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+Project Gutenberg's The Capitals of Spanish America, by William Eleroy Curtis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Capitals of Spanish America
+
+Author: William Eleroy Curtis
+
+Release Date: October 24, 2015 [EBook #50298]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Chuck Greif and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                         [Illustration: MAP OF
+
+                             SOUTH AMERICA
+
+ TO ILLUSTRATE “THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA.” BY WM ELEROY CURTIS]
+
+
+
+
+                             THE CAPITALS
+
+                                  OF
+
+                            SPANISH AMERICA
+
+                                  BY
+
+                         WILLIAM ELEROY CURTIS
+
+    LATE COMMISSIONER FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE GOVERNMENTS OF
+                       CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA
+
+                              ILLUSTRATED
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                  HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE
+
+                Copyright, 1888, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
+
+                        _All rights reserved._
+
+                                  TO
+
+                             THE MEMORY OF
+
+                          CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR
+
+              TWENTY-FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+                             THIS BOOK IS
+
+                               Dedicated
+
+   HIS KINDNESS MADE ITS PUBLICATION POSSIBLE; AND HIS AFFECTIONATE
+              INTEREST ADDED PLEASURE TO ITS PREPARATION
+
+           _Mr. Arthur’s Acceptance of the Dedication._
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+New York, April 7, 1887.
+
+_William E. Curtis, Esquire, Washington_:
+
+     DEAR SIR,--In compliance with your request, I enclose an unsigned
+     draft of a letter dictated by Mr. Arthur last November. It was
+     submitted to him a few days before he died, and as he desired to
+     make no further changes in the text, I was to have a clean copy
+     made for his signature; but he was fatally stricken before that was
+     done.
+
+Very respectfully yours,
+JAMES C. REED.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+November 13, 1886.
+
+     MY DEAR CURTIS,--The graceful terms in which you propose to
+     dedicate your book to me add still another obligation that I may
+     not be able to repay.
+
+     I appointed you Secretary of the South American Commission without
+     your solicitation, because I knew your ability, energy, and
+     industry would be felt as they have been in the effort to bring our
+     Spanish-American neighbors into closer commercial and political
+     relations with us.
+
+     I had given much consideration to the subject, and realized what is
+     made so clear in the Reports of the South American Commission, that
+     the future commercial prosperity of the United States required
+     something to be done to extend our trade with the continent
+     southward. The Commission, of which you were Secretary and
+     subsequently became a member, was intended as an initiatory step in
+     that direction.
+
+     In my judgment, it is not only the duty of the United States to
+     encourage and assist our merchants and manufacturers in the
+     expansion of their foreign trade, by seeking new markets and
+     furnishing facilities for reaching them, but there is a higher
+     achievement in promoting the welfare of our sister republics
+     through the consistent exercise of every friendly office tending to
+     secure their peaceable development and national prosperity.
+
+     I am sure your “The Capitals of Spanish America” will furnish our
+     own people with trustworthy and late news about our neighbors to
+     the southward, and that your graphic pen will make the book as
+     interesting as it is instructive. I shall await its publication
+     with very deep interest.
+
+     If my strength permits, it will give me great pleasure to act upon
+     your suggestion,[A] but just now I am hardly equal to the demands
+     of my private correspondence. With cordial regard,
+
+I am faithfully yours,
+
+----
+
+_To_ WILLIAM E. CURTIS,
+
+Washington, D. C.
+
+      [A] To write an Introduction to this volume.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+MEXICO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO                                                  1
+
+GUATEMALA CITY.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF GUATEMALA                                              60
+
+COMAYAGUA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF HONDURAS                                              114
+
+MANAGUA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF NICARAGUA                                             138
+
+SAN SALVADOR.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF SAN SALVADOR                                          171
+
+SAN JOSÉ.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF COSTA RICA                                            196
+
+BOGOTA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF COLOMBIA                                              225
+
+CARACAS.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF VENEZUELA                                             257
+
+QUITO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF ECUADOR                                               298
+
+LIMA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF PERU                                                  355
+
+LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA                                               416
+
+SANTIAGO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF CHILI                                                 454
+
+PATAGONIA                                                            516
+
+BUENOS AYRES.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC                                542
+
+MONTEVIDEO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF URUGUAY                                               591
+
+ASUNCION.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF PARAGUAY                                              623
+
+RIO DE JANEIRO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF BRAZIL                                                660
+
+INDEX                                                                707
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA                                       _Frontispiece_.
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+It was used in the Days of Moses                                       2
+
+A Water-carrier                                                        3
+
+Ruins of the Covered Way to the Inquisition                            4
+
+Mexican Muleteer                                                       5
+
+Shops                                                                  6
+
+Castle of Chapultepec                                                  7
+
+Tile Front                                                             9
+
+The Tree of Montezuma                                                 10
+
+Prince Yturbide                                                       11
+
+General Grant on a Banana Plantation                                  15
+
+Church of Guadalupe                                                   19
+
+Iztaccihuatl                                                          20
+
+Ex-President Gonzales                                                 22
+
+President Porfirio Diaz                                               23
+
+The Dome                                                              25
+
+San Cosme Aqueduct, City of Mexico                                    27
+
+The Palace of Mexico                                                  29
+
+The Cathedral, City of Mexico                                         33
+
+Styles of Architecture                                                35
+
+A Mexican Caballero                                                   38
+
+Noche Triste Tree                                                     41
+
+The Picadors                                                          45
+
+Teasing the Bull                                                      45
+
+The Encore                                                            46
+
+Mexican Beggar                                                        48
+
+On Market-day                                                         51
+
+Sunday at Santa Anita                                                 53
+
+A Mexican Belle                                                       54
+
+Cactus, and Woman kneading Tortillas                                  55
+
+First Protestant Church in Mexico                                     57
+
+The first Christian Pulpit in America--Tlaxcala                       58
+
+Font in old Church of San Francisco                                   59
+
+View of Guatemala City                                                61
+
+Ruins of the old Palace at Antigua Guatemala                          65
+
+Alvarado’s Tree                                                       69
+
+Ancient Arches                                                        70
+
+The Old and the New                                                   71
+
+How the Old Town looks now                                            73
+
+Fragment of a Ruined Monastery                                        74
+
+José Rufino Barrios                                                   75
+
+Francisco Morazan                                                     77
+
+Church of San Francesca, Guatemala la Antigua                         79
+
+One of fifty-seven Ruined Monasteries                                 81
+
+Façade of an old Church                                               83
+
+A Remnant                                                             85
+
+Fort of San José, Guatemala                                           87
+
+Yniensi Gate, Guatemala                                               89
+
+A Volcanic Lake                                                       91
+
+On the Road to the Capital                                            93
+
+Tiled House-tops                                                      99
+
+Market-place, Guatemala                                              101
+
+In the Rainy Season                                                  102
+
+Maguey Plant                                                         103
+
+A Native Sandal                                                      107
+
+Ornamental, but noisy                                                109
+
+A Conspicuous Landmark                                               115
+
+The Trail to the Capital                                             116
+
+A Glimpse of the Interior                                            117
+
+View of the Capital                                                  118
+
+A Popular Thoroughfare                                               119
+
+Church of Merced and Independence Monument, Comayagua                120
+
+Rubber Hunters                                                       121
+
+The Pita Plant                                                       122
+
+Harvesting one of the Staples                                        123
+
+The Floating Population                                              124
+
+Branch of the Rubber-tree                                            125
+
+A Modern Town                                                        126
+
+Up the River                                                         127
+
+A Mining Settlement                                                  128
+
+View in Nicaragua                                                    129
+
+An Interior Plain                                                    130
+
+One of the Back Streets                                              132
+
+Plaza of Tegucigalpa                                                 133
+
+Making Tortillas                                                     134
+
+Indigo Works                                                         135
+
+The Tlachiguero                                                      136
+
+View of Lake from Beach at Managua                                   139
+
+Corinto                                                              140
+
+Hide-covered Cart                                                    141
+
+An Interior Town                                                     143
+
+The Indigo Plant                                                     144
+
+The King of the Mosquitoes                                           145
+
+A Mahogany Swamp                                                     148
+
+Internal Commerce                                                    149
+
+How the Peons live                                                   150
+
+A Familiar Scene                                                     152
+
+A Country Chapel                                                     153
+
+The United States Consulate                                          154
+
+Cathedral of St. Peter, Leon                                         155
+
+The Pacific Coast of Nicaragua                                       158
+
+Antics on the Bridge                                                 159
+
+In the Upper Zone                                                    161
+
+Volcanoes of Axusco and Momotombo, from the Cathedral                162
+
+Volcano of Cosequina, from the Sea                                   163
+
+La Union and Volcano of Conchagna                                    164
+
+The Fate of Filibusters                                              165
+
+A Farming Settlement                                                 167
+
+The Quesal                                                           168
+
+Landing at La Libertad                                               173
+
+En Route to the Interior                                             175
+
+The Peak of San Salvador                                             177
+
+The Plaza                                                            179
+
+Spanish-American Courtship                                           180
+
+A Hacienda                                                           182
+
+Interior of a San Salvador House                                     183
+
+A Typical Town                                                       185
+
+What alarms the Citizens                                             186
+
+Yzalco from a Distance                                               189
+
+Yzalco                                                               191
+
+In the Interior                                                      193
+
+Hauling Sugar-cane                                                   194
+
+Crater of a Volcano                                                  197
+
+Rubber-trees                                                         199
+
+The Road from Port Limon to San José                                 201
+
+A Peon                                                               203
+
+A Banana Plantation                                                  206
+
+Picking Coffee                                                       209
+
+The Marimba                                                          215
+
+Coffee-drying                                                        217
+
+Don Bernardo de Soto, President of Costa Rica                        222
+
+Barranquilla                                                         226
+
+Carthagena                                                           227
+
+Entrance to the Old Fortress, Carthagena                             230
+
+Colombian Military Men                                               233
+
+On the Magdalena                                                     235
+
+Colombian ’Gators                                                    237
+
+Vegetable Ivory Plant                                                239
+
+En Route to Bogota                                                   241
+
+Sabana of Bogota                                                     243
+
+Santa Fé de Bogota                                                   245
+
+Monument in the Plaza of Los Martirs                                 246
+
+Plaza, and Statue of Bolivar                                         247
+
+Going to the Market                                                  249
+
+A Caballero                                                          250
+
+An Orchid                                                            251
+
+Over the Mountains in a “Silla”                                      253
+
+Natural Bridge of Pandi, Colombia                                    255
+
+Don Rafael Nuñez, President                                          256
+
+Waiting for the New York Steamer                                     259
+
+In the Suburbs of La Guayra                                          261
+
+Still more Suburban                                                  263
+
+On a Coffee Plantation                                               267
+
+On a Back Street                                                     269
+
+Interior Court of a Caracas House                                    273
+
+Spanish Missionary Work                                              276
+
+Woman’s chief Occupation                                             277
+
+A Bodega                                                             279
+
+A Glass of Aguardiente                                               281
+
+A Venezuela Belle                                                    283
+
+The Lower Floor of the House                                         285
+
+An Old Patio                                                         289
+
+Chocolate in the Rough                                               293
+
+Separating the Cocoa-beans                                           294
+
+Puerto Cabello                                                       296
+
+Along the Coast                                                      299
+
+The River at Guayaquil                                               301
+
+The River above Guayaquil                                            303
+
+An average Dwelling                                                  304
+
+Guayaquil                                                            305
+
+A Person of Influence                                                306
+
+A Family Circle                                                      307
+
+Cathedral at Guayaquil, built of Bamboo                              308
+
+A Commercial Thoroughfare                                            309
+
+The President’s Palace                                               310
+
+The Outskirts of Guayaquil                                           311
+
+A Business of Importance                                             312
+
+A Pineapple Farm                                                     313
+
+A Water Merchant                                                     314
+
+A Freight Train on the Way                                           315
+
+A Passenger Train                                                    316
+
+The Common Carrier                                                   317
+
+Hotel on the Route to Quito                                          318
+
+Waiting for the Mules to Feed                                        319
+
+En Route to the Sea                                                  320
+
+Somewhere near the Summit                                            321
+
+The Altar                                                            323
+
+A Street in Quito                                                    324
+
+Where Pizarro first Landed                                           325
+
+Equipped for the Andes                                               327
+
+The Old Inca Trail                                                   329
+
+A Typical Country Mansion                                            331
+
+A Wayside Shrine                                                     332
+
+Charcoal Peddler                                                     333
+
+Government Building at Quito                                         335
+
+Court of a Quito Dwelling                                            336
+
+What the Earthquakes left                                            338
+
+A Professional Beggar                                                339
+
+An Ecuador Belle                                                     340
+
+A Hotel on the Coast                                                 343
+
+Customs Officers                                                     346
+
+A Home on the Coast                                                  347
+
+Peruvian Soldier and Rabona                                          349
+
+Looking Seaward                                                      352
+
+A Boatman on the Coast                                               354
+
+Lima and its Environs                                                356
+
+A Peruvian Interior                                                  358
+
+Grand Plaza, Lima                                                    363
+
+A Peruvian Chamber                                                   366
+
+Interior of a Lima Dwelling                                          368
+
+A Peruvian Palace                                                    369
+
+A Peruvian Belle                                                     370
+
+Watching the Procession                                              371
+
+The Daughter of the Incas                                            373
+
+Ruins of the War                                                     375
+
+Interior of the ordinary Sort of House                               378
+
+A very Common Spectacle                                              379
+
+A Peruvian Milk-peddler                                              381
+
+Mindless of Care                                                     383
+
+View of Cuzco and the Nevado
+of Asungata from the Brow of the Sacsahuaman                         389
+
+Between Battles, Balls                                               393
+
+A Warrior at Rest                                                    397
+
+Gate-way to the Andes                                                399
+
+Henry Meiggs                                                         402
+
+The Heart of the Andes                                               404
+
+An Inca Reminiscence                                                 405
+
+Cowhide Bridge over the Rimac                                        407
+
+Inca Ruins of Unknown Age                                            408
+
+A Settlement of this Century                                         409
+
+A City of Four Centuries Ago                                         410
+
+A Bit of Inca Architecture                                           411
+
+Relic of a Past Civilization                                         412
+
+Ruins of the Temple of the Sun                                       413
+
+An Old Settler                                                       414
+
+Fresh from the Tomb                                                  414
+
+Where Peru’s Wealth came from                                        417
+
+A Peruvian Port                                                      419
+
+The Old Trail                                                        420
+
+Arequipa                                                             421
+
+The Vicuña                                                           424
+
+Lake Titicaca                                                        425
+
+A Street in Cuzco                                                    428
+
+Ruins of an Inca Temple                                              429
+
+Convent of Santa Domingo, Cuzco                                      430
+
+What the Spaniards left                                              431
+
+Where the Guano Lies                                                 432
+
+A Nitrate Mining Town                                                433
+
+Guano Islands                                                        435
+
+Across the Continent                                                 437
+
+A Station on the Road                                                438
+
+Chasquis at Rest                                                     440
+
+Chasquis Asleep in the Mountains                                     441
+
+A Bit of La Paz                                                      442
+
+The Cathedral at La Paz                                              443
+
+An Ancient Bridge in La Paz                                          445
+
+A Bolivian Elevator                                                  446
+
+A Bolivian Cavalryman                                                447
+
+A Home in the Andes                                                  448
+
+Juan Fernandez                                                       450
+
+Cumberland Bay                                                       451
+
+Tablet to Alexander Selkirk                                          453
+
+The Harbor of Valparaiso                                             455
+
+Victoria Street, Valparaiso                                          459
+
+Santa Lucia                                                          467
+
+The Zama-cuaca                                                       469
+
+Exposition Building, Santiago                                        471
+
+Statue of Bernard O’Higgins, Santiago                                474
+
+Patrick Lynch                                                        475
+
+Peons of Chili                                                       477
+
+The “Esmeralda”                                                      481
+
+Inca Queen and Princess                                              485
+
+Señora Cousino                                                       491
+
+A Belle of Chili dressed for Morning Mass                            497
+
+A Solid Silver Spur                                                  505
+
+Over the Andes                                                       506
+
+Mount Aconcagua                                                      507
+
+Uspallata Pass                                                       509
+
+Caught in the Snow                                                   511
+
+Road Cut in the Rocks                                                512
+
+A Station in the Mountains                                           513
+
+The Condor                                                           515
+
+Cape Froward (Patagonia), Strait of Magellan                         517
+
+Fuegians Visiting a Man-of-war                                       519
+
+A Fuegian Feast                                                      521
+
+The Signs of Civilization                                            523
+
+Port Famine                                                          526
+
+Starvation Beach                                                     529
+
+Use of Lasso and Bolas                                               531
+
+In their Ostrich Robes                                               532
+
+A Patagonian Belle                                                   533
+
+The Guanaco                                                          539
+
+Patagonian Indians                                                   541
+
+The Harbor, Buenos Ayres                                             542
+
+The City of Buenos Ayres                                             545
+
+Loading Cargo at Buenos Ayres                                        548
+
+Going Ashore at Buenos Ayres                                         549
+
+A Private Residence in Buenos Ayres                                  552
+
+The Colon Theatre, Buenos Ayres                                      554
+
+An Argentine Ranchman                                                564
+
+The Cathedral of Buenos Ayres                                        567
+
+The Gaucho                                                           570
+
+General Rosas                                                        573
+
+Palace of Don Manuel Rosas                                           575
+
+Map of the Argentine Republic                                        580
+
+Country Scene in the Argentine Republic                              584
+
+Juarez Celman, President of the Argentine Republic                   587
+
+The City of Montevideo, looking towards the Harbor                   591
+
+Harbor of Montevideo                                                 593
+
+Maximo Santos, of Uruguay                                            595
+
+One of the Old Streets                                               597
+
+Montevideo--the Ocean Side                                           603
+
+Scene in Montevideo                                                  608
+
+Gaspar Francia, First President of Paraguay                          624
+
+Street in Asuncion                                                   625
+
+Lopez, the Tyrant                                                    626
+
+After the War                                                        627
+
+Asuncion, from the West                                              628
+
+Asuncion--the Palace and Cathedral                                   629
+
+Wreck of the Old Cathedral                                           631
+
+Station on the Asuncion Railway                                      633
+
+A Visit to the Spring                                                634
+
+The Paraguayans at Home                                              635
+
+Paraguay Flower-girl                                                 636
+
+Remains of the Palace of Lopez                                       637
+
+Interior of the Lopez Palace                                         639
+
+The Cathedral, Asuncion                                              640
+
+Market-place at Asuncion                                             641
+
+A Paraguay Horseman                                                  642
+
+Paraguay Belles                                                      643
+
+Costumes of the Interior                                             644
+
+An Interior Town                                                     645
+
+Home, Sweet Home                                                     646
+
+The Mandioca                                                         647
+
+Ox-cart on the Pampas                                                649
+
+Curing Yerba Mate                                                    650
+
+A Siesta                                                             651
+
+A Paraguay Hotel                                                     653
+
+Native Pappoose and Cradle                                           654
+
+A Hacienda                                                           655
+
+People of “El Gran Chaco”                                            656
+
+An Armadillo                                                         657
+
+A Ranch on El Gran Chaco                                             658
+
+Bay of Rio de Janeiro                                                661
+
+A Street in Rio                                                      662
+
+The City of Rio from the Bay                                         663
+
+Aqueduct at Rio                                                      665
+
+The Avenue of Royal Palms--Rio                                       666
+
+The Prettiest Things in Brazil                                       667
+
+A Brazilian Hacienda                                                 669
+
+The Old City Palace                                                  671
+
+In the Suburbs                                                       672
+
+Cottages in the Interior                                             673
+
+The Iguana                                                           675
+
+A Brazilian Laundry                                                  676
+
+A Country School                                                     677
+
+Brazilian Country-house                                              679
+
+Up the River                                                         681
+
+Dom Pedro II.                                                        682
+
+On the Way to Petropolis                                             683
+
+The Empress of Brazil                                                685
+
+Dom Pedro’s Palace at Petropolis                                     687
+
+The Colored Saint                                                    691
+
+Statue of Dom Pedro I.                                               693
+
+Carrying Coffee to the Steamer                                       696
+
+Market-place in Country Town                                         697
+
+“Sereno-o-o-o-o-o! Sereno-o-o-o-o-o!”                                699
+
+Slave Quarters in the Country                                        702
+
+The Political Issue in Brazil                                        703
+
+Military Men                                                         705
+
+
+
+
+THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA.
+
+
+
+
+MEXICO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+
+
+With the exception of Buenos Ayres and Santiago, Chili, the city of
+Mexico is the largest and the finest capital in Spanish America; but
+unfortunately the shadow of the sixteenth century still rests upon it.
+It wounds the pride of the Yankee tourist to discover that so little of
+our boasted influence has lapped over the border, and that the historic
+halls of the Montezumas are only spattered with the modern ideas we
+exemplify. The native traveller still prefers his donkey to the railroad
+train, and carries a burden upon his back instead of using a wagon.
+Water is still peddled about the capital of Mexico in jars, and the
+native farmer uses a plough whose pattern was old in the days of Moses.
+Nowhere do ancient and modern customs come into such intimate contrast
+as in the city of Mexico.
+
+The people are highly civilized in spots. Besides the most novel and
+recent product of modern science, one finds in use the crudest, rudest
+implement of antiquity. Types of four centuries can be seen in a single
+group in any of the plazas. Under the finest palaces, whose ceilings are
+frescoed by Italian artists, whose walls are covered with the rarest
+paintings, and shelter libraries selected with the choicest taste, one
+finds a common _bodega_, where the native drink is dealt out in gourds,
+and the _peon_ stops to eat his _tortilla_. Women and men are seen
+carrying upon their heads enormous burdens through streets lighted by
+electricity, and stop to ask through a telephone where their load shall
+be delivered.
+
+[Illustration: IT WAS USED IN THE DAYS OF MOSES.]
+
+The correspondence of the Government is dictated to stenographers and
+transcribed upon type-writers; and every form of modern improvement for
+the purpose of economizing time and saving labor is given the
+opportunity of a test, even if it is not permanently adopted. There is
+no Government that gives greater encouragement to inventive genius than
+the administration of President Diaz, and it has been one of the highest
+aims of his official career to modernize Mexico. The twelve years from
+1876, when he came into power, until 1889, when his third term
+commenced, may be reckoned the progressive age of our neighborly
+republic; but the common people are still prejudiced against
+innovations, and resist them. In all the public places, and at the
+entrance of the post-office, are men squatting upon the pavement, with
+an inkhorn and a pad of paper, whose business is to conduct the
+correspondence of those whose literary attainments are unequal to the
+task. Such odd things are still to be seen at the capital of a nation
+that subsidizes steamship lines and railways, and supports schools where
+all the modern languages and sciences are taught, and has a compulsory
+education law upon its statute-books. In the old Inquisition Building,
+where the bodies of Jews and heretics have been racked and roasted, is
+a medical college, sustained by the Government for the free education of
+all students whose attainments reach the standard of matriculation; and
+bones are now sawn asunder in the name of science instead of religion.
+
+[Illustration: A WATER-CARRIER.]
+
+The country within whose limits can be produced every plant that grows
+between the equator and the arctics, and whose mines have yielded
+one-half of the existing silver in the world, is habitually bankrupt,
+and wooden effigies of saints stolen from the churches are sold as fuel
+for locomotives purchased with the proceeds of public taxation. What
+Mexico needs most is peace, industry, and education. The Government now
+pays a bounty to steamships upon every immigrant they bring, and is
+importing coolie labor to develop the coffee and sugar lands. Since 1876
+there has not been a political revolution of any importance, and the
+prospect of permanent peace is hopeful.
+
+The political struggle in Mexico, since the independence of the
+Republic, has been, and will continue to be, between antiquated,
+bigoted, and despotic Romanism, allied with the ancient aristocracy,
+under whose encouragement Maximilian came, on the one hand, and the
+spirit of intellectual, industrial, commercial, and social progress on
+the other. The pendulum has swung backward and forward with irregularity
+for sixty years; every vibration has been registered in blood. All of
+the weight of Romish influence, intellectual, financial, and spiritual,
+has been employed to destroy the Republic and restore the Monarchy,
+while the Liberal party has strangled the Church and stripped it of
+every possession. Both factions have fought under a black flag, and the
+war has been as cruel and vindictive on one side as upon the other; but
+the result is apparent and permanent.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE COVERED WAY TO THE INQUISITION.]
+
+No priest dare wear a cassock in the streets of Mexico; the confessional
+is public, parish schools are prohibited, and although the clergy still
+exercise a powerful influence among the common people, whose
+superstitious ignorance has not yet been reached by the free schools and
+compulsory education law, in politics they are powerless. The old
+clerical party, the Spanish aristocracy, whose forefathers came over
+after the Conquest, and reluctantly surrendered to Indian domination
+when the Viceroys were driven out and the Republic established, have
+given up the struggle, and will probably never attempt to renew it. They
+were responsible for the tragic episode of Maximilian, and still regret
+the failure to restore the Monarchy. The Aztecs sit again upon the
+throne of Mexico, after an interval of three hundred and fifty years,
+and the men whose minds direct the affairs of the Republic have tawny
+skins and straight black hair.
+
+[Illustration: MEXICAN MULETEER.]
+
+Several of the aristocrats have left the country and reside in Paris,
+receiving enormous revenues from their Mexican estates, which they visit
+biennially, but will not live upon. Others are friends of Diaz,
+sympathize with the progressive element, and will turn out full-fledged
+Republicans when the issue is raised again. The finest houses in Mexico
+are unoccupied, and the palatial villas of Tacubaya, the aristocratic
+suburb, are in a state of decay. They are too large and too costly for
+rental, and the owners are too obstinate and indifferent to sell them.
+Perhaps these haughty dons still have a hope of coming back some time to
+rule again as they did years ago, but they will die as they have lived
+since Maximilian’s failure, impotent but unreconciled.
+
+The beautiful castle of Chapultepec, which was dismantled during the
+last revolution, but has been restored and fitted up as a beautiful
+suburban retreat for the Presidents of Mexico, was occupied by
+Maximilian and Carlotta in imitation of the Montezumas, whose palace
+stood upon the rocky eminence. Around the place is a grove of monstrous
+cypress-trees, whose age is numbered by the centuries, and whose girth
+measures from thirty to fifty feet. It is the finest assemblage of
+arborial monarchs on the continent, and sheltered imperial power
+hundreds of years before Columbus set his westward sails. Before the
+Hemisphere was known or thought of, here stood a gorgeous palace, and
+its foundations still endure. Here the rigid ceremonial etiquette of
+Aztec imperialism was enforced, and human sacrifice was made to invoke
+the favor of the Sun.
+
+[Illustration: SHOPS.]
+
+In Mexican society one meets many notable people; some are remarkable
+for talent, or their birth, etc., and others for the strange
+vicissitudes of their lives. For example, in an obscure little house
+lives a well-educated gentleman who is, by lineal descent from Montezuma
+II., the legal heir to the Aztec throne, and should be Emperor of
+Anahuac. This Señor Montezuma, however, indulges in no idle dream of the
+restoration of the ancient Empire, and quietly accepts the meagre
+pension paid him by the Government. In contradistinction to this scion
+of the house of Montezuma, the heirs of Cortez receive immense revenues
+from the estates of the “Marquis del Valle” (Cortez), live in grand
+style, and are haughty and influential. There is also a lineal
+descendant of the Indian emperor Chimalpopoca. This young man is a civil
+engineer, industrious, and quite independent.
+
+The acknowledged heir to the throne of Mexico is young
+
+[Illustration: CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.]
+
+[Illustration: TILE FRONT.]
+
+Augustin Yturbide, according to the feelings of the few and feeble
+remnants of the Monarchical party; but it may be said to the young man’s
+credit that he entirely repudiates their homage, although he is the heir
+to two brief and ill-starred dynasties. He is the grandson of the
+Emperor Augustin Yturbide, and the adopted heir of Maximilian and
+Carlotta. The Yturbide they call “Emperor” was an officer in the Spanish
+army when Mexico was a colony, and during the revolution headed by the
+priest Hidalgo, in 1810, he fought on the side of the King. But, being
+dismissed from the army in 1816, he retired to seclusion, to remain
+until the movement of 1820, when he placed himself at the head of an
+irregular force, and captured a large sum of money that was being
+conveyed to the sea-coast. With these resources he promulgated what is
+known in history as “the plan of Iguala,” which proposed the
+organization of Mexico into an independent empire, and the election of a
+ruler by the people. The revolution was bloodless, and in May, 1822,
+Yturbide proclaimed himself Emperor, declared the crown hereditary, and
+established a court. He was formally crowned in the July following, but
+in December Santa Anna proclaimed the Republic, and after a brief and
+ignominious reign Yturbide left Mexico on May 11, 1822, just a year,
+lacking a week, from the date he assumed power. The Congress gave him a
+pension of $25,000 yearly, and required that he should live in Italy;
+but impelled by an insane desire to regain his crown, in May, 1824, he
+returned to Mexico, and was shot in the following July.
+
+[Illustration: THE TREE OF MONTEZUMA.]
+
+He left a son, Angel de Yturbide, who came to the United States with his
+mother, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Georgetown, District
+of Columbia, the Government having given them a liberal pension. There
+he fell in love
+
+[Illustration: PRINCE YTURBIDE.]
+
+with Miss Alice Green, the daughter of a modest but prosperous merchant
+of the town, and married her. They had one child, the so-called Prince
+Augustin, who, when three years old, with the consent of his ambitious
+mother, was adopted by the childless Maximilian and Carlotta, in the
+vain hope that the act might in a measure increase their popularity
+among the Mexicans.
+
+Meanwhile Maximilian’s fate was fast overtaking him. When he saw the
+catastrophe was at hand, he determined to save the young Yturbide, and
+with the assistance of the Archbishop of Mexico notified Madame Yturbide
+that her child would be placed on a certain steamer reaching Havana at
+such a date; and it was there the mother was united to him after a
+separation of two years. Maximilian and Carlotta had surrounded the
+young prince with all the elegancies of royalty, and he retained many of
+their royal gifts. His father was then dead, and his mother had sole
+charge of his education. He was educated at Washington, where Madame
+Yturbide lived in a fine house on the corner of Nineteenth and N
+streets. When her son came of age she sold her house and returned with
+him to Mexico. His intention was to enter the army at once, but by the
+advice of his Mexican friends he entered the national military college
+for a course of study before taking his commission. He is a handsome
+young man, very quiet and prepossessing. His abilities can scarcely be
+judged so far, but he has always conducted himself with great
+good-sense. Madame Yturbide is now with him in Mexico. One of the most
+promising signs of the permanency of the Republic is the presence in the
+party of progress of this young man, whose name represents all the
+ancient aristocracy desires to restore. He has inherited two worthless
+crests; but, whether from policy or principle, has added his youthful
+strength and the traditions that surround his name to the support of the
+Diaz administration.
+
+The widow of General Santa Anna is a woman who played a prominent part
+in the political tragedies that have succeeded one another with such
+great rapidity upon the Mexican stage. Until her death in the autumn of
+1886, she was an object of interest to all visitors to the capital, and
+always welcomed cordially strangers who called upon her, provided they
+would permit her to smoke her cigarettes, and talk about her beauty and
+the attentions she had received in the past.
+
+Santa Anna is not so highly estimated in Mexico as in some other parts
+of the world where people are not so familiar with his eccentric and
+adventurous career. He was a man of remarkable natural abilities, force
+of character, energy, and personal courage, but devoid of principle,
+education, culture, and mindful only of his own interests. He served all
+political parties in turn. She was his second wife, and was only
+thirteen years old when he married her, in the fifth term of his
+presidency, and when he was trying to set himself up as an absolute
+monarch. For twenty years her life was spent in a camp, surrounded by
+the whirl of warfare. Her husband was five times President of Mexico,
+and four times Military Dictator in absolute power. He was banished,
+recalled, banished again, and finally died, denounced by all as a
+traitor. She had seen much “glory,” and had received unlimited
+adulation, but she hardly ever enjoyed one thoroughly peaceful month in
+her life.
+
+It created a sensation in Mexico when the pretty peon girl, Dolores
+Testa, was suddenly raised from abject poverty to affluence. The
+Dictator ordered all to address his bride as “Your Highness,”
+ladies-in-waiting were appointed in order to teach the bewildered little
+Dolores how to play her rôle in the great world, and then the President
+organized for her a body-guard of twenty-five military men, who were
+uniformed in white and gold, and were styled “los Guardias de la Alteza”
+(her Highness’s Body-guard). When the President’s wife attended the
+theatre these guards rode in advance of and at the sides of the coach,
+each bearing a lighted torch. During the performance they remained in
+the _patio_ or _foyer_ of the theatre, and then escorted her Highness
+back to the palace in the same order. Such was the power of General
+Santa Anna in those days that even the clergy bent before him; and when
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL GRANT ON A BANANA PLANTATION.]
+
+his young wife went to mass, the priests, attended by their acolytes,
+actually used to leave the cathedral to meet her on the pavement, and
+with cross and lighted tapers escort her from her carriage to her seat
+within the church, and at the conclusion of the mass accompanied her to
+her coach.
+
+Her last days were quite in contrast with the glory of her youth. She
+owned a residence in the city and a lovely country-seat in Tacubaya, the
+aristocratic suburb; her wardrobes and chests were filled with rich
+robes of velvet, satin, and silk, costly laces, and magnificent jewels;
+but she was too listless to interest herself in anything. No stranger
+who by chance might see her ex-highness at home, with her pretty feet
+thrust into down-trodden old leather shoes, and her unkempt hair covered
+by a common cotton _rebosa_, could ever, by the greatest effort of
+imagination, possibly fancy her to be the same person who once dazzled
+Mexico by a display of pomp that exceeded even that of the Empress
+Carlotta. Mrs. Santa Anna was an estimable woman, but was almost
+forgotten by the generation that once bent before her. Her family plate,
+and the diamond snuffbox which was presented her husband when he was
+Dictator, and cost twenty-five thousand dollars, were, during the latter
+years of her life, and still are, in the National pawn-shops of Mexico,
+and his wooden leg, captured in battle during our war with Mexico, is in
+the Smithsonian Institute.
+
+The family of the great Juarez, the Washington of Mexico, an Aztec peon,
+who overthrew the empire of Maximilian as Cortez had overthrown the
+ancient dynasty of his ancestors, live in good style in the city of
+Mexico, the daughters being well married, and the son the secretary of
+the Mexican legation at Berlin. They all talk English well, and are very
+highly educated. Every American who visits their city is handsomely
+entertained by them.
+
+But time spent in conjecturing the future of the aristocratic or
+clerical party is wholly wasted. No priest, no bishop, is allowed by law
+to hold real estate; titles vested in religious orders are worthless;
+the Church is forbidden to acquire wealth, and has been stripped of the
+accumulated treasures of three centuries. The candlesticks and altar
+ornaments are gilt instead of gold, and the heavy embroideries in gold
+and silver have been replaced by tinsel. A solid silver balustrade which
+has stood in one of the churches since the time of Cortez was torn down
+not long ago and taken to the mint, and a chandelier in the cathedral of
+Puebla, when it was melted, made sixty thousand silver dollars.
+
+There still stands in the cathedral at Guadalupe, on the spot where the
+Mother of Christ appeared to a poor shepherd and stamped her image in
+beautiful colors upon his cotton _serape_, a double railing from the
+altar to the choir, perhaps sixty feet long and three feet high, which
+is said to be of solid silver, with considerable gold. This is the only
+one of the remnants of pontifical magnificence which remains
+undespoiled, for the superstition which pervades all classes of society
+has protected it; but the altars have been stripped of the jewels which
+were bestowed by grateful people who had received the protection of the
+Virgin, who watches over those in distress, and the veneering of gold
+which once covered the altar carvings has all been ripped off. It is
+said that an enterprising American offered to replace the solid silver
+railing with a plated one, and give a bonus of three hundred thousand
+dollars to the Church, but the proposition was rejected.
+
+This Guadalupe shrine is the most sacred spot in Mexico, and to it come,
+on the 12th of each December, the anniversary of the appearance of the
+Virgin, thousands upon thousands of pilgrims, bringing their sick and
+lame and blind to drink of the miraculous waters of a spring which the
+Virgin opened on the mountain-side to convince the sceptical shepherd of
+her divine power. The waters have a very strong taste of sulphur, and
+are said to be a potent remedy for diseases of the blood. In testimony
+of this the walls of the chapel, which is built over the spring, are
+covered with quaint, rudely written certificates of people who claim to
+have been miraculously cured by its use. In the cathedral are multitudes
+of other testimonials from people who have been preserved from death in
+danger by having appealed for protection to the Virgin of Guadalupe; but
+nowadays, instead of sending jewels and other articles of value as they
+did when the Church was able to protect its property, they hang up
+gaudily painted inscriptions reciting specifically the blessings they
+have received. On the crest of the hill is a massive shaft of stone,
+representing the main-mast of a ship with the yards out and sails
+spread. This was erected many years ago by a sea-captain who was caught
+in a storm at sea, and who made a vow to the Virgin that if she would
+bring him safe to land he would carry his main-mast and sails to
+Guadalupe, and raise them there as an evidence of his gratitude for her
+mercy. He fulfilled his vow, and within the double tiers of stone are
+the masts and canvas.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF GUADALUPE.]
+
+In the cathedral is the original blanket, or _serape_, which
+
+[Illustration: ISTACCIHUATL.]
+
+the shepherd wore when the Virgin appeared to him, and upon which she
+stamped her portrait. It is preserved in a glass case over the altar,
+and may be seen by paying a small fee to the priest. Copies of the
+Guadalupe Virgin are common and familiar; one can scarcely look in any
+direction in Mexico without seeing the representation upon the walls of
+a house, or pendent from the watch-chain of a passer-by; but the average
+reproduction is a great improvement upon the original, which is a dull
+and heavy daub, without any evidences of skill in its execution, or even
+the average degree of accuracy in drawing. According to the story, the
+portrait was stamped upon the _serape_ or blanket of the shepherd, and
+this all Catholics in Mexico devoutly believe; but a close examination
+reveals the fact that it is done in ordinary oil colors, upon a piece of
+ordinary canvas, and that the pigments peel off like those of any poorly
+executed piece of work.
+
+In the ancient town of Guadalupe, in a house near the cathedral, was
+signed the famous treaty determining the boundary line between Mexico
+and the United States, while in a cemetery on the hill General Santa
+Anna lies buried.
+
+The Mexican people, like all the Spanish race, are fond of ceremony, but
+the inauguration of their President is not attended with so much display
+or interest as is shown on similar occasions on this side of the Rio
+Grande. Perhaps it is because the event occurs so often. During the two
+hundred and eighty-six years between the fall of the Empire and the
+establishment of the Republic, there were but sixty-four Viceroys; but
+during the sixty-three years that followed there have been thirty-two
+Presidents, seven Dictators, and two Emperors. Although the
+constitutional term of the presidency is four years, but two in the long
+list were permitted to serve out their time, and they were the last,
+which at least shows improvement in the political condition of the
+country.
+
+I witnessed the inauguration of President Diaz on the 1st of December,
+1884. The ceremonies, which were simple enough to satisfy the most
+critical of Democrats, took place in the handsome theatre erected in
+1854, and named in honor of the Emperor Yturbide. It is now called the
+Chamber of Deputies, and is occupied by the lower branch of the National
+Legislature, a body of some two hundred and twenty-seven men. The
+Senate, composed of fifty-six members, meets in a long, narrow room in
+the old National Palace which was formerly used as a chapel by the
+Viceroys. The viceregal throne, a massive chair of carved and gilded
+rosewood, still stands upon a platform opposite the entrance, under a
+canopy of crimson velvet, but upon its crest is carved the American
+eagle, with a snake in its mouth, the emblem of Republican Mexico.
+Maximilian hung a golden crown over the eagle; Juarez tore it down and
+placed the broken sword of the Emperor in the talons of the bird. The
+Aztecs say that the founders of their empire, whose origin is lost in
+the mists of fable, were told to march on until they found an eagle
+sitting upon a cactus with a snake in its mouth, and there they should
+rest and build a great city. The bird and the bush were discovered in
+the valley that is shadowed by the twin volcanoes, and there the
+imperishable walls were laid which are now bidding farewell to their
+seventh century.
+
+[Illustration: EX-PRESIDENT GONZALES.]
+
+The old Theatre Yturbide has not been remodelled since it became the
+shelter of legislative power, and all the natural light it gets is
+filtered through the opaque panels of the dome, so that during the day
+sessions the Deputies are always in a state of partial eclipse. It is
+about as badly off for light as our own Congress. The members occupy
+comfortable arm-chairs in the parquet, arranged in semicircular rows.
+The presiding officer and the secretaries sit upon the stage, and at
+either side is a sort of pulpit from which formal addresses are made,
+although conversational debates are conducted from the floor. The
+orchestra circle and galleries are divided into boxes, and are reserved
+for spectators, but are seldom occupied, as the proceedings of the
+Congress are not regarded with much public interest.
+
+[Illustration: PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ.]
+
+The members of both Houses have no regular seats, but sit where they
+please. As they have few constituents to write to, they use no desks.
+There are some that might be used, but never are. The members vote
+themselves no stationery, postage-stamps, or incidentals, as our
+Congressmen do, but are paid two hundred and fifty dollars a month
+during the two years for which they are elected. Habit and the exercise
+of military power have reversed the constitutional relations of the
+executive and legislative branches of the Government, and the business
+of the Congress sometimes is not to pass bills for the approval or
+disapproval of the President, but to enact such legislation as he
+recommends. The members of the Cabinet have seats in both houses of the
+Congress, participate in the debates, and submit measures for
+consideration, but have no vote; and the President himself often
+exercises his constitutional right to meet and act with the Legislature.
+Very seldom is a law passed that does not come prepared and approved by
+the Executive Department, and to oppose the policy of the administration
+is usually fatal to the ambition of Mexican statesmen.
+
+In appearance the members will compare favorably with those of our
+Congress, and they are far in advance of the average State Legislature
+in ability and learning. The first features that strike a visitor
+familiar with legislative bodies in the United States is the decorum
+with which proceedings are conducted, and the scrupulous care with which
+every one is clothed. On certain formal occasions it is usual for all of
+the members to appear in evening dress, which gives the body the
+appearance of a social gathering rather than a legislative assembly.
