin of Species," p. 49, ed. vi.
+
+{92a}  "Origin of Species," ed. i., pp. 188, 189.
+
+{93a}  Page 9.
+
+{94a}  Page 226.
+
+{96a}  "Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society."
+Williams and Norgate, 1858, p. 61.
+
+{102a}  "Zoonomia," vol. i., p. 505.
+
+{104a}  See "Evolution Old and New."  p. 122.
+
+{105a}  "Phil. Zool.," i., p. 80.
+
+{105b}  Ibid., i. 82.
+
+{105c}  Ibid. vol. i., p. 237.
+
+{107a}  See concluding chapter.
+
+{122a}  Report, 9, 26.
+
+{135a}  Ps. cii. 25-27, Bible version.
+
+{136a}  Ps. cxxxix., Prayer-book version.
+
+{140a}  Contemporary Review, August, 1885, p. 84.
+
+{142a}  London, David Bogue, 1881, p. 60.
+
+{144a}  August 12, 1886.
+
+{150a}  Paris, Delagrave, 1886.
+
+{150b}  Page 60.
+
+{150c}  "OEuvre completes," tom. ix. p. 422.  Paris, Garnier freres,
+1875.
+
+{150d}  "Hist. Nat.," tom. i., p. 13, 1749, quoted "Evol. Old and
+New," p. 108.
+
+{156a}  "Origin of Species," ed. vi., p. 107.
+
+{156b}  Ibid., ed. vi., p. 166.
+
+{157a}  "Origin of Species," ed. vi., p. 233.
+
+{157b}  Ibid.
+
+{157c}  Ibid., ed. vi., p. 109.
+
+{157d}  Ibid., ed. vi., p. 401.
+
+{158a}  "Origin of Species," ed. i., p. 490.
+
+{161a}   "Origin of Species," ed. vi., 1876, p. 171.
+
+{163a}  "Charles Darwin," p. 113.
+
+{164a}  "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 367,
+ed. 1875.
+
+{168a}  Page 3.
+
+{168b}  Page 4.
+
+{169a}  It should be remembered this was the year in which the
+"Vestiges of Creation" appeared.
+
+{173a}  "Charles Darwin," p. 67.
+
+{173b}  H. S. King & Co., 1876.
+
+{174a}  Page 17.
+
+{195a}  "Phil. Zool.," tom. i., pp. 34, 35.
+
+{202a}  "Origin of Species," p. 381, ed. i.
+
+{203a}  Page 454, ed. i.
+
+{205a}  "Principles of Geology," vol. ii., chap. xxxiv., ed. 1872.
+
+{206a}  "Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte," p. 3.  Berlin, 1868.
+
+{209a}  See "Evolution Old and New," pp. 8, 9.
+
+{216a}  "Vestiges," &c., ed. 1860; Proofs, Illustrations, &c., p.
+xiv.
+
+{216b}  Examiner, May 17, 1879, review of "Evolution Old and New."
+
+{218a}  Given in part in "Evolution Old and New."
+
+{219a}  "Mind," p. 498, Oct., 1883.
+
+{224a}  "Degeneration," 1880, p. 10.
+
+{227a}  E.g. the Rev. George Henslow, in "Modern Thought," vol. ii.,
+No. 5, 1881.
+
+{232a}  "Nature," Aug. 6, 1886.
+
+{234a}  See Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under Domestication,"
+vol. i., p. 466, &c., ed. 1875.
+
+{235a}  Paris, 1873, Introd., p. vi.
+
+{235b}  "Hist. Nat. Gen.," ii. 404, 1859.
+
+{239a}  As these pages are on the point of going to press, I see
+that the writer of an article on Liszt in the "Athenaeum" makes the
+same emendation on Shakespeare's words that I have done.
+
+{240a}  "Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle," vol. iii., p. 373.
+London, 1839.
+
+{242a}  See Professor Paley, "Fraser," Jan., 1882, "Science Gossip,"
+Nos. 162, 163, June and July, 1878, and "Nature," Jan. 3, Jan. 10,
+Feb. 28, and March 27, 1884.
+
+{245a}  "Formation of Vegetable Mould," etc., p. 217.  Murray, 1882.
+
+{248a}  "Fortnightly Review," Jan., 1886.
+
+{253a}  "On the Growth of Trees and Protoplasmic Continuity."
+London, Stanford, 1886.
+
+{260a}  Sometimes called Mendelejeff's (see "Monthly Journal of
+Science," April, 1884).
+
+{261a}  I am aware that attempts have been made to say that we can
+conceive a condition of matter, although there is no matter in
+connection with it--as, for example, that we can have motion without
+anything moving (see "Nature," March 5, March 12, and April 9,
+1885)--but I think it little likely that this opinion will meet
+general approbation.
+
+{264a}  Page 53.
+
+
+
+
+
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