+Nine-tenths of the members are white, and the other tenth show little
+trace of Aztec blood. There is never anything like confusion, and the
+laws of propriety are never transgressed. One hears no bad syntax or
+incorrect pronunciation in the speeches; no coarse language is used, and
+no wrangles ever occur like those which so often disgrace our own
+Congress. The statesmen never tilt their chairs back, nor lounge about
+the chamber; their feet are never raised upon the railings or desks;
+there is no letter-writing going on; the floor is never littered with
+scraps of paper; no spittoons are to be seen, and no conversation is
+permitted. Extreme dignity and decorum mark the proceedings, which are
+always short and silent, and the solemnity which prevails gives a
+funereal aspect to the scene.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOME.]
+
+But everybody smokes. The secretary lights a cigarette at the end of a
+roll-call, and the chairman blows a puff of smoke from his lips before
+he announces a decision. The members are constantly rolling cigarettes
+with deft fingers, and the people in the galleries do the same, so that
+a cloud of gray vapor always hangs over the body, and in the dark
+corners of the chamber one can see the glow of burning tobacco like the
+flash of fire-flies. But cigars are never used, nor pipes, and no one
+chews tobacco.
+
+Whole sessions pass away with nothing but formal business, such as
+receiving communications from the Executives of the States or petitions
+from the people, which are rarely acted on. Occasionally a bill is
+passed, but it passes almost as a matter of course, some of the members
+giving a delicate little wave of the hand to the secretary as he calls
+their names by sight, others merely smiling at him, some paying no
+attention whatever to him, but none of them taking the trouble to open
+their mouths or rise, as the rules require. Weeks and months pass away
+without a speech of any kind, or even a point of order.
+
+In the presence of this body, and with a similar indifference, Profirio
+Diaz was inaugurated President of the United States of Mexico. He had
+been President once before, having seized the government by force of
+arms from Lerdo, but was so just and wise a ruler, and possessed the
+confidence of the people so thoroughly, that he was allowed to serve out
+a full term, being one of the few Mexican Presidents to enjoy that
+privilege. He would have been re-elected at the expiration of his
+administration but for a constitutional provision prohibiting it. Four
+years passed and he was restored to power by the votes of the people
+against a man whose administration was a saturnalia of corruption and
+extravagance, that ended with a bankrupt treasury and an impoverished
+people.
+
+The last days of the term of Gonzales were stormy. His attempt to secure
+certain unpopular financial legislation created great excitement, and
+the students of the universities, who numbered six or seven thousand,
+made a protest which would have ended in violence and assassination but
+for the overpowering military guard that surrounded the palace. The
+students would have resisted any attempt of Gonzales to prevent the
+inauguration of his successor, and kept up a demonstration against the
+existing Government until that event occurred.
+
+[Illustration: SAN COSME AQUEDUCT, CITY OF MEXICO.]
+
+It was nine o’clock on the morning that the ceremonies were to occur.
+Long lines of bayonets and sabres glittered in the streets around the
+theatre, regiments of cavalry and infantry were drawn up in the Alameda
+and Plaza, squads of police, on foot and mounted, were marching here and
+there. Bands of students yell “_Viva!_” and “_Mira!_” Some were fired
+into, and several students wounded. The shops were nearly all closed
+early in the day; huge iron padlocks and bolts that would resist a
+sledge-hammer for half a day hung on doors that but a few days ago were
+thronged with customers, and the few that remained open were merely
+ajar, ready to be slammed shut in a minute, and the ponderous bars swung
+into place.
+
+The attendance at the theatre was not large, and consisted almost
+entirely of officials, foreign ambassadors, and the personal friends of
+the President, who, like the members of the Congress, were nearly all in
+full dress, but carried revolvers in their pockets for use if the
+occasion demanded. In a gilded box over the stage was the wife of
+General Diaz, of girlish years and striking beauty, attended by a party
+of lady friends and two military officers resplendent in gold lace.
+There was no crush, no confusion, but a suppressed excitement and
+anxiety, made intense by the recollection that such incidents in the
+history of Mexico had been usually attended by war. The outgoing
+President was regarded as the enemy of his successor, and the Congress
+was about equally divided in its allegiance. The former was not present,
+and his movements and intentions were unknown.
+
+The members of the Senate sat in a double row of chairs which had been
+placed around the sides of the parquet for their accommodation, and all
+of them wore white kid gloves. The members of the Lower House, the
+Deputies, sat in their accustomed seats, and their chief officer
+presided. Promptly at nine o’clock General Diaz, in full evening dress,
+with white gloves, was escorted to the platform by a committee of
+Senators, took the oath of office with his back to the audience, and
+passed rapidly out of the building. The whole proceeding did not last
+more than five minutes, and when the clerk announced that the oath of
+office had been taken in accordance with the law, and declared Diaz
+“Constitutional President,” the audience quietly left the chamber as if
+nothing more than the ordinary routine had taken place.
+
+But the excitement was not abated. The oath had been taken, but the
+outgoing administration by its absence from the ceremonies had
+intensified the anxiety lest the admission of Diaz to the Palace might
+be denied. Accompanied by a committee of Senators and an escort of
+cavalry. President Diaz drove half a mile to the Government building,
+and to his gratification the column of soldiers which was drawn up
+before the entrance opened to let him pass. The plaza which the building
+fronts was crowded with thousands of people, who announced the arrival
+of the new President by a deafening cheer, and the chimes of the old
+cathedral rang a melodious welcome.
+
+[Illustration: THE PALACE OF MEXICO.]
+
+In the centre of the old palace, which stands upon the foundations of
+the heathen temple Cortez destroyed, is an enormous court, in which the
+President’s party alighted and ascended the marble stairs. The sentinels
+which lined the staircase saluted them respectfully, and this omen
+relieved their minds. At the entrance of the Executive chamber, where
+relics of the luxurious taste of Maximilian still remain, Diaz was
+received by an aide-de-camp of Gonzales, who ushered him into the
+presence of the retiring administration. Surrounded by his Cabinet,
+Gonzales stood, and as Diaz entered stepped forward to welcome him, and
+according to the ancient practice, handed him an enormous silver key,
+which is supposed to turn the bolts that protect authority. Short formal
+addresses were made upon either side, and after wishing the new
+administration a peaceful and prosperous term, Gonzales and his
+ministers retired.
+
+General Porfirio Diaz, the foremost man in Mexico to-day, and one whose
+public career will fill pages in the history of that Republic, is the
+representative of mixed Aztec and Spanish ancestry, like all of the
+famous native leaders of the last half century. He is tall and dark, his
+muscular figure impressing one as the very incarnation of health and
+endurance. He has a military, yet nonchalant air, his brown eyes meet
+you squarely with the glance of one born to command, and his voice is
+peculiarly pleasant as in deep tones he rolls off the musical dialect of
+his mother-tongue.
+
+His career, like that of all Mexican leaders, is full of romantic
+adventure. He was born in the rich State of Oaxaca, which was also the
+birthplace of Juarez, Mejia, Romero, Mariscal, and others famed in
+politics and literature. Don Porfirio’s parents designed him for the law
+and sent him to the Literary Institute, in Puebla, the City of the
+Angels, which celebrated institution has graduated many of Mexico’s most
+eminent men. But Diaz, at the age of twenty-four, enlisted as a private
+in the National Guard against the government of Santa Anna. Again, in
+the so-called war of reform--in 1858 and 1861--he won more substantial
+honors than the straps of an officer, and when his country was
+convulsed by the French invasion of 1862, Diaz, then a general, took a
+prominent part in the struggle. Once during those wars, when a prisoner
+at Puebla, he escaped by letting himself down from the tower in which he
+was confined by means of a rope spliced out with his clothing. Another
+of his numerous hair-breadth escapes was during the bloody struggle by
+which he made himself President for the first time. Having captured
+Matamoras by daring strategy, he was seized on shipboard by the
+Lerdists, and saved himself only by leaping into the sea, assisted by
+the connivance of a French captain, whom he afterwards made consul at
+Saint Nazaire.
+
+In 1871 General Diaz was one of the three candidates for the Presidency,
+and being defeated by Juarez, issued his celebrated manifesto known as
+the “Plan of Noria,” repudiating all existing powers, and proposing to
+retain military command. Being thoroughly whipped by the Indian
+President, after more than a year’s hard fighting and the loss of
+thousands of lives, the general left Mexico for a time, along with a
+number of his fellow-partisans.
+
+After Juarez died in office, his successor, Don Sebastian Lerdo de
+Tejada, recalled all political exiles by issuing a general amnesty,
+which act Diaz hastened to repay by rushing again to arms and speedily
+deposing his rival. Although the Electoral College had declared Lerdo
+the legally elected ruler by a vote of 123 to 49, Diaz proceeded to
+issue a pronunciamento from Palo Blanco, State of Tamaulipas, denouncing
+the President, Congress, and all recognized authorities, and at the head
+of the Constitutional army took possession of the capital and usurped
+the Executive chair, driving the incumbent into exile, and holding his
+position by force of arms.
+
+When the term was over for which Diaz had thus elected himself, he
+retired temporarily to fulfil the law he had so strenuously advocated,
+Article 28 of the amended constitution. Next he set about paving the way
+to permanent success by placating all opposing factions. First, he
+forever laid any restless ghost of Lerdist sentiment that might arise
+and shake its gory locks in the future, by marrying in the very midst
+of the enemy’s camp. His young and beautiful wife is the daughter of
+Romero Rubio, who was President Lerdo’s most influential adviser, and
+his bosom friend and companion in exile. Señor Rubio has since been
+President of the Senate, and Minister of the Interior.
+
+No man since the Indian Juarez, who was the Abraham Lincoln of Mexican
+history, has achieved the popularity that Diaz enjoys, or has won the
+confidence of the people to so great a degree. The ballad-singers at
+Santa Anita, an Indian village in the suburbs of the capital, on the
+romantic canal that leads to the far-famed Floating Gardens, where the
+populace swarm on Sundays to drink _pulque_ and dance fandangoes, carol
+many a long-drawn refrain to twanging guitars in praise of Porfirio
+D-i-i-iaz, while the dedications of their myriad _pulquerias_ are about
+equally divided between Diaz, Montezuma, and the Mother of God.
+
+The old Capitol, or Palace, as it is called, which Cortez raised upon
+the ruins of the Aztec temple is still occupied as the seat of
+government, and shelters the Executive departments. Here, too, is the
+National Museum, with its collection of antiquities, and in its centre,
+near the Sacrificial Stone of the Aztecs, is the imperial coach in which
+the ill-fated Emperor rode. Public business is conducted very much as in
+the United States; the officials are usually accomplished linguists, and
+well read in political economy. The science of government is studied
+there more than with us, and public life is a profession, like law or
+engineering. There still exists, however, and many generations will come
+and go before it can be eradicated, a caste that divides the people into
+three classes--the peon, the aristocrat, and the middle class. The
+prejudice that separates them is usually overcome by military force. The
+peon, who like Diaz becomes a political and a social leader, must win
+the place by military skill, or wear a _sarepa_ forever.
+
+Among the upper classes of Mexico will be found as high a degree of
+social and intellectual refinement as exists in Paris, as quick a
+reception and as cordial a response to all the sentiments that elevate
+society, and a knowledge of the arts and literature that few people of
+the busy cities of the United States have acquired.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO.]
+
+Their wealth is lavishly displayed, their taste is exercised to a degree
+equal to that of any people in the world, and the interior of many of
+their dwellings furnishes a glimpse of happiness and cultured elegance
+that, with their less active temperament, they enjoy more than their
+northern neighbors. Yet the people who receive the latest Paris fashions
+and literature by every steamer, and who would rather wear a shroud than
+a garment out of style, still cling to some ancient customs as eagerly
+as they seize some modern ideas. Social laws restrict intercourse
+between the sexes, as in the Latin nations of Europe, and Pedro makes
+love to Mercedes through his father and hers. Marriage is often a
+commercial contract for pecuniary or social advantages, and a parent
+chooses his son-in-law as he selects his partners or the directors of a
+bank. It is an impropriety for men and women to be alone together, even
+if they are closely related, and no woman of the higher caste goes upon
+the streets without a duenna.
+
+The funeral customs of Mexico are a source of constant interest to
+strangers in that land, as the burial of the dead is a ceremony of great
+display. The poor rent handsome coffins which they have not the means to
+buy, and transfer the body from its temporary casket to a cheap box
+before it is laid in the grave. Invitations are issued by messenger, and
+advertisements of funerals are published in the newspapers or posted at
+the street corners like those of a bull-fight or a play. Announcements
+are sent to friends in big, black-bordered envelopes, and are usually
+decorated with a picture of a tomb. The information is conveyed in
+faultless Spanish, that Señor Don Jesus San a Maria Hidalgo died
+yesterday at noon, and that his bereaved wife, who mourns under the name
+of “Donna Maria José Concepcion de los Angelos Narro Henriandos y
+Hidalgo,” together with his family, desire you to honor them by
+participating in the ceremonies of burial, and in supplicating the
+Mother of God and the Redeemer of the world to grant the soul of the
+dead husband a speedy release from the pains of Purgatory, and eternal
+bliss in Paradise.
+
+The oddities of Mexican life and customs strike the tourist in a most
+forcible manner. The first thing he observes among the common people is
+that the men wear extremely large hats, and the women no hats at all.
+The ordinary sombrero costs fifteen dollars, while those bearing the
+handsome ornaments so universally popular run in price all the way from
+twenty-five to two hundred and fifty dollars. The Mexican invests all
+his surplus in his hat. Men whose wages are not more than twelve dollars
+a month often wear sombreros which represent a whole quarter’s income. A
+servant at the house of a friend was paid off one day for the three
+months his employer had been absent. He got forty-two dollars, of which
+he paid thirty-five dollars for a hat and gave seven dollars to his
+family.
+
+[Illustration: STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE.]
+
+The next thing that you notice is that every block on the same street
+has a different name, and when you start out on foot to make a visit you
+become bewildered at once, and have to call a carriage. Take the chief
+street, for example, which begins at the Grand Plaza, where the Palace
+stands, and runs to the statue of Charles IV. of Spain. Each of the
+seventeen blocks has a name of its own, and the names that are used are
+quite as striking as this perplexing custom. Here is a list of some of
+the principal blocks or streets translated into English: “Crown of
+Thorns Street,” “Fifth of May Street,” “Holy Ghost Street,” “Blood of
+Christ Street,” “Body of Christ Street,” “Mother of Sorrows Street,”
+“Street of the Sacred Heart,” “The Heart of Jesus Street,” “Street of
+the Love of God,” “Jesus Street,” and “John the Baptist Street.” Nearly
+every saint in the calendar has a street named after him or her, and
+nine-tenths of the city has the religion of the people thus illustrated.
+
+Another thing that surprises you greatly is that nearly every man you
+meet makes you a present of a residence. He grasps your hand with ardent
+cordiality when he leaves you, and says, “My house is yours; it stands
+numero tres--Calle,” and so on, “and is at your service.” The next man
+tells you that your house is such and such a number, and he shall be
+angry if you do not occupy it. As neither of them has enjoyed the honor
+of your acquaintance for more than five minutes, and both are only
+casually introduced, this excessive generosity is quite embarrassing. An
+English lord told me he met fourteen men at the Jockey Club one evening,
+and was presented with thirteen houses. The other man lived in Cuba. But
+it is only the Mexican way of saying, “I’m pleased to meet you.” It
+often leads to comical adventures, however, for the gentleman who
+tenders such profuse hospitality seldom remembers you the next morning.
+People have accepted these ardent invitations and been met with a cold
+welcome. Another amusing and puzzling peculiarity is that everybody
+lives over a shop. Even the millionaires rent out the first floor of
+their residences for purposes of business, and live in the third story.
+The handsomest house in all Mexico has a railway ticket-office on one
+side of the entrance and a cigar shop on the other. Everybody smokes:
+women as well as men. They smoke in the street-cars, in the shops, at
+the opera, everywhere. I have often seen a man upon his knees in a
+chapel muttering his prayers with a lighted cigar in his hand.
+
+The street-cars run in groups. Instead of starting a car every ten
+minutes from the terminus, three are started together every half hour.
+One car is never seen alone, nor two together, but always three in a
+row, less than half a block apart. It requires two conductors to run a
+car. One approaches a passenger and sells him a ticket; the second one
+then comes in and takes it up. In some respects it is an improvement on
+the bell-punch system. There are first-class cars and second-class cars.
+The former are of New York manufacture, and similar to those used in
+that city; the latter are of domestic construction, have but few
+windows, and look like the cabooses used on railroad freight trains.
+First-class fares are sometimes as high as twenty-five cents, but are
+more often a _medio_ (six and a quarter cents), being governed by the
+distance. Second-class fares are always one-half the amount of
+first-class fares. Street-car drivers carry horns, and blow them when
+they approach street crossings. The conductors usually carry revolvers.
+Nearly everybody, in truth, carries a revolver.
+
+Horseback riding is the national amusement, and the streets are full of
+horsemen, particularly in the cooler hours of the morning and evening.
+The proper thing to wear is a wide sombrero, very tight trousers of
+leather or cassimere, with rows of silver buttons up and down the outer
+seam, a handsomely embroidered velvet jacket, a scarlet sash, a sword,
+and two revolvers, not to mention spurs of marvellous size and design,
+and a saddle of surpassing magnificence. A Mexican caballero often
+spends one thousand dollars for an equestrian outfit. His saddle costs
+from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars, his sword fifty dollars, his
+silver-mounted bridle twenty-five dollars, his silver spurs as much
+more, the solid silver buttons on his trousers one hundred dollars, his
+hat fifty dollars, and the rest of his rig in proportion. The Mexican
+small boy, if he has wealthy parents, is mounted after a similar
+fashion, even to the revolver and sword. An equestrian costume for a boy
+of ten years can be purchased for about fifty dollars, not including
+saddle and bridle.
+
+[Illustration: A MEXICAN CABALLERO.]
+
+The Mexican ladies do not ride any more than their sisters in the United
+States. Social etiquette prohibits this recreation, unless they have
+brothers to go with them. The señoras and señoritas take their exercise
+in closed carriages. You never see a phaeton or wagon in Mexico. When
+they go shopping they sit in their carriages and have the goods brought
+out to them. It is a common thing to see a row of carriages before a
+fashionable store with a clerk at the door of each one exhibiting silks
+or gloves or ribbons. In some of the stores are parlors in which a
+señora can sit if she likes and have the goods brought to her. None but
+foreigners and the common people stand at the counters and buy. Mexican
+merchants never classify their goods. They have no system in arranging
+them. Silks and cottons are indiscriminately mixed on the shelves. There
+is no place for anything, and nothing is ever in place. Hence shopping
+requires the exercise of a vast deal of patience. I went to buy a pair
+of gloves one day. The clerk pulled open a drawer in which were shoes,
+corsets, and ribbons. He found some gloves, but there being none in the
+box to fit, he hunted around on the shelves and in the drawers until he
+discovered another lot. Nor are goods ever delivered at the residences
+of purchasers. If your package is too bulky to carry in your hands or in
+your carriage it is sent to your house by a licensed carrier, similar to
+the district messenger boy of New York, to whom you pay a fee. Each
+carrier has a brass badge like a policeman’s, bearing a number, and if
+he does not deliver the goods promptly and in good order you report him
+at police headquarters, where he is heavily fined. On the other hand, if
+he cannot find your residence, or there is a mistake in the directions,
+he takes the goods to police headquarters, and you can find them there,
+and discover the reasons why they were not delivered.
+
+On pleasant afternoons--and except in the rainy season all afternoons
+are pleasant here--everybody who owns a carriage, or is able to hire
+one, drives on the boulevard which Maximilian made from the city to the
+Castle of Chapultepec, a distance of two and a half miles. As most of
+the carriages are closed, the scene is not so interesting as it might
+be, but you can occasionally catch a glimpse of a beautiful face
+through the carriage windows. The horses are indifferent. Some of the
+handsomest equipages are drawn by mules.
+
+There are more public hacks and carriages in Mexico than in any other
+city in the world in proportion to its population, and few cities have
+worse pavements. Most of the vehicles are coupés, but there are a few
+victorias. There are no hansoms. The public carriages are all under
+police regulation, and the rates are fixed by law, according to the
+condition of the vehicle and the horses. Each carriage has a small tin
+flag attached to the top. A green flag means that you have to pay a
+dollar and a half an hour, for the carriage is new, the horses are good,
+and the harness is handsomely trimmed. A blue flag means a dollar an
+hour, with a little less style; a white flag, seventy-five cents. The
+latter class are about the toughest-looking outfits that can be found
+anywhere.
+
+Each of the other sort of carriages has a footman as well as a coachman,
+without additional price, although generous people give him a tip to the
+extent of a _real_ (twelve and a half cents). The footman is called a
+_mozo_, and acts as a sort of apprentice or private secretary to the
+_cochero_, or driver. When you hire a hack the _mozo_ rushes off to the
+nearest store, looks at the clock, and brings you back a card upon which
+the hour is written. When you finish your ride he hands you the card
+again, and you pay from the time you started. On feast-days charges are
+doubled, and as feast-days are frequent, when all the stores are closed,
+the hackmen make a good thing of it. They drive in a most reckless
+manner, and as the pavements are rough the passengers are bounced about.
+
+The Spaniards drink cognac and sour wines. Whiskey is not a safe
+beverage for the climate. American mixed drinks are not popular, and the
+scarcity of ice makes juleps and that sort of thing expensive. The
+stranger in Mexico is always very thirsty; the rapid evaporation makes
+the mouth and throat dry, and water furnishes only temporary relief. The
+most refreshing drink is lime-juice in Apollinaris water.
+
+Pulque (pronounced _poolkee_) is the national drink, and is
+
+[Illustration: NOCHE TRISTE TREE.]
+
+the fermented milk of the cactus. Eighty thousand gallons are said to be
+sold in Mexico every day, and double that amount on Sundays and saints’
+days. It is a sort of combination of starch and alcohol, looks like
+well-watered skim-milk, and tastes like yeast. It costs but a penny a
+glass, or three cents a quart, so that it is within the reach of the
+humblest citizen, and he drinks vast quantities of it. Five cents’ worth
+will make a peon (as all the natives are called) as happy as a lord, and
+ten cents’ worth will send him reeling into the arms of a policeman, who
+secures him an engagement to work for the Government for ten days
+without compensation. But it leaves no headache in the morning, and is
+said to be very healthful. In the moist climates one might drink large
+quantities without injury, but all the usual intoxicants are harmful in
+this altitude.
+
+The police system of Mexico is admirable. At every street corner there
+is a patrolman night and day--not a patrolman either, for he never
+moves. He stands like a statue during the day, occasionally leaning
+against a lamp-post, and answers inquiries with the greatest urbanity.
+Whenever there is a row two or three policemen are instantly present,
+and if their clubs cannot suppress it they use revolvers. At night the
+policeman brings a lantern and a blanket. He sets the lantern in the
+middle of the street, and all carriages are compelled to keep to the
+right of the row of lanterns, which can be seen glimmering from one end
+of the street to the other. As long as people are passing he stands at
+the corner, but when things quiet down he leaves his lantern in the
+road, retires to a neighboring door-way, wraps his blanket around him,
+and lies down to pleasant dreams. As all the windows in the city of
+Mexico have heavy prison-like gratings before them, and all the doors
+are great oaken affairs that could not be knocked in without a catapult;
+as there are never any fires, and everybody goes to bed early, the
+policeman’s lot is usually a happy one. He is numerous because of
+revolutions, and because the Government always wants to know what is
+going on. There is a popular belief in Mexico that no stranger ever
+comes to town without having his past history and future plans recorded
+at police headquarters. One never reads of robberies or pocket-picking,
+or assault and battery cases, in the city of Mexico. Common thieves have
+no chance there. The only disturbances are political revolutions, and
+the Government alone is robbed.
+
+All the ice that is used in Mexico comes from the top of Popocatepetl.
+It is brought down the mountain on the backs of the natives, and then
+sixty miles on the cars to the city, where it is sold at wholesale for
+ten cents a pound. At the bar-rooms iced drinks are very expensive, and
+ice is seldom seen anywhere else. The people all use a jug of porous
+earthenware made by the Indians in which water is kept cool by rapid
+evaporation. The stranger should always squeeze a little lime-juice into
+his glass before he drinks water, to get a pleasant flavor, and escape
+evil effects from alkaline properties.
+
+From the top of the cathedral spire you can see the entire city, and the
+most striking feature of the view is the absence of chimneys. There is
+not a chimney in all Mexico; not a stove, nor a grate, nor a furnace.
+All the cooking is done with charcoal in Dutch ovens, and, while the gas
+is sometimes offensive, one soon becomes used to it. Coal costs sixteen
+dollars a ton, and wood sixteen dollars a cord. All the coal was
+formerly imported from England, but now comes from Cohahuila, and the
+wood is all brought from the mountains.
+
+As formerly, bull-fighting is at present the most popular amusement in
+Mexico, and a matador is more distinguished in the eyes of the common
+people than a prima donna or a president. The Mexican Government has of
+late years become humanized to the extent of prohibiting these brutal
+spectacles within the city limits, and they now take place at what is
+called the “Plaza de Toros,” or Bull Park, on the plains five or six
+miles from the city. Here the people gather on every Sunday and
+saint-day to witness the butchery of three or four bulls and twice as
+many horses, under the official patronage of the Governor of the State,
+who always is present with his family and official staff, and from a
+decorated platform directs the entertainment, giving his orders through
+a trumpeter.
+
+Back of the Castle of Chapultepec is the battle-field of Molino del Rey
+(The Mill of the King), where General Scott met stubborn resistance when
+he attempted to enter Mexico, but drove the Mexicans up the hill. The
+old earthworks erected by the latter still stand as they were at the
+time of the battle, and are usually visited by tourists. On the plain
+beyond the battle-field stands an amphitheatre enclosed within a massive
+wall of adobe--the mud bricks which are used for building material in
+all the rainless region of this continent. The amphitheatre is arranged
+in the usual form, except that the shady side is divided up into boxes
+to be occupied by the grandees, while the sunny side has plain board
+benches for the barefooted Castilians whose mild eyes and pathetic
+deference give no key to the cruelty of which their race has been
+guilty. The centre of the amphitheatre is enclosed by a board wall,
+perhaps eight feet in height, surmounted at a point two feet higher by a
+heavy cable strung through stalwart iron rods. The top of this fence
+appeared to be the favorite eyrie from which to survey the field, and
+upon it for the entire length sat a row of urchins, with here and there
+a bearded man, all poised upon the edge, with their legs hanging over
+into the bull-ring, and their arms clinging to the rope.
+
+The Governor, a tall, swarthy man, with a wide sombrero, mustache and
+goatee, the very picture of the “haughty Don,” sat in a decorated box,
+with the flag of his country profusely draped around him. He had two
+aides-de-camp, his three children, and an orderly, who with a trumpet
+sounded a blast now and then to convey his excellency’s desires. We
+happened luckily to have the adjoining box, from which we could watch
+him closely and hear his comments upon the performances.
+
+The audience was very large, and composed of all classes, from the proud
+Castilian who came behind his four-in-hand, with a retinue of outriders,
+to the poor peon who had been saving his scanty earnings for a week, and
+walked five miles to witness the ghastly spectacle. There were perhaps
+ten thousand people, and one-fifth of them were women in silks and
+satins, in jewels and rare laces, who hid their eyes behind their fans
+when the spectacle was too repulsive, but encouraged the matadors with
+applause at the end of each act.
+
+A band of music played lively airs, and played them well, to entertain
+the people until the Governor came, whose presence being recognized, the
+people gave a cordial cheer by way of welcome. Then the herald in the
+Governor’s box blew a signal which sounded like the “water call” of the
+United
+
+[Illustration: THE PICADORS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEASING THE BULL.]
+
+States Cavalry, the doors of the pit were opened, and in marched a dozen
+or so of matadors, in the same sort of jackets and breeches which they
+wear in the pictures of Spanish life so familiar to all. Each wore a
+plumed hat, a scarlet sash, a poniard, and the gold lace upon the black
+velvet showed their lithe and supple forms to advantage. They looked as
+Don Juan looks in the opera, while the leader, Bernardo Cavino, “del
+decano de los toreros,” I was a veritable Figaro, in appearance at
+least. Each carried a scarlet cloak upon his arm, and in the other hand
+a pikestaff. Behind them came a troop of eight horsemen upon gayly
+caparisoned steeds, with the usual amount of silver and leather
+trappings in which the Mexicans delight. The procession tailed up with a
+team of four mules hitched abreast, dragging a whiffletree and a long
+rope. These, we are told, were for the purpose of dragging out the dead.
+The cavalcade made a circuit of the amphitheatre, like the grand entrée
+at a circus, and upon reaching the Governor’s box stopped, saluted him,
+and received a short address in Spanish, which probably was simply one
+of approval and congratulation at their fine appearance. There was a
+rack in front of the Governor’s box upon which hung several rows of
+darts, gayly decorated with paper rosettes and paper fringes of gold and
+other brilliant tints. Upon these racks the matadors hung their plumed
+hats, and stood a while to give the ladies and gentlemen of the audience
+an opportunity to see and admire.
+
+[Illustration: THE ENCORE.]
+
+The gay horsemen then rode out, and were followed by the mules, but the
+horsemen soon returned upon an entirely different style of
+animals--poor, broken-down, lean, lame, and mangy hacks, which looked as
+if they had been turned out of some street-car stable as bait for
+vultures. They were covered with a sort of leathern armor, and this
+concealed their fleshless ribs; but nothing could disguise the shambling
+and uncertain gait with which they painfully ambled across the arena
+under the savage spurring of their riders. They managed to get across,
+and that was all. The first set of horses were intended for show, and
+the second for slaughter. Public opinion appears to demand that
+something besides a bull be sacrificed, and the matadors not being
+amiable enough to afford this gratification, a pair of animated
+clothes-racks are turned in to be gored. The poor beasts are
+blindfolded, which is about the only humane feature of the show.
+
+The Governor’s herald gave another blast, at which the entire audience,
+who were on the _qui vive_, arose and shouted. A door across the pit
+opened, and a large, clumsy, long-horned bull poked his head out into
+the arena. The crowd yelled, and matadors posed at different parts of
+the ring--ten of them--and the two horsemen pretended to get ready for
+the fray. The bull looked up, the only frightened being in the entire
+multitude. The posters described him as “a valiant and arrogant animal.”
+He was a fine piece of beef, but he didn’t want to fight. Somebody
+behind spurred him, and he ran into the ring. The doors were closed
+behind him, and there was no way of escape. He plunged one way, but was
+met by three matadors, who flapped their cloaks in his eyes; he turned
+in the other direction, but was met by three more; then he made a bolt
+between them, and darting towards the other side of the ring, gave a
+great leap, as if he would go over the eight-foot wall. Of course he
+failed, but he struck the planks with tremendous force, tumbling forty
+or fifty fellows who were perched on the top into a heap on the other
+side. It was the only amusing feature of the whole show. There was a
+grand crash, a loud howl, forty or fifty pairs of legs were in the air,
+and the audience shouted with laughter. The bull turned around
+frightened at the noise, ran to the other side of the ring, and sought
+in vain for a place to get out. Then one of the horsemen rode up in
+front of the animal and jammed a spear into his face. The bull plunged
+at his assailant, bellowing with pain, lifted the poor horse upon his
+horns, raised him from the ground, and threw him with great force
+against the side of the arena.
+
+The rider, expecting the attack, was prepared for it, and leaped with
+great agility from the saddle just as the two animals came in contact.
+There was very little left of the horse. There was not much of him when
+he was dragged into the ring, but the long horns of the bull penetrated
+his bowels and tore them out. The bull jams the horse against the
+planks, two, three, four times, and then withdraws. The horse lies a
+bleeding, disembowelled mass, and the crowd cheers the dreadful
+spectacle.
+
+The bull having given up all idea of escape, plunges at everything he
+sees, and the second horse is ridden up before him. No attempt is made
+to get the animal out of the way. He was brought there to be
+slaughtered, and took his turn. Both horses having been disposed of, and
+the bull being completely exhausted, the bugle gives the signal, the
+matadors enter the arena, and tease him with their scarlet cloaks. At
+frequent intervals around the ring are placed heavy planks, behind which
+the matadors run for protection when they were pursued. The bull had no
+chance at all; he was there simply to be teased and killed by slow
+degrees. One matador more agile than the rest baits the animal with his
+lance, and when the bull turns upon him, vaults over the down-turned
+horns by resting his lance upon the ground. Then they bring out the
+ornamented darts, and thrust them into the bull’s hide. The animal jumps
+and plunges with pain, and tries to shake them off, but the barbs cling
+to the hide, and the more he struggles the farther they penetrate the
+flesh. His shoulders are covered with them, and the crimson blood
+trickles down his sides. He stands panting with distress, his tongue
+hanging out, and is thoroughly exhausted.
+
+[Illustration: MEXICAN BEGGAR.]
+
+The Governor’s trumpet sounds the bull’s death-warrant. It means that
+the cruel sport has lasted long enough, and the chief matador comes
+forward with a red blanket and a sword. He approaches the bull, and
+flaps the blanket in his eyes; the animal plunges at him, and with great
+dexterity the matador whirls and thrusts the sword into the animal’s
+heart. The bull plunges with pain, and throws the sword out of his body
+into the air. He staggers and falls upon the ground, the chief matador
+runs up, pierces his brain with a poniard, and the mules are brought in
+to drag the dead animals out. The band plays, the crowd cheers, and the
+first act is over. The matadors bow to the Governor, bow to the crowd,
+and rest, while a clown dances in the ring to amuse the people in the
+interim. Pretty soon the trumpet blows again, two more old crow-baits
+are ridden in, and another bull is brought from the corral. The same
+scenes recur; the horses are always killed, but the men are seldom
+injured. Four bulls are usually disposed of each Sunday afternoon before
+the appetite for blood is satiated.
+
+This cruel sport in Mexico is in its decadence. It grew out of the lack
+of other entertainment. Until two years ago there was no horse-racing in
+Mexico, and this class of sport is unknown outside of the capital. The
+young men are not allowed to visit the girls, are not permitted to walk
+with them in the parks, and have, in short, no amusements but billiards,
+cock-fighting, and bull-baiting. The exodus of foreigners into the
+Republic will break many of the barriers down. While the “Gringos,” as
+foreigners are called, generally conform to the customs of the country,
+they refuse to accept all of them, and the Mexican people are gradually
+tending towards a more modern civilization.
+
+The ancient volcano, Popocatepetl, has got into the courts. Not that it
+has been bodily transported into the halls of litigation, but it is the
+subject of a novel suit at law. For many years General Ochoa has been
+the owner of the volcano, the highest point of land in North America,
+together with all its appurtenances. The crater contains a fine quality
+of sulphur, which the general has been extracting, giving employment to
+Indians who cared to stay down in the vaporous old crater. The property
+was at one time fairly profitable; the volcano was, some time ago,
+mortgaged to Mr. Carlos Recamier, who brings suit of foreclosure. The
+papers have been joking about the matter, some asking what Mr. Recamier
+intends to do with his volcano when he gets legal possession. He has
+been solemnly warned that the law forbids the carrying out of the
+country ancient monuments and objects of historical interest.
+
+Good-Friday is observed as a sort of May festival. The _Paseo de las
+Flores_ (Flower Promenade) is held along the Viga, the picturesque canal
+which stretches away between willows and poplars to the far-famed
+Floating Gardens of the ancient Aztecs. The scene along the historic
+causeway is astonishing to foreigners, and as charmingly peculiar as it
+is typical of a poetic and pleasure-loving people. For miles along the
+tree-lined avenue a constant procession of vehicles, horsemen, and
+pedestrians pack the space between green booths on either side, while
+the canal is crowded with canoes and Venetian-like gondolas. Everything
+imaginable on wheels is seen--the stately closed carriage of the Mexican
+millionaire, open barouches, coupés, victorias, dog-carts, wagonettes,
+even velocipedes and tricycles, while thousands of horsemen gallop gayly
+between.
+
+The festivities are kept up, though in diminishing scale, until late
+Sunday night. During all these days the shrill, discordant rattle of ten
+thousand _matracas_ rises above the babel of human voices. These little
+instruments of torture are made of tin, iron, ivory, wood, even of gold
+and silver, and in all imaginable shapes. Some are in the form of
+humming-birds, birds-of-paradise, chickens, parrots; others are like
+gridirons, frying-pans, musical instruments, fruits, flowers, or
+reptiles. Everybody must have one, from the dignified grandparent to the
+baby in arms, and by twirling them rapidly a most unearthly, rasping,
+grinding sound is produced by wooden springs inside. The noise is
+intended to typify and ridicule the cries of the Jews, “Crucify him!
+crucify him!” as they followed Christ to His death.
+
+On Easter-Sunday the strangest of all Mexican ceremonies takes place in
+the burning of the traitor. During all Holy-week men are continually
+perambulating the streets, holding high above the heads of the multitude
+long poles encircled by hoops, upon which are suspended the most
+grotesque figures, in every conceivable color, shape, and degree of
+deformity, and all with horns and crooked backs and twisted limbs. These
+are filled with fire-crackers, the mustache forming the fuse, and
+millions of them are annually exploded. Many are life-size, some having
+faces to represent politicians who are unpopular at the time. Some are
+hung by the neck to wires stretched across the streets, or to the
+balconies of houses. Every horse-car and railroad engine and donkey-cart
+is decked with one, and even every mule-driver has one or more tied on
+his breast. At ten o’clock on Easter-Sunday, when the cathedral bells
+peal forth in commemoration of Christ’s resurrection, they are all
+touched off at once, and the air is filled with flying traitors
+everywhere over the length and breadth of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: ON MARKET-DAY.]
+
+[Illustration: SUNDAY AT SANTA ANITA.]
+
+An American who is married in Mexico finds that he must be three times
+married: twice in Spanish and once more in Spanish or English, as he
+prefers, besides having a public notice of his intention of marriage
+placed on a bulletin-board for twenty days before the ceremony. This is
+the law. The public notice can be avoided by the payment of a sum of
+money, but a residence of one month is necessary. The three ceremonies
+are the contract of marriage, the civil marriage--the only marriage
+recognized by law since 1858--and the usual, but not obligatory, Church
+service. The first two must take place before a judge, and in the
+presence of at least four witnesses and the American consul. The
+contract of marriage is a statement of names, ages, lineage, business,
+and residence of contracting parties. The civil marriage is the legal
+form of marriage. These ceremonies are necessarily in Spanish. Most
+weddings are confirmed by a church-service.
+
+[Illustration: A MEXICAN BELLE.]
+
+At a Mexican church wedding it is the custom for the groom to pass coins
+through the hand of the bride, as typical of the fact that she is to
+keep the money of the household. A very pretty feature, as the couple
+kneel at the altar with lighted candles in their hands--an emblem of the
+light of the Christian faith--is the placing of a silken scarf around
+the shoulders of the bridal couple, and then the binding them together
+with a yoke of silver cord placed around the necks of both. That “thy
+people shall be my people” is an accepted fact, for it is a common thing
+for members of the bride’s family to take up their permanent residence
+with the husband, and make it their home.
+
+One of the most singular, and, to the foreigner, most interesting of the
+institutions of Mexico is the _Monte de Piedad_. The phrase means “The
+Mountain of Mercy.” It is the name given to what is in reality a great
+national pawnshop, which has branches in all the cities of the country,
+is exclusively under Government control, and is not managed, as in the
+United States, by guileless Hebrew children. The central office of the
+Monte de Piedad occupies the building known as the Palace of Cortez,
+which stands on the site of the ancient Palace of Montezuma, on the
+Plaza Mayor. It was founded in 1775 by Conde de Regla, the owner of very
+rich
+
+[Illustration: CACTUS, AND WOMAN KNEADING TORTILLAS.]
+
+mines, who endowed it in the sum of three hundred thousand dollars. His
+charitable purpose was to enable the poor of the city of Mexico to
+obtain loans on pledges of all kinds of articles, and for very low rates
+of interest. He thus relieved the poorer classes from usurious rates of
+interest which had been previously charged them by rapacious private
+pawnbrokers. At first no interest was charged, the borrower only being
+asked, when he redeemed his pledge, to give something for the carrying
+on of the charitable work which the institution had in hand. But as this
+benevolence was greatly abused, it was found necessary to charge a rate
+of interest which was very low, and yet sufficient to yield a revenue
+equal to necessary expenses. The affairs of this institution have been
+wisely managed, and it has been kept true to the purpose of its
+benevolent founder. When pledges come to be sold, if they bring a price
+greater than the original valuation, the difference is given back to the
+original owners. The Monte de Piedad has survived all revolutions, and
+its ministry of relief to the sufferers by these revolutions and other
+misfortunes has been incalculably great and blessed. Its average general
+loans on pledges amount to nearly a million dollars, and the borrowers
+whom it yearly accommodates number from forty to fifty thousand. From
+the time when it was founded, in 1775, down to 1886--a little more than
+the first century of its existence--it made loans to 2,232,611 persons,
+amounting in the aggregate to nearly $32,000,000, and during the same
+period it gave away nearly $150,000 in charity.
+
+There is nothing in which the Mexican character appears to better
+advantage than in the provisions made for the sick and unfortunate.
+There are in the city of Mexico alone ten or a dozen hospitals, some of
+which are large, well endowed and equipped, and managed in a way to
+compare favorably with the best appointed hospitals in any country. This
+for a city of three hundred thousand inhabitants is a more liberal
+provision than many larger cities in our own country have. A lying-in
+hospital was founded by the Empress Carlotta, who, after her return to
+Europe, sent the sum of six thousand dollars for its support. Besides
+the hospitals there is a foundling asylum capable of accommodating two
+hundred inmates: an asylum for the poor, which is a very large and
+important charity; a correctional school; an industrial school for
+orphans, having thirteen hundred scholars; an industrial school for
+women; another for men; schools for deaf-mutes and for the blind; and an
+asylum for beggars.
+
+The Church of England has been established in Mexico for twelve or
+fifteen years, having been induced to hold services there by the large
+number of English residents in the city; but no missionary work has been
+done by that denomination. The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions
+several years ago commenced to labor in the Republic under the patronage
+of Diaz, who was then President, and who gave them substantial
+
+[Illustration: FIRST PROTESTANT CHURCH IN MEXICO.]
+
+encouragement. Among other things, he presented the American Board with
+an old Catholic church, where the school is now held daily, and a
+printing-office, for the purpose of the publication of a weekly
+newspaper and religious literature, is carried on. There are now at work
+in Mexico six Protestant clergymen and two lady missionaries from the
+United States, twenty-four regularly ordained Mexican ministers, six
+native licentiates, and three native helpers. Seventy-five congregations
+have been organized, and meet for worship every Sunday, and the number
+of native members is about three thousand. There is also a Theological
+Seminary, with two professors from the United States and one native
+instructor, having a total attendance of twenty-seven young men
+preparing for the ministry. Fourteen of these are studying theology,
+and thirteen are in the preparatory department. There is also a school
+for girls, with two American and one native lady teacher, which has a
+large attendance. A missionary paper called _El Faro_ (The Light-house)
+is conducted at the Theological Seminary. The work is rapidly
+increasing, seven churches having been organized in 1885 and as many
+more in 1886.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST CHRISTIAN PULPIT IN AMERICA--TLAXCALA.]
+
+The missionaries are very often interfered with by the country people,
+instigated by the priests, and several of the native preachers have been
+shot or injured. These attacks have usually been attributed to
+highwaymen, but after investigation have proven to be the work of
+assassins employed by the priests. One white missionary was murdered
+some two years ago while passing along the road at night, but his
+assassins were brought to speedy justice, and wholesome examples made of
+them.
+
+In July, 1885, the Romanists of a small town in the interior entered a
+Protestant church, carried off all of the valuables, smashed the organ
+into fragments, emptied kerosene oil upon the benches, and set the place
+on fire. The furniture of the interior was destroyed, but the walls of
+the building, being of adobe, and the roof of tiles, the house was not
+destroyed. For some weeks afterwards several shots were fired at people
+who were on their way to evening service, and a missionary was attacked
+in the dark by armed assassins who would have been murdered but for the
+courageous use of his revolver. Subsequently all the other churches in
+the neighborhood were similarly treated, and when appeals were made to
+the local authorities for protection, and for the punishment of those
+who had committed the outrages, it was decided that it was the work of
+highwaymen, and a reward was offered for the arrest of the perpetrators.
+This opinion was thought to be a subterfuge, and it is believed that the
+authorities were in sympathy with the acts.
+
+The matter was carried to President Diaz, who ordered an investigation,
+and promised an effectual protection to the missionaries wherever there
+was need of it. Several days after he issued a proclamation which was
+addressed to the commandants of the several departments of the Republic,
+and ordered that it should be read before the troops on parade, and kept
+posted in conspicuous places for the information of the public. In this
+proclamation, among other things, President Diaz said: “These acts of
+intolerance, apart from their injustice, are the data by which people of
+other lands judge of the nature and degree of our civilization, and for
+this reason especially I command that you give especial attention to
+prevent such outrages, and to secure to all believers in any religion
+the liberty which the constitution and laws concede to them. Catholics
+shall be protected in the same way as Protestants, and those who attempt
+to interfere with the exercise of any religious ceremony shall be
+punished severely. If troops are needed to carry this order into effect,
+they will be supplied upon request.”
+
+[Illustration: FONT IN OLD CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO.]
+
+
+
+
+GUATEMALA CITY.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF GUATEMALA.
+
+
+Guatemala has had three capitals, all called Guatemala City, since the
+Conquest. The first was founded by Alvarado in 1524, and buried under a
+flood of sand and water in 1541. The second capital was founded the same
+year, a few miles eastward of the old site, and was destroyed by an
+earthquake in 1773. The present capital is the largest and by far the
+finest city in Central America, and is more modern in its appearance
+than any other. It is situated in what is called the _tierra templada_,
+or temperate zone, about forty-five hundred feet above the level of the
+sea, at the northern extremity of an extensive and beautiful plain, and
+has a climate that is very attractive. The plain upon which it stands is
+by no means as fertile as many other portions of the country, and is
+deficient in water. The supply which is used by the people is brought
+for a distance of fifteen miles in an aqueduct, which has the honor of
+having been described by Charles Dickens in his sketch of “The Flying
+Dutchman.” These water-works were commenced as far back as 1832, and
+involved an expenditure of over two million dollars, but without them
+the city could not have prospered.
+
+Guatemala City is not favorably situated for commerce, as it is a
+considerable distance from both seas, and is shut out from the most
+productive portions of the country by walls of mountains. The city is
+laid out in quadrilateral form, and formerly was surrounded by a great
+wall through which it was entered by gates opening in various
+directions. It covers a vast area of territory for a place of its
+population, as the houses, like those of other Central American cities,
+are very
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF GUATEMALA CITY.]
+
+large, and enclose attractive gardens. During the last twelve years,
+under the presidency of General Barrios, Guatemala has made rapid
+progress, and but for the low and commonplace appearance of the houses
+would resemble the more modern cities of Europe. All the streets are
+paved, with gutters in the centre, and have broad paths of flag-stones
+on each side for foot-passengers.
+
+Antigua Guatemala, the old capital, thirty miles to the westward of the
+new, is still a place of considerable importance, and in its time was
+far superior to the present capital in size and appearance. Previous to
+its destruction in 1773 there were but two cities on the American
+hemisphere which compared with it in population, wealth, and
+magnificence. These were the City of Mexico, and Lima, Peru. New York
+was then a commercial infant, Boston a mere village, and Chicago yet
+unknown. But here was a city in which were centred the ecclesiastical
+and political interests of the Central American colonies, where millions
+of dollars were spent in erecting churches, convents, and monasteries,
+which covered acres of ground, and beautiful residences whose shattered
+portals still bear the escutcheons of the noble families who ruled the
+city and cultivated the plantations of coffee, sugar, and cochineal.
+
+Antigua, as it is now called (properly old Guatemala), was not only the
+scene of wealth and influence, and the commercial metropolis of the
+country, but the home of the most learned men of all Spanish America,
+the seat of great schools of theology, science, and art, for two hundred
+years the Athens and Rome of the New World, the residence of the
+university, as well as the Inquisition, and the headquarters of those
+untiring apostles of evil, the Jesuits. The population is said to have
+been about one hundred and fifty thousand. It is not known that a census
+was ever taken, and this estimate is based upon the size of the city and
+number of inhabitants its ruined walls could have contained. It is
+situated in the centre of a great valley, between the twin volcanoes
+Agua and Fuego; and as the old Spanish chroniclers used to say, had
+Paradise on one side and the Inferno on the other. The beauty of its
+position and the richness of the adjacent country, the grandeur of the
+scenery that surrounds it, have called forth the most extravagant
+admiration from travellers, and have made it the theme of the native
+poets. Mr. Stephens, who wrote the most elaborate sketch of Central
+America we have, some forty years ago, says that Antigua Guatemala is
+surrounded by more natural beauty than any location he had ever seen
+during the whole course of his travels. The city is watered by a stream
+bearing the poetical name of El Rio Pensativo, which encircles the
+mountains and winds about through the plain in most graceful curves. It
+has for its tributaries many rivulets that water the plain, and finally
+falls over a cataract and flows through the valley below to the sea.
+
+This valley was formerly famous for the culture of cochineal, and much
+wealth was derived from this source before aniline dyes drove it out of
+the market. The cochineal is a little insect which clings to the leaves
+of a species of the cactus, known as the nopal, and in the natural state
+the white hair upon its body causes the leaves to look as if they were
+covered with hoar-frost. Before the rainy season sets in the leaves of
+the nopal are cut close to the ground and hung up under a shed for
+protection. Then they are scraped with a dull knife, and the insects are
+killed by being baked in a hot oven or dipped into boiling water. If the
+first process is used, the insects become a brownish color, and furnish
+a scarlet or crimson dye. Those killed by baking are black, and are used
+for blue and purple dyes. They are then packed up in little casks,
+covered with hides to keep out the moisture, and sent to market, being
+valued at several dollars a pound. The great part of the expense is due
+to the time and trouble required to detach the insects from the nopal,
+two ounces being considered a fair result of a day’s labor; and it is
+said that it requires seventy thousand to make a pound. When they are
+dried they look like coarse powder.
+
+The first capital was founded by Alvarado, the Conqueror. The exploits
+of Cortez in Mexico had become known among
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE OLD PALACE AT ANTIGUA GUATEMALA.]
+
+the Indian tribes in the south, and the native kings sent an embassy to
+him offering their allegiance to the crown of Spain. Cortez received the
+embassy with distinction, and sent Alvarado back with them to take
+possession of the country. In 1523 Alvarado left the City of Mexico with
+three hundred Spanish soldiers and a large body of natives, and nearly a
+year later arrived at a place at the foot of the volcano Antigua, called
+by the Indians Almolonga, meaning in their language “a spring of water.”
+On the 25th of July, 1524, the festival of St. James, the patron saint
+of Spain, Alvarado, under a tree which is still standing, assembled his
+horsemen, the Mexican Indians who had accompanied him, and as many of
+the natives of the country as could crowd around, when the chaplain,
+Juan Godinez, said mass, invoking the protection of the apostle, and
+christening the city he intended to build there with the name of San
+Diego de los Cabeleleros--the City of St. James, the Gentleman. After
+these religious services, Alvarado assumed authority as governor, and
+appointed his subordinates.
+
+For fifteen years thousands of Indians were kept at work building the
+city. A church was the first structure raised; but in September, 1541,
+there came a calamity which entirely destroyed the place, and buried
+more than half the inhabitants under the ruins, among whom was the Donna
+Beatrice de la Queba, the wife of Alvarado. It had rained incessantly
+for three days, and on the fourth the fury of the wind, the incessant
+lightning and dreadful thunder, were indescribable. At two o’clock in
+the morning the earthquake shocks became so violent that the people were
+unable to stand. Shortly after an enormous body of water rushed down
+from the mountain, forcing with it large pieces of rock, trees, and
+entirely overwhelming the town with an avalanche of earth and ashes.
+
+It has generally been assumed, and is believed by the people, that this
+flow of water was a real eruption, and for that reason the volcano was
+named Agua. The theory of some scientists is, that the water flowed from
+an accumulation of rain and snow in the extinct crater, the walls of
+which were broken through by the pressure during the earthquake. Such a
+thing is not only doubtful, but almost impossible; and unless the
+situation of the crater has changed, there is no evidence of it. Any
+torrent of water cast from the crater would have gone down on the other
+side of the mountain, and there are ashes upon the slope near the summit
+which must have lain there for hundreds of years. About three thousand
+feet from the summit there is evidence of a terrible struggle between a
+storm and the earth. Great trees were uprooted, rocks were hurled from
+their places, and a vast fissure is seen, fifteen or sixteen hundred
+feet deep, extending directly to the buried city, growing in depth and
+width until it reaches the valley. From this gorge came the mass of
+ashes and sand which buried the first Guatemala, like Sodom and Pompeii,
+and it must have been carried down by a water-spout or some agent of
+that sort.
+
+The cathedral was buried to the roof; but years afterwards, when the
+sand was dug away, it was found uninjured, with all its contents
+preserved, because of the interposition of St. James. The palace, being
+in the immediate path of the torrent, was undermined and overthrown by
+its force. The ruins, half covered by sand, are the only remaining
+evidences of the massive grandeur of the building, one of whose angles
+points in the direction from which the water came. Many excavations have
+been made in search of treasure, as Alvarado had the reputation of
+keeping there stores of silver and gold. They have resulted in no
+remunerative discovery, but have disclosed some fine carvings, wonderful
+frescos, and other evidences of the beauty which the place is said to
+have possessed. Over its ruins to-day stands a low-browed house, with an
+inscription over its door reading, “_Complimetaria Escula Para
+Ninos_”--A Free School for Girls.
+
+The tree under which tradition says Alvarado and his soldiers first
+camped, and where Padre Godinez sanctified the city by religious
+services, is still standing. When I visited it, the most noticeable
+things about the place were a wagon made by the Studebaker Brothers, of
+South Bend, Indiana, and several empty beer bottles, bearing the brand
+of a Chicago brewer.
+
+[Illustration: ALVARADO’S TREE.]
+
+The fountain of Almolonga, which first induced Alvarado to select this
+spot as the site of his capital, is a large natural basin of clear and
+beautiful water shaded by trees. It has been walled up and divided off
+into apartments for bathing purposes and laundry work; and here all the
+women of the town come to wash their clothing. The old church was dug
+out of the sand, and is still standing. In one corner is a chamber
+filled with the skulls and bones that were excavated from the ruins. The
+old priest who was responsible for the spiritual welfare of the people
+showed us over the ruins, and told us stories of Alvarado and his piety.
+He said that the pictures, hangings, and altar ornaments in the church
+were the same that were placed there in Alvarado’s time, and unlocking a
+great iron chest he showed us communion vessels, incense urns, crosses,
+and banners of solid gold and silver. Among other things was a
+magnificent crown of gold, which was presented to the church by one of
+the Philips of Spain. It was originally studded with diamonds, emeralds,
+and other jewels, but they have been removed, and the settings are now
+empty. Yankee-like, we tried to buy some of these treasures, for they
+were the richest I had seen at any place, but the old priest refused all
+pecuniary temptations, and crossed himself reverently as he put the
+sacred vessels away. The only people who patronize this church are the
+Indians, who, to the number of two or three thousand, live in the
+neighborhood, and the ancient vessels are never used in these days, but
+are kept as curiosities.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT ARCHES.]
+
+The second city of Guatemala was built about three miles
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD AND THE NEW.]
+
+from the original one, a little farther down, and nearly at the foot of
+the volcano Fuego. Both of these ruined cities offer the greatest
+attractions to the antiquarian, but few have ever visited them, and
+very little has been written of either place. In Antigua, as the second
+Guatemala is called, is the most extensive collection of ruins that can
+be found in this hemisphere. From a tower of the cathedral one can see
+on either side the ruins of many churches, monasteries, convents, and
+miles of public and private residences, large and costly; some with
+walls still standing, liberally ornamented with stucco or carved stone,
+but roofless, without doors or windows, and trees growing within them.
+
+The ruins of forty-five churches can be counted, and nearly every one of
+them had a convent or monastery attached. Some cover several acres, and
+have cells for five or six hundred monks or nuns. Several of the
+churches are as large as the cathedral in New York. They are not so much
+ruined but that their outlines can be traced, showing the noble
+architecture and costly work by which they were built. The force of the
+earthquake can be seen by broken pillars of solid stone five or six feet
+in diameter; walls of ten or fifteen feet thickness were shaken into
+fragments, and buildings with foundations of stone as deep and solid as
+those of the Capitol at Washington were crumbled into dust. About ten
+per cent. of the houses have been rebuilt, but the remainder are still
+in ruins. The inhabitants occupy the old residences that have been
+restored, but appear to know little of the place as it was before the
+earthquake. They have forgotten what their fathers told them, and no
+attempt has ever been made to secure a permanent and accurate record of
+the antique conditions.
+
+In the centre of the town is a great plaza, which, as usual in all of
+the Central American capitals, is surrounded by public buildings and the
+cathedral. In the centre stands a noble fountain, which is surrounded
+every morning by market-women selling the fruit and vegetables of the
+country. The old palace has been partially restored, and displays upon
+its front the armorial bearing granted by the Emperor Charles the Fifth
+to the loyal and noble capital in which the Viceroy of Central America
+lived. Upon the crest of the building is a statue of the Apostle St.
+James on horseback, clad in armor, and brandishing a sword. The
+majestic cathedral, 300 feet long, 120 feet broad, 110 feet high, and
+lighted by fifty windows, has been restored, and within it services are
+held every morning, the faithful being called to mass by a peon pounding
+upon a large and resonant gong.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE OLD TOWN LOOKS NOW.]
+
+Without warning, on a Sunday night in 1773, the disaster came, and the
+proudest city in the New World was forever humbled. The roof of the
+cathedral fell; all the other churches were shaken to pieces; the great
+monasteries, which had been standing for centuries, and were thought to
+be useful for many centuries more, crumbled in an instant. The dead were
+never counted, and the wounded died from lack of relief. Those who
+escaped fled to the mountains, and the earthquake continued so violent
+that few returned to the ruins for many days. The volcano, whose single
+shudder shook down the accumulated grandeur of two hundred and fifty
+years, has since been almost idle, but is smoking constantly, and
+emitting sulphurous vapors which tell of the furnace beneath. As if
+satisfied with its moment’s work, it stands at rest, tempting man to try
+again to build another magnificent city, as firm as he can make it, for
+another test of strength. The people, like the dwellers over the buried
+Herculaneum, seem to have no fear of ruin or disaster, because, as very
+respectable citizens will tell you, the volcano which did the damage has
+since been blessed by a priest.
+
+[Illustration: FRAGMENT OF A RUINED MONASTERY.]
+
+In one of the old monasteries, established by the Franciscan Friars, is
+a tree from which four different kinds of fruit may be plucked at one
+time--the orange, lemon, lime, and a sweet fruit called by the Spanish
+the limone. It was a horticultural experiment of the Friars many hundred
+years ago, and still stands as a monument of their experimental
+industry. It was they who first introduced the cultivation of coffee
+from Arabia into these countries, and who discovered the use of that
+curious insect the cochineal. The latter used to be an extensive article
+of commerce, but the cheapness of the aniline dyes has driven it out of
+the market. Now it is cultivated only for local consumption, and is
+extensively used by the natives, whose cotton and woollen fabrics are
+gayly dyed in colors that will endure any amount of water or sunshine.
+Thirty years ago two million tons were exported annually, but now very
+little goes out of the country.
+
+[Illustration: JOSÉ RUFINO BARRIOS.]
+
+The progress of Guatemala during the last twelve years, and the
+advancement of the country towards a modern standard of civilization,
+has been very rapid, and it is due to the energy and determination of
+one man, José Rufino Barrios, who stands next, if not equal, to Morazan
+as a patriot and benefactor of his country. President Barrios studied
+the conditions of social and political economy in the United States and
+European nations, and used a remarkable amount of energy to introduce
+them among his own people. There has been no man in Central or South
+America with more progressive ideas or more ardent ambition for the
+advancement of his countrymen.
+
+The prevailing opinion of President Barrios is that he was a brutal
+ruffian. He drove out of the country many political opponents who
+occupied themselves by telling stories of his cruelty, some of which
+were doubtless true. The methods which he habitually used to keep the
+people in order would not be tolerated in the more civilized lands. But
+in estimating his true character, the good he accomplished should be
+considered as well as the evil. Until the history of Central America
+shall be written years hence, when the mind can reflect calmly and
+impartially upon the scenes of this decade, when public benefits can be
+accurately measured with individual errors, and the strides of progress
+in material development can be justly estimated, the true character of
+General Barrios will not be understood or appreciated even by his own
+countrymen. Like all vigorous and progressive men, like all men of
+strong character and forcible measures, he had bitter, vindictive
+enemies, who would have assassinated him had they been able to do so,
+and repeatedly tried it. There was nothing too harsh for them to say of
+him, living or dead, no cruelties too barbarous for them to accuse him
+of, no revenge too severe for them to visit upon him or his memory. But,
+on the other hand, people who did not cherish a spirit of revenge, who
+had no political ambition, and no schemes to be disconcerted, who are
+interested in the development of Central America, and are enjoying the
+benefits of the progress Guatemala has made, regard Barrios as the best
+friend and ablest leader, the wisest ruler his country ever had, and
+would have been glad if his life could have been prolonged and his power
+extended over the entire continent. They are willing to concede to him
+not only honorable motives, but the worthy ambition of trying to lift
+his country to the level with the most advanced nations of the earth.
+Ten more years of the same progress that Guatemala made under Barrios
+would place her upon a par with any of the States of Europe, or those
+of the United States. While he did not furnish a government of the
+people, by the people, it was a government for the people, provided and
+administered by a man of remarkable ability, independence, ambition, and
+extraordinary pride. While his iron hand crushed all opposition, and
+held a power that yielded to nothing, he was, nevertheless, generous to
+the poor, lenient to those who would submit to him, and ready to do
+anything to improve the condition of the people or promote their
+welfare.
+
+[Illustration: FRANCISCO MORAZAN.]
+
+That a man of his ancestry and early associations should have brought
+this republic to the condition in which he left it when he died is
+remarkable. Without education himself, he enacted a law requiring the
+attendance at school of all children between the ages of eight and
+fourteen years, and rigorously enforced it. People who refused to obey
+this law, or sent their children to private schools, or educated them at
+home, were compelled to pay a heavy fine for the privilege. He
+established a university at Guatemala City and free schools in every
+city of the republic, to the support of which a larger proportion of the
+public revenues were appropriated than in any one of the United States
+or the nations of Europe. He founded hospitals, asylums, and other
+institutions of charity with his own means, or supported them by
+appropriations from the public treasury. He compelled physicians to be
+educated properly before they were allowed to practise; he punished
+crime so severely that it was almost unknown; he regulated the sale of
+liquors, so that a drunken man was never seen upon the streets; he
+enforced the observance of the Sabbath by closing the stores and
+market-places, which in other Spanish-American republics are always
+open, and was active for the material as for the moral welfare of the
+people. During the twelve years he was in power the country made greater
+progress, and the citizens enjoyed greater prosperity, than during any
+period of all the three centuries and a half of previous history.
+
+His ambition to reunite the five Central American republics in a
+confederacy was not successful; but it was inspired by a desire to do
+for the neighboring States what he had done for Guatemala. His ambition
+was for the advancement and development of Central America; and while
+the means he used cannot be entirely approved, his purpose should be
+applauded. His crusade was quite as important in the civilization of
+this continent as the bloody work England attempted to accomplish in
+Egypt and the Soudan. He was better than his race, was far in advance of
+his generation, and while he did not succeed in lifting his people
+entirely out of the ignorance and degradation in which they were kept by
+the priests, what he did do cannot but result in the permanent good,
+not only of Guatemala, but of the nations which surround that republic.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN FRANCESCA, GUATEMALA LA ANTIGUA.]
+
+After the independence of the Central American colonies the priests
+ruled the country. Their excesses awakened a spirit of opposition, which
+finally culminated in a revolution. The famous Morazan became dictator,
+and might have been successful but for a decree he issued abolishing the
+convents and monasteries, and confiscating the entire property of the
+Church. This was in 1843. Led by the priests, the people rose in
+rebellion; but Morazan retained his power until an unknown man, tall,
+dark, and blood-thirsty, came out of the mountains--an Indian without a
+name, who could neither read nor write, whose occupation had been that
+of a swineherd, like Pizarro, who had graduated in the profession of a
+bandit, and led a gang of murderous outlaws in the mountains. Urged by a
+greed for plunder, this remarkable man, Rafael Carera, came out from his
+stronghold and joined the Church party in their war against the
+Government.
+
+His successes as a guerilla were so great that what was a small,
+independent band became the main army of the opposition, and he led a
+horde of disorganized plunderers towards the capital. The priests called
+him the Chosen of God, and attributed to him the divinely inspired
+mission of restoring the Church to power. The pious churchmen rushed to
+his standard, and fought by the side and under the command of the
+savage, whose only motive was plunder. He drove Morazan into Costa Rica,
+and proclaimed himself Dictator. The Church party were amazed at the
+arrogance of the bandit, but had to submit, and he soon developed into a
+full-fledged tyrant, ruling over Guatemala until his death for a period
+of thirty years.
+
+When Carera died there was no man to take his place, and the Church
+party began to decay. The Liberals gathered force and began a
+revolution. In their ranks was an obscure young man from the borders of
+Mexico, from a valley which produced Juarez, the liberator of Mexico,
+Diaz, the president of that republic, and other famous men. He began to
+show military skill and force of character, and when the Church party
+was overthrown and the Liberal leader was proclaimed President, Rufino
+Barrios became the general of the army. He soon resigned, however, and
+returned to his coffee plantation on the borders of Mexico. But the
+revival of the Church party shortly after caused him to return to
+military life, and when the Liberal president died, he was, in 1873,
+chosen his successor.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF FIFTY-SEVEN RUINED MONASTERIES.]
+
+From that date until 1885 there was but one man in Guatemala, and he was
+Barrios. He began his career by adopting the policy that Morazan had
+failed to enforce. He expelled the monks and nuns from the country,
+confiscated the Church property, robbed the priests of their power, and,
+like Juarez in Mexico, liberated the people from a servitude under
+which they had suffered since the original settlement of the colonies.
+Then he visited the United States and Europe to study the science of
+government; sent men abroad to be educated, at Government expense, in
+the arts and sciences and political economy, and upon their return
+placed them in subordinate positions under him. He offered the most
+generous inducements to immigrants, and the country filled up with
+agricultural settlers, merchants, and mechanics. The population
+increased, and the country began to grow in prosperity with the
+development of its natural resources, and there was a “boom” in
+Guatemala the like of which was never before witnessed on that
+continent.
+
+Although he found Guatemala in a condition of moral degradation and
+commercial stagnation, he educated the people in a remarkable degree to
+an appreciation of his own ideas, and by introducing many modern
+improvements succeeded in inspiring them with his own ambition, so that
+they co-operated with him in any measure for the welfare of the country.
+He secured the enactment of laws which have been of great benefit, and
+compelled the natives to submit to what they first regarded as hardships
+but now accept as blessings. Roadways were constructed from the
+sea-coast to the interior, so that produce could get to market;
+diligence lines were established at Government expense; liberal railroad
+contracts were made, telegraph lines were erected, and all the modern
+facilities were introduced. The credit of the country was restored by a
+careful readjustment of its finances, and encouragement from the
+Government brought in a large amount of European capital. So that
+to-day, while the other Central American States are still in the
+condition that they were one hundred years ago, or have retrograded,
+Guatemala has stepped to the front, rich, powerful, progressive, and but
+for the peculiar appearance of the houses, the language of the people,
+and the customs they have inherited from their ancestors, Guatemala is
+not different from the new States of our great West.
+
+Under a compulsory education law free public-schools have
+
+[Illustration: FAÇADE OF AN OLD CHURCH.]
+
+been established in every department of the republic, at an expense
+aggregating one-tenth of the entire revenues of the Government, an
+amount larger in proportion than is paid by any of the United States.
+Not only is tuition free, but textbooks are furnished by the Government.
+In 1884 the total number of schools in the republic was 934, with an
+attendance of 42,549 pupils, supported at a cost of $451,809, being an
+average cost to the public treasury of about ten dollars per pupil. Of
+this aggregate 850 were public graded schools with 39,642 pupils, 55
+were private schools with 1780 pupils, 20 were academies for the
+education of teachers and others desiring education in the higher
+branches. In addition to these the Government supports a university,
+with a faculty of high reputation, some of them imported from Germany
+and Spain, who are paid salaries of four thousand dollars a year each, a
+compensation greater than is received by instructors in the colleges of
+the United States, except in rare instances. Under this university are
+two law-schools with fifty-two pupils, one school of engineering with
+eleven pupils, a music-school with sixty-six pupils, a school of arts
+and drawing with one hundred and seventeen pupils, and a commercial
+college with fifty pupils, besides a deaf and dumb asylum with nine
+inmates. It is required that students in this university shall study the
+English language, and in a female college adjacent to it nothing but
+American textbooks are used. No language but English is spoken by the
+pupils residing in the institution, and the teachers as well as the
+principal are from the United States. This system of education was
+established about ten years ago, but has gradually improved until it has
+reached its present importance, and cannot but have a wholesome
+influence in the elevation of the people and the development of the
+State.
+
+Having overthrown the religion in which the people had been reared,
+Barrios recognized the necessity of providing some better substitute. He
+therefore, through the British minister, invited the Established Church
+of England to send missionaries to Guatemala; but owing to the disturbed
+condition of the country it was not considered advisable to commence
+work at that time, and the opportunity was neglected. In 1883 President
+Barrios visited New York, where he had conferences with the officers of
+the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, which resulted in diverting
+the Rev. John C. Hill, of Chicago, who was _en route_ to China, into
+this field of labor. Mr. Hill returned with the President to Guatemala,
+receiving a cordial welcome, and the President not only paid the
+travelling expenses of himself and family from his own pocket, but the
+freight charges upon his furniture, and purchased the equipment
+necessary for the establishment of a mission and school.
+
+[Illustration: A REMNANT.]
+
+The reception of the President on his return to the country after an
+absence of nearly two years was a royal one, and the journey from San
+José, the Pacific seaport, to the capital of Guatemala was a triumphal
+march. Of all the honors, of all the attentions General Barrios
+received, he insisted that Mr. Hill should have a share, and the
+blushing young parson found himself again and again on public platforms,
+with the President of Guatemala leaning upon his shoulder and
+introducing him to the people as his friend. This demonstration had its
+purpose, and resulted precisely as General Barrios intended it should.
+He meant that the people should know that he had taken the missionary
+and the cause he represented under the patronage of the Government, and
+expected them to show the same respect and honor he bestowed himself. He
+went still further. He placed Mr. Hill in one of his own houses, and
+there the school and chapel were opened. He sent his own children to the
+new Sunday-school, and notified members of his Cabinet to follow his
+example. He issued a decree to the Collectors of Customs to admit free
+of duty all articles which Mr. Hill desired to import, and in every
+possible manner showed his interest in the success of the work. The
+Protestant Mission became fashionable, and was known as the President’s
+“pet.”
+
+The encouragement President Barrios gave to the Presbyterian Mission was
+an example the people were glad to follow, and the mission met with
+nothing but the most cordial and respectful treatment. The Catholics
+looked very sour at the rapidity with which the breach was widened in
+the walls they were nearly four hundred years in erecting, but they
+dared not utter even a remonstrance against those favored by the potent
+force behind the military guard. They saw the monks and nuns expelled,
+the churches sold at public auction for the benefit of the public
+treasury, and with a muttered curse against the power by which all these
+things were done, submitted servilely to his will for fear of losing
+what they had been able to retain.
+
+Mrs. Barrios was the loveliest woman in Guatemala; beautiful in
+character as well as person, socially brilliant and graceful, charitable
+beyond all precedent in a country where the poor are usually permitted
+to take care of themselves, generous and hospitable, a good mother to a
+fine family of children, and a devoted wife, loyal to all the
+President’s ambitions, and an enthusiastic supporter of all his schemes.
+Like a wise man who knows the perils which constantly surround him, and
+the uncertainty of the head which wears a crown in these countries, he
+had made ample provision for his family by purchasing for Mrs. Barrios
+a handsome residence in Fifth Avenue near Sixty-fifth Street, New York,
+and investing about a million dollars in her name in other New York real
+estate. His life was also insured for two hundred and fifty thousand
+dollars in New York companies, which, it must be said, carried a
+hazardous risk, as there were hundreds of men who lived only to see
+Barrios buried. Very few of them were in Guatemala, however, during his
+lifetime. They did not find the atmosphere agreeable there. They were
+exiles in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Mexico, California, or elsewhere,
+waiting for a chance to give him a dose of dynamite or prick him with a
+dagger.
+
+[Illustration: FORT OF SAN JOSÉ, GUATEMALA.]
+
+Mrs. Barrios and her children talk English as well as if they had always
+lived in New York. While the President himself could not speak the
+language fluently, he could understand what was said to him, and
+apologized for what he called a misfortune, on the ground that he did
+not have the opportunity to learn it until he was too old to master its
+intricacies. But he required English to be taught in all the
+common-schools, and the children use nothing but American text-books. I
+talked with him one day, with his little girl as an interpreter. She was
+a beautiful child, about ten years of age, and when she said she was an
+American (which means a citizen of the United States) the President
+patted her fondly upon the head and cried “bueno” (good).
+
+Several years ago there was a conspiracy to assassinate the President. A
+woman, who was the Mrs. Surratt of the plot, and at whose house the
+conspirators were in the habit of meeting, did not like the arrangement,
+and on the afternoon of the night on which the plan was to be carried
+into execution revealed the whole thing to the President. He had the
+conspirators arrested, and ordered the men shot who proposed to ravish
+his wife, but he pardoned his treacherous private secretary. The latter
+rewarded the President’s generosity by forging an order to the
+commandant of the prison to release the condemned men. He was arrested
+again, confessed his crime, even boasted of it, and was shot also.
+Several other attempts were made to assassinate Barrios. The last came
+very near being successful. He was on his way to the theatre, when three
+men, who had been employed by an ambitious politician for the purpose,
+threw a bomb at him. He coolly stepped on the fuse, extinguished it,
+picked up the dose of death that had been prepared for him, and remarked
+to his companion,
+
+“The rascals don’t know how to kill me!”
+
+The leader of the plot was sent into exile, but his tools were pardoned,
+and are walking the streets of the city of Guatemala to-day.
+
+The prettiest and most picturesque of the native costumes to be found in
+Spanish America is worn by the women of Guatemala, who are of a dark
+complexion, nearly that of the mulatto type, but are famous for their
+beauty of form. A Guatemala girl in her native costume makes as pretty a
+picture as one can find anywhere. Her face is bright and pretty, her
+figure as perfect as nature unaided by art can be, and her movements
+show a supple grace and elasticity that cannot be imitated by those of
+her sex who are encumbered by modern articles of feminine apparel. Her
+head is usually bare, in-doors and out, and her thick black tresses hang
+in braids often reaching to her heels.
+
+[Illustration: YNIENSI GATE, GUATEMALA.]
+
+Her garments are only two--a _guipil_ and a _sabana_. The first is a
+square piece of cotton of coarse texture, covered with embroidery of
+brilliant colors and simple but artistic designs. In the centre of the
+_guipil_ is an aperture like that in the ordinary poncho, through which
+her head goes, and it is usually wide enough to constitute, when worn, a
+low-neck waist. The ends are tucked in her skirts at the belt. Her bare
+arms come through the open folds of her _guipil_, and when she raises
+them her side is exposed. Her skirt is a straight piece of plaid cotton
+of brilliant colors, like the Scotch plaids, and is wound tightly around
+her limbs. It is secured at the waist by a sash, usually of scarlet,
+woven by her own hands of the fibres of the _pita_ grass, and executed
+in the most skilful manner. These belts in their texture resemble the
+Persian camel’s-hair shawl, and often cost months of labor. Very often
+the name of the owner, and sometimes mottoes, are woven into the
+texture, and they are brought away from the country as curiosities by
+travellers.
+
+Every article the Guatemala girl wears she makes with her own hands, and
+the natives of that country are as ingenious, industrious, and
+intelligent as are found in Spanish America. Even her sandals are
+home-made, and her little stockingless feet look very pretty in them.
+The small size of the hands and feet of the men and women is always
+noticed by those who visit Guatemala, and they are usually very shapely
+and delicately formed.
+
+The costume which has been described is worn only by the peasants. The
+upper classes dress just as they would in New York, and the fashions are
+followed quite as closely. The women are very pretty, but have the habit
+of plastering their faces over with a paste or rouge that makes them
+look as if they had been poking their heads into a flour-barrel. This
+cosmetic is made of magnesia and the whites of eggs, stirred into a
+thick paste, and plastered on without regard to quantity. The natural
+beauty of complexion is thus concealed, and in time totally ruined.
+There is a Swiss lady at the head of a large seminary in Guatemala City
+to which the daughters of the aristocracy are sent. She has forbidden
+the use of this plaster by the young ladies under her charge to prevent
+the boarding pupils from destroying their fair skins, but over the
+day-scholars she has no control out of school-hours. Every morning she
+stands at the entrance with a basin of water, a sponge, and a towel, and
+puts the girls through a system of scrubbing that arouses their
+indignation.
+
+The natives are fond of bright colors, and have a remarkable deftness in
+their fingers, which hold the embroidery-needle as well as the hoe and
+machete. The _guipils_ are embroidered in gay tints and artistic
+patterns, and a group of peons
+
+[Illustration: A VOLCANIC LAKE.]
+
+returning from or going to market looks as quaint and picturesque as the
+peasants of Normandy or Switzerland. The women are short, squarely
+built, and very muscular, and carry as much load as a mule. Their cargo
+is always borne upon their heads in a large basket, and they seldom
+walk, but move in a jog-trot, with a swaying, graceful motion, swinging
+their arms and carrying their shoulders as erect as a West Point cadet.
+They travel up hill and down without changing this gait, and make about
+six miles an hour, being able to outstrip any ordinary horse or mule not
+only in speed but in endurance. It is a common thing to see a woman not
+more than twenty-five or twenty-eight years of age coming to town with a
+hundred pounds of meat or vegetables upon her head, a baby slung in a
+_reboso_ or blanket fastened around her hips, and several children from
+six to twelve years of age, each heavily laden, trotting along by her
+side. Almost as soon as they are able to walk, the children receive
+loads to carry, and the little ones come seven, eight, and ten miles to
+market every day or so, thinking nothing of bearing on their heads a
+weight that would be a burden to the ordinary man of North America.
+
+The men do not carry their loads upon their heads, but upon their backs
+in a pannier, which is held by bands around the shoulders and across the
+forehead. They are wonderfully strong and fleet of foot. “If you are
+going to buy wood or hay,” said a friend who has lived long in the
+country, “always take the man’s load. You will get more than if you
+bought the load of a mule.” These men come into town driving ahead of
+them three or four pack-mules loaded with coffee, sugar, corn, hay, or
+wood, which they sell to the commission merchants or at the market. When
+they return at night to their homes in the country they never ride, but
+drive the unladen mules ahead of them, and many of them are so
+accustomed to a weight upon their backs that they place a great stone in
+the pannier to give them a proper balance.
+
+Some are very fleet of foot. Barrios had a runner attached to his
+retinue of whom some tall stories are told. He was sent as a courier
+into the country with messages, and his average speed was ten miles an
+hour. This runner was kept pretty busy in war times, and was constantly
+in motion. Once he carried a despatch thirty-five leagues into the
+interior and returned with the answer in thirty-six hours, making the
+two hundred and ten miles over the mountains at six miles an hour,
+including detentions and delays for food and sleep.
+
+These men wear short trousers, like bathing-trunks, and a white cotton
+shirt, with sandals made of cowhide. The shirt is kept for occasions of
+ceremony, and is worn only in town. While on the road they are naked
+except for the trunks.
+
+When Barrios issued his decree that the peasants should wear clothing
+the country narrowly escaped a revolution; but policemen were stationed
+on all the roads leading into the city, and confiscated all the cargoes
+borne by those who did
+
+[Illustration: ON THE ROAD TO THE CAPITAL.]
+
+not comply with the regulations and put on a shirt or a _guipil_. The
+peons pleaded poverty, when Barrios, who was as generous as he was
+tyrannical, furnished the cloth to make the garments.
+
+It is a novel sight to see a native policeman wearing a uniform like
+that worn by the policemen of New York--helmet, club, badge, and all.
+Here extremes meet. Quite as significant and striking a contrast is
+often furnished in the picture of one of these peons, laden down with
+his pannier, leaning for a moment’s rest upon a letter-box like those
+used in the United States, attached to a telephone-pole; or one of the
+gayly dressed women, with a load of vegetables upon her head, dodging a
+still more gayly painted mail-wagon, the exact counterpart of those used
+in our postal service, except that the coat of arms of Guatemala appears
+in the place of the American eagle.
+
+Barrios imported a sergeant of the New York police force two years ago,
+bought a lot of uniforms, and organized a patrol system that is
+remarkably successful. He put letter-boxes on nearly every
+street-corner, and had the mail carried to and from the railroad-station
+in wagons made by the same man and after the same pattern as those in
+use in the United States. He introduced the letter-carrier system also.
+It is not successful, because the natives object to have their
+correspondence carried through the streets, preferring to send for it
+themselves.
+
+The military law of Guatemala requires the enrolment in the militia of
+every able-bodied man between the ages of eighteen and forty, and when
+Barrios issued his pronunciamento they were all called out for service.
+Even the hotels were stripped of servants, the business houses of
+porters, and all industries of laborers. Jesus Maria was the name of a
+male chamber-maid at the Grand Hotel, where all the work is done by men.
+Jesus was very patriotic, and made many vows, he said, for the success
+of Barrios, but he did not want to go to war, and appealed to all the
+boarders who had influence with the Government to secure him an
+exemption-paper. He could say a few words of English, and expressed his
+sentiments concerning the pending struggle in the words, “La union much
+grande; la guerra no good.” That exactly describes the attitude the
+United States took in the contest.
+
+When the conscripts come in from the country, rag-tag and bob-tail, in
+all kinds of costumes, and usually barefooted, they are sent to the
+garrison, where each receives a uniform made of white drilling from the
+United States. About every twelfth one bears across the seat of his
+trousers or between his shoulders the legend, “Best Massachusetts
+Drillings XXXX Mills.” This rather adds to the beauty of the uniform,
+and there is quite a strife among the volunteers to secure trousers or
+blouses so marked. Each is given a straw hat, a cartridge-box, a gun,
+and a blanket, with which they were marched to the front at the rate of
+five or six hundred a day, while the streets were lined with tearful
+women giving parting words to sons, husbands, and sweethearts. The
+Guatemalatacos, as the inhabitants are called, are said to be the best
+fighters in Central America, and were inspired with an intense
+admiration for Barrios, who had never shown anything but a fatherly
+solicitude for the welfare of the common people. He may have been cruel
+to his political enemies, and arbitrary in his treatment of aspiring
+rivals, but to the masses, the poor, he was always generous and kind.
+Much of his strength came from the fact that he always shared the
+shelter and food of the common soldier. He never took any camp equipage
+with him, but slept on the ground, and ate beans and tortillas
+(corn-cakes), which constitute the ordinary soldier’s rations.
+
+Although the hotels are clean, and have better beds and food than are
+found elsewhere in Spanish America, there is one peculiarity which is
+decidedly objectionable--the bill of fare is never changed. One gets the
+same dinner and the same breakfast every day. There is enough and a
+variety at both tables, but there is always the same amount and the same
+variety. First, at breakfast, there is always soup; there is an
+omelette, or eggs cooked as you want them; next comes cold beef or
+mutton left from the previous day; then beefsteak, usually with onions;
+then beans and fritters. For dinner, soup is first served; second, rice
+with curry; next, boiled beef with cabbage; then turkey or chicken; then
+roast beef, salad, fruit, and cheese in order. All the native food
+(beef, fowls, fruit, and vegetables) is cheap, but flour and other
+imported products are very expensive. The hotel-keepers are usually
+Frenchmen or Germans. You seldom find a native keeping a hotel, but if
+you do, avoid it.
+
+The people of Guatemala have a peculiar way of preparing their coffee
+for the table. Every week or so a quantity of the berry is ground and
+roasted, and hot water is poured upon it. The black liquid is allowed to
+drip through a porous jar, and when cool is bottled up and set upon the
+table like vinegar or Worcestershire sauce. Pots of hot water or milk,
+with which the coffee-drinker can dilute the cold, black syrup to such a
+weakness as he likes, are set before him. This plan has its advantages,
+but it takes a long time to become accustomed to it.
+
+The laundry work of the city is never done at home, but always at the
+public fountains, which are scattered over the city, and have basins of
+stone for the purpose. The wet clothes are placed in a basket and
+carried home on the head of the laundress to be dried. Every morning and
+evening, Sundays included, there is a long procession of washer-women
+going to and from these fountains, with baskets of soiled or wet
+garments upon their heads.
+
+Sunday is observed in Guatemala more than in any other Spanish-American
+city. Usually, in all these nations, Sunday is the great market-day of
+the week, when all the denizens of the country dress in their best suits
+to come to town to trade and have a little recreation; but in Guatemala
+there is a law, which is respected and generally enforced, requiring the
+market and all other places of business to remain closed on the Sabbath.
+Sometimes a cigar shop or a saloon will be found open, and the hotel
+bar-rooms, or “canteens,” as they are called, do more business than on
+any other day but there is no more general business done on Sunday than
+in the cities of the United States.
+
+All the city stores sell what is known in the slang of trade as “general
+merchandise;” that is, they keep all sorts of goods. You buy your canned
+fruit or sardines where you get your shoes or hat, and can fill an order
+for every variety of edible or apparel in the same establishment. An
+exception should be made of drugs, for the apothecary shops are usually
+kept by the physicians, who compound their own prescriptions, and the
+drug-stores in Guatemala, as in every other city of Central and South
+America, are usually fine establishments. But when you send for a
+“doctor” a lawyer comes. If you are sick, always ask for an apothecary
+or a physician. When you see a man alluded to as Dr. Don So-and-so, you
+may know that he is an attorney of distinction. The notaries draw all
+legal documents, as in Europe. Nobody ever asks a lawyer to draw a
+contract or a will.
+
+The photographers of Central and South America are almost invariably
+from the United States, and there is usually one in every town of
+importance. The people are vain of their personal appearance, hence
+photography is a lucrative business. But customs differ. In Venezuela,
+or Havana, or the Argentine Republic, if a gentleman possesses the
+photograph of a lady, he is either a near relative or is engaged to
+marry her. Otherwise her brother or father has good cause to thrash him,
+or challenge him to fight a duel. If the photographer sold the picture,
+or gave it away, he is liable to be punished by fine and imprisonment.
+
+In Guatemala, on the other hand, as in Peru, the pictures of the belles
+of the city, whether married or maidens, can be purchased by any one who
+wants them at the photographers’, and often at the shops, and the rank
+and popularity of the subject is usually estimated by the number of her
+portraits so disposed of. Codfish is a luxury. It is served at
+fashionable dinners in the form of a stew or patties, or a salad, and is
+considered a rare and dainty dish. They call it _bacalao_ (pronounced
+“backalowoh”), and the shop-windows contain handsomely illuminated
+signs announcing that it is for sale within. It costs about forty cents
+a pound, and is therefore used exclusively by the aristocracy.
+
+[Illustration: TILED HOUSE-TOPS.]
+
+The railroads in Guatemala are run on the credit system. Freight charges
+are seldom paid upon the delivery of the goods, but merchants and others
+expect three or four months’ time, and sometimes more. If a package
+arrives with your address upon it, the railroad company is expected to
+deliver it at your residence, unless it happens to be very bulky, and a
+few weeks after a collector comes around for the freight money.
+
+The cars came into Guatemala for the first time in August, 1884, and
+have not yet ceased to be a novelty. There is always a large crowd of
+spectators at the station upon the arrival and departure of every train,
+and among these are the best people of the place. Twice a week, at train
+time, the National Band plays in the plaza fronting the station, to
+entertain the people who are waiting.
+
+The Government owns the telegraph line, and charges low tariffs, the
+cost being twenty-five cents for a message to any part of the republic.
+But the cable rates are very high--$1.15 per word to the United States,
+and $1.50 per word to Europe.
+
+The literary people here always spell general with a “J.” Barrios was
+the “Jeneral Presidente,” but after his pronunciamento “Supremissimo
+Jefe Militar”--Most Supreme Military Chief.
+
+When a letter is addressed to a person of distinction the envelope
+reads, “Exmo y’ Illustra Señor Don John Smith”--The Most Excellent, or
+His Excellency, the Illustrious Señor Don, etc. One is apt to feel very
+highly complimented when he gets a letter bearing this inscription.
+
+Everybody is named after some saint, usually the one whose anniversary
+is nearest the hour of their birth, and the saint is expected to look
+after them. When a man comes here who doesn’t happen to be christened
+after a saint, the ignorant people express their surprise, and ask, “Who
+takes care of him? Who preserves him from evil?”
+
+General Barrios was always dramatic. He was dramatic in the simplicity
+and frugality of his private life, as he was in the displays he was
+constantly making for the diversion of the people. In striking contrast
+with the customs of the country where the garments and the manners of
+men are the objects of the most fastidious attention, he was careless in
+his clothing, brusque in his manner, and frank in his declarations.
+
+[Illustration: MARKET-PLACE, GUATEMALA.]
+
+It is said that the Spanish language was framed to conceal thoughts, but
+Barrios used none of its honeyed phrases, and had the candor of an
+American frontiersman. He was incapable of duplicity, but naturally
+secretive. He had no confidants, made his own plans without consulting
+any one, and when he was ready to announce them he used language that
+could not be misunderstood. In disposition he was sympathetic and
+affectionate, and when he liked a man he showered favors upon him; when
+he distrusted, he was cold and repelling; and when he hated, his
+vengeance was swift and sure. To be detected in an intrigue against his
+life, or the stability of the Government, which was the same thing, was
+death or exile, and his natural powers of perception seemed almost
+miraculous. The last time his assassination was attempted he pardoned
+the men whose hands threw the bomb at him,
+
+[Illustration: IN THE RAINY SEASON.]
+
+but those who hired them saved their lives by flight from the country.
+If caught, they would have been shot without trial. He was the most
+industrious man in Central America; slept little, ate little, and never
+indulged in the siesta that is as much a part of the daily life of the
+people as breakfast and dinner. He did everything with a nervous
+impetuosity, thought rapidly, and acted instantly. The ambition of his
+life was to reunite the republics of Central America in a confederacy
+such as existed a few years after independence. The benefits of such a
+union are apparent to all who understand the political, geographical,
+and commercial conditions of the continent, and are acknowledged by the
+thinking men of the five States, but the consummation of the plan is
+prevented by the selfish ambition of local leaders. Each is willing to
+join the union if he can be Dictator, but none will permit a union with
+any other man as chief.
+
+[Illustration: MAGUEY PLANT.]
+
+Diplomatic negotiations looking to a consolidation of the five Central
+American republics extended over a period of several years, but were
+fruitless because of local jealousies. The leading politicians in the
+several States feared they would lose their prominence and power, and
+distrusted Barrios, although he assured them that he was not ambitious
+to be Dictator. He thought he was the right man to carry out the plan,
+but as soon as it was consummated he proposed to retire and permit the
+people to frame their Constitution and elect their Executive, promising
+that he would not be a candidate. As he told me shortly after his
+_coup-d’état_, he desired to retire from public life and reside in the
+United States, which he considered the paradise of nations. He had
+already purchased a residence in New York, and invested money there, and
+was educating his children with that intention.
+
+Sending emissaries into the several States to study public sentiment, he
+became assured that the time was ripe for the consummation of his plans.
+He believed that the masses of the people were ready to join in a
+reunion of the republics, and had the assurance of Zaldivar, the
+President of San Salvador, and Bogran, the President of Honduras, that
+they would consent to his temporary dictatorship. He determined upon a
+_coup-d’état_. Moral suasion had failed, so he decided to try force,
+with the co-operation of San Salvador and Honduras, which with Guatemala
+represented five-sixths of the population of Central America. He
+believed he could persuade Nicaragua and Costa Rica to accept a manifest
+destiny and voluntarily join the union.
+
+Realizing how impressionable the people he governed were, and knowing
+their love for excitement, he always introduced his reforms in some
+novel way, with a blast of trumpets and a gorgeous background.
+
+The union of Central America was announced in the same way, and came
+upon the people like a shock of earthquake. On the evening of Sunday,
+the 28th of February, 1885, the aristocracy of Guatemala were gathered
+as usual at the National Theatre to witness the performance of
+“Boccaccio” by a French opera company. In the midst of the play one of
+the most exciting situations was interrupted by the appearance of a
+uniformed officer upon the stage, who motioned the performers back from
+the foot-lights, and read the proclamation issued by Rufino Barrios, the
+President of Guatemala, who declared himself Dictator and Supreme
+Commander of all Central America, and called upon the citizens of the
+five republics to acknowledge his authority and take the oath of
+allegiance. The people were accustomed to earthquakes, but no
+terrestrial commotion ever created so much excitement as the eruption of
+this political volcano. The actresses and ballet-dancers fled in
+surprise to their dressing-rooms, while the audience at once organized
+into an impromptu mass-meeting to ratify the audacity of their
+President.
+
+Few eyes were closed that night in Guatemala. Those who attempted to
+sleep were kept awake by the explosion of fireworks, the firing of
+cannon, the music of bands, and shouts of the populace, who, crazy with
+excitement, thronged the streets, and forming processions marched up and
+down the principal thoroughfares, rending the air with shouts of “Long
+live Dictator Barrios!” “Vive la Union!” A people naturally
+enthusiastic, and as inflammable as powder, to whom excitement was
+recreation and repose distress, suddenly and unexpectedly confronted
+with the greatest sensation of their lives, became almost insane, and
+turned the town into a bedlam. Although every one knew that Barrios
+aspired to restore the old Union of the Republic, no one seemed to be
+prepared for the _coup-d’état_, and the announcement fell with a force
+that made the whole country tremble. Next morning, as if by magic, the
+town seemed filled with soldiers. Where they came from or how they got
+there so suddenly the people did not seem to comprehend. And when the
+doors of great warehouses opened to disclose large supplies of
+ammunition and arms, the public eye was distended with amazement. All
+these preparations were made so silently and secretly that the surprise
+was complete. But for three or four years Barrios had been preparing for
+this day, and his plans were laid with a success that challenged even
+his own admiration. He ordered all the soldiers in the republic to be at
+Guatemala City on the 1st of March; the commands were given secretly,
+and the captain of one company was not aware that another was expected.
+It was not done by the wand of a magician, as the superstitious people
+are given to believing, but was the result of a long and carefully
+studied plan by one who was born a dictator, and knew how to perform the
+part.
+
+But the commotion was even greater in the other republics over which
+Barrios had assumed uninvited control. The same night that the official
+announcement was made, telegrams were sent to the Presidents of
+Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, calling upon them to
+acknowledge the temporary supremacy of Dictator Barrios, and to sign
+articles of confederation which should form the constitution of the
+Central American Union. Messengers had been sent in advance bearing
+printed official copies of the proclamation, in which the reasons for
+the step were set forth, and they were told to withhold these documents
+from the Presidents of the neighboring republics until notified by
+telegram to present them.
+
+The President of Honduras accepted the dictatorship with great
+readiness, having been in close conference with Barrios on the subject
+previous to the announcement. The President of San Salvador, Dr.
+Zaldivar, who was also aware of the intentions of Barrios, and was
+expected to fall into the plan as readily as President Bogran, created
+some surprise by asking time to consider. As far as he was personally
+concerned, he said, there was nothing that would please him more than to
+comply with the wishes of the Dictator, but he must consult the people.
+He promised to call the Congress together at once, and after due
+consideration they would take such action as they thought proper.
+Nicaragua boldly and emphatically refused to recognize the authority of
+Barrios, and rejected the plan of the union. Costa Rica replied in the
+same manner. Her President telegraphed Barrios that she wanted no union
+with the other Central American States, was satisfied with her own
+independence, and recognized no dictator. Her people would protect their
+soil and defend their liberty, and would appeal to the civilized world
+for protection against any unwarranted attack upon her freedom.
+
+The policy of Nicaragua was governed by the influence of a firm of
+British merchants in Leon with which President Cardenas has a pecuniary
+interest, and by whom his official acts are controlled. The policy of
+Costa Rica was governed by a conservative sentiment that has always
+prevailed in that country, while the influence of Mexico was felt
+throughout the entire group of nations. As soon as the proclamation of
+Barrios was announced at the capital of the latter republic, President
+Diaz ordered an army into the field, and telegraphed offers of
+assistance to Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Costa Rica, with threats of
+violence to Honduras if she yielded submission to Barrios. Mexico was
+always jealous of Guatemala. The boundary-line between the two nations
+is unsettled, and a rich tract of country is in dispute. Feeling a
+natural distrust of the power below her, strengthened by consolidation
+with the other States, Mexico was prepared to resist the plans of
+Barrios to the last degree, and sent him a declaration of war.
+
+[Illustration: A NATIVE SANDAL.]
+
+In the mean time Barrios appealed for the approval of the United States
+and the nations of Europe. During the brief administration of President
+Garfield he visited Washington, and there received assurances of
+encouragement from Mr. Blaine in his plan to reorganize the Central
+American Confederacy. Their personal interviews were followed by an
+extended correspondence, and no one was so fully informed of the plans
+of Barrios as Mr. Henry C. Hall, the United States minister at
+Guatemala.
+
+Unfortunately the cable to Europe and the United States was under the
+control of San Salvador, landing at La Libertad, the principal port of
+that republic. Here was the greatest obstacle in the way of Barrios’s
+success. All his messages to foreign governments were sent by telegraph
+overland to La Libertad for transmission by cable from that place, but
+none of them reached their destination. The commandant of the port,
+under orders from Zaldivar, seized the office and suppressed the
+messages. Barrios took pains to inform the foreign powers fully of his
+plans, and the motives which prompted them, and to each he repeated the
+assurance that he was not inspired by personal ambition, and would
+accept only a temporary dictatorship. As soon as a constitutional
+convention of delegates from the several republics could assemble he
+would retire, and permit the choice of a President of the consolidated
+republics by a popular election, he himself under no circumstances to be
+a candidate. But these messages were never sent. In place of them
+Zaldivar transmitted a series of despatches misrepresenting the
+situation, and appealing for protection against the tyranny of Barrios.
+Thus the Old World was not informed of the motives and intentions of the
+man and the situation of the republics.
+
+The replies of foreign nations and the comments of the press, based upon
+the falsehoods of Zaldivar, had a very depressing effect upon the
+people. They were more or less doctored before publication, and bogus
+bulletins were posted for the purpose of deceiving the people. The
+inhabitants of San Salvador were led to believe that naval fleets were
+on their way from the United States and Europe to forcibly prevent the
+consolidation of the republics, that an army was on its way from Mexico
+overland to attack Guatemala on the north, and that several transports
+loaded with troops had left New Orleans for the east coast of Nicaragua
+and Honduras.
+
+The United States Coast Survey ship _Ranger_, carrying four small guns,
+happening to enter at La Union, Nicaragua, engaged in its regular
+duties, was magnified into a fleet of hundreds of thousands of tons; and
+when the people of San Salvador and Nicaragua were convinced that
+submission to Barrios would require them to engage the combined forces
+of Europe and the United States, they rose in resistance and supported
+Zaldivar in his treachery.
+
+The effect in Guatemala was similar, although not so pronounced. There
+was a reversion of feeling against the Government. The moneyed men, who
+in their original enthusiasm tendered their funds to the President,
+withdrew their promises; the common people were nervous, and lost their
+confidence in their hero; while the Diplomatic Corps, representing every
+nation of importance on the globe, were in a state of panic because
+they received no instructions from home. The German and French
+ministers, like the minister from the United States, were favorable to
+the plans of Barrios; the Spanish minister was outspoken in opposition;
+the English and Italian ministers non-committal; but none of them knew
+what to say or how to act in the absence of instructions. They
+telegraphed to their home governments repeatedly, but could obtain no
+replies, and suspected that the troubles might be in San Salvador. Mr.
+Hall, the American minister, transmitted a full description of the
+situation every evening, and begged for instructions, but did not
+receive a word.
+
+[Illustration: ORNAMENTAL, BUT NOISY.]
+
+The Government at Washington had informed Mr. Hall by mail that its
+policy in relation to the plan to reunite the republics was one of
+non-interference, but advised that the spirit of the century was
+contrary to the use of force to accomplish such an end; and acting upon
+this information, Mr. Hall had frequent and cordial conferences with the
+President, and received from him a promise that he would not invade
+either of the neighboring republics with an army unless required to do
+so. If Guatemala was invaded he would retaliate, but otherwise would not
+cross the border. In the mean time the forces of Guatemala, forty
+thousand strong, were massed at the capital, the streets were full of
+marching soldiers, and the air was filled with martial music, while
+Zaldivar was raising an army by conscription in San Salvador, and money
+by forced loans. His Government daily announced the arrival of so many
+“volunteers” at the capital, but the volunteering was a very transparent
+myth. A current anecdote was of a conscript officer who wrote to the
+Secretary of War from the Interior: “I send you forty more volunteers.
+Please return me the ropes with which their hands and legs are tied, as
+I shall need to bind the quota from the next town.”
+
+In the city of San Salvador many of the merchants closed their stores,
+and concealed themselves to avoid the payment of forced loans. The
+Government called a “Junta,” or meeting of the wealthy residents, each
+one being personally notified by an officer that his attendance was
+required, and there the Secretary of War announced that a million
+dollars for the equipment of troops must be raised instantly. The
+Government, he said, was assured of the aid of foreign powers to defeat
+the plans of Barrios, but until the armies and navies of Europe and the
+United States could reach the coast the republic must protect itself.
+Each merchant and _estancianado_ was assessed a certain amount, to make
+the total required, and was required to pay it into the Treasury within
+twenty-four hours. Some responded promptly, others procrastinated, and a
+few flatly refused. The latter were thrust into jail, and the
+confiscation of their property threatened unless they paid. In one or
+two cases the threat was executed; but, with cold sarcasm, the day after
+the meeting the _Official Gazette_ announced that the patriotic citizens
+of San Salvador had voluntarily come to the assistance of the Government
+with their arms and means, and had tendered financial aid to the amount
+of one million dollars, the acceptance of which the President was now
+considering.
+
+Barrios, knowing that the army of Salvador would invade Guatemala and
+commence an offensive campaign, so as to occupy the attention of the
+people, ordered a detachment of troops to the frontier, and decided to
+accompany them. The evening before he started there was what is called
+“a grand _funcion_” at the National Theatre. All of the military bands
+assembled at the capital--a dozen or more--were consolidated for the
+occasion, and between the acts performed a march composed by a local
+musician in honor of the Union of Central America, and dedicated to
+General Barrios. A large screen of sheeting was elaborately painted with
+the inscription,
+
+    “_All hail the Union of the Republic!_”
+    “_Long live the Dictator and the Generalissimo,_”
+    “_J. Rufino Barrios!_”
+
+This was attached to heavy rollers, to be dropped in front of the stage
+instead of the regular curtain at the end of the second act of the play,
+for the purpose of creating a sensation; and a sensation it did
+create--an unexpected and frightful one.
+
+As the orchestra commenced to play the new march the curtain was lowered
+slowly, and the audience greeted it with tremendous applause, rising to
+their feet, shouting, and waving their hats and handkerchiefs. But
+through the blunder of the stage carpenter the weights were too heavy
+for the cotton sheeting; the banner split, and the heavy rollers at the
+bottom fell over into the orchestra, severely wounding several of the
+musicians. As fate would have it, the rent was directly through the name
+of Barrios. The people, naturally superstitious, were horrified, and
+stood aghast at this omen of disaster. The cheering ceased instantly,
+and a dead silence prevailed, broken only by the noise of the musicians
+under the wreck struggling to recover their feet. A few of the more
+courageous friends of the President attempted to revive the applause,
+but met with a miserable failure. Strong men shuddered, women fainted,
+and Mrs. Barrios left the theatre, unable to control her emotion. The
+play was suspended; the audience departed to discuss the omen, and
+everybody agreed that Barrios’s _coup-d’état_ would fail.
+
+The President left the city at the head of his army for the frontier of
+San Salvador, his wife accompanying him a few miles on the way. A few
+days later a small detachment of the Guatemala army, commanded by a son
+of Barrios, started out on a scouting expedition, and were attacked by
+an overwhelming force of Salvadorians. The young captain was killed by
+the first volley, and his company were stampeded. Leaving his body on
+the field, they retreated in confusion to headquarters. When Barrios
+heard of the disaster he leaped upon his horse, called upon his men to
+follow him, and started in pursuit of the men who had killed his son.
+The Salvadorians, expecting to be pursued, lay in ambush, and the
+Dictator, while galloping down the road at the head of a squadron of
+cavalry, was picked off by a sharpshooter and died instantly. His men
+took his body and that of his son, which was found by the roadside, and
+carried them back to camp. A courier was despatched to the nearest
+telegraph station with a message to the capital conveying the sad news.
+It was not unexpected; since the omen at the theatre, no one supposed
+the Dictator would return alive. All but himself had lost confidence,
+and it transpired that even he went to the front with a presentiment of
+disaster, for among his papers was found this peculiar will, written by
+himself a few moments before his departure.
+
+
+     THE WILL OF BARRIOS.
+
+     “I am in full campaign, and make my declaration as a soldier.
+
+     “My legitimate wife is Donna Francisca Apaucio vel Vecusidario de
+     Quezaltenanzo.
+
+     “During our marriage we have had seven children, as follows:
+     Elaine, Luz, José, Maria, Carlos, Rufino, and Francisca.
+
+     “Donna Francisca is the sole owner of all my properties and
+     interest whatsoever. She will know how much to give our children
+     when they arrive at maturity, and I have full confidence in her.
+
+     “She may give to my nephew, Luciano Barrios, in two or three
+     instalments, $25,000, for the kindness which this nephew has
+     rendered to me, and which I doubt not he will continue to render to
+     my wife Donna Francisca.
+
+     “She will continue to provide for the education of Antonio Barrios,
+     who is now in the United States of America.
+
+     “She is empowered to demand and collect all debts due to me in this
+     country and abroad. The overseers and administrators of my
+     properties, wherever they may be, shall account only to Donna
+     Francisca or the person whom she may name.
+
+     “It is five o’clock in the morning. At this moment I start forth to
+     Jutiapa, where the army is.
+
+     “J. RUFINO BARRIOS.
+
+     “MONDAY, _March 23, 1885_.”
+
+The attempt to reunite the republic ended with the death of the
+Dictator, and the whole country was thrown into confusion. In Guatemala
+City anarchy prevailed. The enemies of Barrios did not fear a dead lion,
+and kicked his body. They came out in force, stoned his house, and his
+beautiful wife was forced to seek the protection of the United States
+minister, whose secretary escorted her to San José, where she took a
+steamer for San Francisco, and has since resided in New York.
+
+Señor Sinibaldi, the Vice-president of the republic, called the Congress
+together, and a new election was ordered, at which Señor Barrillas, a
+man of excellent ability and wise discretion, was chosen President of
+the republic.
+
+
+
+
+COMAYAGUA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF HONDURAS.
+
+
+In 1540 Cortez, the Conqueror of Mexico, directed Alonzo Caceres, one of
+his lieutenants, to proceed with an army of one thousand men to the
+Province of Honduras, which had been subdued by Alvarado a few years
+before, and select a suitable site for a city midway between the two
+oceans. Caceres was a pioneer of most excellent discretion, and so good
+a judge of distance was he that if a straight line were drawn from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific, the centre would be just three miles north of
+the plaza of Comayagua. A modern engineer, with all the scientific
+appliances at his disposal, could not have obeyed instructions more
+accurately; and as for location, there are few finer sites in the world
+than the elevated plain upon which the little capital of Honduras
+stands. A semicircle of mountains enclose it, with a wall of peaks six
+and seven thousand feet high upon one side, while upon the other a great
+plain stretches away nearly forty miles, gradually sloping to the
+eastward. The altitude of the city is about twenty-three hundred feet
+above the sea, and the climate is a perpetual June, the thermometer
+seldom varying more than twenty degrees during the entire year, and
+averaging about 75° Fahrenheit. The soil is deep, rich, and fertile, and
+the productions of the plain are tropical; but beyond the city, in the
+foothills of the mountains and upon their slopes, corn, wheat, and other
+staples of the temperate zones can be raised in enormous quantities with
+a minimum of labor. The pineapple and the palm tree are growing within
+two hours’ ride of waving wheat-fields, while orange and apple orchards
+stand within sight of each other.
+
+[Illustration: A CONSPICUOUS LANDMARK.]
+
+Comayagua is said to have at one time contained nearly thirty thousand
+inhabitants, but at present it has no more than one-fifth of that
+number; for, like all of the Central American cities, its population has
+been reduced since the independence of the country, and, like the most
+of them, it is in a state of decay. Everything is dilapidated, and
+nothing is ever repaired. No sign of prosperity appears anywhere.
+Commercial stagnation has been its normal condition for sixty years, and
+the indolence and indifference of the people has not been disturbed for
+that period, except by political insurrections. No one seems to have
+anything to do. The aristocrats swing lazily in their hammocks, or
+discuss politics over the counters of the _tiendas_, or at the club,
+while the poor beg in the streets, and manage to sustain life upon the
+fruits which Nature has so profligately showered upon them. Nowhere
+upon the earth’s surface exist greater inducements to labor, nowhere can
+so much be produced with so little effort; and the vast resources of the
+country present the most tempting opportunity for capital and
+enterprise, for nearly every acre of the land is susceptible to some
+sort of profitable development.
+
+[Illustration: THE TRAIL TO THE CAPITAL.]
+
+The area of Honduras is about the same as that of Ohio, and the
+inhabitants number from three to four hundred thousand, according to the
+guess of the well informed, but no census has been taken for a quarter
+of a century, and the last enumeration was so inaccurate as to discredit
+itself. In ancient times the population must have been very dense.
+
+It is as difficult and as long a journey to reach the capital of
+Honduras from New York as the capital of Siam or Siberia. One must go by
+steamer to Truxillo, the chief Atlantic port, or to Amapala, on the Bay
+of Fonseca, on the Pacific side--a voyage of from fifteen to twenty days
+by either route--and then ride for twelve days on mule-back over the
+mountains, without any of the accommodations or comforts known to modern
+travel, and not even one clean or comfortable inn. When the capital is
+reached there is no hotel to stop at, and one must trespass upon the
+hospitality of the citizens, or seek some boarding-place through the aid
+of a local merchant or priest.
+
+[Illustration: A GLIMPSE OF THE INTERIOR.]
+
+The President is General Bogran, a man who came into power by a peaceful
+revolution in 1885, to succeed Marco A. Soto, who fled that year to San
+Francisco, and from there sent his resignation to Congress. Bogran is a
+man of brains and progressive ideas, possessing more of the modern
+spirit
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF THE CAPITAL.]
+
+and broader views than most of his contemporaries, and if he is
+permitted to carry out his plans Honduras will make rapid speed in the
+development of her great natural resources. He is offering tempting
+inducements to foreign capital and immigration, has given liberal
+concessions to Americans who desire to enter the country, and is wisely
+endeavoring to induce some one to construct the Interoceanic Railway,
+which was surveyed fifty years ago, and twenty-seven miles of which has
+already been built and at intervals operated. But the discontented
+element in the country, in league with his predecessor, who now lives in
+New York, are surrounding him with obstacles and harassing him with all
+sorts of embarrassments, so that his success is made doubtful. Bogran
+spends very little of his time at Comayagua, and the seat of government
+has been removed to Tegucigalpa, the largest town in the country, as
+well as its commercial metropolis. Here the Congress sits also, and the
+place is to all intents and purposes the capital.
+
+[Illustration: A POPULAR THOROUGHFARE.]
+
+The cathedral of Comayagua is by far the finest building in the country,
+being an excellent specimen of the semimoresque style, which was so
+popular among the Spanish provinces. Its walls and roof are of the most
+solid masonry, but are considerably marred by the revolutions through
+which the country has passed, for in nearly all of them the cathedral
+has been used as a fortress and subjected to a shower of lead. Near the
+cathedral stands a monument originally intended to honor one of the
+Spanish kings, but after the independence of the country was established
+the royal symbols were erased by the order of one of the Presidents,
+the inscription was chiselled off, and the obelisk now stands to
+commemorate independence. This monument is the place of public
+execution, and criminals sentenced to death are made to sit blindfolded
+at its base, where they are shot by the soldiers.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF MERCED AND INDEPENDENCE MONUMENT, COMAYAGUA.]
+
+In November, 1886, General Delgrado, the leader of a revolution, with
+four of his comrades, was executed here. It was the desire of President
+Bogran to spare Delgrado’s life, and any pretext would have been adopted
+to save him if the honor of the country could have been vindicated, but
+he was convicted of treason, and sentenced by the courts to die. The
+President offered to pardon him if he would take the oath of allegiance
+and swear never to engage in revolutionary proceedings again; but the
+old soldier would not even accept life on these terms, and much to the
+regret of the President,
+
+[Illustration: RUBBER HUNTERS.]
+
+against whom he had conspired, and the better portion of the people, the
+sentence had to be executed. On the morning of the day fixed by the
+courts, the five men were led from the prison to the Church of La
+Merced, where the last rites were administered to them, and were then
+conducted to the Peace Monument, where a file of soldiers was drawn up
+with loaded rifles. The last word of Delgrado was a request that he
+might give the command to fire, and he did so as coolly as if he had
+been on dress parade.
+
+[Illustration: THE PITA PLANT.]
+
+The residents of Comayagua are chiefly the owners of haciendas situated
+in the neighborhood, or small tradesmen, with four or five thousand lazy
+and worthless half-breeds, who live upon _tortillas_, or corn-cakes, and
+the fruits in which the country abounds. The most conspicuous feature of
+their life is the filth that surrounds them, and the freedom with which
+their pigs and chickens enjoy the shelter of the dwelling. A few stone
+jars of native make, a few rude calabashes, a couple of hammocks, and a
+few broken articles of furniture, constitute the equipment of a peon’s
+house. The man of the house swings in a hammock while his spouse brings
+water from the stream in a large stone jar upon her head, and the pigs
+and chickens and children lie upon the floor indiscriminately mixed. The
+pigs take the tortillas out of the mouths of the children, and the
+compliment is returned, while the chickens forage upon every article of
+food within their reach.
+
+Both cotton and silk grow upon trees, the vegetable silk being of very
+fine and soft fibre, and frequently used by the natives in the
+manufacture of robosas, serapas, and other articles of wear, while the
+product of the cotton-tree is utilized in a similar manner.
+
+[Illustration: HARVESTING ONE OF THE STAPLES.]
+
+There is said to be a greater variety of medicinal plants in Honduras
+than in any country on the globe, and the botany of the country contains
+nearly every tree and shrub and flower that is known to man. They are
+all of spontaneous growth, and might be made a prolific source of
+wealth, but are entirely neglected. There is one famous weed, called by
+the natives _el agrio_, which is a certain cure for sunstroke, or for
+prostration from exposure to the sun or over-exertion, and is used for
+both men and animals. As it is excessively bitter, the leaf of the plant
+is wound about the bit of the bridle of a sunstruck horse, and the
+animal gradually sucks the juice from it. The leaves are dried in the
+shade, and a tea made of them by the natives to cure sunstroke and other
+diseases of the brain or blood.
+
+The interior of the country is beyond the reach of markets, because of
+the absence of transportation facilities. In this respect the people are
+no further advanced than they were two hundred years ago. The only
+wagon-roads in the country are one built by a party of Americans near
+San Pedro, in the west, and a few miles of a national highway that a
+century ago was begun for the purpose of connecting Amapala, the Pacific
+port, with Tegucigalpa.
+
+[Illustration: THE FLOATING POPULATION.]
+
+Honduras has the finest fluvial system in Central America. There are few
+countries with such available water facilities, both for transportation
+and manufacturing powers, and it has the finest harbors on both
+coasts--all wasted because of the indolence of the people. The
+Government has given several liberal concessions in timber and
+agricultural lands to secure the opening of its rivers to navigation,
+and for the construction of railways from the coast to the interior.
+Some of these grants are in the hands of responsible and capable
+companies, and if the peace of the country is assured, and immigrants
+can be induced to settle there, a rapid development of its resources is
+promised.
+
+Ten years ago the telegraph was unknown, and there was no postal system
+in the interior. All communications were transmitted from place to place
+by messengers, who were famous for their endurance and swiftness of
+foot. The letter or package to be conveyed was first wrapped in cloth
+and then fastened around the loins of the carrier. This system is still
+in vogue for the transmission of letters, packages, and money. The
+couriers, or _cozeos_, are noted for being trusty and courageous; they
+travel long distances over the mountains and through the forest,
+generally by routes known only to themselves.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF THE RUBBER-TREE.]
+
+Within the last eight years every town of importance has been connected
+with the capital by lines of telegraph. Before its construction
+information of the utmost importance could not reach the capital from
+the remote points in less than ten or twelve days. The Government saw
+the necessity of some better and quicker method for transmitting
+information, and constructed these lines. They are owned and operated
+entirely by the Government, and from them a considerable revenue is
+realized. For the purpose of sending a message, you must first purchase
+of the proper Government officer a stamped telegraphic blank, which
+varies in price from one real (twelve and a half cents) to one or two
+dollars, in proportion to the number of words which it is to contain.
+The distance the message is to travel makes no difference in the price,
+provided its destination is within any of the republics of Central
+America. When the message is written on the blank it is taken to the
+telegraph-office, and if the charge for the number of words contained in
+the message corresponds with the stamped blank it is forwarded.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN TOWN.]
+
+Every department of Honduras possesses more or less mineral wealth, and
+within the limits of the country almost every metal known to man is
+found. The discoveries of gold and silver were made by the aborigines,
+who possessed much treasure when the Spaniards conquered them, and ever
+since the Conquest the mines have been worked with great profit; but
+their development was greater under the viceroys than since the
+independence of the republic, as this branch of industry has suffered
+more from civil wars than any other. As a consequence, mine after mine
+has been abandoned, and the districts where the best mineral deposits
+exist are marked with depopulated towns and villages.
+
+[Illustration: UP THE RIVER.]
+
+The lack of roads renders it impossible to transport machinery to the
+mining districts. The mines are seldom worked to any depth, and the
+waste is enormous. But even under this system, rude and primitive as it
+is, much wealth has been acquired, and millions of dollars in silver and
+gold have been taken out annually for hundreds of years. Of late a good
+deal of attention has been given to the Honduras mines by American
+experts, and much capital has been invested in purchasing and
+prospecting them, but the hope of realizing upon the investment lies in
+the improvement of transportation facilities, for nothing that cannot be
+carried on the back of a mule can either reach the mines or come from
+them. And imported labor is quite as necessary, as the native of
+Honduras cannot be induced to do anything in other than the way to which
+he has been accustomed, and looks upon labor-saving machinery as the
+invention of the evil one.
+
+[Illustration: A MINING SETTLEMENT.]
+
+The city of Tegucigalpa, the commercial metropolis and the actual
+capital of the country, stands upon both banks of the Rio Cholutica in
+an amphitheatre of mountains, and has twelve thousand inhabitants. The
+river is spanned and the two divisions of the town connected by an
+ancient bridge with some fine arches of stone. The suburb is called
+Comayaguaita (Little Comayagua). The streets are well paved, in the same
+manner as other Spanish American cities, with a gutter in the centre, to
+which they slope from both sides. This gutter is always full of weeds
+and dust and filth, but seldom of water; and although the hills which
+half surround the city are full of running streams, with a fall
+sufficient to force water to the tower of the cathedral, it has never
+occurred to the inhabitants to utilize them. Every drop of water used
+for any purpose in the city is carried, in an earthen jar on the top of
+some woman’s head, from the river at the bottom of a gorge a hundred
+feet deep.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW IN NICARAGUA.]
+
+The houses in Tegucigalpa show much more evidence of prosperity than
+those of Comayagua, and are kept more tidy and in better repair. They
+are usually painted either a dead white or pink, blue, yellow, green, or
+some other very pronounced color, while often a native amateur artist
+tries his hand at exterior decoration, and endeavors to make the walls
+of adobe look as if they were made of marble.
+
+[Illustration: AN INTERIOR PLAIN.]
+
+Somehow or another Tegucigalpa always looks new. The grass is growing in
+the streets, and there are many other indications of commercial
+stagnation, but the people do not let their houses show how poor and
+indolent they are. These two national characteristics, moreover, do not
+appear in any form in the city. It is not only the present headquarters
+of the Government and of commercial affairs, but it is the centre of
+fashionable life and the residence of the aristocracy of Honduras.
+Two-thirds of the white people in the republic live here, and the other
+third come here to get their clothes, so that the city is by comparison
+gay.
+
+The numerous farms surrounding the city are capable of enormous
+production, and some of them are still profitably operated, while many
+have gone to waste. The staples are sugar, coffee, cocoa, and other
+tropical products, which require and receive little attention. The
+buildings upon these plantations are all very old, but are still in good
+condition. The chief dwelling is commonly large and comfortable, built
+of adobe and roofed with imported tiles, and located where it can secure
+a good natural water supply. There is usually but one floor, no ceiling,
+nor glass in the windows, for the climate does not require it, and glass
+is expensive. The windows are protected with iron bars and heavy
+mahogany shutters. As little timber as possible is used, because all dry
+wood is subject to destruction from a little insect called the
+_comojeu_, which honey-combs every rafter, joist, and beam in a building
+as soon as the sap is exhausted, and the interiors of the houses have to
+be restored at intervals of a few years.
+
+Most of the churches are in a dilapidated condition, and have been
+divested of their former ornaments and riches by the hands of vandals
+during revolutions. The cathedral was erected at the expense of a devout
+and wealthy padre, and was once a fine building, but is now in a sad
+state of decay.
+
+What will impress the traveller at once in Tegucigalpa is the entire
+absence of carriages. I do not believe there is one in the country, any
+more than there is a chimney or an overcoat, and for the same
+reason--the people do not need them. All roads, it was said, lead to
+Rome, but no roads lead to the capital of Honduras except a few short
+ones, narrow and stony, like the way of salvation, and hedged about with
+divers trials and pitfalls, from the neighboring plantations, and are
+used only by rude ox-carts. Everybody goes on horseback, and all the
+transportation is done on the backs of mules and men. Long caravans of
+pack animals are coming and going to and from the sea-coast daily over
+the mountain trails, and there is a class of Indians called Cargadors
+who carry a cargo of a hundred pounds or so upon their backs, and run
+at a jog-trot for hours at a time, making the same journey twice as
+rapidly as a mule. Their loads are strapped to their backs on a wicker
+frame, and by a broad band passing around the forehead.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE BACK STREETS.]
+
+At breakfast chocolate often takes the place of coffee, and it is
+prepared from the cocoa-bean in a manner different from that in use in
+other countries. A handful or two of cocoa-beans, with a few
+vanilla-beans or sticks of cinnamon, and a much larger amount of raw
+sugar, are ground up together by the _matete_--that is, by being rubbed
+between two stones--and moistened until it is reduced to paste; then it
+is rolled out in little balls as large as a chocolate cream, and allowed
+to harden. A plate of these is placed upon the table, each member of the
+family takes as many as he or she chooses, drops them in a cup, and
+pours boiling milk upon them. They soon dissolve, and are very
+palatable.
+
+The shops, or _tiendas_, of Tegucigalpa display very few goods that are
+pretty or costly, and are usually “general merchandise” stores, such as
+are found in the country villages of the United States--a few drugs and
+dry goods, a little hardware, patent-leather boots and elaborately
+stitched kid shoes for ladies--often white or pink or blue, for the
+ladies affect bright-colored foot-gear--some cutlery and crockery, and
+other household articles. Nearly all sales are on credit, even if the
+purchaser have the money in his pocket, for the custom of the country is
+not to do anything to-day that can be postponed.
+
+[Illustration: PLAZA OF TEGUCIGALPA.]
+
+The ladies usually do their shopping in the morning before breakfast,
+which is served at eleven o’clock, for the afternoons are given up to
+siestas. Most of the business of the city is done before breakfast, and
+from eleven o’clock until four in the afternoon the streets are empty
+and most of the stores are closed. Activity is resumed at the latter
+hour, and continues until eight or nine o’clock in the evening.
+
+[Illustration: MAKING TORTILLAS.]
+
+Every woman goes to mass at seven in the morning, but a man is seldom
+seen to enter a church except on feast-day or to attend a funeral. All
+their religion is crammed into Holy-week, when they are very pious.
+
+The schools of the republic are nominally free, but there are few of
+them; education is compulsory, but the law is not enforced. The school
+funds have usually been stolen, or diverted to other purposes, and only
+in the cities, where public sentiment demands it, are schools
+sustained. There is a university at Tegucigalpa which is said to have
+been once an institution of some importance, but is such no longer. It
+has a few students and a small faculty, but those who can afford it, and
+who are anxious to secure an education, go to Guatemala or to Europe.
+
+[Illustration: INDIGO WORKS.]
+
+Tegucigalpa is famous for having been the birthplace of Morazan, the
+Washington of Central America, and his descendants still reside there.
+He was undoubtedly the greatest man any of these republics ever
+produced, and had the broadest vision as well as the broadest views as
+to the nature of a republic. The fires of liberty were enkindled by him,
+and he led the fight against Spain which resulted in the overthrow of
+the Viceroys and the establishment of the confederacy. He was born in
+1799; his father was a native of Porto Rico and his mother a lady of
+Tegucigalpa. He prided himself on the fact that his ancestors came from
+the birthplace of Napoleon, and his descendants, to whom strangers are
+usually introduced, seldom fail to forget that circumstance
+
+[Illustration: THE TLACHIGUERO.]
+
+in conversation. Before Morazan was of age he was prominent in Honduras,
+and became the governor of the city in 1824, when he was but
+twenty-five. For fourteen years thereafter his career was one of
+singular activity and success, and the people of the entire continent
+followed him with feelings akin to idolatry. He was so far ahead of them
+in ideas and enterprise that his counsels were not followed, and he was
+overthrown by a combination of priests, who took up a cruel Indian of
+Guatemala named Rafael Carera, and succeeded in overthrowing the power
+of Morazan, not only in Honduras, but throughout the entire confederacy.
+The patriot and liberator was afterwards assassinated at Cartago, Costa
+Rica, by men whom he trusted as his friends.
+
+
+
+
+MANAGUA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF NICARAGUA.
+
+
+A stranger landing at the port of Corinto, Nicaragua, asked the men who
+were taking him ashore in a _bongoe_ the name of the capital of the
+republic. There were three of them. The quickest of wit answered
+promptly, “Grenada;” both the others disputed it, one of them contending
+for the city of Managua, and the other for Leon. So animated did the
+controversy become that all three dropped their oars, and nearly upset
+the boat by their gesticulations. This question is, and always has been,
+a dangerous one, and thousands of lives and hundreds of thousands of
+money have been wasted in repeated attempts to determine it. If it were
+the only excuse for the blood that has been shed in the little republic
+during the last sixty-five years, its history would be a nobler and a
+prouder one; for bitter wars have been waged for less, and brother has
+fought brother to settle questions not only involving a preference for
+cities but for men. There is no spot of equal area upon the globe in
+which so much human blood has been wasted in civil war, or so much
+wanton destruction committed. Nature has blessed it with wonderful
+resources, and a few years of peace and industry would make the country
+prosperous beyond comparison; but so much attention has been paid to
+politics that little is left for anything else. Scarcely a year has
+passed without a revolution, and during its sixty-five years of
+independence the republic has known more than five times as many rulers
+as it had during the three centuries it was under the dominion of Spain.
+It was seldom a question of principle or policy that brought the
+inhabitants to war, but usually the intrigue of some ambitious man. It
+is a land of volcanic disturbance, physical, moral, and political, and
+the mountains and men have between them contrived to almost compass its
+destruction.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF LAKE FROM BEACH AT MANAGUA.]
+
+For sixty years the country has been going backward. Its population is
+less than when independence was declared, and its wealth has decreased
+even more rapidly. Its cities are heaps of ruins, and its commerce is
+not so great as it was at the beginning of the century. There is,
+however, a commercial elasticity, owing to the extreme productiveness of
+the fields and the ease with which wealth is acquired, that has kept the
+little republic from bankruptcy, and promises great prosperity if
+political order can be preserved.
+
+Most of the people live in towns, and waste much time in going and
+coming between their homes and the plantations upon which they labor.
+This is owing to the frequency of revolutions and the milder forms of
+destruction and murder that are practised by highwaymen and other
+robbers. None but the very poor live along the roadside, and they have
+nothing to tempt assault.
+
+[Illustration: CORINTO.]
+
+Everybody rides on horseback, and the animals are plenty and fine. The
+horses of Nicaragua resemble those of Arabia, being small but fleet,
+spirited, and capable of much endurance. Great care is taken in training
+them, and they are taught an easy gait, half trotting and half pacing,
+called the _paso-trote_. A well-broken animal will take this as soon as
+the reins are loosened, and continue it all day without fatigue to
+himself or his rider, making five or six miles an hour. The motion is so
+gentle that an experienced rider can carry a cup of water for miles in
+his hand without spilling a drop.
+
+There is only one road in the country suitable for carriages, and that
+is seldom used except by carts. It runs from Grenada, the easternmost
+city of importance on the shore of Lake Nicaragua, to Realjo, or
+Corinto, the principal seaport; and over this road, which was built
+three hundred years ago by the Spaniards, all the commerce of the
+country passes. There is now a railroad along this highway; the
+Government has several times made loans to construct it, but the money
+was wasted in revolutions, and the track was not completed till
+recently. The road belongs to the Government, and is managed by a
+citizen of the United States. The cart road passes through Managua, and
+thus unites the three principal cities of the land. Over it have passed
+hundreds of armies and no end of insurgent forces, and the whole
+distance has been washed with blood, shed in public and private
+quarrels. Wherever a man has been slain a rude cross is usually erected,
+and it is common to see wreaths of flowers hanging upon it, placed there
+by some interested or, mayhap, loving hand. At these places pious
+passengers breathe a prayer for the soul that has been released, and
+they are so numerous that it keeps them praying from one end of a
+journey to the other.
+
+[Illustration: HIDE-COVERED CART.]
+
+The carts which furnish transportation are rude contrivances of native
+manufacture, and the design has not been improved upon since the
+conquest. The body consists of a very heavy framework of wood, and the
+wheels are solid sections cut from some large tree, usually of mahogany.
+They are not sawed, but chopped into shape, and are generally about
+eight or ten inches thick and five feet in diameter, and weigh several
+hundred pounds. The oxen do not wear yokes, but the pole of the cart is
+fastened to a bar of tough wood, usually lignum vitæ, which is lashed by
+cowhide thongs to the horns. There are always two pair of oxen--one to
+haul the cart and the other to haul the load, for the vehicle is twice
+the weight of its cargo. Two men are required to navigate the craft; one
+goes ahead armed with a gun or a machete, which is a long knife, and
+answers for many purposes--a weapon as well as an agricultural
+implement--and the oxen are supposed to follow him, while the other sits
+on the load and yells as he prods the animals with an iron-pointed goad
+long enough to reach the leaders. The man ahead assists his colleague by
+uttering constant admonitions to the oxen without turning his face, and
+between the two, and the squeaking of the cart-wheels, which are never
+greased, there is noise enough to deafen the whole neighborhood. The
+approach of one of these vehicles can be anticipated half an hour.
+
+Each cart contains five or six days’ forage for the animals, as well as
+rations for the _carreteros_. They camp whenever night overtakes them,
+even if it is only a mile from the end of their journey. The oxen are
+fastened to the cart and given their fodder, while the men light a fire,
+make their coffee, and either lie under the cart or upon it to sleep.
+Most of the carts have covers or awnings of cured hides, which are
+lashed over boughs to protect the loads in the rainy season. The average
+rate of speed is about a mile an hour over a good road, but ten miles a
+day is fast travelling, owing to the amount of time wasted by the
+roadside.
+
+The cartmen are invariably honest in dealing with their employers, and
+always render a strict account of their cargoes, whether they are
+composed of silver or coffee, but
+
+[Illustration: AN INTERIOR TOWN.]
+
+consider it a privilege, which they have inherited from their ancestors,
+to plunder along the road. Nothing is too hot or too heavy for them to
+carry away, and accordingly precautions are taken for the protection of
+whatever is likely to tempt them. They have an unorganized union to
+protect themselves, and permit no impositions to be practised upon any
+of their number, or underbidding or other irregularities among
+themselves. They charge so much a journey, no matter what their load is,
+and persons having small parcels to be carried have to club together to
+make up a cargo, or pay a high rate for transportation. Many of the
+carts and oxen are owned by those who drive them, but others are leased
+to the carreteros by capitalists who possess a large number. The cattle
+come from the savannas in the south-western portion of the republic,
+where there are immense and nutritious pastures extending over the line
+into Costa Rica.
+
+[Illustration: THE INDIGO PLANT.]
+
+[Illustration: THE KING OF THE MOSQUITOES.]
+
+Although the mineral resources of the country are undoubtedly rich, its
+future wealth will come, if peace can ever be made permanent, from the
+development of the agricultural and timber lands. Beyond the mining
+district down to the Mosquito coast there extends a forest of immense
+area, filled with the finest woods, and it has scarcely been touched.
+The most useful timber is the mahogany, although there are kindred
+varieties quite as good, but not so popular or well known. It is more
+easily obtained too, as it grows upon the ridges and keeps out of the
+swamps, which are full of miasma and mosquitoes. The tree is one of the
+most beautiful, as well as one of the largest, that are found in
+tropical lands, commonly reaching a height of sixty or seventy feet, and
+being from twenty-five to forty feet in circumference. Timbers forty
+feet long and eight feet square are frequent, although so heavy that
+they are difficult to handle; and the only way fine timber can be
+obtained is by taking saw-mills into the forest and cutting up the
+timber into sizes suitable for transportation. This is difficult,
+however, owing to the lack of roads. Logs five and six feet in diameter
+are common, and it is said that the largest trees have the finest color
+and grain.
+
+The mahogany is one of the few trees in the tropical forests whose
+leaves change color with the season, and the Carrib Indians, who are
+employed to cut them, discover their presence by this peculiarity. They
+climb the highest tree they can find, sight the mahoganies, locate their
+position with great skill, and lead the choppers to them with unerring
+accuracy. When the tree is found, the underbrush around it and the lower
+limbs are first cleared away before the trunk is attacked. When it
+falls, the branches are chopped off; then the log is hewn into shape,
+after which it is dragged by oxen--sometimes a hundred yoke being
+employed--to the nearest water-course, the choppers going ahead and
+clearing away with their machetes the underbrush and small trees to make
+a road. When the timber is rolled into the river, it is branded and
+allowed to lie there until the rainy season, when the waters rise and
+carry it down to the sea.
+
+There are other trees of great value in the forests, and not for timber
+alone. The caoutchouc, or rubber-tree--a name which when properly
+pronounced sounds like the plunge of a frog into the water--kachunk--is
+very plentiful in the Nicaragua forests, although this resource, like
+most of the others, is comparatively idle. The Mosquito Indians gather
+some, however, which is shipped from Blewfields and Greytown in small
+quantities. The quality is not so good as that which comes from Brazil,
+as the sap is not reduced with any skill or care.
+
+The average North American supposes that the rubber is obtained like
+pitch, and comes from the exuded gums of the tree, but the process is
+altogether different, resembling our method of making maple sugar. When
+the sap begins to rise from the roots to the branches of the tree,
+expeditions of thirty or forty men are organized, who are furnished by
+the exporting merchants with an outfit of buckets, axes, machetes, pans,
+and provisions, and start into the woods. The _uleros_, as the
+rubbermen are called, from the term _ule_, which is the native name for
+the tree, are always paid a small sum in advance, ostensibly for the
+support of their families during their absence, but which is always
+exhausted in debauchery before they start. When they reach the forest of
+the ule-trees they build a shanty of palms and brush, if there is not
+one already standing, on the bank of some stream, as a great deal of
+water is required for the manufacture of the gum. There they distribute
+their large cans and buckets through the forest at convenient intervals
+and proceed to business. When the _ulero_ selects his tree, he clears
+the trunk of vines and creepers and climbs it to the branches. Then he
+descends, cutting diagonal channels through the bark with a single blow
+of his machete, or knife, left and right, left and right, all meeting at
+the angle. At the bottom of the lowest cut an iron trough about six
+inches long and four inches wide is driven into the tree, which catches
+the milk as it flows from the wound, and conducts it into a bucket on
+the ground below. This is done with great speed and skill by an expert;
+and necessarily so, to prevent waste, as the sap springs out instantly,
+and by the time the spout is driven into the tree is flowing at the rate
+of four gallons an hour. A large tree will produce twenty gallons of
+sap, and will run dry in a single day. The _ulero_ having tapped a dozen
+or eighteen trees has all the work he can attend to emptying the buckets
+into the ten-gallon cans that are provided for the purpose. In the
+evening the cans are carried to the camp, and the sap strained through
+sieves into barrels. In Brazil it is boiled, but in Nicaragua the
+natives have a peculiar system of reducing it. There is a plant or vine
+called the Achuna, whose sap when mixed with that of the rubber-tree has
+the singular property of coagulating it in a few minutes. By whom, or
+how, or where this process was discovered no one can tell. Undoubtedly
+it was an accident, for the vine hangs from all the trees in the _ule_
+forest, and probably a cutting dropped into a bucket of sap some time or
+another produced the result for which it is now used. Having their
+barrels full, the _uleros_ cut short
+
+[Illustration: A MAHOGANY SWAMP.]
+
+pieces of this vine, soak it in water, and small bunches are thrown into
+pans upon which the sap is poured. In the morning the rubber has turned
+to gum--about two pounds to every gallon of sap. At the top of the pan
+is a quantity of dark brown liquid, like a weak solution of licorice.
+This is poured off, and then the gum is rolled under heavy weights of
+wood into long flat strips called tortillas, which are hung over poles
+under the shed to drip and dry. At first they are white, like the
+vulcanized rubber, but with exposure they turn black and become hard
+after a few days. Then the tortillas are stacked up under cover until
+the end of the season, and shipped to market.
+
+[Illustration: INTERNAL COMMERCE.]
+
+The cocoa or chocolate tree grows wild in the forests of Nicaragua, and
+when cultivated yields the most profitable crop that can be produced;
+but the republic furnishes but little, comparatively, for export,
+although its possibilities in this direction are almost unlimited. The
+most of the world’s supply of cocoa comes from Ecuador and Venezuela.
+
+There always has been a prejudice in Nicaragua against foreign
+immigration, inspired and stimulated by the priests, who inveterately
+oppose all progress and every innovation. A number of German families
+are settled throughout the country, engaged in mercantile pursuits. Most
+of the large commission houses and exporters are English, while the
+hotel or posada keepers are Frenchmen. England furnishes most of the
+money to move the crops, as the natives are impoverished by wars or
+their own extravagance. The country will never be prosperous until its
+peace is assured and its population increased by the introduction of
+foreign labor and capital.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE PEONS LIVE.]
+
+Like other Spanish-American countries, the national vices are indolence
+and extravagance. The common people never get ahead, and have no need of
+purses, much less of savings-banks. They might make good wages, as they
+are naturally good producers, but they always spend their earnings
+before they receive them, and are encouraged to keep in debt to those
+who employ them, as, under the law, no laborer can leave a job upon
+which he is employed as long as he owes his employer a penny. This
+system of credit, although it amounts to only a few dollars in each
+case, is equivalent to slavery, a peonage which is permanent; for if
+the laborer really aspires to be a free man, he is persuaded or
+threatened or swindled into renewing the obligation under which his life
+is spent.
+
+The aristocracy are equally extravagant. It is a part of their religion,
+apparently, to spend their incomes, even if they do not anticipate them;
+and the latter is generally the case. Nearly every crop is mortgaged to
+the commission man before it is harvested, and the planter is compelled
+to take the price that is offered. The peon is in debt to the planter,
+the planter to the merchant, the merchant to the commission-house, and
+the latter conducts his business on borrowed money; and so it goes on,
+year after year, without cessation, each person involved spending as
+much or more than he makes, and conducting his business on paper, like
+speculators in the stock market, the country growing poorer each year,
+with no possible hope of redemption except by an influx of fresh blood
+and capital. The climate is delightful, the land is wonderfully
+productive, and the products always in active demand in the markets of
+the world.
+
+The chief cities are pictures of desolation, and along the roads in the
+country are the ruins of _estancias_ that were the abode of wealthy
+planters years ago. Much of the destruction was caused by earthquakes,
+but more by civil war. The population in 1846 was 257,000; in 1870 it
+had been reduced to less than 200,000, and since then there have been
+disturbances in which thousands of men were slaughtered or driven into
+exile by fear or force. The whites, or those of pure Spanish blood,
+number about 30,000; the negroes about half as many; the mixed races,
+Mestizos and Ladinos--the former of Spanish and Indian and the latter
+Negro and Indian blood--are probably 8,000; and there are supposed to be
+about as many pure-blooded Indians upon the Atlantic coast and scattered
+throughout the republic. The education of the common people is neglected
+and left to the priests, who teach them nothing but superstition and
+their obligations to the Church. In 1868 a decree was passed making
+education compulsory and free, and providing for the diversion of a
+liberal amount of the public revenue each year for the support of the
+schools; but the law is a dead letter, and in no year has the amount
+assigned to the Department of Education been appropriated. At present
+there are but sixty schools, with a normal attendance of twenty-five
+hundred, or an average of forty pupils to thirty thousand inhabitants.
+There is a university at Leon, with an average of fifty students, and
+another at Grenada, with a few more, at which law, medicine, and
+theology are taught, under the direction of the bishop; but most of the
+sons of wealthy families are sent to Europe to be educated.
+
+[Illustration: A FAMILIAR SCENE.]
+
+The city of Leon is the commercial metropolis, and was the ancient
+capital. In 1854 the seat of government was removed to Grenada, during
+the great revolution, which lasted for five years, and in which our
+famous filibuster, Walker, figured; and the people of the latter city
+would not permit its return to the capital of the viceroys. After
+fighting over the question for several years, shedding much blood and
+destroying much property, a compromise was effected by locating the
+headquarters temporarily at Managua, a smaller place half way between
+the two, where, since 1863, the President has resided, and the Congress
+has assembled every year. The public buildings in Leon remain as they
+were at the time of the removal of the capital, and most of the archives
+are there, the expectations of the citizens being that they will be
+needed for the Government again in the near future; but Grenada keeps a
+threatening look in that direction, and any attempt to disturb the
+present situation would result in another war, so bitter is the rivalry.
+
+[Illustration: A COUNTRY CHAPEL.]
+
+Leon is one of the oldest cities in America, having been founded in
+1523 by Fernandez Cordova. Two years before, Pedrarias Divilla, who was
+Governor at Panama, sent to Leon, on a tour of exploration, a lusty old
+buccaneer, named Gil Gonzalez, with a few hundred men. He landed at
+about the centre of the Pacific coast, and marched across to the present
+city of Rivas. Here he found on the borders of the lake a vast
+population of Indians under a cacique named Nicaro, and called the
+country in his reports _Nicaro’s Agua_, or waters; hence the name. The
+Indians regarded the Spaniards with awe and amazement. They had heard of
+their appearance at Panama and on the Atlantic coast, but believed that
+the stories of their presence, which came from their ancient enemies,
+the Carribs, were false and intended to frighten them. Seeing the chief
+surrounded by such a multitude of savages, Gonzalez approached with
+great caution, and having captured a native, sent him to Nicaro with
+this bombastic message:
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES CONSULATE.]
+
+“Tell your chief,” said Gonzalez, “that a valiant captain cometh,
+commissioned to these parts by the greatest king on earth, to inform all
+the lords of these lands that there is in the heavens, higher than the
+sun, one Lord, Maker of all
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER, LEON.]
+
+things, and that those believing on Him shall at death ascend to that
+loftiness, while disbelievers shall descend into the everlasting fire
+that burns in the bottomless pit. Tell your chief that I am coming, and
+that he must be ready upon my arrival at his camp to accept these truths
+and be baptized, or prepare for battle.”
+
+The cacique surrendered, and, with all his warriors and their women, to
+the number of nine thousand, was baptized. In his report to the King of
+Spain, the pious old Bombastes Furioso claimed the credit of having
+converted more heathens than any other man that had ever lived.
+
+In the days of the Spaniards Leon was a splendid city, and there are
+still existing numerous monuments of its opulence and grandeur. The
+public buildings are constructed upon a magnificent scale and without
+regard to cost, and the private dwellings are built in imitation of
+them, being of imposing exteriors and luxurious in their equipment and
+adornment. There were seventeen fine churches to a population of fifty
+thousand, chief of which was the Cathedral of St. Peter, which cost five
+millions of dollars, and was over thirty-seven years in course of
+erection. It was finished in 1743, and is still in a good state of
+preservation, being built of most substantial masonry, with walls of
+stone eighteen or twenty feet thick. It is of the Moorish style of
+architecture, resembling the great cathedral at Seville, Spain, and is
+by far the largest and finest church in Central America. During the
+frequent revolutions it has always been used as a fortress, and its
+walls, although still firm and enduring, are much battered by the
+assaults that have been made upon it.
+
+In 1823, during the first revolution after independence between the
+aristocrats and the Indians, there was a fire at Leon which destroyed
+more than a thousand of the finest buildings; and the flames were aided
+in the work of devastation by thousands of Indian soldiers, who
+plundered and murdered the inhabitants. This part of the city has never
+been restored, and long streets, whose pavements are overgrown with
+weeds and underbrush, are still lined with ruined walls that disclose
+rich marble columns and artistic carvings. In mockery of the former
+magnificence which their ancestors destroyed, the Indian peons are
+living in bamboo huts, enclosed by cactus hedges, on the sites where
+once lived the proudest hidalgos in Central America. There is a
+tradition that the town was once cursed by the Pope, because of the
+murder of an archbishop there, and this accounts for the succession of
+calamities from which it has suffered.
+
+[Illustration: THE PACIFIC COAST OF NICARAGUA.]
+
+The ladies of the aristocracy are in youth usually pretty, and at
+whatever age are always proud. For some reason or other they consider
+their country far above and beyond criticism, and themselves superior to
+the rest of Adam’s race. Ancestral pride is so conspicuous as to be
+ofttimes offensive, and the fact that a person born out of Nicaragua
+seems to them to have been a misfortune for which no other
+circumstances can compensate. This is true among both sexes of the
+upper caste, but more especially among the ladies, whose exalted opinion
+of their own importance in the universe has never been tarnished by
+travel. This feeling has gone far to excite the existing prejudice
+against foreigners, and while the tourists are always most hospitably
+received, the fact that their stay is only temporary adds to the
+pleasure of entertaining them. The most rigid restrictions prevent the
+social intercourse of the sexes, and nowhere in the world is a woman’s
+honor protected with such great precaution; and for excellent reasons.
+No lady of caste would think of receiving a call from a gentleman alone,
+except a priest; and the clergy make the most of their privileges,
+according to common report.
+
+[Illustration: ANTICS ON THE BRIDGE.]
+
+The ladies are always idle. To do any sort of work other than embroidery
+is beneath them, and the number of servants they employ is regulated not
+by their necessities but by their means. They are all uneducated, the
+privilege of a few years in a convent only being allowed them; and
+those are spent in learning the lives of the saints, a little
+embroidery, to drum on the piano, and to dance. There is no distinctive
+national costume. The aristocracy imitate the Parisian fashions, while
+the common masses wear whatever they can get. The Nicaraguans are much
+more social in disposition than the citizens of the other Central
+American countries. They have _tertulias_, which is a near relation of a
+“high tea,” and balls more frequently, and are much more given to
+dinner-parties, at which one of the greatest of imported luxuries is
+codfish.
+
+The great annual holiday of the people is known as _El Paseo al Mar_,
+(the Excursion to the Sea), but is often alluded to as the festival of
+St. Venus, because of the excesses that are committed there by the
+people, who are most discreet when at home. But as nobody cares what
+occurs at the carnivals at Rome, so can a party of fashionable
+Nicaraguans be allowed liberties at their watering-places. In the latter
+part of March, when the dry season is far advanced and everything is
+buried in dust, after the harvests are gathered and the crops are sold
+and carried to Corinto, the seaport, everybody feels like taking a
+little relaxation. Preparations are made long in advance, but as soon as
+the March moon comes carts are packed with a little furniture and a good
+many trunks, and the exodus begins. It is only about fifteen miles to
+the beach, but the journey occasions as much planning and preparation,
+and is anticipated with as much pleasure, as a tour through Europe.
+Everybody goes, the peon as well as the hidalgo, and for two weeks
+during the full moon the city is deserted. There are no hotels, but each
+family takes a tent or builds a hut of bamboo, and lives _à négligé_
+under the shade of the forest trees, which extend almost to the ocean.
+The Government sends down a battalion of troops, ostensibly to keep
+order and do police duty, but really as an excuse for giving the
+officers and soldiers a holiday. Social laws are very much relaxed
+during the _Paseo_, and it is really the only time when lovers can do
+their billing and cooing without the interfering presence of a duenna.
+Flirtations are the order of the day, and Cupid is king.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE UPPER ZONE.]
+
+There are no bathing-houses, and no bathing-dresses are worn. The people
+go into the surf as Nature equipped them--the women and the girls on one
+side of a long spit of land that reaches into the sea, and the men and
+boys on the other. This annual Paseo is the perpetuation of a
+semi-religious Indian custom.
+
+Another peculiar Nicaraguan religious custom is the baptism of the
+volcanoes, a ceremony which is believed by the superstitious to be very
+effective in keeping them in subjection and making them observe the
+proprieties of life. This observance is said to be as old as the
+Conquest, having originated after the first eruption succeeding the
+invasion of Nicaragua by the Spaniards, and is repeated on the
+anniversary of the last disturbance caused by each particular volcano.
+The priests of the nearest city take the affair in charge, and, followed
+by a large company of the faithful, ascend to the crater, and with great
+ceremony sprinkle holy water into it. Each of the volcanic peaks in
+Nicaragua has been repeatedly sanctified in this way except Momotombo,
+the grandest but most unregenerate of them all, who has never permitted
+a human foot to reach his summit or a human eye to look into his crater.
+Two hundred years ago, after old Tombo, as the master is familiarly
+called, had been acting very badly, three brave monks determined to try
+the effect of holy water upon him, and started for the summit with a
+large cross which they proposed to erect there; but they were never
+heard of again, and the people look upon the mountain with greater
+reverence.
+
+[Illustration: VOLCANOES OF AXUSCO AND MOMOTOMBO, FROM THE CATHEDRAL.]
+
+[Illustration: VOLCANO OF COSEQUINA, FROM THE SEA.]
+
+From the tower of St. Peter’s Cathedral in the city of Leon thirteen
+volcanoes can be seen, several of which are active. There are eighteen
+standing in a solemn procession around the lakes of Nicaragua and
+Managua. They are not so high as certain peaks in Guatemala or Costa
+Rica, but look higher from the fact that they rise immediately from the
+level of tide-water, and can be seen from the sea in their full
+grandeur, old Tombo looking to be about the height of Pike’s Peak as
+seen from Colorado Springs. This gigantic mountain rises boldly out of
+the waters of Lake Nicaragua, its bare and blackened summit, which has
+forbidden all attempts to scale its sides, being always crowned with a
+light wreath of smoke, attesting the perpetual existence of the internal
+fires which now and then break forth and cover its sides with burning
+floods. At its base are several hot sulphur springs, and at frequent
+intervals heavy rumbling sounds can be heard from within its walls. In
+the middle of the lake, only a few miles away, is an exact duplicate of
+the mountain; in miniature, however, being but one-fourth its size. This
+is called Momotombita, the three last letters expressing the
+diminutive. It forms an island, from which its peak rises a perfect
+cone. Its crater has been extinct for hundreds of years; but the island
+was a sacred place to the aborigines. In the forests which now cover it
+are the ruins of vast temples and gigantic idols hewn out of the solid
+rock. The last serious earthquake, in 1867, occurred without much damage
+to the city, whose walls have been several times shaken down in the
+three centuries and a half since it was founded.
+
+[Illustration: LA UNION AND VOLCANO OF CONCHAGUA.]
+
+The most fearful eruption on record in Nicaragua, and one of the most
+serious the world ever saw, was that of the volcano Cosequina, near
+Grenada, in 1835. It continued for four days, and covered the country
+for hundreds of miles around with ashes and lava, causing a panic from
+which the people did not recover for many years, and resulting in great
+destruction of life and property. The explosions were of such force that
+ashes fell in the city of Bogota, Colombia, fifteen hundred miles away
+in a direct line, and at an altitude eleven thousand feet above the sea.
+Ashes fell in the West India islands, also far in the interior of
+Mexico, and showers of them that obscured the sun caused great
+consternation in Guatemala and the neighboring republics, while the
+people in Nicaragua thought the end of the world had come. Vessels
+sailing in the Pacific had their decks covered with lava and ashes, and
+several sailors were injured by falling stones; while the ocean for a
+hundred and fifty miles was so strewn with floating ashes and
+pumice-stone that the surface of the water was concealed. The
+anniversary of this horrible catastrophe is always observed by the
+people as a great fast-day, business being suspended throughout the
+whole republic, and the people gathering in the churches to pray for
+deliverance from further eruptions. Since that date the volcano has
+continued active, but has caused no damage.
+
+A great part of the surface of the country is covered with beds of lava
+and scoria, lakes of bitter water that have no bottom, yawning craters
+surrounded with blistered rocks, and pits from which sulphurous vapors
+are constantly rising that the people appropriately call _infernillos_.
+
+[Illustration: THE FATE OF FILIBUSTERS.]
+
+The city of Grenada stands at the eastern end of the inhabited valley of
+Nicaragua, as Leon does at the western end, the two rival cities being
+about seventy miles apart. Until its almost total destruction by Walker
+and his filibusters in 1857, it was a beautiful town, filled with fine
+mansions, and proud of its appearance. The population was reduced during
+the civil war, in which the American adventurers played so conspicuous
+a part, from thirty-five thousand to fifteen thousand; and although
+that was nearly thirty years ago it has scarcely begun to recover.
+Grenada was the seat of the “aristocratic” government which Walker and
+his allied Nicaraguans overthrew, and was besieged for two years, during
+which time the inhabitants endured not only great hardships, many dying
+of starvation and epidemics which broke out among them, but suffered the
+destruction of almost their entire property. During the days of Spanish
+dominion it was one of the most wealthy and prosperous cities in Central
+America, and its commerce was enormous. The old chronicles relate that
+nearly every day caravans of eighteen hundred mules laden with bullion
+and merchandise arrived from the surrounding country, and carried away
+European goods in exchange.
+
+One of the largest monasteries on the continent was situated here,
+erected and occupied by the Franciscan Friars, who owned extensive
+estates in the surrounding country, and continued to acquire great
+wealth until they were expelled and their property confiscated in 1829.
+It is still standing in a good state of preservation.
+
+The actual capital of Nicaragua, the city of Managua, sits on the
+southern shore of the lake of the same name, about sixty miles from the
+Pacific Ocean, and is reached by an overland journey of three days from
+Leon, which is connected with Corinto, the chief seaport, by a railroad.
+The population of Managua is about eight or ten thousand, at a guess,
+for no census has been taken since 1870. It has increased since that
+date, when the inhabitants numbered six thousand seven hundred. The rich
+residents are mostly planters who have estancias in the neighborhood,
+and live in houses of one or two stories without any pretension to
+architectural beauty or elegance. They are more modern in construction
+than those of Leon and Grenada, for it is only since the seat of
+government was located at Managua that it has been of any commercial or
+political importance. A large portion of the standing army of the
+republic, consisting of two thousand men, is stationed at Managua,
+occupying an old monastery as a barracks, and the streets are always
+crowded with military men in resplendent uniforms. There are about three
+officers to every ten privates in the army, and positions in the
+military service are actively sought by the sons of the aristocratic
+families, who prefer them to professional or commercial careers. The
+privates are exclusively Indians or half-breed peons, who wear a uniform
+of dirty white cotton drilling with a blue cap. They are supposed to be
+voluntarily enlisted, but when troops are needed they are secured by
+sending squads of impressarios into the country, who seize as many peons
+as they want, bring them, bound with ropes, to the capital, and then
+compel them to sign the enlistment rolls.
+
+[Illustration: A FARMING SETTLEMENT.]
+
+The National Palace is a low, square edifice, with balconies of the
+ordinary Spanish styles, and was formerly the home of one of the
+religious orders. The only handsome rooms are the headquarters of the
+President and the chambers in which the two Houses of Congress meet
+annually. They are fitted up with fine imported furniture, and the walls
+are covered with portraits of men distinguished in the history of the
+republic.
+
+The peons live in the outskirts of the city, in huts of bamboo thatched
+with palm-leaves and straw, surrounded with curious-looking fences or
+hedges of cactus. They are apparently very poor, and are surrounded with
+filth and squalor; but the real, which is worth twelve and a half cents,
+will sustain a whole family for a week, for they need little more than
+nature has supplied them with--the plantains and yams that grow
+profusely in their little gardens. They seldom eat meat, and never wash
+themselves. They appear to be perfectly happy, and sit at the doors of
+their huts, women and men, both nearly naked, smoking cigarettes, and
+chatting as contentedly as if all their wants in life were fully
+supplied. Densely ignorant and superstitious, they know nothing of the
+world beyond their own surroundings, and care less.
+
+[Illustration: THE QUESAL.]
+
+The environs of Managua are very picturesque. On one side is the
+beautiful lake, sixty miles long and thirty miles wide, surrounded by
+volcanoes, and on the other are fertile slopes, on which are coffee
+plantations and cocoa groves, both yielding prodigious crops. The peons
+of the city work upon the estancias when there is anything to be done,
+travelling five or six miles each day in going to and returning from the
+scene of their labor. The country about Managua must have been densely
+populated by the aborigines, and is full of most curious and puzzling
+relics of a prehistoric race, which the natives regard with great
+veneration. The geologist, as well as the ethnologist and antiquarian,
+finds here one of the most abundant fields for investigation, which was
+explored and described by Stephens, Squier, and many earlier writers.
+
+The Government consists of a President, who receives a salary of two
+thousand five hundred dollars, and is elected for four years, during
+which time, if he is not overpowered by some political rival, he usually
+manages to amass an immense fortune. A common argument in favor of
+re-electing presidents is that they are able to steal all they want
+during their first term. There are two Vice-Presidents, generally the
+President of the Senate and the Speaker of the Lower House, and either
+of them may be designated to perform the duties of the Executive when he
+so elects. There is a cabinet, or council, of four ministers. One has
+the finances in charge; another foreign affairs, agriculture, and
+commerce; a third military affairs and public works; and a fourth
+justice, public instruction, and ecclesiastical affairs.
+
+The Senate is composed of fourteen members, two from each of the
+Departments, or Provinces, elected for four years; and the House of
+Deputies of twenty-four members, or one for each ten thousand of
+population, elected for two years. They are paid one dollar and fifty
+cents per diem during the sessions of Congress. No Senator or Deputy can
+be elected more than two consecutive terms, and no official of the
+Government or member of Congress can be a candidate for election or
+appointment to any other office during his constitutional term of
+service. Ecclesiastics are ineligible for civil positions, and all
+candidates for every post of honor under the Government must have proper
+qualifications; while all persons accepting pensions from the
+Government, and performing the duty of house or body servants, are
+denied the right of suffrage or of holding office. There are three
+courts, State or Department judges being elected by the people. District
+Federal judges and members of the Supreme Court being appointed by the
+House of Representatives and confirmed by the Senate, to serve during
+life unless impeached and convicted by the Deputies before the Senate
+for malfeasance in office. It requires a two-thirds vote in the House to
+enact legislation, but only a majority vote in the Senate. The President
+has the power of issuing decrees during the recess of Congress, which
+decrees have the force of law, but must be affirmed or reversed by
+Congress at its next session.
+
+Since the charter of the Interoceanic Canal Company by the Congress of
+the United States, and the actual commencement of work upon the
+long-projected enterprise, under the direction of Chief-engineer
+Menocal, the republic of Nicaragua assumes a position of more prominence
+among nations, and of greater interest to the public at large, than it
+has ever had before. The failure of the Panama Canal Company, and the
+apparent impossibility of piercing the Isthmus at its narrowest part,
+has also given the Nicaragua Company increased importance, but Mr.
+Menocal and the company of capitalists who stand behind him feel no
+doubt of ultimate success.
+
+
+
+
+SAN SALVADOR.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF SAN SALVADOR.
+
+
+Whoever visits the little republic of San Salvador, and lands at La
+Libertad, its principal seaport, must expect to undergo a novel and
+alarming experience. There is no harbor in the country, although it has
+one hundred and fifty-seven miles of sea-coast. The shore of the Pacific
+is a line of bluffs, with a fringe of beach at the bottom, and upon the
+sand a mighty surf is always beating. Ships anchor several miles off the
+coast, to avoid being driven ashore by the winds that sometimes rise
+very suddenly, and no boat can survive the breakers. An iron pier, or
+mole, twice as long and twice as high as the famous pier at Coney
+Island, extends from the bluff for three-quarters of a mile into the
+sea. A tramway runs from the town of La Libertad, connecting its monster
+warehouses with the pier, and cars loaded with coffee, sugar, and other
+products of the country are shoved out by peons or drawn by mules. The
+freight is piled upon the pier until the steamer arrives, when it is
+carried out to the anchorage in large lighters rowed by a dozen naked
+boatmen. The cargo is hoisted and lowered by means of a huge iron crane
+and derrick, operated by a small steam-engine. Bags and boxes are
+tumbled into great nets of cordage holding two tons or more, which are
+jerked up into the air by the derrick, swung around to be clear of the
+pier, and then dropped into the lighter.
+
+Live cattle are hoisted and lowered by the horns, a lasso being thrown,
+one end of which is attached to the derrick, and the animal finds
+himself suddenly jerked into the air, and hangs kicking and struggling
+until his feet touch the bottom of the lighter, when he shakes himself
+to see if he is still alive. It is a wicked way to treat beasts, but
+under the circumstances there seems to be no other method. Sometimes,
+when the rope is carelessly adjusted, and the animal is young and heavy,
+his horns are torn out by the roots, and he falls sixty or seventy feet
+into the lighter, breaking his neck or legs, when one of the boatmen,
+drawing a knife from his belt, severs the jugular, and hangs his head
+over the side of the boat to let his life-blood run into the sea.
+
+Horses are lifted and lowered with greater care by means of a strong
+harness of wide leather, with an iron ring in the saddle to which a
+rope’s end is hooked.
+
+Humankind are treated with less consideration. When passengers arrive by
+a vessel they come to the pier on a lighter with freight, which rises
+and sinks with the heavy swell in a manner that is not only very
+alarming, but is almost certain to cause sea-sickness. One may have come
+all the way from New York or Europe to Aspinwall, and then from Panama
+up the coast, without a symptom of the distressing malady, but he is
+pretty sure to succumb to the rocking of the lighter at La Libertad, as
+it rubs and pounds against the iron trestle of the pier, while he is
+awaiting his turn to land. The officers of the vessels, accustomed to
+the motion, spring from the gunwales of the boat to the rounds of
+ladders that hang down the sides of the mole, and climb them as the
+boatmen do; but ladies and gentlemen unacquainted with this method, and
+untrained to clamber among the rigging of a ship, are treated to a
+sensation that is apt to make a timid person apprehensive.
+
+An iron cage, capable of holding six persons, is lowered to the lighter,
+and you are invited to step in. As soon as it is full a boatman shuts
+the door and gives a signal to the engineer above. There is a sudden,
+startling jerk, you shut your eyes, cling to the bars of the cage, and
+feel your heart in your throat. The cage stops as suddenly as it
+started, whirls around swiftly for an instant or two, then swings over
+the pier, and drops with a thump. The door is opened, you step out,
+
+[Illustration: LANDING AT LA LIBERTAD.]
+
+uninjured, but trembling like a frightened bird, and register an
+unuttered vow that you will never land at La Libertad again. But this
+feeling leaves you when you enjoy a laugh at the demonstrations of alarm
+made by your fellow-passengers who have to follow you, and when you are
+assured, as people always are, that thousands have landed and embarked
+in the same manner without receiving a bruise or having a bone broken.
+It is not so pleasant, but quite as safe, as scrambling up a gangway
+from a dock to the deck of a vessel.
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE INTERIOR.]
+
+Although San Salvador is the smallest in area of the group of republics,
+and only a little larger than Connecticut, it is the most prosperous,
+the most enterprising, and the most densely populated, having even a
+greater number of inhabitants than the land of wooden nutmegs. The
+population averages about eighty to the square mile--almost twenty
+times that of its neighbors. The natives are inclined to civilized
+pursuits, being engaged not only in agriculture, but quite extensively
+in manufacture. They are more energetic and industrious than the people
+in other parts of Central America, work harder, and accomplish more,
+gain wealth rapidly, and are frugal, but the constantly recurring
+earthquakes and political disturbances keep the country poor. When the
+towns are destroyed by volcanic eruptions, they are not allowed to lie
+in ruins, as those of other countries are, but the inhabitants at once
+clear away the rubbish and begin to rebuild. The city of San Salvador
+has been twice rebuilt since Leon of Nicaragua was laid in ruins, but
+the débris in the latter city has never been disturbed.
+
+San Salvador has always taken the lead in the political affairs of
+Central America. It was the first to throw off the yoke of Spain, and
+uttered the first cry of liberty, as Venezuela did among the nations of
+the southern continent. The patriots of San Salvador received the
+cordial co-operation of the liberal element in the cities of Grenada,
+Nicaragua, and San José of Costa Rica, but were suppressed by the
+Imperial power. Its provisional congress was driven from place to place,
+but remained intact; it had the sympathy and support of the people, and
+defied the invaders of the country. Finally, as a last resort, the
+congress, by a solemn act passed on the 2d of December, 1822, resolved
+to annex their little province to the United States, and provided for
+the appointment of commissioners to proceed to Washington and ask its
+incorporation in the body politic of “La Grande Republica.” Before the
+commissioners could leave the country the revolution in the other
+Central American States had become too formidable to suppress, as the
+example of San Salvador had spread like an epidemic among the people,
+and its demand for liberty had found an echo from every valley and from
+every hill, from the Rio Grande to the Chagres. The five States joined
+in a confederacy one year after the act of annexation to the United
+States was passed, and the resolution was never officially submitted to
+our government. This was before the days of the Monroe Doctrine, and if
+the rise of Liberalism in Central America had not been so rapid, the
+political divisions of the North American continent might have been
+different now, and the destiny of several nations changed.
+
+[Illustration: THE PEAK OF SAN SALVADOR.]
+
+Some time before the organization of the confederacy the people of San
+Salvador had adopted a constitution and formed a State government, being
+always foremost, and their example was followed seven months later by
+Costa Rica, then by Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in succession.
+Salvador was the first of the republics also to throw off the shackles
+of the Church. Indignant at the interference of the archbishop of
+Guatemala, who had charge of the Church in Central America, they defied
+his authority and elected a liberal bishop of their own. The archbishop
+denounced the act and appealed to the Pope, who threatened to
+excommunicate the entire population. But the threat was received with
+indifference, and the example of the Salvadorians was shortly after
+imitated by the people of Costa Pica, in like disregard of the will of
+the successor of St. Peter.
+
+The President is elected for four years, the members of the Senate for
+three, and of the House of Deputies for one, all of them directly by the
+people. There is a senator for every thirty thousand of the population,
+and a deputy for every fifteen thousand. The exercise of suffrage is
+guarded by some wholesome restrictions. All married men can vote, except
+those who are engaged in domestic service, those who are without stated
+occupation, those who refuse to pay their legal debts, those who owe
+money past due to the Government, those who have accepted pay for any
+service from foreign powers, and those who have been convicted of
+felony. Unmarried men, to exercise the right of citizens, must be
+property owners, and be able to read and write. All voters have to show
+receipts for the payment of taxes the year previous if they are property
+owners, and bankrupts are entirely disfranchised, the idea being that
+none but a producer--one who adds to the wealth of the State or pays
+taxes--shall have a voice in its government. None but property owners
+are eligible to office.
+
+The President has a cabinet of four ministers. They have in charge the
+Departments of Finance, War, and Public Works, Internal Affairs and
+Public Instruction, and Foreign Affairs. The Judiciary are appointed by
+the Deputies and confirmed by the Senate. Education is free and
+compulsory. There is a school for every two thousand inhabitants,
+supported by the general government, and a University at the capital
+with three hundred and fifty students, studying law, medicine, and the
+applied sciences, and one hundred and forty pursuing a classical course.
+
+The standing army consists of twelve hundred men, but all able-bodied
+citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty are organized as a
+militia, and are subject to be called upon for service at the will of
+the President.
+
+The capital, San Salvador (“The City of our Saviour”), is
+
+[Illustration: THE PLAZA.]
+
+eighteen miles from the sea-coast, and has an elevation of 2800 feet. It
+is surrounded by a group of volcanoes, two of which are active, one,
+Yzalco, discharging immense volumes of smoke, ashes, and lava at regular
+intervals of seven minutes from one year’s end to the other. San
+Salvador is reached by coaches over a picturesque mountain-road, but the
+journey is not pleasant in the dry season on account of the dust, nor in
+the rainy season on account of the mud. The city was founded in 1528 by
+George Alvarado, a brother of the renowned lieutenant of Cortez, who was
+the discoverer, conqueror, and the first viceroy of Central America. The
+situation it occupies is one of the most beautiful that can be imagined,
+being in the midst of an elevated _mesa_, or tableland, which overlooks
+the sea to the southward, and is surrounded by mountains upon its three
+other sides. As the prevailing winds are from the ocean, the climate is
+always cool and healthful, and the mountain streams are so abundant
+that the foliage is fresh during the entire year. Through each street
+runs an _asequia_, or irrigating ditch, which is always filled with
+water. Pipes lead from it into the gardens of the people, and supply
+hydrants for their use.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH-AMERICAN COURTSHIP.]
+
+There is very little architectural taste shown in the construction of
+the dwellings or of the public buildings. This is because of the
+frequency of earthquakes. The walls are of thick adobe, with scarcely
+any ornamentation, and the streets are dull and unattractive; but
+within the houses are gardens of wonderful beauty, in which the people
+spend the greater portion of the time, more often sleeping in a hammock
+among the trees in the dry season than under the roofs of their houses.
+
+The public buildings are of insignificant appearance, and even the
+cathedral and the other churches are painfully plain and commonplace
+compared with those of other cities of its size. All this is owing to
+the fact, as has been stated, that the danger of their destruction at
+any moment forbids a lavish expenditure in construction or unnecessary
+display.
+
+The women of San Salvador are neater in appearance, more careful in
+their dress, and are therefore more attractive than their sisters in
+Nicaragua, where, if there is any difference between the sexes, they are
+less tidy than the men. The girls in the rural districts always bathe in
+the _asequias_ every morning at daylight, and the traveller who starts
+out early generally surprises groups of Naiads disporting in the
+streams. They plunge into the bushes or keep their bodies under the
+water until the intruder passes by, but do not hesitate to exchange a
+few words of banter with him, and good-naturedly bid him godspeed.
+
+There is more freedom between the sexes in San Salvador than in the
+sister republics; and it is not at the cost of morals, for, as a rule,
+in countries where social restrictions are the most severe there is the
+greatest amount of licentiousness. The education of the masses has
+proved to be the greatest safeguard, and the number of illegitimate
+births is reduced as the standard of intelligence is elevated. The
+constitutional provision in San Salvador which confers superior
+advantages upon married men, together with a law limiting the marriage
+fees of the priests, have proven to be wise and effective policy. The
+girls marry at fifteen and over, and very few peons reach their majority
+without taking a lawful wife.
+
+There is a public theatre, subsidized by the Government, at which
+frequent entertainments are given, and nearly every season an opera
+company comes from Italy or France. The performances are liberally
+patronized, at high prices of
+
+[Illustration: A HACIENDA.]
+
+admission. But the most popular _funcions_, as they are called, are by
+local amateurs, the programmes being made up of vocal and instrumental
+music, recitations, and original poems and orations. The latter are
+always the popular features of the occasion, and the _funcions_ are
+usually arranged to give some young orator an opportunity to show his
+talents before the foot-lights. There is a great deal of rivalry, too,
+among the local poets, each aspirant for honors having his clique of
+admirers, or _faccions_, who feel it their duty to applaud no one else,
+however meritorious, and to hiss all others down. When two of these
+popular idols appear upon the platform on the same evening, as they
+often do, there are scenes of sensational excitement and sometimes mob
+violence. The subjects of all the orations and poems are usually
+patriotic--the praise of San Salvador--for the love of country is a
+theme of which the people never tire. The programmes of all public
+entertainments are mostly composed of local compositions, national
+airs, and patriotic songs. The musicians prefer the scores of their own
+composers, and everything foreign is to a degree offensive, to be
+tolerated only as a matter of variety.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A SAN SALVADOR HOUSE.]
+
+The Salvadorians have a dozen or more “Fourths of July”--memorial
+days--sometimes two patriotic celebrations occurring in a month, on the
+anniversary of historical events. All classes of people join in the
+demonstrations, closing their places of business, decorating the
+streets, attending high-mass in the morning, engaging in processions and
+hearing patriotic orations during the day, and in the evening closing
+the festivities with fireworks, banquets, and balls. But the two great
+days of the year are Christmas and the Feast of San Miguel (St.
+Michael), the patron saint of the republic. The latter is celebrated
+very much like our Independence Day was in ancient times, except that
+the hours from sunrise to noon are devoted to solemn religious services
+in all the churches, the bishop himself officiating at the cathedral,
+and the rest of the time to the next morning to holiday festivities.
+There is much powder wasted in fire-crackers, or _bombas_, as they are
+called, fireworks, and salutes by the artillery.
+
+The annual fair of St. Miguel, which is held in February, is always a
+notable event, being not only a national anniversary, but the greatest
+market season of the year, and the occasion of general and prolonged
+festivities. It lasts about two weeks, and is attended by buyers and
+sellers from all parts of Central America. The importing houses always
+have their representatives present on such occasions. The days are
+occupied with trading, and the nights with balls, concerts, theatrical
+performances, and gambling. Everybody plays cards, and no one, man or
+woman, ever sits down to a game without stakes. Women play at their
+residences with or without their gentlemen friends, and large sums of
+money often pass across the table. At the fairs, and in fact on all
+occasions which bring people together, the peons are entertained with
+cock-fights and bull-fights, although the latter cruel sport is
+nominally forbidden by law. The bull-rings and cock-pits are invariably
+crowded every Sunday afternoon, and always on saints’ days, and often
+the best people are found among the spectators, particularly the young
+men, who ruin themselves with reckless betting. It is the fashion for
+the swells to keep gamebirds, and employ professional cock-fighters to
+train and handle them.
+
+The Christmas festivities commence about midnight, and the explosions of
+cannon and fireworks always begin as soon as the clock in the cathedral
+tower strikes twelve. Everybody is up and dressed before daylight to
+attend early mass, and when the sun rises the streets are full of people
+saluting each other by exchanging the compliments of the day, and
+throwing egg-shells filled with perfumed water. From morning till night
+the air is full of the noise of fireworks, cannonades, the shouts of
+people, and the music of military bands, while processions are
+continually passing through the principal streets. In nearly every house
+preparations have been going on for weeks, not for the exhibition of
+Christmas-trees or the exchange of gifts, but for the representation of
+the _naciamiento_, or birth of Christ. The best room in the house is
+often fitted up to resemble a manger, asses being brought in from the
+stable to make the scene more realistic. Several incidents in the life
+of the Saviour are portrayed in a like manner. In other residences are
+different representations. Sometimes the parlor is arranged like a
+bower, filled with tropical plants and flowers, moss-covered stones and
+sea-shells, and draped with vines. Within the bower are figures of the
+Virgin and Child, surrounded by the kneeling Magi and the members of the
+Holy Family.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL TOWN.]
+
+It is the ambition of the mistress of the house to surpass all her
+friends and neighbors in the realism of her representation and in the
+elegance with which the puppets are dressed. During the day there is a
+general interchange of calls to see the displays, to criticise them, and
+make comparisons. The grandest display is always made in the cathedral,
+the cost often amounting to many thousands of dollars, while the
+subordinate churches enter into an active and expensive rivalry, raising
+funds for the purpose by soliciting subscriptions in the parish. The
+ceremonies usually begin before daylight, and last for a couple of
+hours, high-mass being sung by the leading vocalists of the country,
+assisted by orchestras and military bands.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT ALARMS THE CITIZENS.]
+
+The favorite incident for portrayal is the Adoration of the Magi, and
+human figures are usually trained by the priests to play the various
+characters. The most beautiful woman in the city is selected to act the
+part of the Virgin, and some young infant is volunteered to represent
+the baby Christ. The church is always crowded, and illuminated by
+thousands of candles. At the proper moment the curtain is drawn, and the
+choir breaks out in a glorious anthem; the bells of the churches ring,
+and the vast audience, rising to their feet, join in the exultant song,
+“Jubilate! jubilate! Christ is born!” Processions of priests enter, and
+at the close of the anthem the bishop sings high-mass to a living
+representation of the Virgin and Child.
+
+The people are not so priestridden as those of some of the
+Spanish-American countries, being naturally more self-reliant and
+independent. They know what liberty is, and insist upon being allowed to
+enjoy it, both civil and religious. They choose their own priests, and
+the latter elect their own bishop, without regard to the Pope or the
+College of Cardinals. The clerical party in politics, or the Serviles,
+as they were called, because of their slavery to the Church, has long
+been extinct in San Salvador, and the political struggles are more
+personal than over abstract issues. There is a considerable degree of
+superstition among the people, and they believe in all sorts of signs
+and omens, but the priests do not attempt to humbug them with bogus
+miracles or wonder-working images.
+
+Much of this superstition relates to the earthquakes and volcanic
+disturbances to which the country is so subject. Within view of the
+capital are eleven great volcanoes, two of which are unceasingly active,
+while the others are subject to occasional eruptions. The nearest is the
+mountain of San Salvador, about eight thousand feet high, and showing to
+great advantage because it rises so abruptly from the plain. It is only
+three miles from the city, to the westward, very steep, and its sides
+are broken by monstrous gorges, immense rocky declivities, and
+projecting cliffs. The summit is crowned by a cone of ashes and scoriæ
+that have been thrown out in centuries past, but since 1856, subsequent
+to the greatest earthquake the country has known, the crater has been
+extinct, and is now filled with a bottomless lake. Very few people have
+ever ascended to the summit, because of the extreme difficulty and peril
+of making the climb, while even a smaller number have entered the chasm
+in which the crater lies. Some years ago a couple of venturesome French
+scientists went down, but became exhausted in their attempts to return.
+Their companions who remained at the top lowered them food and blankets
+by lines, and they were finally rescued, after several days of
+confinement in their rocky prison, by a detachment of soldiers, who
+hauled them up the precipice by ropes.
+
+The two active volcanoes, or _vivos_, as the people call them, are San
+Miguel and Yzalco, and there are none more violent on the face of the
+globe. They present a magnificent display to the passengers of steamers
+sailing by the coast, or anchored in the harbor of La Libertad and
+Acajutla, constantly discharging masses of lava which flow down their
+sides in blazing torrents, and illuminating the sky with the flames that
+issue from the craters at regular intervals. Yzalco is as regular as a
+clock, the eruption occurring like the beating of a mighty pulse every
+seven minutes.
+
+It is impossible to conceive of a grander spectacle than this monster.
+It rises seven thousand feet, almost directly from the sea, and an
+immense volume of smoke, like a plume, is continually pouring out of its
+summit, broken with such regularity by masses of flame that rise a
+thousand feet that it has been named _El Faro del Salvador_--“The
+Light-house of Salvador.” Around the base of the mountain are fertile
+plantations, while above them, covering about two-thirds of its surface,
+is an almost impenetrable forest, whose foliage is perpetual and of the
+darkest green. Then beyond the forest is a ring of reddish scoriæ, while
+above it the live ashes and lava that are cast from the crater so
+regularly are constantly changing from livid yellow, when they are
+heated, to a silver gray as they cool.
+
+Yzalco is in many respects the most remarkable volcano on earth; first,
+because its discharges have continued so long and
+
+[Illustration: YZALCO FROM A DISTANCE.]
+
+with such great regularity; again, because the tumult in the earth’s
+bowels is always to be heard, as the rumblings and explosions are
+constant, being audible for a hundred miles, and sounding like the
+noises which Rip van Winkle heard when he awakened from his sleep in the
+Catskills; and, finally, it is the only volcano that has originated on
+this continent since the discovery by Columbus.
+
+It arose suddenly from the plain in the spring of 1770, in the midst of
+what had been for nearly a hundred years the profitable estate of Señor
+Don Balthazar Erazo, who was absent from the country at the time, and
+was greatly amazed upon his return to discover that his magnificent
+coffee and indigo plantation had, without his knowledge or consent, been
+exchanged for a first-class volcano. In December, 1769, the peons on the
+hacienda were alarmed by terrific rumblings under the ground, constant
+tremblings of the earth, and frequent earthquakes, which did not extend
+over the country as usual, but seemed to be confined to that particular
+locality. They left the place in terror when the tremblings and noises
+continued, and returning a week or two after, found that all the
+buildings had been shaken down, trees uprooted, and large craters opened
+in the fields which had been level earth before. From these craters
+smoke and steam issued, and occasionally flames were seen to come out of
+the ground. Some brave _vaqueros_, or herdsmen, remained near by to
+watch developments, and on the 23d of February, 1770, they were
+entertained by a spectacle that no other men have been permitted to
+witness, for about ten o’clock on the morning of that day the grand
+upheaval took place, and it seemed to them, as they fled in terror, that
+the whole universe was being turned upside down.
+
+First there were a series of terrific explosions, which lifted the crust
+of the earth several hundred feet, and out of the cracks issued flames
+and lava, and immense volumes of smoke. An hour or two afterwards there
+was another and a grander convulsion, which shook and startled the
+country for a hundred miles around. Rocks weighing thousands of tons
+were hurled into the air, and fell several leagues distant. The surface
+of the earth was elevated about three thousand feet, and the internal
+recesses were purged of masses of lava and blistered stone, which fell
+in a heap around the hole from which they issued. These discharges
+continued for several days
+
+[Illustration: YZALCO.]
+
+at irregular intervals, accompanied by loud explosions and earthquakes,
+which did much damage throughout the entire republic; the disturbance
+was perceptible in Nicaragua and Honduras. In this manner was a volcano
+born, and it has proved to be a healthy and vigorous child. In less than
+two months from a level field arose a mountain more than four thousand
+feet high, and the constant discharges from the crater which opened then
+have accumulated around its edges until its elevation has increased two
+thousand feet more. Unfortunately, the growth of the monster has not
+been scientifically observed or accurately measured, but the cone of
+lava and ashes, which is now twenty-five hundred feet from the
+foundation of earth upon which it rests, is constantly growing in bulk
+and height by the incessant discharges of lava, ashes, and other
+volcanic matter upon it.
+
+The capital of San Salvador has been thrice almost entirely, and eleven
+times in its history partially, destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic
+eruptions coming together. These catastrophies occurred in 1575, 1593,
+1625, 1656, 1770, 1773, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873, and 1882. The most
+serious convulsions took place in 1773 and 1854, when not only the City
+of Our Saviour, but several other towns were entirely ruined, and nearly
+every place suffered to a greater or less degree; but the restoration
+was rapid and complete.
+
+The chief products of the country are coffee, cocoa, sugar, indigo, and
+other agricultural staples, which are raised by the same process that
+prevails in other States, with the addition of a balsam that is very
+valuable, and is grown exclusively on a little strip of land lying along
+the coast between the two principal seaports, La Libertad and Acajutla.
+Lying to the seaward of the volcanic range is a forest about six hundred
+square miles in extent that is composed almost exclusively of
+balsam-trees, and is known as the “Costa del Balsimo.” It is populated
+by a remnant of the aboriginal Indian race, who are supported by the
+product of their forest, and are permitted to remain there undisturbed,
+and very little altered from their original condition.
+
+The forest is traversed only by foot-paths, so intricate as to baffle
+the stranger who attempts to enter it; and it is not safe to make such
+an attempt, as the Indians, peaceful enough when they come out to mingle
+with the other inhabitants of the country, violently resent any
+intrusion into their
+
+[Illustration: IN THE INTERIOR.]
+
+strong-hold. They live as a community, all their earnings being
+intrusted to the care of _ahuales_--old men who exercise both civil and
+religious offices, and keep the common funds in a treasure-box, to be
+distributed among the families as their necessities require. There is a
+prevailing impression that the tribe has an enormous sum of money in its
+possession, as their earnings are large and their wants are few. The
+surplus existing at the end of each year is supposed to be buried in a
+sacred spot with religious ceremonies. Both men and women go entirely
+naked, except for a breech-clout, but when they come to town they assume
+the ordinary cotton garments worn by the peons. They are darker in
+color, larger in stature, more taciturn and morose, than the other
+Indians of the country, but are temperate, industrious, and adhere to
+their ancient rites with great tenacity. They are known to history as
+the Nahuatls, but are commonly spoken of as “Balsimos.”
+
+[Illustration: HAULING SUGAR-CANE.]
+
+Agriculture is carried on by them only to an extent sufficient to supply
+their own wants, and usually by the women, while the men are engaged in
+gathering the balsam, of which they sell about twenty thousand dollars’
+worth each year. They number about two thousand people, and including
+what they spend at their festivals, which are more like bacchanalian
+riots than religious ceremonies, and are accompanied by scenes of
+revolting bestiality, their annual expenses cannot be more than one half
+of their incomes.
+
+The balsam is obtained by making an incision in the tree, from which the
+sap exudes, and is absorbed by bunches of raw cotton. These, when
+thoroughly saturated, are thrown into vats of boiling water and replaced
+by others. The balsam leaves the cotton, rises to the surface of the
+water, and at intervals is skimmed off and placed in wooden bowls or
+gourds, where it hardens, and then is wrapped in the leaves of the tree
+and sent to market. In commerce it is known as Peruvian balsam, because
+in early times Callao was the great market for its sale, but the product
+comes exclusively from San Salvador.
+
+There is one railroad in San Salvador, extending from Acajutla to the
+city of Sonsonate, the centre of the sugar district, and it is being
+extended to Santa Ana, the chief town of the Northern Province. It is
+owned by a native capitalist, and operated under the management of an
+American engineer. The plan is to extend the track parallel with the sea
+through the entire republic, in the valley back of the mountain range,
+with branches through the passes to the principal cities. It now passes
+two-thirds of the distance around the base of the volcano Yzalco, and
+from the cars is furnished a most remarkable view of that sublime
+spectacle. The entire system when completed will not consist of more
+than two hundred and fifty miles of track, and the work of construction
+is neither difficult nor expensive.
+
+
+
+
+SAN JOSÉ.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF COSTA RICA.
+
+
+Nearly four hundred years ago an old sailor coasted along the eastern
+shore of Costa Rica in a bark not much bigger than a canal-boat,
+searching for a passage to the western sea. He had a bunk built in the
+bows of his little vessel where he could rest his weary bones and look
+out upon the world he had discovered. There was little left of him but
+his will. He had explored the whole coast from Yucatan to Trinidad, and
+found it an unbroken line of continent, a contradiction of all his
+reasoning, a defiance of all his theories, and an impassable obstacle to
+the hopes he had cherished for thirty years. The geography of the New
+World was clear enough in his mind. The earth was a globe, there was no
+doubt of it, and there must be a navigable belt of water around. So he
+groped along, seeking the passage he felt should be there, cruising into
+each river, and following the shorelines of each gulf and bay.
+Instinctively he hovered around the narrowest portion of the continent,
+where was but a slender strip of land, upheaved by some mighty
+convulsion, to shatter his theories and defy his dreams. It was the most
+pathetic picture in all history. Finally, overcome by age and infirmity,
+he had to abandon the attempt, and fearing to return to Spain without
+something to satisfy the avarice of his sovereign, surrendered the
+command of his little fleet to his brother Bartholomew, and wept while
+the carnival of murder and plunder, that was to last three centuries,
+was begun.
+
+Among other points visited for barter with the Indians was a little
+harbor in which were islands covered with limes, and Columbus marked the
+place upon his chart “Puerto de
+
+[Illustration: CRATER OF A VOLCANO.]
+
+Limon.” To-day it is a collection of cheap wooden houses and bamboo
+huts, with wharves, warehouses, and railway shops, surrounded by the
+most luxurious tropical vegetation, alive with birds of gorgeous
+plumage, venomous reptiles, and beautiful tiger-cats. Here and there
+about the place are patches of sugar-cane and groups of cocoa-nut trees,
+with the wide-spreading bread-fruit that God gave to the tropical savage
+as He gave rice and maize to his Northern brother, and the slender,
+graceful rubber-tree, whose frosty-colored mottled trunk looks like the
+neck of a giraffe. It scarcely casts a shadow; but the banana, with its
+long pale green plumes, furnishes plenty of shelter for the
+palm-thatched cabins, the naked babies that play around them, and the
+half-dressed women who seem always to be dozing in the sun.
+
+Surrounding the city for a radius of threescore miles is a jungle full
+of patriarchal trees, stately and venerable, draped with long moss and
+slender vines that look like the rigging of a ship. Their limbs are
+covered with wonderful orchids as bright and radiant as the plumage of
+the birds, the Espiritu Santo and other rare plants being as plentiful
+as the daisies in a New England meadow. There is another flower,
+elsewhere unknown, called the “turn-sol,” which in the morning is white
+and wax-like, resembling the camellia, but at noon has turned to the
+most vivid scarlet, and at sunset drops off its stem. This picture is
+seen from shipboard through a veil of mist--miasmatic vapor--in which
+the lungs of men find poison, but the air plants food. It reaches from
+the breasts of the mountains to the foam-fringed shore, broken only by
+the fleecy clouds that hang low and motionless in the atmosphere, as if
+they, with all the rest of nature, had sniffed the fragrance of the
+poppy and sunk to sleep.
+
+But in the mornings and the evenings, when the air is cool, Limon is a
+busy place. Dwarfish engines with long trains of cars wind down from the
+interior, laden with coffee and bananas. Half-naked roustabouts file
+back and forth across the gangplanks, loading steamers for Liverpool,
+New York, and New Orleans. The coffee is allowed to accumulate in the
+warehouses until the vessels come, but the bananas must not be picked
+till the last moment, at telegraphic notice, the morning the steamer
+sails. Trains of cars are sent to the side-tracks of every plantation,
+and are loaded with the half-ripe fruit still glistening with the dew.
+There are often as many as fifty thousand bunches on a single steamer,
+representing six million bananas, but they are so perishable that more
+than half the cargo goes overboard before its destination is reached.
+The shipments of bananas from Costa Rica are something new in trade.
+Only a few years since all our supply came from Honduras and the West
+Indies, but the development of the plantations around Limon has given
+that port almost a monopoly. This is due to the construction of a
+railway seventy miles into the interior, intended to connect the capital
+of the country and its populous valley with the Atlantic Ocean. The road
+was begun by the Government, but before its completion passed into the
+hands of Minor C. Keith, of Brooklyn, who has a perpetual lease, and is
+attempting to extend it to San José, from and to which freight is
+transported in ox-carts, a distance of thirty miles.
+
+[Illustration: RUBBER-TREES.]
+
+Along the track many plantations have been opened in the jungle, and
+produce prolifically. Numbers of the settlers are from the United
+States, from the South particularly, and it being the fashion to
+christen the plantations, the traveller finds over the entrances
+sign-boards that bear familiar names. Over the gate-way to one of the
+finest haciendas, as they are called, is the inscription “Johnny Reb’s
+Last Ditch,” a forlorn and almost hopeless ex-Confederate having drifted
+there, after much buffeting by fortune, and taken up Government land, on
+which he now is in a fair way to make a fortune.
+
+From the terminus of the railway the ride to the capital is over
+picturesque mountain passes and through deep gorges and cañons whose
+mighty walls never admit the sun. There are no coaches, but the ride
+must be made on mule-back, starting before sunrise so as to reach the
+city by dark. San José is found in a pretty valley between the two
+ranges of the Cordilleras, and surrounded by an entertaining group of
+volcanoes, not less than eight being in sight from any of the housetops.
+Ordinarily they behave very well, and sleep as quietly as the prophets,
+but now and then their slumbers are disturbed by indigestion, when they
+get restless, yawn a little, breathe forth fire and smoke, and vomit
+sulphur, lava, and ashes. One would think that people living continually
+in the midst of danger from earthquakes and eruptions would soon become
+accustomed to them; but it is not so. The interval since the last
+calamity, when the city of Cartago was destroyed, has been forty
+years--so long that the next entertainment is expected to be one of
+unusual interest; and as no announcements are made in the newspapers,
+the people are always in a solemn state of uncertainty whether they will
+awake in a pile of brimstone and ashes or under their ponchos as usual.
+This gives life a zest the superstitious do not enjoy.
+
+It is the theory of the local scientists that there is a subterranean
+connection between the group of volcanoes, and that prodigious fires are
+constantly burning beneath. Therefore it is necessary for at least one
+of them to be always doing business, to permit the smoke and gases to
+escape through its crater, for if all should suspend operations the
+gases would gather in the vaults below, and when they reached the fires
+
+[Illustration: THE ROAD FROM PORT LIMON TO SAN JOSÉ.]
+
+would shake the earth by their explosion. It is said to be a fact that
+the total cessation of all the volcanoes is followed by an earthquake,
+and if Tierra Alba, which is active now, should cease to show its cloud
+of smoke by day and its pillar of fire by night, the people would leave
+their houses and take to the fields in anticipation of the impending
+calamity. All the buildings in the country are built for earthquake
+service, being seldom more than one story in elevation, and never more
+than two, of thick adobe walls, which are light and elastic.
+
+[Illustration: A PEON.]
+
+The city has about thirty thousand inhabitants--nearly one-seventh of
+the entire population of the republic--and seems quaint and queer to
+the North American traveller because of its unlikeness to anything he
+has seen at home. The climate is a perpetual spring. The flowers are
+perennial; the foliage fades and falls in autumn, dying from exhaustion,
+but never from frost. The days are always warm and delightful, and the
+nights cool and favorable to sweet rest. Winter is not so agreeable as
+summer, for when it is not raining the winds blow dust in your eyes, and
+you miss the foliage and fruits. There is not such a thing as an
+overcoat in the place--the storekeepers do not sell them--and the
+natives never heard of stoves. One can look over the roofs of the town
+from the tower of the cathedral and not see a chimney anywhere. The
+mercury seldom goes above eighty, and never below sixty, Fahrenheit. The
+thick walls of the houses make an even temperature within, scarcely
+varying five degrees from one year to another, and it never rains long
+enough for the dampness to penetrate them. There is no architectural
+taste displayed, and a never-ending sameness marks the streets. It is
+only in the country that picturesque dwellings are found, and usually
+Nature, not man, has made them so. The shops differ from the residences
+only in having wider doors and larger rooms, while the warehouses are
+usually abandoned monasteries or discarded dwellings.
+
+The merchants are mostly foreigners--Frenchmen or Germans; the
+professional men and laborers are natives. The people are more peaceful
+and industrious than in the other Central American States, and have the
+reputation for greater honesty, but less ingenuity, than their
+neighbors. They take no interest in politics, seldom vote, and do not
+seem to care who governs them. There has not been a revolution in Costa
+Rica since 1872, and that grew out of the rivalry of two English banking
+houses in securing a government loan. The prisons are empty; the doors
+of the houses are seldom locked; the people are temperate and amiable,
+and live at peace with one another. The national vice is
+indolence--_mañana_ (pronounced manyannah), a word that is spoken
+oftener than any other in the language, and means “some other time.” It
+is a proverb that the Costa-Rican is “always lying under the
+mañana-tree,” and that is why the people are poor and the nation
+bankrupt. The resources of the country, agricultural, mineral, pastoral,
+and timber, are immense, but have not even been explored. Ninety per
+cent. of the natives have never been outside the little valley in which
+they were born; while the Government has done little to invite
+immigration and encourage development. There are two railroads, both
+unfinished, and the money that was borrowed to build them was wasted in
+the most ludicrous way.
+
+In 1872 it was decided that the future prosperity of the country
+demanded the construction of railways connecting the one inhabited
+valley with the two oceans, and the Congress ordered a survey. It was
+made by English engineers, who submitted profiles of the most
+practicable routes and estimates of the cost of construction. There
+being no wealth in the country, a loan was necessary, and the two
+banking houses, both operated by Englishmen upon English capital, sought
+the privilege of negotiating it. The President made his selection. The
+disappointed banker decided to overthrow the Government and set up a new
+one that would cancel the contract and recognize his claims. Down on the
+plains of Guanacasta was a cow-boy, Tomas Guardia by name, who had won
+reputation as the commander of a squad of cavalry in a war with
+Nicaragua, and was known over all Central America for his native
+ability, soldierly qualities, and desperate valor.
+
+The banker who had failed to get his spoon into the pudding called into
+the conspiracy a number of disappointed politicians and discontented
+adherents of the existing Government, and it was decided to send for
+Guardia to come to the capital and lead the revolution. By offering him
+pecuniary inducements and a promise of being made commander-in-chief of
+the Federal army if the revolution was a success, the services of the
+cow-boy were secured. He called together about one hundred men of his
+own class, made a rendezvous at a plantation just outside of the city
+limits, and one moonlight
+
+[Illustration: A BANANA PLANTATION.]
+
+night rode into town, surprised the guard at the military garrison,
+captured the commander of the army and all his troops, took possession
+of the Government offices, and proclaimed martial law. As the
+Costa-Rican army consisted of but two hundred and fifty men, accustomed
+only to police duty and parades, this was not a difficult or a daring
+undertaking. Those of the officials who were captured were locked up,
+and those who escaped fled to the woods and then left the country.
+Among the latter class was the “Constitutional President,” as the
+regularly elected rulers in Spanish America are always called, to
+distinguish them from the frequent “Pronunciamento Presidents” and
+“Jefes de Militar,” or military dictators.
+
+Having thus dethroned the legitimate ruler, Guardia proclaimed himself
+Military Dictator, and called a Junta, composed of the men who had
+employed him to overthrow the Government. They met, with great
+formality, and solemnly issued a proclamation, reciting that the
+Constitutional President having absented himself from the country
+without designating any one to act in his place, it became necessary to
+choose a new Chief Magistrate. In the mean time the Junta declared
+Guardia Provisional President until an election could be held. The
+latter took possession of the Executive Mansion, called all the people
+into the plaza, swore them to support him, reorganized the bureaus of
+the Government and the army, placing the cow-boys who had come up from
+Guanacasta with him in charge. The father-in-law of the English banker
+who suggested the revolution was announced as the candidate for the
+Presidency, and it was expected that he would be chosen without
+opposition. But General Guardia, having had a taste of power, thought
+more of the same would be agreeable, and passed the word quietly around
+among his officers that he was a candidate himself. As they constituted
+the judges of election and the returning board, this hint was
+sufficient, and when the returns began to come in after ejection day,
+the banker and his co-conspirators found, to their surprise and chagrin,
+that their tool had become their master, and General Guardia was
+declared Constitutional President by a unanimous vote, only two thousand
+ballots having been cast by a population of two hundred thousand.
+
+This cow-boy, when he took his seat, could neither read nor write. He
+was, however, a man of extraordinary natural ability, gifted with brains
+and a laudable ambition. He sprang from a mixture of the Spanish and
+native races, had energy, shrewdness, a cool head, and a fair idea of
+government: in all respects the most remarkable, and in many respects
+the greatest man the little republic ever produced. He learned rapidly,
+and selected the wisest and ablest men in the country for his advisers.
+Under his administration the nation showed greater development than it
+has enjoyed before or since, and, so far as lay in his power, he
+introduced and encouraged a spirit of moral, intellectual, and
+commercial advancement, established free schools and a university,
+overthrew the domination of the priests, sent young men abroad to study
+the science of government, and preserved the peace as he aided the
+progress of the people. If he had been as wise as he was progressive,
+Costa Rica would have made rapid strides towards the standard of modern
+civilization, but in his mistaken zeal for the development of the
+country he left it bankrupt.
+
+The two railroads were commenced by him. Under the estimates of the
+engineers the cost of construction and equipment for two narrow-gauge
+lines, from San José to Port Limon, on the Atlantic coast, and Punta
+Arenas, on the Pacific, a total distance of one hundred and sixty miles,
+was placed at $6,000,000--$37,500 per mile. The line from Port Limon was
+constructed under the direction of a brother of Henry Meiggs, the famous
+fugitive from California (who fled to Peru, and lived there like a
+second Monte Cristo), but the shorter line, from San José to Punta
+Arenas, was attempted under the personal supervision of the President
+himself, who went at it in a very queer way.
+
+All the necessary material and supplies to build and equip the road were
+purchased in England, sent by sailing-vessels around the Horn, and
+landed at Punta Arenas. But instead of commencing work there, the
+President, who had never seen a locomotive in his life, repudiated all
+advice, rejected all suggestions, and ordered the whole outfit to be
+carried seventy-five miles over the mountains on carts and mule-back, so
+as to begin at the other end. This undertaking was more difficult and
+expensive than the construction of the road. But
+
+[Illustration: PICKING COFFEE.]
+
+Guardia’s extraordinary departure from the conventional was not without
+reason. It was based upon a mixture of motives, not only ignorance and
+inexperience, but pride and precaution. The conservative element of the
+population, the Bourbon hidalgos, and the ignorant and the superstitious
+peons, were opposed to all departures from the past, and saw in every
+improvement and innovation a dangerous disturbance of existing
+conditions. The methods their fathers used were good enough for them.
+There was also a large amount of capital and labor engaged in
+transporting freight by ox-carts, which had always been the “common
+carriers” of the republic, and those interested recognized that the
+construction of the railway would make their cattle useless, and leave
+the peon carters unemployed. To resist the construction of the railroad
+they organized a revolution, threatening to tear up the tracks and
+destroy the machinery. To mollify this sentiment, and furnish employment
+for the cartmen to keep them out of mischief, was the controlling idea
+in Guardia’s mind, so with great labor and difficulty, and at an
+enormous expense, the locomotives and cars were taken to pieces and
+hauled over the mountains to San José. The first rails were laid at the
+capital by the President himself, with a great demonstration, and the
+work continued until the money was exhausted; and the Government, having
+destroyed its credit by this remarkable proceeding, was unable to borrow
+more. The loan, which under ordinary circumstances would have been
+sufficient to complete the enterprise, was all expended before forty
+miles of track were laid, ten miles of which extend between Punta
+Arenas, the Pacific seaport, and Esparza, the next town, and thirty
+miles between San José and Alajuela, at the western end of the valley.
+This road is now operated by the Government, under the direction of a
+native engineer, who was never outside the boundaries of the republic,
+and never saw any railway but this. He is, however, a man of genius and
+practical ability, and if he were allowed to have his way the road might
+be a paying enterprise. But the Government uses it as a political
+machine, employs a great many superfluous and incompetent men--mostly
+the relatives and dependents of influential politicians--carries freight
+and passengers on credit, and does many other foolish things that make
+profits impossible, and cause a large deficiency to be made up by
+taxation each year. On every train of three cars--one for baggage and
+two for passengers--are thirteen men. First a manager or conductor who
+has general supervision, a locomotive engineer and stoker, two ticket
+takers, two brakemen for each car, and two men to handle baggage and
+express packages--all of them being arrayed in the most resplendent
+uniforms, the conductor having the appearance of a major-general on
+dress parade. Freight trains are run upon the same system and at a
+similar expense. Shippers are allowed thirty and sixty days after the
+goods are delivered to pay their freight charges, and passengers who are
+known to the station agents can get tickets on credit and have the bill
+sent them upon their return--a concession to a public sentiment that
+justifies the postponement of everything until to-morrow--the mañana
+policy that keeps the nation poor.
+
+Thousands of ox-carts are still employed between the towns of Esparza
+and Alajuela, the termini of the railway, carrying freight over the
+mountains; and it usually takes a week for them to make the journey of
+thirty-five miles, often longer, for on religious festivals, which occur
+with surprising frequency, all the transportation business is suspended.
+A traveller who intends to take a steamer at Punta Arenas must send his
+baggage on a week in advance. He leaves the train at Alajuela, mounts a
+mule, rides over the mountain to the town of Atenas, where he spends the
+night. The next morning at daybreak he resumes his journey, and rides
+fifteen miles to San Mateo, breakfasts at eleven, takes his siesta in a
+hammock until four or five in the afternoon, then mounting his mule
+again, covers the ten miles to Esparza by sunset, where he dines and
+spends the night, usually remaining there, to avoid the heat of Punta
+Arenas, until a few hours before the steamer leaves; and then, if the
+ox-carts have come with his baggage, makes the rest of his trip by
+rail.
+
+The journey is not an unpleasant one. The scenery is wild and
+picturesque. The roads are usually good, except in the dry season, when
+they become very dusty, and after heavy rains, when the mud is deep. But
+under the tropic sun and in the dry air moisture evaporates rapidly, and
+in six hours after a rainfall the roads are hard and good. The
+uncertainty as to whether his trunks will arrive in time makes the
+inexperienced traveller nervous.
+
+The Costa-Rican cartmen are the most irresponsible and indifferent
+beings on earth. They travel in long caravans or processions, often with
+two or three hundred teams in a line. When one chooses to stop, or meets
+with an accident, all the rest wait for him if it wastes a week. None
+will start until each of his companions is ready, and sometimes the road
+is blocked for miles, awaiting the repair of some damage. The oxen are
+large white patient beasts, and are yoked by the horns, and not by the
+neck, as in modern style, lashings of raw cowhide being used to make
+them fast. They wear the yokes continually. The union is as permanent as
+matrimony in a land where divorce laws are unknown. The cartmen are as
+courteous as they are indifferent. They always lift their hats to a
+_caballero_ as he passes them, and say, “May the Virgin guard you on
+your journey!” Thousands of dollars in gold are often intrusted to them,
+and never was a penny lost. A banker of San José told me that he usually
+received thirty thousand dollars in coin each week during coffee season
+by these ox-carts, and considered it safer than if he carried it
+himself, although the caravan stands in the open air by the roadside
+every night. Highway robbery is unknown, and the cartmen, with their
+wages of thirty cents a day, would not know what use to make of the
+money if they should steal it. Nevertheless they always feel at liberty
+to rob the traveller of the straps on his trunks, and no piece of
+baggage ever arrives at its destination so protected unless the strap is
+securely nailed, and then it is usually cut to pieces by the cartmen as
+revenge for being deprived of what they consider their perquisite.
+
+At sunset the oxen are released from their burdens at the nearest
+_tambo_, or resting-place, upon the way, and are kept overnight in sheds
+provided for them. At these places are drinking and gambling booths,
+with usually a number of dissolute women to tempt and entertain the
+cartmen. The evenings are spent in carousal, in dancing, and singing the
+peculiar native songs to the accompaniment of the “marimba,” the
+national instrument, which is, I believe, found in no other land.
+
+The marimba is constructed of twenty-one pieces of split bamboo of
+graded lengths, strung upon two bars of the same wood according to
+harmonic sequence, thus furnishing three octaves. Underneath each strip
+of bamboo is a gourd, strung upon a wire, which takes the place of a
+sounding-board, and adds strength and sweetness to the tones. The
+performer takes the instrument upon his knees and strikes the bamboo
+strips with little hammers of padded leather, usually taking two between
+the fingers of each hand, so as to strike a chord of four notes, which
+he does with great dexterity. I have seen men play with three hammers in
+each hand, and use them as rapidly and skilfully as a pianist touches
+his keys. The tones of the marimba resemble those of the xylophone,
+which has recently become so popular, except that they are louder and
+more resonant. The instrument is peculiarly adapted to the native airs,
+which are plaintive but melodious. At all of the tambos where the
+cartmen stop marimbas are kept, and in every caravan are those who can
+handle them skilfully. Tourists generally travel in the cool hours of
+the morning and evening to avoid the blistering sun, and it is a welcome
+diversion to stop at the _bodegas_ to listen to the songs of the
+cartmen, and watch them dancing with darkeyed, barefooted señoritas.
+
+The women of the lower classes do not wear either shoes or sandals, but
+go barefooted from infancy to old age; yet their feet are always small
+and shapely, and look very pretty under the short skirts that reach just
+below the knees. The native girls are comely and coquettish in the
+national dress,
+
+[Illustration: THE MARIMBA.]
+
+which consists of nothing but a skirt and a chemise of white cotton,
+with a brilliantly colored scarf, or “reboza,” as they call it, thrown
+over their heads and shoulders, and serving the double purpose of a
+shawl and bonnet. The features of the women are small and even, and
+their teeth are perfect. Their forms, untrammelled by skirts and
+corsets, are slender and supple in girlhood, and the scanty garments,
+sleeveless, and reaching only from the shoulders to the knees, disclose
+every outline of their figures, and are worn without a suggestion of
+immodesty. Such a costume in the United States would call for police
+interference; but one soon becomes accustomed to bare arms and necks and
+legs, and learns that these innocent creatures are quite as jealous of
+their chastity as their sisters in the land where the standard of
+civilization forbids the disclosure of personal charms outside the
+ball-room or the bathing beach. The ladies of the aristocracy imitate
+the Parisian fashions, except that hats and bonnets are almost unknown.
+They seldom leave their homes except to go to mass, and at the entrance
+of a church every head must be uncovered.
+
+There is not a millinery store in the land. Every woman wears a “reboza”
+of a texture suitable to her rank and wealth, and as it is not
+considered proper to expose their faces in public, the scarf is
+generally drawn over the features so as to conceal all but their
+ravishing eyes. And it is well that this is so, for they plaster their
+faces with a composition of magnesia and the whites of eggs that gives
+them a ghastly appearance, and effectually conceals, as it ultimately
+destroys, the freshness and purity of their complexions. This stuff is
+renewed at frequent intervals, and is never washed off.
+
+There is a popular prejudice against bathing. A man who has been on a
+journey will not wash the dust off his face for several days after
+arrival, particularly if he has come from a lower to a higher altitude,
+as it is believed that the opening of the pores of the skin is certain
+to bring on a fever.
+
+While passing over a dusty road upon a hot, sultry day I dismounted at a
+foaming brook, rolled up my sleeves, and commenced to bathe my head and
+face and arms. The guide who was with me cried “Caramba!” in
+astonishment, and tried to pull me away. When I demanded an explanation
+of his extraordinary behavior he begged me for the love of the Virgin
+not to wash my face, for I would certainly come down with the fever the
+next day. I smiled at this remonstrance, and gave myself a refreshing
+bath, while he looked on as solemnlv as if I intended to commit suicide.
+For an hour after, as we travelled on, he muttered prayers to the
+Virgin and his patron saint to protect me from the fever, and to-day no
+doubt believes that I was saved by the interposition of Divine power in
+answer to his petitions. He afterwards reproached me for not having made
+a vow because of my remarkable deliverance.
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE-DRYING.]
+
+However, if anybody supposes that the inhabitants of the little republic
+are uncouth, unmannerly, or uneducated, he makes a great mistake. They
+are quite up to our standard of intelligence, and although education is
+not so universal as in this country, the leading families of Costa Rica
+are as cultivated as our own. They surpass us in social graces, in
+conversational powers, in linguistic and other accomplishments. They
+have keener perceptions than we, are more carefully observant of the
+nicer proprieties, can usually speak one or two languages besides their
+own fluently, and have a cultivated taste for music and the arts. No
+Costa-Rican lady or gentleman is ever embarrassed; they always know how
+to do and say the proper thing, and while in many cases their
+sympathetic interest in your welfare may be only skin-deep, and their
+affectionate phrases insincere, they are nevertheless the most
+hospitable of hosts and the most charming of companions. In commerce as
+well as in society this deportment is universal; in their stores and
+offices they are as polite as in their parlors, and the same manners are
+found in every caste. No laborer ever passes a lady in the street
+without lifting his hat; every gentleman is respectfully saluted,
+whether he be a stranger or an acquaintance, and in the rural districts
+whoever you meet says, “May the Virgin prosper you!” or “May Heaven
+smile upon your errand!” or “May your patron saint protect you from all
+harm!” He may not care a straw whether you reach the end of your journey
+or not, and may not have any more regard for your welfare than the fleas
+on his coat, and if you ask him how far it is to the next place he will
+tell you a falsehood, but he recognizes and practises the beautiful
+custom of the country, and says, “God be with you!” as if he intended it
+as a blessing.
+
+The Government supports a good university at San José, under the
+direction of Dr. Juan F. Ferras, and a system of free graded schools,
+managed by the Minister of Education, who is a member of the cabinet.
+Education is compulsory, the law requiring the attendance of all
+children between the ages of eight and fourteen; and it is enforced,
+except in the sparsely settled districts where the schools are
+infrequent. Those who send their children to private schools, or do not
+send them at all, are subject to a heavy fine, which goes into the
+school fund. There is also a poll-tax for the support of the educational
+system. The schools are entirely free from sectarian influences. In
+fact, both the Minister of Education and the Director of the University
+belong to the German school of materialists, towards which all men of
+education in these countries drift when they leave the Mother Church.
+There is no other place for them to go. The Protestants in San José have
+a little chapel where the Church of England service is recited, hymns
+are sung, and usually Sabbath mornings a selected sermon from some
+published volume is read by a lay member; but the flock is too small to
+support a pastor, and none of the missionary societies in England or
+America appear to care to enter the field. During the administration of
+President Guardia there was a constitutional amendment adopted
+separating the Church and the State. The monks and nuns were expelled
+from the country, the monasteries and nunneries confiscated, and by
+legislation the priests were deprived of much of their power and
+perquisites. In 1884, a few months before his death, the late President
+Fernandez expelled the archbishop from the country. The latter went to
+him demanding a voice in the management of the university, and a share
+of the public funds for the use of the Catholic Theological Seminary.
+The controversy was heated, and when the archbishop departed from the
+Presidential mansion he left the curse of Rome behind him. Fernandez,
+hearing that his Grace was talking about a revolution, sent him a
+passport and a file of soldiers to escort him out of the country, to
+which he has not been allowed to return.
+
+The confessional is open and public by law, and the priests are
+forbidden to wear their vestments in the streets. But these statutes are
+not enforced, and, regardless of the offensive attitude of the
+Government, the devotion of the masses to the Church is quite as marked
+as in any of the Catholic countries. The intelligent families, however,
+are gradually growing unmindful of their ancestral religion, and the
+next generation will see a more rapid decline of the power of the
+priests. Business and professional men never attend mass, leaving that
+duty to their wives and daughters and servants. They are seldom seen
+inside a church, except upon occasions of ceremony or at funerals. But
+the women invariably attend mass each morning.
+
+A familiar sight in Costa Rica is a death procession. When some one is
+dying the friends send for a priest to shrive him. The latter comes, not
+silently and solemnly, a minister of grace and consolation, but
+accompanied by a brass band, if the family are rich enough to pay for it
+(the priest receiving a liberal commission on the business), or, if they
+are poor, by a number of boys ringing bells and chanting hymns. Behind
+the band or bell-boys are two acolytes, one bearing a crucifix and the
+other swinging an incense urn. Then follows the priest in a wooden box
+or chair, covered by a canopy, and carried by four men wearing the
+sacramental vestments, and holding in his hand, covered with a napkin,
+the Host--the emblem of the body of Christ. People upon the streets
+kneel as the procession passes, and then follow it. Reaching the house
+of the dying, the band or bell-ringers stand outside, making all the
+disturbance they can, while the priest, followed by a motley rabble,
+enters the death-chamber, administers the sacrament, and confesses the
+dying soul. Then the procession returns to the church as it came. Going
+and coming, and while at the house, the band plays or the bells are rung
+constantly, and all the men, women, and children within hearing fall
+upon their knees, whether in the street or at their labor, and pray for
+the repose of the departing spirit.
+
+Funerals are occasions of great ceremony. Notices, or _avisos_, as they
+are called, are printed and posted upon all of the dead-walls, like
+announcements of an auction or an opera, and printed invitations are
+sent to all the acquaintances of the deceased. The priests charge a
+large fee for attendance, proportionate to the means of the family, and
+when they are poor it is common for some one to solicit contributions to
+pay it. The spectacle of a beggar sitting at a street corner asking alms
+to pay the burial fee of his wife or child is a very common one, and
+quite as often one can see a father carrying in his arms to the cemetery
+the coffin of a little one, not being able to pay for a priest and a
+carriage too.
+
+The number of illegitimate births in the country is accounted for, not
+so much by a low state of morals; as by the enormous fees exacted by the
+priests for performing marriage ceremonies. Unfortunately the Government
+has not yet established the civil rite, as is the case in several of the
+Spanish-American States. It takes all a peon can earn in three months to
+pay the priest that officiates at his nuptials.
+
+The Government of Costa Rica consists of a President, two
+Vice-Presidents, who are named by the President, and are called
+Designado Primero and Designado Segundo (the first and second
+designated). They have authority to act in the place of the President in
+case of his absence from the seat of government, or in the event of his
+death or disability, and he is responsible for their official conduct.
+
+There is a Congress, consisting of a Senate of twelve members and a
+Chamber of Deputies of twenty-four, elected biennially, as in the United
+States. Also a Council of six men, selected from the Congress by the
+President, who act as a sort of cabinet and Supreme Court combined. They
+are continually in session, have power to review the decisions of the
+courts, to reverse or affirm them, to issue decrees which have the force
+of law until the next session of the Congress, to audit the accounts of
+the Treasury, and perform various other acts. This Council is confirmed
+by the Congress, and is supposed to act as a check upon the President
+and the judiciary. The President has a cabinet of two members, appointed
+by himself, and they are usually the two Vice-Presidents, or Designados.
+To one he will assign the duty of looking after foreign affairs and the
+finances of the Government, while the other will have the army, the
+educational system, and other internal affairs to manage.
+
+The successor of the famous cow-boy President, Guardia, was his
+brother-in-law, General Prospero Fernandez, one of his lieutenants in
+the revolution by which he came into power,
+
+[Illustration: DON BERNARDO DE SOTO, PRESIDENT OF COSTA RICA.]
+
+and who was made commander-in-chief of the army of two hundred and fifty
+men when Guardia took the Executive chair. He was a man of fine
+appearance, but of dull and slow mental powers, spending most of his
+time upon his hacienda, or plantation, and leaving the affairs of the
+State to his secretaries, Don Jesus Maria Castro and Don Bernardo de
+Soto. Fernandez died before the expiration of his term, in the spring of
+1885, and was succeeded by De Soto, a young man of whom much is
+expected. He was a pet and protégé of the great Guardia, and after
+graduating at the University of San José was sent to Europe to complete
+his education, and by a study of the world as well as books to qualify
+himself to succeed his patron in the Presidential chair. Guardia died,
+however, before De Soto had reached the age that made him eligible to
+the Presidency, and Fernandez stepped in to fill the interim. He
+conscientiously acted as a sort of trustee or executor of Guardia’s
+will, and made the young man, then only twenty-seven, his Minister of
+War, Education, and Public Works. When Fernandez died De Soto assumed
+the Presidency, just as if he had inherited a crown, there being no
+other candidate. The President has just passed his thirtieth birthday,
+and commands the respect and confidence of the people.
+
+Costa Rica was the first discovered of all the countries on this
+Continent, but of its resources the least is known. The Cordilleras of
+the Andes pass through the republic from the south-east to the
+north-west. South of Cartago they divide into two ranges, one running up
+the Pacific coast, and the other tending towards the Atlantic until it
+is broken off at Lake Nicaragua. These ranges not only enclose rich
+valleys, in the chief of which is San José, but along their slopes on
+either side are extensive tracts of land already cleared and abounding
+in fertility. Along the coast are large areas of jungle and plains of
+more or less extent, only slightly developed because of the malarious
+atmosphere. The Pacific coast is healthier and more thickly settled. A
+large prairie covers the northern part of the republic, upon which many
+cattle are grazed, and it extends over the Nicaragua boundary. In the
+north-eastern corner is an extensive forest, inhabited by bands of
+roaming Indians, and full of the most valuable timber.
+
+What the country needs is enterprise and capital, and these it must
+secure by immigration. The population has increased somewhat during the
+last half century, but entirely from natural causes, as more people have
+moved away than have come in to settle. No attempt has been made by the
+Government to attract immigrants until recently, for years ago the
+conservative element of the population were opposed to inviting
+strangers into their midst. This sentiment has, however, died out, and
+there is an increasing desire to do something to call in capital and
+labor.
+
+The staple products of the country are coffee, corn, sugar, cocoa,
+bananas, and other tropical fruits, but only coffee and bananas are
+exported in any quantity. The increase in the coffee crop has been very
+large, the product in 1850 being fourteen million pounds, while in 1884
+it was over forty million. The quality is said to be superior to that
+grown elsewhere, and the yield greater in proportion to the number of
+trees. England and France take the greater share of the crop, the
+exports to the United States reaching only eight million five hundred
+thousand pounds in 1884. The land is practically free, for the
+Government sells it at a nominal price per acre, and allows long time
+for payment. Quite a number of settlers from the United States and the
+West Indies have come in recently and located on the line of the eastern
+road, which is to connect Port Limon, on the Atlantic, with the
+interior.
+
+     NOTE TO SECOND EDITION.--On the 29th and 30th of December, 1888,
+     Costa Rica was visited by the most destructive earthquake ever
+     known there. Nearly all the cities and settlements suffered more or
+     less, but San José was almost entirely destroyed. Three-fourths of
+     the buildings were either shaken down or shattered beyond repair,
+     including all the official structures, the Capitol, the President’s
+     residence, and the Cathedral. The loss to the Government alone is
+     estimated at $2,000,000, while that suffered by private individuals
+     was several times that amount. No official report upon the loss of
+     life has been made, and the estimates vary from three hundred to
+     seven hundred and fifty.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOTA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF COLOMBIA.
+
+
+Although geographically one of our nearest neighbors, Bogota, the
+capital of the United States of Colombia, is almost as far distant by
+days, if not by miles, from New York as the interior of India, and quite
+as difficult to reach. Until recently there has been no direct
+communication by steam between the ports of Colombia and those of our
+own country. Within the last three years an English company has
+established a line of steamships between New York and the mouth of the
+Magdalena River. Two trips a month are made, the vessels touching at
+several of the West India ports en route, and making the voyage to
+Barranquilla in fifteen days. Three times a month the Pacific Mail
+steamers leave New York for Aspinwall, where a steamer for the Colombian
+ports and Europe sails almost every day, under the flag of England,
+Germany, France, Spain, Italy, or the Netherlands. The voyage _via_
+Aspinwall requires about the same time as the other, fifteen days. There
+ought to be direct communication not only from New York, but from the
+Gulf ports, as the demands of commerce require it; and a much larger
+trade might be obtained if conveniences of transportation existed. But
+the policy of the United Stated Congress in refusing to aid steamship
+lines, even by the payment of reasonable compensation for the carriage
+of mails, prohibits capitalists from investing money in such
+enterprises, as they would be compelled to compete with the subsidized
+companies of Europe.
+
+Excepting Aspinwall, which is a cosmopolitan place, the city of
+Barranquilla is the principal port of Colombia, and to it all
+merchandise and passengers bound for Bogota and the interior of the
+country must go. In the old Spanish colony times Carthagena was the
+greatest commercial metropolis of Colombia, or New Granada, as it was
+then called; and it is one of the quaintest, as it is one of the oldest,
+cities in South America. In the time of Philip the Second it was the
+most strongly fortified place on the continent, and the headquarters of
+the Spanish naval forces in the New World. It was the rendezvous of the
+Spanish galleons which came to South America for treasure. There are
+many rich mines in the mountains back of the city, which have produced
+millions in silver and gold. Here came the pirates to plunder. They
+committed so much damage that the King of Spain thought it worth his
+while to build a wall around the entire city, on the top of which forty
+horses can walk abreast, and which is said to have cost ninety million
+dollars.
+
+[Illustration: BARRANQUILLA.]
+
+Carthagena was the seat of the Inquisition, and in Charles Kingsley’s
+novel, “Westward Ho!” its readers will find a charming description of
+the place. It was here that Frank and the Rose of Devon were imprisoned
+by the priests, and the old Inquisition building in which they were
+tortured and burned is still standing. But it is no longer used for the
+confinement and crucifixion of heretics. For nearly sixty years after
+the overthrow of the Catholic Church it stood empty, but it is now
+occupied as a tobacco factory. There is an underground passage between
+the old Inquisition building and an ancient fortress upon a hill
+overlooking Carthagena, through which prisoners used to be conducted,
+and communication maintained in time of siege; but, like everything else
+about the place, it has long been in a state of decay. Some years ago a
+party of American naval officers attempted to explore the passage, but
+found it filled with obstructions, and were compelled to abandon the
+enterprise. The old castle is obsolete now, and in a state of ruin,
+being used only as a signal station. When a vessel enters the harbor a
+flag is run up by a man on guard to notify the Captain of the Port and
+the merchants of its arrival.
+
+[Illustration: CARTHAGENA.]
+
+There are some fine old churches and palaces in Carthagena constructed
+of stone, which show the magnificence in which the old grandees lived
+when the city was a commercial metropolis. Many of them are empty now,
+and others are used as tenement-houses. In the cathedral, which is one
+of the largest and most elaborate to be found on the hemisphere, is a
+curious object of interest. It is a magnificent marble pulpit covered
+with exquisite carvings. It ranks among the most beautiful specimens of
+the sculptor’s art in the world. The people of Carthagena think there is
+nothing under the sun to equal it, and the story of its origin adds
+greatly to its value and interest. Two or three hundred years ago the
+Pope, wishing to show a mark of favor to the devout people of Colombia,
+ordered the construction of a marble pulpit for the decoration of the
+grand cathedral at Carthagena. It was designed and carved by the
+foremost artists of the day at Rome, and when completed was with great
+ceremony placed on board a Spanish galley bound for the New World. While
+en route the vessel was captured by pirates, and when the boxes
+containing the pulpit were broken open, and their contents found to be
+of no value as plunder, they were tipped overboard. But by the
+interposition of the Virgin, none of the pieces sank; and the English
+pirates, becoming alarmed at the miracle of the heavy marble floating on
+the water, fled from the ship, leaving their booty. The Spanish sailors
+got the precious cargo aboard their vessel again with great difficulty,
+and started on their way; but before they reached Carthagena they
+encountered a second lot of pirates, who plundered them of all the
+valuables they had aboard, and burned their ship. But the saints still
+preserved the pulpit; for, as the vessel and the remainder of the cargo
+were destroyed, the carved marble floated away upon the surface of the
+water, and, being guided by an invisible hand, went ashore on the beach
+outside the city to which it was destined.
+
+There it lay for many years, unknown and unnoticed. Finally, however, it
+was discovered by a party of explorers, who recognized the value of the
+carvings and took it aboard their ship en route for Spain, intending to
+sell it when they reached home. But the saints still kept their eyes
+upon the Pope’s offering, and sent the vessel such bad weather that the
+captain was compelled to put into the port of Carthagena for repairs.
+There he told the story of the marble pulpit found upon the beach, and
+it reached the ears of the Archbishop. His Grace sent for the captain,
+informed him that the pulpit was intended for the decoration of the
+cathedral, and related the story of its construction and disappearance.
+The captain was an ungodly man, and intimated that the Archbishop was
+attempting to humbug him. He offered to sell the marble, and would not
+leave it otherwise. Having repaired the damage of the storm, the captain
+started for Europe, but he was scarcely out of the harbor when a most
+frightful gale struck him and wrecked his vessel, which went to the
+bottom with all on board; but the pulpit, the subject of so many divine
+interpositions, rose from the wreck, and one morning came floating into
+the harbor of Carthagena, where it was taken in charge by the Archbishop
+and placed in the cathedral for which it was intended, and where it now
+stands.
+
+Near the miraculous pulpit, in the same church, is the preserved body of
+a famous saint. I forget what his name was, but he is in an excellent
+state of preservation--a skeleton with dried flesh and skin hanging to
+the bones. He did something hundreds of years ago which made him very
+sacred to the people of Carthagena, and by the special permission of the
+Pope his body was disinterred, placed in a glass case, and shipped from
+Rome to ornament the cathedral of the former city, along with the
+miraculous pulpit. The body is usually covered with a black pall, and is
+exposed only upon occasions of great ceremony, but any one can see the
+preserved saint by paying a fee to the priests. I purchased that
+privilege, and was shown the glass coffin standing upon a marble
+pedestal. The bones are bare, except where the brown skin, looking like
+jerked beef, covers them, and are a ghastly spectacle. During a
+revolution at Carthagena some impious soldiers upset the coffin and
+destroyed it. In the _melée_ one of the saint’s legs was lost, or at
+least the lower half of it from the knee down; but the priests replaced
+it with a wax leg, plump and pink, which, lying beside the original,
+gives the saint a very comical appearance.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE OLD FORTRESS, CARTHAGENA.]
+
+There is much of interest to see at Carthagena, and the place has had a
+most romantic and exciting history, being described at length in
+“Thomson’s Seasons.” Again and again has it been sacked by the pirates,
+as it was formerly the shipping-point for the product of the gold and
+silver mines for which the mountains south of it have been so famous.
+Tons and tons of gold and silver have been sent thence to Spain. In the
+times of the viceroys the mines were worked under the direction of the
+Government. One-fifth of the net product went to the King, another fifth
+to the Church, while the miner was permitted to keep the remainder. The
+old records show that the share of the King was several millions a year
+for two hundred years or more, and that indicates how enormous the
+profit must have been; for the miners and officials were no more honest
+in those days than now, and it is not entirely certain that the share to
+which his Majesty was entitled always reached him.
+
+The fortifications of Carthagena surpass in extent and solidity those of
+any city in the New World, and are still in good condition, although not
+occupied, having been constructed without regard to expense and for all
+time. The massive walls of the city are to all appearance impregnable,
+and the ancient subterranean passages leading outward to the foot of the
+adjacent mountains are still visible. The entrance to the magnificent
+harbor is studded with ancient fortifications, which, though now unused
+for more than half a century, seem almost as good as new. Formerly the
+city was connected by ship-channel with the river Magdalena, at a point
+many leagues above the delta, and was, therefore, in easy communication
+with the fertile valleys and plateaux of the interior--the gate of
+commerce in time of peace, and secure alike from protracted siege or
+successful assault in time of war.
+
+The decline of Carthagena seems to have commenced with the present
+century, and to have steadily continued to within the past fifteen
+years, when the commerce of the country began to revive. In the mean
+time the ship-canal connecting the port with the great fluvial highway
+of the interior having fallen into disuse, became filled up and
+overgrown with tropical jungle; so that the few foreign trading-vessels
+visiting the coast sought harborage farther up, at a place called
+Barranquilla, near the mouth of the Magdalena. Barranquilla has become
+the chief city of commercial importance within the United States of
+Colombia, and is the residence of many of the principal merchants of the
+republic. It is a growing city, and from a few houses twenty years ago
+it now has a population of upwards of twenty-five thousand. Situated as
+it is, so near the outlet of the Magdalena River, it is destined to
+increase in size and commerce, and to become to Colombia what New York
+is to the United States--the great commercial emporium of the republic;
+Aspinwall and Panama, free ports, being more a highway of nations than a
+part of this country. To this end Barranquilla has many things in its
+favor. The custom-house is located there. All the river steamers and
+sailing-vessels on the Magdalena, conveying from the vast back-lying
+interior to the coast the multitudinous products of the country, start
+from and return to this place.
+
+But Barranquilla has its drawbacks. As soon as it secured a little
+commerce a large bar began to form at the mouth of the river, and has
+grown until it has become a sand-spit which prevents the entrance of
+steamers. Then a new town, called Sabanilla, was started on the spit,
+which is connected with Barranquilla by a railway fourteen miles long,
+owned and operated by a German company. But the harbor of Sabanilla,
+though now the principal one of the republic, is neither convenient nor
+safe. It is shallow, full of shifting sand-bars, and exposed to furious
+wind-storms; while the new port of Barranquilla is quite inaccessible
+from the delta, by reason of its treacherous sand-bars. So with the
+opening of the ancient _dique_, or ship-channel, between Carthagena and
+Calamar, or the construction of a railway between the first-named point
+and Barranquilla (both of which enterprises are being agitated),
+Carthagena may regain her ancient prestige and become the chief port of
+the republic.
+
+Sabanilla is a most desolate place, nothing but sand, filth, and
+poverty; and were it not for the sea-breeze that constantly sweeps
+across the barren peninsula upon which it stands, the inhabitants could
+not survive. No one lives there except a colony of _cargadors_, boatmen,
+and roustabouts, who swarm, like so many animals, in filthy huts built
+of palm-leaves, and a few saloon-keepers, who give them wine in exchange
+for the money they earn. The men and women are almost naked, and the
+children entirely so. Perhaps the reason for the nastiness of the place
+is because there is no fresh water; but the inhabitants ought not to be
+excused on this account, as the beach furnishes as fine bathing as can
+be found in the world, and is at their very doors. All the fresh water
+used has to be brought in canoes from a point eight miles up the river,
+and is sold by the dipperful: but only a moderate quantity is necessary
+for consumption. Most of the inhabitants are Canary Islanders, who
+monopolize the boating business along this coast; but sprinkled among
+them are many Italians, and nearly every nation on earth is represented,
+even China. The only laundry is run by a Chinaman, and another is cook
+at a place that is used as a substitute for a hotel. The boatmen are
+drunken, quarrelsome, desperate wretches; murder is frequent among them,
+and fighting the chief amusement.
+
+[Illustration: COLOMBIAN MILITARY MEN.]
+
+Barranquilla is the most modern town in Colombia except Aspinwall, which
+it resembles somewhat. It has some fine houses and quite a large foreign
+colony, many of its merchants being Germans, who live in good style, and
+enjoy many comforts at an enormous cost; for flour is twenty-five
+dollars a barrel and meat twenty-five cents a pound, beer twenty-five
+cents a glass, and everything else in proportion. There is nothing in
+plenty but fruits and flies. The town is the capital of the State of
+Sabanilla, and has a considerable military garrison, which is important
+in keeping down insurrections. During the revolution of 1885
+Barranquilla was the headquarters of the insurrectionary army, and,
+commanding the only outlet from the interior, is naturally a place of
+consequence, from a military as well as from a commercial standpoint.
+
+The great valley of the Magdalena, extending from the Caribbean coast to
+the equatorial line, is one of inexhaustible resources. Its width varies
+from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles before gradually sloping
+to a point in the northern borders of the equator. At the mouth of the
+river Cauca this valley branches off into another of less general width
+but of greater elevation, and consequently possesses a more equable and
+temperate climate. The river Cauca is itself navigable by a
+light-draught steamer as far as Cali, a point less than eighty miles
+from the port of Buenaventura on the Pacific coast. The lower valley of
+the Magdalena is one vast alluvial plain, a large portion of which is
+subject to periodical overflow. In fact, during the rainy season the
+greater portion of it is usually under water. This, however, might be
+prevented, and the fertile lands reclaimed, by a system of dikes far
+less expensive than those of the lower Mississippi. But in a country
+where population is sparse, and Nature lavish in her bounties, such
+enterprises are not usually undertaken.
+
+The distance from Barranquilla to Honda, the head of navigation on the
+Magdalena, is seven hundred and eighty miles, following the course of
+the river, but in a direct line is only about one-third of that
+distance. The journey by boat requires from ten to thirty days,
+according to the condition of the river. In the rainy season the banks
+are full, and the current so strong that the little steamers cannot make
+much progress; but if the moon is bright enough to show the course, they
+are kept in motion night and day. In the dry season the river is
+shallow, and the boats have to tie up at dark, and remain so till
+daylight. Then, on nearly every voyage they run aground, and often stick
+for a day or two, sometimes a week, before they can be got off.
+
+The boats are similar to those used upon the Ohio and other rivers, with
+a paddle-wheel behind, and draw only a foot or two of water even when
+heavily laden, so that they can go over the bars. There are two
+steamboat companies, both with United States capital; one is managed by
+a Mr. Joy, and the other by a Mr. Cisneros, a naturalized Italian.
+During the revolution all the boats were seized by the insurgents. Their
+sides were covered with corrugated iron, so as to make them
+bullet-proof, a small cannon or two mounted upon the decks, and the
+cabins filled with sharp-shooters. So prepared, they were used as
+gun-boats, and were quite effective. Many of them were destroyed, so
+that transportation facilities upon the Magdalena are not so good as
+they were.
+
+[Illustration: ON THE MAGDALENA.]
+
+The first two hundred miles is a continuous swamp; the next three
+hundred miles is a vast plain, which is under water about two months in
+the year, during the floods that follow the rainy season, but at other
+times is covered with cattle, which are driven into the mountains before
+the floods come.
+
+The banks along the river were formerly occupied with profitable
+plantations, which were worked by negro slaves, as neither the Spaniards
+nor the native Indians could endure the climate and the mosquitoes. But
+when the emancipation of the slaves took place, in 1824, the plantations
+were abandoned, and have since been so overgrown with tropical
+vegetation that no traces of their former cultivation exist. The
+negroes, who have descended from the former slaves, have relapsed into a
+condition of semi-barbarism, and while they still occupy the old
+estancias, lead a lazy, shiftless, degraded life, subsisting upon fish
+and the fruits which grow everywhere in wonderful profusion. Nature
+provides for them, and no amount of wages can tempt them to work. A few
+small villages have sprung up along the river, which are trading
+stations, and furnish some freight for the steamers in the shape of
+fruit, poultry, eggs, cocoa-nuts, and similar articles, which are
+attended to by the women of the country.
+
+The river itself is a great natural curiosity. It flows almost directly
+northward, and drains an enormous area of mountains which are constantly
+covered with snow. The current is as swift as that of the Mississippi,
+which it resembles, and the water, always muddy, is so full of sediment
+that one can hear it striking the sides of the boat. The water will not
+mix with that of the sea, and for fifty miles into the ocean it can be
+distinguished. In some places it is seven or eight miles wide, at others
+it is scarcely more than a hundred yards, where it has cut its way
+through the rolling earth. The channel, which has never been cleared, is
+full of treacherous bars and snags, which are continually shifting, and
+make it necessary to tie up the steamer every night, except in times of
+high water during the rainy season. The mosquitoes are monumental in
+size, and at some seasons of the year, when the winds are strong and
+blow them from the jungles, it is almost impossible to endure them. The
+officers and deck hands of the boat all wear thick veils over their
+faces, and heavy buckskin gloves, awake or asleep; and the passengers,
+unless similarly protected, are subject to the most intense torment.
+Often the swarms are so thick that they obscure the sky, and the sound
+of humming is so loud that it resembles the murmur of an approaching
+storm.
+
+[Illustration: COLOMBIAN ’GATORS.]
+
+Some ludicrous stories are told about adventures with the mosquitoes. I
+have been solemnly assured that oftentimes when they have attacked a
+boat and driven its captain and crew below, they have broken the windows
+of the cabin by plunging in swarms against them, and have attempted to
+burst in the doors. Although this may be somewhat of an exaggeration, it
+is nevertheless true that frequently horses and cattle, after the most
+frightful sufferings, have died from mosquito bites on board the
+vessels. Not long ago a herd of valuable cattle were being taken from
+the United States to a ranch up the Magdalena River, and became so
+desperate under the attacks of the mosquitoes that they broke from their
+stalls, jumped into the water, and were all drowned. Passengers
+intending to make the voyage always provide themselves with protection
+in the shape of mosquito-bars, head-nets, and thick gloves, and when on
+deck are compelled to tie their sleeves around their wrists and their
+pantaloons around their ankles.
+
+The alligators are so numerous along the banks that the same
+story-tellers assert that you could step from the back of one to
+another, and thus walk for miles without touching ground. They are
+playful creatures, and not at all timid, but bask quietly in the sun
+until disturbed, when they plunge into the river. The steamboats are
+always followed by schools of them, and the passengers amuse themselves
+by firing at them from the deck. No attempt has been made to kill them
+for profit, but if some enterprising hunters should go to the Magdalena
+country and make a business of curing and shipping alligator hides, they
+would find it a profitable venture.
+
+Once or twice a day the steamboats stop for freight or fuel, which is
+supplied them by the settlers, and brought on board by naked negroes.
+
+The town of Honda, at the head of navigation, is a place of considerable
+importance, and at intervals for the last quarter of a century American
+companies have undertaken the construction of a railroad from it to
+Bogota--a distance of seventy miles through mountains. About ten leagues
+of track have been built, but those in charge have been compelled again
+and again to abandon it because of the revolutions and the impossibility
+of securing labor. The natives cannot be induced to work, and no wages
+that the company can pay will induce immigration. But the enterprise is
+being slowly extended, with the encouragement of the Government in the
+shape of a concession of money and lands, and ultimately the
+perseverance which conquers all things will succeed. There is also a
+liberal concession from the Government to another syndicate of New York
+capitalists for the construction of a railway into the Cauca valley,
+where are supposed to be the richest goldmines in the world, from which
+the hundreds of millions taken away by the Spaniards came.
+
+From Honda to Bogota the journey must be made on mule-back, and it
+requires four days to cover the seventy miles. Recently there has been a
+line of stagecoaches established between Bogota and the town of
+Agrialarge, which shortens the time a day, and the distance by saddle
+thirty miles. In describing the journey Mr. Scruggs, recently United
+States Minister to Colombia, says:
+
+[Illustration: VEGETABLE IVORY PLANT.]
+
+“After perfecting all necessary arrangements the day previous, the
+traveller rises at six, takes a light breakfast of chocolate and bread,
+and hopes to be on the way by seven. But people here take life easily.
+Servants and guides and muleteers make no note of time, and it is quite
+useless to try to hurry them, so that if he gets fairly under way by
+noon he is fortunate. Just beyond the deep, broad valley of the
+Magdalena are the snow-capped mountains of Tolima. They seem
+marvellously near, and yet they are more than one hundred miles distant,
+so very clear and transparent is the pure ethereal atmosphere of this
+elevated region. In the opposite direction is the dish-shaped valley of
+Guaduas, fringed with luxuriant foliage of the coffee plantations and
+the virgin forests of emerald green. In the centre of this valley
+reposes the parochial village, with its church steeples reaching upward
+as if in feeble imitation of the adjacent mountain-peaks.
+
+“The valley is watered by the Rio Negro; justly so named, for its waters
+are as black as ink, so rendered by their passage through the coal and
+mineral deposits along the foothills of the Sierra. Near by are a noted
+sulphur spring and the extinct volcano which Humboldt describes as
+likely, one day, to break out afresh and destroy this beautiful valley.
+Though quite hot, the atmosphere is singularly dry and sanitary, and the
+place is often resorted to by invalids from Bogota and the more elevated
+regions.
+
+“Up to this point our journey has been alternating between deep valleys
+and dizzy mountain-peaks. We cross one only to encounter another. Such
+is the Camino Real, or ‘Royal Highway,’ the only available route between
+the Colombian capital and the outside world. Within the past few years
+it has been much improved, it is true, and at great expense to the
+Government; but it is still little else than a mere mule trail, not wide
+enough in many places for two mules to walk abreast, and so tortuous and
+precipitous as to be impassable except on the backs of animals trained
+to the road. When we reflect that this is the overland highway of an
+immense commerce, and that it has been in constant use since the Spanish
+conquest, we naturally marvel that it is no better. It seems to have
+been constructed without any previous survey whatever, and without the
+least regard for
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO BOGOTA.]
+
+comfort or convenience, making short curves where curves are quite
+unnecessary, or going straight over some mountain spur or peak, when the
+ascent might have been rendered less difficult by easy curves. But, to
+the observant traveller, the inconveniences and hardships of the journey
+are, in some measure, compensated by the varied and captivating scenery.
+He passes through a variety of climates within a few hours’ ride. At one
+time he is ascending a dizzy steep by a sort of rustic stairway hewn
+into the rock-ribbed mountain, where the air reminds him of a chilly
+November morning; a few hours later he is descending to the region of
+the plantain and the banana, where the summer never ends, and the rank
+crops of fruits and flowers chase each other in unbroken circle from
+January to December. On the bleak crests of the paramos he encounters
+neither tree nor shrub, where a few blades of sedge and the flitting of
+a few sparrows give the only evidences of vegetable or animal life;
+while in the deep valley just below, the dense groves of palm and
+cottonwood are alive with birds of rich and varied plumage, and the air
+seems loaded with floral perfumes until the senses fairly ache with
+their sweetness.
+
+“This plain is the traditional elysium of the ancient Chibchas, and
+their imperial capital was near the site of the present capital of
+Colombia; and perhaps around no one spot on the American continent
+cluster so many legends of the aborigines, or quite so many improbable
+stories illustrative of the ancient civilization. Here one can almost
+imagine himself in the north temperate zone, and in a country inhabited
+by a race wholly different from the people heretofore seen in the
+republic. Agriculture and the useful arts seem at least a century ahead
+of those on the coast and in the torrid valleys of the great rivers. The
+ox-cart and plantation-wagon have supplanted the traditional pack-mule
+and ground-sled; the neat iron spade and patent plough have taken the
+place of wooden shovels and clumsy forked sticks; the enclosures are of
+substantial stone or adobe, and the spacious farmhouse, or quinta, has
+an air of palatial elegance compared with the mud and bamboo hut of the
+Magdalena. The people have a clear, ruddy complexion, at least compared
+with those heretofore seen in the country, and their dialect is a near
+approach to the rich and sonorous Castilian, once so liquid and
+harmonious in poetry and song, so majestic and persuasive on the forum.
+None of these agricultural implements, and none of these commodious
+coaches and omnibuses, were manufactured here nor elsewhere in Colombia.
+They have all been imported from the United States or England. They were
+brought to Honda by the river steamers, packed in small sections, and
+thence lugged over the mountains piece by piece.
+
+“One peon will carry a wheel, another an axle, a third a coupling-pole
+or single-tree, and the screws and bolts are packed in small boxes on
+cargo mules. The upper part or body of the vehicle is likewise taken to
+pieces and packed in sections. One man will sometimes be a month in
+carrying a wagon-wheel from Honda to the plain. His method is to carry
+it some fifty or a hundred paces and then rest, making sometimes less
+than two miles a day.
+
+[Illustration: SABANA OF BOGOTA.]
+
+“When the vehicle finally reaches the plain, the pieces are collected
+and put together by some smithy who may have learned the art from an
+American or English mechanic. One scarcely knows which ought to be the
+greatest marvel, the failure to manufacture all these things in a
+country where woods and coal and iron ore are so abundant, or the
+obstacles that are overcome in their successful importation from foreign
+countries.
+
+“At the time of the Spanish conquest, in 1537, the inhabitants of this
+region were the Chibchas, who, according to Quesada, numbered about
+three-quarters of a million. Their form of government was essentially
+patriarchal, and their habits were those of an agricultural people given
+to the arts of peaceful industry. Their religion contained much to
+remind us of the ancient Buddhists. It imposed none of those revolting
+sacrifices of human victims which marked the rituals of the Aztecs. They
+had their divine Mediata in Bohica, or Deity of Mercy. Their Chibchacum
+corresponded to the Buddhist god of Agriculture. Their god of Science,
+as represented by earthen images which I have examined, was almost
+identical with the Buddhist god of Wisdom, as represented by the images
+in some of the Chinese temples. They had also a traditional Spirit of
+Evil, corresponding to Neawatha of the ancient Mexicans and to the Satan
+of the Hebrews. And connected with their flood myth was a character
+corresponding to the Hebrew Noah, the Greek Ducalaine, and the Mexican
+Cojcoj.
+
+“The capital of the Chibchan empire was Bocata, of which Bogota is
+manifestly a mere corruption. It was situated near the site of the
+present Colombian capital. But their most ancient political capital was
+Mangueta, near the site of the present village of Funza, on the opposite
+side of the plain. Near the site of the present grand cathedral, in the
+heart of the present city of Bogota, was a temple consecrated to the god
+of Agriculture. Here the Emperor and his cacique, accompanied by the
+chief men of the country, were wont to assemble twice a year and offer
+oblations to the deity who was supposed to preside over the harvests--a
+ceremony not unlike the ‘moon feasts’ celebrated to-day in many of the
+interior districts of China.
+
+“The altitude of the plain above the sea-level is 8750 feet, and its
+mean temperature is about 59° Fahrenheit. The atmosphere is thin, pure,
+and exhilarating, but it is perhaps not conducive either to longevity or
+great mental activity. A man, for instance, accustomed to eight hours’
+daily mental labor in New York or Washington will here find it
+impossible to apply himself closely for more than five hours each day.
+If he exceeds that limit ominous symptoms of nervous prostration will be
+almost sure to follow.”
+
+[Illustration: SANTA FÉ DE BOGOTA.]
+
+Bogota has a population of one hundred thousand, and is in some respects
+quite modern, but in others two centuries behind the times. It is built
+chiefly with adobe houses that have a very unprepossessing appearance on
+the exterior. But the interiors of many of the houses are elegantly
+furnished. It costs one thousand dollars to pay the freight on a piano
+to the city, yet nearly all the well-to-do people have them. From Honda
+to Bogota they have to be carried on the backs of mules. There are few
+carriages, because the roads will not allow of them; but there is an
+extensive system of street-car lines, every bit of material used in
+their construction being brought in the same manner over the mountains.
+The cars were shipped in sections not too heavy for a man to carry, and
+the rails were borne upon the shoulders of a dozen persons. Yet,
+notwithstanding this enormous expense, the roads, which are owned by New
+York capitalists, are very profitable investments, the fare charged
+being twelve and a half cents in Colombian coin, which is equivalent to
+ten cents in our currency. The street-car drivers carry horns, which
+they blow constantly, so as to notify the people in the houses of their
+approach. The streets are narrow, paved with stone, and in the centre of
+each is a gutter, through which a stream of water is constantly flowing.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT IN THE PLAZA OF LOS MARTIRS.]
+
+The streets, as in other Spanish-American cities, are named after the
+saints, battle-fields, and famous generals; but the houses are not
+numbered, and it is difficult for a stranger to find one that he happens
+to want to visit.
+
+[Illustration: PLAZA, AND STATUE OF BOLIVAR.]
+
+The police do duty only at night. During the day the citizens take care
+of themselves. Four policemen are stationed at the four corners of a
+plaza. Every fifteen minutes a bell rings, which causes the guardians of
+the city to blow their whistles and change posts. By this system it is
+impossible for them to sleep on their beats. They are armed with lassos,
+and by the dexterous use of this formidable weapon they pinion the
+prowling thief when he is trying to escape. They also have a short
+bayonet as an additional weapon. Petty thefts are the thief crimes. The
+natives are not quarrelsome nor dishonest. They will steal a little
+thing; but as messengers you can easily trust them with three thousand
+or twenty thousand dollars. When they work they go at it in earnest, but
+they are not fond of exertion. It is a curious sight to see cargadors
+going about with loads. They generally go in pairs, one behind the
+other, with a stretcher. The natives of the lower class are fond of
+drinking and gambling. They have a beverage called chica, which has a
+vile smell. It does not intoxicate as quickly as whiskey, but it
+stupefies.
+
+Society is very exclusive, and strangers call first. If the visit is
+returned the doors of society are opened. The predominating language is
+Spanish, but all the upper classes speak French. They get everything
+from France, too, in the way of dress and luxuries. It is absolutely
+necessary to speak French to get along. The city is a city of
+paradoxes--of great wealth, of great poverty, and a peculiar mixture of
+customs that often puzzle the stranger. The foremost men in the
+mercantile, political, and literary circles are from the old Castilian
+families, but so changed by intermarriage that all bloods run in their
+veins.
+
+The ruling class are the politicians, but they are more under the
+control of the military than is generally the case elsewhere. Out of
+thirty-three Presidents that have ruled the republic seventeen have been
+generals in the army. Among the leading minds are highly educated men
+who can converse and write fluently in several languages, who can
+demonstrate the most difficult problems in astronomical or mathematical
+formulas, who can dictate a learned philosophical discourse, or dispute
+with any the influence of intricate history. Their constitution, laws,
+and government are modelled after those of the United States; their
+financial policies after England; their fashions, manners, and customs
+after the French; their literature, verbosity, and suavity after the
+Spaniards. Patriotic eloquence is their ideal, and well it is realized
+in some of their orators.
+
+Until the ratification of the “concordat” with the Pope, in 1888,
+education was free and compulsory, sectarian schools were prohibited,
+and all orders of religious seclusion suppressed; but under that
+document the ancient relations between the Church and State were
+restored, the school laws
+
+[Illustration: GOING TO THE MARKET.]
+
+were repealed, the education of the children was intrusted again to the
+priests, and the monks and nuns were permitted to return to the country
+and reoccupy the cloisters from which they were expelled by the Liberal
+party several years before. The monasteries, convents, and valuable
+productive estates which had been confiscated by the Government from
+time to time since 1825 were restored to the religious orders; and all
+the educational institutions, including the university, themedical, law,
+and other scientific schools, the learned societies, the observatory,
+the libraries, and museums, were removed from the charge of the civil
+minister of education, placed under the care of the archbishop, with a
+liberal subsidy from the public treasury for their maintenance, and by
+the terms of the “concordat” devoted forever “to the glorification and
+advancement of the Holy Catholic Church.” In one or two of the seaports
+Protestant missionaries are getting a foothold, but very slowly, as
+everything is against them. The unconquered Indian tribes retain their
+peculiar religious rites.
+
+[Illustration: A CABALLERO.]
+
+Lately banks and bankers have multiplied to a great extent. Paper-money,
+heretofore almost unknown, is fast supplanting the coin of the country.
+This places a great power in the hands of the bankers. They are allowed
+to issue bills far above their specie reserve, charging from
+three-fourths to one and a half per cent. a month for loans. The profits
+are very large, some banks paying dividends as high as thirty per cent.
+per annum. The wholesale and commission merchants comprise a large
+class. They buy from the lowest-selling market giving the largest
+credits, and sell to the small tradesmen of their individual section,
+often supplying these individuals with goods in advance on the coming
+crop. This gives them control of the produce a long time ahead.
+
+The non-producers are the gamblers and beggars. The people are given to
+games of chance. Lotteries and raffles find many devotees. Beggars are
+very plentiful, owing to the peculiar diseases that scourge the country.
+Saturday is their day; then every merchant places on his table a
+quantity of small change, and delivers it as the mendicants call. There
+are a number of hospitals, cared for by the Sisters of Charity.
+
+[Illustration: AN ORCHID.]
+
+The Colombians are musicians, and spend a great amount of time and money
+in gaining this accomplishment. The German piano is found in almost
+every house, and many young people gain their living teaching this art,
+while extravagant figures are paid to foreign professors. There are few
+actors or actresses. The taste of the people is favorable to the growth
+of this art, and when a really good artist passes through the country he
+reaps a rich harvest.
+
+Collectors of orchids are often sent out by European houses. They
+establish themselves at the most convenient place, and send out native
+runners, paying them from one to thirty cents a plant, according to the
+kind and condition of the parasites. They are worth from £5 to £100 in
+Europe. All the lower classes work indiscriminately. Indeed, the women
+do the heaviest part of the work, carrying over the mountains burdens
+equal to those of the men, and one or two children besides. Travellers
+are carried over the mountain-passes in “sillas” upon the backs of
+natives. These carriers are sure-footed, and capable of great endurance,
+usually making better time than mules. The sillas are nothing more than
+rude bamboo chairs, fastened to the backs of the silleros by two belts
+crossing over the chest and a third passing over the forehead. On a
+level road these silleros have a gentle trot that does not jar the
+rider, keeping a pace of four miles an hour for half a day. When they
+are climbing in the mountains they seldom slip or fall, and very few
+accidents ever occur unless they happen to get too much agendiente
+(rum). But it requires time and patience to accustom one to human-back
+riding, although the natives of the country prefer the silla to the
+saddle.
+
+Bogota is half a mile nearer the stars than the summit of Mount
+Washington and at this elevation the climate is delightful, although it
+is only a few degrees from the equator. The tropical fruits are here
+found in abundance, as well as the products of the temperate zones.
+
+The streams are full of fish, and the mountains are full of game; but
+nevertheless the people prefer bacon and codfish to the natural luxuries
+of their country, and even these cannot be found cooked in any palatable
+way. Indians will walk for three days--men and women together, and each
+woman usually carrying a child besides--having heavy loads of produce or
+long strings of fish upon their backs. The woman will sit all day in the
+marketplace peddling off her stuff to customers, while the man is
+patronizing the gambling booths; and at night, if there is any money
+left, they will both get drunk together, and then spend two or three
+more days on the road, walking home with empty pockets.
+
+[Illustration: OVER THE MOUNTAINS IN A “SILLA.”]
+
+There are no hotels worth mentioning in Bogota, only a few _fondas_ (or
+restaurants) and _tambos_, at which the peons stop. There are very few
+strangers travelling in the country, and they generally carry letters of
+introduction, and usually packages, to the acquaintances of their
+friends, who entertain them hospitably. The few who visit the county
+from the United States stop at a boarding-house kept by a lady from New
+Hampshire, whose late husband was engaged in business at Bogota. There
+are probably half a dozen other citizens of the United States at the
+capital.
+
+The original name of the city was Santa Fé de Bogota (Bogota of the Holy
+Faith). The plan of the city is irregular, and it lies upon sloping
+ground, with three or four streams running through it. The houses are
+never more than two stories in height, built of adobe and whitewashed.
+The ground-floor has no windows, and the rooms fronting the streets are
+usually occupied as shops, the proprietors living up-stairs. There is
+never more than one entrance, which is through a passage into the patio,
+or court, upon which all the rooms open. The second story is furnished
+with balconies, upon which the women spend most of their lives.
+
+The cathedral stands, as in all Spanish-American cities, upon the main
+plaza, and is quite large and imposing as to its exterior; but the
+interior is bare, damp, and cold, and barren of decoration, except a few
+tawdry wax or wooden images of the saints. The pulpit is quite an
+elegant affair, being handsomely inlaid with tortoise-shell and embossed
+silver. There are two rows of seats, one on either side, which are
+occupied exclusively by men. The women all kneel through the entire
+service, or squat upon little pieces of carpet which they bring with
+them.
+
+A half-century or more ago the erection of a very beautiful capitol of
+white marble, and of the pure Grecian order of architecture, was
+commenced, but the building still stands unfinished and unoccupied, a
+monument to procrastination. There have been several spasmodic attempts
+to complete it, but they have been interrupted by revolutions, and the
+money diverted or stolen. The President resides in a dilapidated
+structure, and the several executive departments of the Government
+occupy confiscated monasteries and convents, which, under the recent
+“concordat” with Rome, must be restored to the monks and nuns. There is
+a fine university, a museum containing many valuable and venerated
+historical relics, a national library which is composed mostly of
+ancient tomes, eighty or ninety thousand in number, an observatory,
+said to be nearer the stars than any other in the world, and a military
+academy, organized by Lieutenant Lemly, of the United States army, and
+considered the best on the Southern Continent.
+
+[Illustration: NATURAL BRIDGE OF PANDI, COLOMBIA.]
+
+Bogota was once a city famous for its learned societies and literary
+culture, but during the last decade the entire population have been
+devoting themselves to politics and war. The revolution of 1884-5 was
+prolonged and disastrous, and there has been little, if any, improvement
+in political or commercial conditions since. The Liberal party,
+representing the young and progressive element, elected as President in
+1884 Dr. Rafael Nuñez, and then attempted to overthrow him because of
+his reactionary tendencies. Nuñez was sustained by the clerical, or
+Bourbon element; and having a well-organized army behind him, succeeded
+not only in maintaining his power, but in re-electing himself for a
+second term with a Congress unanimously in sympathy with his policy. The
+Constitution was so amended as to transform the Federation into an
+inseparable union of States like our own, the name was changed from “The
+United States of Colombia” to “The Republic of Colombia,” and the
+President was endowed with most extraordinary powers, little short of
+those exercised by the Shah of Persia or the Czar of Russia. Then a
+treaty, or “concordat,” was entered into with the Vatican, under which
+the civil as well as the ecclesiastical authority of the Pope is
+recognized, and all that the Liberal party had accomplished during its
+struggles for thirty years was wiped out by a single stroke of the pen.
+
+[Illustration: DON RAFAEL NUÑEZ, EX-PRESIDENT.]
+
+The extreme ultramontanism of Dr. Nuñez awakened a series of
+revolutions, and resulted in his abdication of the Presidency; his
+successor being Dr. Holguin, one of the most prominent and learned
+leaders of the Clerical party, who has spent his life in Congress, in
+the executive departments of the Government, and in the diplomatic
+service.
+
+
+
+
+CARACAS.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF VENEZUELA.
+
+
+The voyage from New York to Venezuela is one of the most delightful in
+the world, and gives the traveller not only a nine days’ taste of the
+sea, but shows him a glimpse of tropical America, and affords him an
+opportunity to study the peculiar life and customs of our
+Spanish-American neighbors. A splendid fleet of steamers--the “Red D”
+line, owned by Messrs. Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, of New York, and
+sailing under the American flag--furnish as comfortable transportation
+facilities as can be found on any ocean, and the journey can be made in
+thirty days, eighteen of which will be spent at sea and at the ports of
+the Antilles, and the remainder at the capital and chief cities of
+Venezuela.
+
+If the whole coast of South America had been explored for the worst
+place in twenty thousand miles to build a city, there could not have
+been found one with greater natural disadvantages, which human ingenuity
+cannot overcome, than La Guayra, the seaport of Caracas, capital of
+Venezuela. It is a town of about six thousand inhabitants, stretched
+along a rocky beach for about two miles. Five hundred feet from the
+water the Venezuelan range of the Andes Mountains begins, and rises
+almost perpendicularly to the height of five and six thousand feet. One
+hundred feet from the houses the bottom of the sea slopes off into a
+hundred fathoms of water, and a mile out it is said to be two thousand
+feet deep. There is not the slightest excuse for a harbor, nor the
+slightest protection for vessels, which always lift their anchors and
+get out of the way when indications of a storm are seen. The anchor lies
+on the sloping rock at the bottom of the sea, but it has to be lifted
+every few hours, or the shifting sand will bury it beyond recovery. The
+surf always runs very high when a strong breeze is blowing, and under
+these circumstances vessels are expected to load and unload. Two
+wharves, or moles, have been built at an acute angle, with the narrow
+point open, and into this the lighters are steered, where they are
+comparatively easy while shifting cargoes. The vessels always stay out
+far enough to avoid the surf, but rise and fall, tip and rock with the
+swells that go under them with the motion that the billows of the ocean
+give.
+
+Clinging to the little ledge between the surf and the foot of the rocks
+the town stands. There is only one street along which the warehouses are
+situated, with a rather imposing custom-house and the invariable plaza,
+or park, in which stands an equestrian statue of Guzman Blanco, the
+“boss” of Venezuela. There is said to be a statue of Guzman in every
+town in the republic, erected by his orders, but at the expense of the
+Government, while he was President. There are three of them at the
+capital.
+
+The guide-books and geographies say that La Guayra is the hottest and
+most unhealthy place in the world; that it is hotter than Cairo, or
+Madras, or Abushar, or Aden, or Yuma; but the United States consul says
+that this is an absurd and inexcusable falsehood, and represents the
+city as being a most attractive summer resort. Humboldt says
+yellow-fever is born there, and that it is the chief distributing point
+for the plague; the consul says that there is only occasionally a case
+of fever of a mild type, which is often mistaken for genuine
+yellow-jack, and people ordinarily recover from it. Humboldt says, too,
+that in his time this was a famous place for tidal waves; that a lookout
+was always stationed at the fort, which sits in a crevice in the
+mountains above the town, to watch for them, and when one was seen
+coming a gun was fired to warn the vessels, which pulled in their
+anchors and put out to sea to escape being dashed against the mountains.
+He also says that it was the worst place for barnacles (_teredo
+navalis_) in the world, and that vessels were totally ruined by lying
+at anchor there; but Mr. Bird says these stories are all humbug, and
+while it might have been so in Humboldt’s time, the conditions are
+totally different now.
+
+[Illustration: WAITING FOR THE NEW YORK STEAMER.]
+
+Above the city, among the rocks, are the ruins of old Spanish forts
+which have been the scenes of the most terrific conflicts, and the
+ravines have run with blood from the carnage until the sea has been as
+red as a sunset. In the days of the buccaneers La Guayra was a favorite
+place for fighting, and there being no harbor, the pirate kings were
+always cruising after the galleons which came there to load with
+treasures for the King of Spain. Upon the top of a high bluff
+overlooking the town is an immense castle, which was at one time the
+residence of the Captain-general of the Spanish colonies, and is
+haunted by all sorts of legends and romantic traditions. It is now in
+ruins, and the underground tunnel which formerly connected it with the
+Military Barracks, four miles away, has caved in at many places.
+
+To readers of that remarkable novel, “Westward, Ho!” by Charles
+Kingsley, this castle has a romantic interest, as it was here where the
+Rose of Devon was carried by her Spanish lover, and where she was sought
+and found by Aymas and Frank Leigh. But things are different nowadays.
+The great American house of Boulton, Bliss & Dallett have their
+headquarters there, control the trade, send vessels to New York every
+ten days without molestation laden with coffee, and the only blood that
+flows is shed by the fleas.
+
+I have thus far neglected to give due credit to the tropical flea, to
+whose industry, enterprise, and assiduous solicitude all travellers in
+Spanish-America are indebted for a great deal of diversion. At first his
+attentions are somewhat annoying, and there is a general disposition to
+conceal acquaintance with him; but when every man, woman, and child in a
+company is constantly scratching, it becomes difficult to ignore
+conditions that are common and conspicuous, and everybody admits, first
+with blushes and then with brazen shamelessness, that he’s got ’em.
+There is no use of trying to conceal the fact. They are as common and as
+plenty as flies in the basement kitchen of a city boarding-house, and
+the Venezuela coat-of-arms would more truly represent the condition of
+the country if it showed a man vainly trying to scratch in seven places
+at once instead of a wild horse dashing over the pampas. They are little
+black insects, which will get into your clothing in the most
+unaccountable manner. You find them in your shoes and under your
+shirt-collar; you wake up in the night and think you have somehow
+wandered into a plantation of nettles; or, when you become a little more
+accustomed to it, dream regularly that you are lying on the prickly side
+of a cactus. To rub the flesh with brandy does some good, but the better
+way is to grin and bear it. The pests are bad enough in Mexico; they
+are worse in the West Indies; but in Venezuela--the less said the
+better.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE SUBURBS OF LA GUAYRA.]
+
+Between La Guayra and Caracas rises a mountain called La Silla (The
+Saddle), from the shape of its summit, eight thousand six hundred feet
+above the sea, and there are three roads between the two cities. The
+shortest is a trail nine miles long, through a ravine, which was used by
+the Indians at the time of the discovery by Columbus, but it is
+impassable for quadrupeds, and dangerous for any but expert and
+experienced mountaineers. Then there is an old wagon-road, steep and
+rough, for twenty-two miles, which was constructed by the Spaniards
+after the Conquest. The third is a tramway, narrow gauge, built along
+shelves which have been excavated in the side of the mountains by
+English engineers and English capital. The train goes slowly, and there
+is almost always a track-walker with a spade upon his shoulder in sight.
+It would not do to run up or down the grades in the night, or at a speed
+greater than ten miles an hour; hence it requires two hours and a half
+to make the journey, than which there is no more interesting in the
+world. The grade averages one hundred and ninety-seven feet to the mile,
+the highest altitude passed being four thousand six hundred feet; and
+one does not know which to admire the most--the difficulties nature has
+placed in the way of man, or the manner in which man has overcome them.
+
+Humboldt, who came up the wagon-road, which runs almost parallel with
+the tramway for most of the distance, said that the only mountain
+scenery which equals it is that of the Island of Teneriffe, where a
+fragment of the alpine grandeur rises from the bosom of the sea. But one
+can scarcely imagine a picture more imposing or impressive than is
+represented here. Almost under the equator, with the ocean continually
+in view, and the mountains rising into the clouds all around you, the
+little engine puffs and pants like a restless stallion as it climbs
+around in the crevice that has been dug for the track. The road is
+solidly constructed, as English railways always are, has all the modern
+appliances for safety, and has been running so far without an accident;
+but if anything should break, if the engineer should lose control of the
+train for an instant, there would be no need of an inquest--there would
+be nothing for a coroner’s jury to sit upon.
+
+Two hundred and fifty years ago that king of buccaneers, Sir Francis
+Drake, paid a visit to Caracas under circumstances worthy of notice. It
+was before the forts had been built around La Guayra; in fact, it was
+owing to the adventure of Sir Francis that the Spaniards put them there.
+This Mr. Drake, as all know who are familiar with the doings of Queen
+Elizabeth’s time, was a Britain bold, and had a little affair with the
+Spanish Armada. Having disposed of the enemies of the virgin Queen in
+the waters around home, he started
+
+[Illustration: STILL MORE SUBURBAN.]
+
+out on a cruise for gold and glory, with “Westward, Ho!” inscribed upon
+the pennant that flew at the royal top-gallant of his main-mast. Mr.
+Drake was a gentleman of great valor, and his antipathy to the Spaniards
+and Catholics was pronounced. He started out from Plymouth with a
+gallant fleet, and when he came across a Spanish galleon or a Spanish
+town in the colonies he “went for it then and there.” The Rev. Charles
+Kingsley has described the voyage, which continued around the globe, in
+a most fascinating manner. He followed in the wake of Sir Francis two
+hundred years after, and his descriptions of South American scenes and
+scenery are unsurpassed.
+
+Drake’s capture of Caracas was considered the boldest of all his
+achievements. It was in 1595 that he stood in with his squadron at La
+Guayra, and the inhabitants, when they realized the presence of the man
+who had devastated the West Indies, abandoned their homes and fled to
+the mountains, carrying the news of the arrival of the terrible
+Englishman. The Alcaldes of Caracas assembled all the men in the country
+who could carry arms, from the ages of sixteen to seventy, and marched
+down the wagon-road along which the railway runs, to stay the invader.
+Half way down they prepared an ambush and lay in wait to annihilate him.
+Drake landed at La Guayra with seventy men, captured a fellow named
+Villalpando, who, by gifts of treasure, agreed to guide him up the old,
+dangerous, and abandoned Indian trail. So, while the gallant Alcaldes
+with all the men of Caracas were marching down one road Sir Francis was
+marching up another, which they thought he would not dare to climb.
+Neither met an enemy, and while the Spaniards were lying in ambush Sir
+Francis was hanging the traitorous Villalpando in what is now the Plaza
+Bolivar, drinking the wine from the Spanish cellars, ravishing the
+women, and plundering the houses of the citizens. But one old hidalgo,
+named Alonzo de Ledeoma, who remained behind, denounced the invaders
+from the threshold of his plundered house, declared them to be cravens,
+and dared the bravest of the Englishmen to meet him in single combat.
+Sir Francis and his crew jeered at the brave old man, and told him to
+send for his fellow-citizens who had gone down the mountain-road; but he
+insisted on fighting them alone, and was accommodated. They killed him
+as tenderly as they could, set fire to the city, and then, laden with
+all the portable property of value in Caracas, marched down the ravine
+to La Guayra again, and sailed away with a million dollars’ worth of
+treasure, captured without the loss of a single man.
+
+The city of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, as well as its
+metropolis, and according to geographies one of the most delightful
+places of residence in the world, lies in a narrow valley between two
+high ranges of mountains, which lift their heads nearly nine thousand
+feet on one side, and something over six thousand on the other. To one
+standing in the centre of the city it seems to be entirely surrounded by
+peaks, to lie in a pocket or deep depression; but from the top of
+“Calvary,” a hill which used to be a cemetery, but is now a park, one
+can see two roads that lead out, two passes through the mountains whence
+the river comes and whither it flows. The natural beauties of the place
+are very marked, and make it plain why Venezuelans are proud of their
+chief city. There is an old gentleman at Caracas, Mr. Middleton by name,
+who for over fifty years has been in the diplomatic service of Great
+Britain. He has served at Paris, at Madrid, at Mexico, at Buenos Ayres,
+at Brazil, and his last station was as Minister to Venezuela. When the
+age came which required him to be placed upon the retired list he would
+not go back to England, but wished to remain there, where, he says, it
+is but a step to Paradise. “I have been here since 1869,” he remarked;
+“I have seen this country in war and in peace, and have experienced two
+earthquakes, the last of which killed three hundred people, but there is
+no place on earth possessing so many natural and climatic attractions.
+All I ask is to end my days in this eternal spring.”
+
+But, speaking of earthquakes, Caracas is a favorite place for them. The
+town was entirely destroyed in 1812, and more or less of it has been
+shaken down at intervals since. The residents are quite sensitive on the
+subject, and insist that more lives are lost in the United States by
+fires and cyclones and railroad accidents than in Venezuela by
+earthquakes. They talk of the great fires in Boston and Chicago as being
+infinitely more to be dreaded than the earthquake of 1812, which shook
+every building from its foundation, and buried twenty thousand people in
+the ruins. There is no doubt a constant danger from volcanic fires, but
+the people are not subjected to some of the ills we are heir to.
+
+The present Government, under the inspiration of Guzman Blanco, is
+making earnest efforts to secure immigrants, and is offering the most
+alluring inducements to settlers upon the public lands. Venezuela is not
+thickly populated. It has more territory than France, Spain, and
+Portugal together, and is about one-seventh as large as the United
+States. The population in 1884 was 2,121,000, with only a slight
+increase for ten years. The country could sustain a population of
+100,000,000, for the soil is exceedingly rich, and produces two crops a
+year without fertilization or irrigation.
+
+There are three zones, three climates within the limits of
+Venezuela--from cold too intense to be endured by man to the greatest
+degree of heat known to the earth’s surface. Although the capital is
+only ten degrees north of the equator, the temperature is delightful,
+and it is easy to realize the truth of the statement that Caracas enjoys
+a perpetual spring. The thermometer, which stands about sixty degrees at
+midnight, rises to seventy-five or eighty at noon, but there is always a
+fresh breeze blowing either from the ocean or from the snow-capped Andes
+to the south-west.
+
+There was no printing-press in Venezuela until after the triumph of
+Bolivar, and the colonies were not encouraged in the arts or the
+sciences or any form of industry. The most profitable crops of sugar and
+coffee were kept a monopoly for the crown of Spain, and the people found
+it to their advantage to produce no more than they needed for their own
+sustenance, as every ounce of surplus was seized by the Government.
+Then, after independence was established, the rulers of the country
+imitated their former oppressors and kept the people down, robbing them
+in every possible way, until revolution after revolution was the result,
+and local wars followed each other so rapidly that the country was
+deluged with blood. Discontent was universal, and discontent always
+results in conspiracies and revolutions. Bolivar the Liberator
+(pronounced Bo-leè-var), the Washington of the country, was driven into
+exile, and died in poverty in a neighboring country. But Bolivar is
+honored there now, and the public
+
+[Illustration: ON A COFFEE PLANTATION.]
+
+veneration is even greater, if possible, than that shown for Washington
+and Lincoln in the United States. He died of a broken heart in Santa
+Marta, Colombia, and was originally buried there, but ten years after
+his death Paez, the man who overthrew the Liberator and drove him into
+exile, thought it would be a popular thing to bring his bones home. This
+was done with great ceremony, and they were buried in the cathedral
+fronting Plaza Bolivar, upon which his equestrian statue stands. But his
+heart is in Colombia still. It was removed from the body, and remains in
+an urn in the Santa Marta cathedral.
+
+In the museum of the University, in a beautiful room kept as sacred as
+the Holiest of Holies, is a collection of relics as precious to the
+people as fragments of the true cross. There are Bolivar’s clothing, his
+saddle, his spurs, his boots, and books, and every little memento of him
+that could be gathered up, including the coffin in which his remains
+were originally buried. There are paintings representing his past
+achievements on earth and his present glory in heaven, where he is
+surrounded by cherubim and seraphim covering his head with laurels. The
+most precious of all the relics is a portrait of Washington, sent to
+Bolivar in 1828 by George Washington Parke Custis, with this
+inscription: “This picture of the Liberator of North America is sent by
+his adopted son to him who acquired equal glory in South America.”
+
+When Guzman Blanco turned an old cathedral into a pantheon for the
+burial of distinguished dead, the remains of Bolivar were for a third
+time removed, and finally deposited in a beautiful marble tomb. Upon it
+is a statue of the hero, represented as standing with a military cloak
+around him--a noble and dignified face. On one side is a statue of
+“Plenty,” scattering corn from a tray; on the other a representation of
+“Justice.” The inscription on the monument is:
+
+     SIMON BOLIVAR.
+
+     Cineres hic condit; honorat grata et memor patria.
+
+     1852.
+
+There is another, an equestrian statue to Bolivar, in the centre of the
+city, surrounded by a park called by his name, upon which fronts “The
+Yellow House,” as the residence of the President is called, and several
+of the Federal palaces. The standard coin of the country is called by
+his name, and is of a value equal to the franc of France. The coins and
+paper-money bear his portrait as well as his name, and a pathetic
+attempt is made by the people to show after his death the gratitude they
+should have paid to the starving exile.
+
+Not far from the statue of Bolivar stands a heroic figure in bronze,
+with no inscription upon its pedestal but the name “Washington.” It was
+erected to celebrate the centenary of Bolivar’s birth, and its
+dedication was accompanied by a ceremony which has never been equalled
+in magnificence on the southern continent--a tribute to the man who
+“filled one world with his benefits and all worlds with his name.” There
+are shops and stores, hotels and streets named after Washington, and his
+memory is reverenced as much as at home. But this people, so
+instinctively republican, so patriotic and appreciative of freedom,
+never knew what liberty was until within the last ten years. Since then
+the priests have been dethroned and the schools have been made free.
+
+[Illustration: ON A BACK STREET.]
+
+Guzman Blanco may be a tyrant, but he has produced results which are
+blessing the people. Until he became President the Church ruled the
+people as it formerly ruled Mexico, but, like Juarez in the latter
+country, he went to radical and excessive measures to overthrow its
+tyranny. He confiscated Church property, drove out the nuns and
+Jesuits, seized the convents, turned them into hospitals and schools,
+and made the most venerable monastery a pest-house for lepers and
+small-pox. He deprived the Church of the right to hold or acquire
+property, seized the cemeteries, and opened them to the burial of the
+dead of whatever faith. He even went so far as to expel the archbishop
+because the latter refused to sing a Te Deum when a monument to the man
+who did all this was erected. With such audacity and by such means has
+Guzman Blanco deprived the Church of its former power and prestige. His
+opponents, like those of Juarez and Diaz in Mexico, are chiefly
+Churchmen (Bourbons), but as he exercises no mercy when his will is
+violated, they are in a state of the most abject submission.
+
+The schools of Venezuela are supported by the Federal Government from
+the revenues of the Post-office and a trade license system. Formerly the
+mails now handled by the railroads were carried by Indian runners over
+the mountains from the coast, and so from Caracas inland still farther,
+as is the case yet where there are no railroads. A runner carries a
+package weighing about sixteen pounds strapped upon his back. His
+clothing is sufficient, as he leaves a city, to preserve the last
+requirement of decency. When he gets alone, however, he deposits his
+fig-leaf in some convenient place, and rapidly “walks in maiden
+meditation, garment free,” until he approaches his destination, when he
+finds the uniform belonging to that end of the post-route, and dons it
+for remaining courtesies. These runners are faithful, prompt,
+serviceable, and of great endurance.
+
+At the post-office you can get two sorts of stamps. The proceeds from
+foreign postage go into the general treasury. Another stamp is used for
+local postage, for letters addressed to persons within the town or
+State, and is required upon commercial paper, upon all deeds, mortgages,
+leases, contracts, notes, receipts, certificates, etc. The proceeds of
+its sale are devoted to the support of the schools, which are free to
+all, but are usually attended by the children of the lower classes. The
+negroes are particularly eager to learn, and the average attendance of
+the blacks is very much greater than that of white children, and out of
+proportion of the population. The ratio of illiteracy is greater among
+the whites than among the negroes, and people are beginning to complain
+that servants and laborers are being spoiled by education.
+
+There is a Telephone Exchange, with four hundred and seventy-five
+subscribers, with branch lines to La Guayra and other cities. The
+instrument is very popular in all the tropical countries, where any
+method by which physical exertion may be avoided receives both public
+and private approbation. The Spaniard shouts “_Oyez, oyez!_” (Hear ye,
+hear ye!) when he goes to the telephone, the same words that are used by
+bailiffs to open courts of law in the United States, and it sounds quite
+odd not to hear the familiar “Holloa!” after the bell jingles. The
+telephone is extensively used in private houses; and as the etiquette of
+the country prohibits ladies from shopping or going upon the streets
+without an escort, they find Mr. Bell’s invention a great convenience.
+They visit with their friends and gossip over the wire, order their
+meats and groceries from the market, and direct the storekeepers to send
+up samples of the goods they want to buy. The electric light is quite
+common also, the Opera-house being illuminated by it, as well as the
+President’s palace, or “Yellow House,” as it is called, in imitation of
+our President’s mansion at Washington, and other public buildings. The
+Opera-house is subsidized by the Government during the season. There is
+always a good company here. Performances are given twice a week, and the
+subsidy received by the present management is forty thousand dollars for
+the season, with free use of the house and scenery, which belongs to the
+Government. We attended a presentation of “Robert le Diable,” and it was
+as well rendered as the average operatic performance in the United
+States. The theatre is a magnificent building of stone, standing in a
+plaza or park; and although the interior is rather bare of decorations,
+and the attempt to secure the greatest amount of coolness gives it a
+barn-like air, in its equipments and arrangement the house is equal to
+any in New York. The attendance was rather small, or looked so in the
+great auditorium, which seats two thousand five hundred people, and the
+President, who is said to be a constant devotee of the opera, was
+absent.
+
+When Guzman Blanco drove out the nuns and monks he made good use of
+their property. One monstrous Carmelite monastery, covering an entire
+block, was confiscated, remodelled, and turned into a university, which
+is supported by the Government and attended by the youth of Venezuela
+professionally inclined. Science, law, medicine, and all the ologies but
+theology are taught here, and the schools are well managed and of a high
+grade. Attached to the university is a public library and museum, under
+the care of Professor Ernst, a distinguished German scientist. This
+institution is supported by the revenues of a coffee plantation
+confiscated from the monks and now belonging to the Government.
+
+Across a small park from the university, in which stands the inevitable
+statue of Guzman Blanco, is what is known as the “Palacio Federal,”
+bearing the inevitable marble tablet to keep before the minds of the
+people that it was erected by that “illustrious American.” It is the
+largest, handsomest, and most useless building in Caracas, and one of
+the finest in South America. Like all the rest of the improvements it
+stands upon confiscated ground, where once was a convent, the oldest and
+largest in the country, whose massive walls were stanch enough to endure
+the great earthquake of 1812. Guzman had a great time pulling it down,
+but he is a man of enormous will and energy, and when he resolves upon
+anything it is as good as done.
+
+The Palacio Federal is the Capitol of Venezuela. It covers an entire
+square of about two acres, built around a circular park in which are
+fountains, statuary, and beautiful flowers, and which is reached by
+grand archways on either side. Owing to an earthquake tendency in these
+parts the buildings in Caracas are never more than two stories high,
+and
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR COURT OF A CARACAS HOUSE.]
+
+seldom more that one. This is the tallest structure in the city, having
+two full stories, with a wide balcony stretching around the interior
+walls. At one end is a lofty elliptical-shaped room, two hundred feet
+long, and from forty to one hundred in width, without a pillar. This is
+the place where official balls and receptions are held, and the
+Venezuelans are much given to that sort of thing. There is no carpet,
+the floor being of inlaid woods of different colors, and there has been
+no attempt at frescoing, and the walls and ceilings are of the most
+ghastly white, so that the furniture of gilt, and upholstered in the
+most gorgeous brocades and satins, has a somewhat startling effect. It
+is arranged, as all Venezuelan furniture is, in rows along the walls.
+This room is used as a national portrait-gallery also, and there is a
+collection of about sixty pieces, as good as one often finds and better
+than we have at Washington, representing the notable men in the history
+of the republic. On one side is a heroic portrait of Bolivar, and on the
+other one of Guzman Blanco, looking as grand and proud as if he had made
+the world. Guzman was the author and creator of this gorgeousness, and
+the people are not apt to forget it; but he was strictly impartial in
+making the collection of portraits, and if the men whose faces look down
+upon us were to meet in the room where their portraits face each other
+with fraternal cordiality, there would be such a carnival of blood and
+bruises as has never been seen since the celebrated encounter of the
+Kilkenny cats.
+
+In one of the wings of the Palacio Federal sits the Supreme Court of the
+country, and in the other are the offices of the Interior and War
+Departments, while at the opposite end of the building are the halls of
+the National Legislature, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies--two
+lofty, barn-like rooms, each about sixty feet square, and entirely
+destitute of decoration, except the never-ending portraits of Bolivar
+and Guzman. The members sit in ordinary cane-seated office-chairs,
+without desks or tables, the presiding officers being placed in little
+coops perched very high up on the walls, with a shelf for the tribune on
+one side, and another for the clerk on the other.
+
+Congress meets on the 20th of February of each year. The Upper House is
+composed of two senators from each State, elected by a direct vote of
+the people, and serving for four years. The Lower House has one
+representative for each twenty-five thousand population, elected for two
+years, also by a direct vote of the people. The first duty of Congress
+when it assembles is to elect from its own members a council of sixteen,
+and this council selects a President of the republic, with two
+Vice-Presidents from its members, by ballot. The Council is perpetual,
+and supposed to be always in session, their constitutional duty being to
+serve as a check upon the President. They can veto his acts, but he
+cannot veto theirs. They have power to enact legislation during the
+Congressional recess, which is known as Decrees of the Council, and is
+supposed to be reviewed by Congress at the following session. The
+Council elects the Federal judiciary and confirms the appointments of
+the President, thus sharing in the executive as well as the legislative
+power of the Government, and, to a certain extent, in the judicial, as
+they have the authority to remove as well as appoint judges.
+
+Such is the constitutional form of government in Venezuela; but if
+common rumor is worthy of belief, its exercise is somewhat mythical.
+Guzman Blanco is supposed to carry Congress, Council, President, and
+courts all under his own hat. He nominates senators and members of
+Congress, and his candidates are invariably elected. He makes out a list
+of candidates for the Council, and they are chosen. Then the man whom he
+names is made President. There is a constitutional provision prohibiting
+the re-election of a President, so that Guzman can serve in that
+capacity every alternate two years, the intervening time being filled by
+some friend of his choice, who is said to be entirely subject to his
+will.
+
+The official residence of the President faces the central plaza, or
+Plaza Bolivar, and is known as the Yellow House, but is not at present
+occupied, being too small to contain the family of General Crespo, who
+has seven children. Guzman Blanco never occupied it, for the same
+reason, as he has nine children. The Yellow House is a gaudy affair of
+two stories, with only twelve rooms, including four official parlors, a
+magnificent state dining-room, servants’ quarters, and all that sort of
+thing. Official dinners are given there nowadays, and occasionally the
+President receives foreign ambassadors in the parlors.
+
+The city of Caracas is a Federal district, like the city of Washington,
+with a governor appointed by the President. His office is in a memorable
+room, corresponding to Independence Hall in Philadelphia. It was
+formerly the chapel of an old convent, confiscated like the rest, and
+the remainder of the building is used for the police headquarters, the
+municipal court, and other local authorities.
+
+[Illustration: SPANISH MISSIONARY WORK.]
+
+This narrow little room which the Governor occupies is the same in which
+the Declaration of Venezuelan Independence was signed, and upon its
+walls hangs a picture commemorating the event. Strangely enough, beside
+this painting of the decree of Liberty hangs a heavy gilt frame
+containing the banner Pizarro carried in the conquest of Peru--the
+rarest and most interesting relic in all South America. It is about four
+feet square, of heavy pink silk, faded almost to white, embroidered with
+gold by the fair hands of Queen Isabella herself, the design being the
+combined escutcheons of Aragon and Castile, and it is still in an
+excellent state of preservation. It is with the keenest irony of
+contrast that this age-begrimed banner should hang in the room where the
+first voice was raised against the tyranny it represented; here, beside
+the voice, scarcely legible now to the eye, but to the mind speaking
+with mighty force the long story of Spanish oppression, and illustrating
+the first feeble and unsuccessful protest. This banner was the emblem of
+cruelty, avarice, and lust, and under its dainty folds more crimes were
+committed in the name of Christ and civilization than an eternity of
+perdition could adequately punish.
+
+[Illustration: WOMAN’S CHIEF OCCUPATION.]
+
+Of equally striking significance in the room where this banner hangs
+exists a permanent rebuke and protest against the religion in whose name
+these crimes were committed. The Government refuses to recognize the
+authority of the Romish Church even in the sanctity of marriage, and a
+civil ceremony is essential to legitimate wedlock. The bride and groom
+may go to the church afterwards, but they must come here first, and in
+the presence of the civil magistrate make the vows to love, honor, and
+obey until death do them part, or their issue will have no right of
+inheritance. The Church has threatened to excommunicate, but the decree
+of Congress is inexorable, and the archbishop has finally yielded
+submission. When a couple want to be married, the groom goes to the
+Governor or his deputy and secures a license, notice of which is given
+for two weeks in a printed form, which is tacked upon a bulletin-board
+beside the entrance to the office. Banns are also required to be
+published for the same period in the official newspaper. Then, if no one
+appears with cause by which the two should not be united, the
+bridal-party comes to the office of the Governor, and there make their
+vows and sign the contract which makes them man and wife.
+
+The following is the form of marriage contract:
+
+“PARISH TRIBUNAL, Caracas, Ja. 18th, 1885.
+
+     “This day have appeared before me, presiding over this tribunal,
+     Serapio Antonio Gutierez and Felipa Rivas, and declared that they
+     are unmarried: that he is twenty-five years of age and that she is
+     fifteen; that she is a resident of this parish, and that he is a
+     resident also; that his occupation is that of a merchant, and that
+     her occupation is that peculiar to the home. They declare that they
+     have not changed their places of residence during the last six
+     months, and that they desire to enter into marriage.
+
+     “In performance of the foregoing announcement, which has been
+     advertised for fifteen days, as the law directs, in the most public
+     places of this city, and no one having appeared to deny their right
+     to become husband and wife, they therefore on this day agree to
+     become such, and have taken upon them the vows required and
+     recognized by the law. Therefore, this day, at seven o’clock in the
+     evening, assembled with them in the municipal palace, I, General
+     Basidio Gabante, President of the Eastern Federal District, by
+     order of the Governor and President of the Municipal Council, in
+     the presence of Felipe Aguerra, an engineer, citizen of this
+     Republic, and Luis R. Tores, merchant and citizen of the Republic,
+     have declared the evidence of their free will and right to
+     matrimony sufficient under the law.
+
+     “Then was read to them, as above named, section thirteen of the law
+     of the Republic, which explains and sets forth the reciprocal
+     rights and duties of the husband and wife. Immediately thereafter I
+     asked Serapio Antonio Gutierez the question, ‘Do you wish to take
+     Felipa Rivas as your wife?’ who then answered in a distinct voice,
+     ‘Yes; I want her, and take her thus.’ Then I asked Felipa Rivas,
+     ‘Do you take Serapio Antonio Gutierez to be your husband?’ who in
+     the same manner answered, ‘Yes; I want him, and take him thus.’
+
+     “Addressing myself to both, I said, ‘You are now joined in
+     matrimony, perpetual and indissoluble, and you are required to
+     support and assist each other, and provide each other, and the
+     children that may be born to you, with the necessaries of the home,
+     and be to each other a comfort and a blessing.
+
+     “The above, having been properly witnessed, was signed by the
+     married couple in my presence, and immediately entered in the book
+     of civil registry.
+
+“SERAPIO ANTONIO GUTIEREZ.
+“FELIPA RIVAS.
+
+“FELIPE AGUERRA, _Engineer_. } _Witnesses._
+“LUIS R. TORES.              }
+
+     “JULIO BAEZ PUMAR, _Clerk_. BASIDIO GABANTE, _Prefect_.”
+
+[Illustration: A BODEGA.]
+
+Under a glass cylinder, on a stand beneath the banner of Pizarro, is a
+large book bound in scarlet plush, with heavy gold clasps and hinges, in
+which the contracts are kept and the record of Venezuelan wedlock
+preserved. All the Catholics go at once to the church from the municipal
+palace, and repeat their vows, with the benediction of the priest, but
+this is not essential. At this same office the record of births and
+deaths is also kept in the strictest manner. Formerly, as in Cuba, the
+legitimacy of a child and permission to bury the dead could be
+acknowledged by the Church alone, but the republic has confiscated all
+the cemeteries, and opened the gates to those of every faith, Jew or
+Gentile, Protestant or Catholic.
+
+The Government is very exacting in many respects. One day a little boy
+was stolen. The only clew was given by some children, who saw their
+playmate seized by a man who drove away with him in a hack. Every
+hackman in the city was arrested and thrown into prison; every coach was
+seized, with its horses and harness, and notice given by the police
+authorities that not a wheel should be turned in the streets until the
+child was found. These summary measures made every coach-owner a
+detective, and finally the hackman who was engaged in the abduction
+confessed, and the child was recovered without the payment of the ransom
+demanded.
+
+The police arrangements in Caracas are excellent; there are no robberies
+or murders, and one seldom sees an intoxicated man upon the streets.
+Liquor is sold at nearly all the groceries, or bodegas, as they are
+called, and the _aguardiente_ which the common people use is the most
+vicious sort of fire-water; but the punishment of offenders is extreme,
+and those who have not sufficient self-control to drink moderately are
+taken in charge by their friends at the first sign of intoxication.
+There are several street-car lines in Caracas, and the conductors carry
+a horn, which they blow upon approaching a street-crossing, as is the
+practice in Mexico. The cars are all open, and are small, being capable
+of holding not more than twelve or fourteen people.
+
+The burial of prominent men is attended with great pomp and ceremony,
+and it is customary to have those who are present at the funeral sign a
+testimonial to the worth of the dead, or pass a series of resolutions
+setting forth their merits and distinguished traits. These tributes are
+placed in the coffin, in order that in case the remains should ever be
+disinterred, posterity would know the character of him whose bones they
+handled. When a member of the family dies, it is customary to drape the
+furniture and pictures of the parlor in mourning, and to let it remain
+so for a full year.
+
+[Illustration: A GLASS OF AGUARDIENTE.]
+
+The etiquette governing the habits of the ladies is the same that exists
+in Mexico and other Spanish-American countries, it not being proper for
+them to appear alone upon the streetsor in public places. They go to
+mass accompanied by a colored woman as a duenna, who carries a chair for
+her mistress to sit upon during service, there being no seats or pews in
+the churches. In the evening women are seen in large numbers upon the
+streets, and at the plaza where the band plays they swarm in gayly
+dressed crowds. The ladies of Venezuela are said by travellers to rank
+next to those of Peru for beauty, although it would be as much as a
+man’s life is worth to intimate such a thing to the brothers and lovers
+of Caracas, who very naturally and properly concede nothing in this
+respect to “the daughters of the sun,” as the Peruvians are called. The
+Venezuela girl has more animation, more vivacity than her sister across
+the Cordilleras, and perhaps more intelligence, for she possesses more
+liberty of thought and action than the ladies in other countries of
+Spanish America, and more attention is paid to her education. The
+climate of Caracas is similar to that of Lima, and although the city is
+almost under the equator, it has an altitude of eight thousand feet, and
+is surrounded by snow-clad mountains which temper the heat of the
+tropics and make a temperature like that of June the whole year round.
+The ladies have therefore the same clear, rich complexion of an olive
+tint, and the same great “melting eyes.” Their features are usually of
+artistic perfection and their figures Venus-like. They have no national
+costume, but dress in the latest Paris styles. The milliners and
+modistes of Caracas go to Paris twice a year, and the wives and
+daughters of the rich men of the country order their dresses there.
+There is more society than in Peru, and during the winter season Caracas
+is very gay. At the opera the boxes are invariably filled with ladies as
+handsomely dressed and as highly bejewelled as can be seen at the
+Metropolitan Opera House or the Academy of Music in New York.
+
+There are a large number of American families in Caracas, and several
+Venezuelan gentlemen have married in the United States. One of the
+loveliest girls in Venezuela is the granddaughter of “Josh
+Billings”--the late Henry W. Shaw. Twenty years ago or more a merchant
+at Caracas named Señor Don Santana sent his son to Poughkeepsie to be
+educated, and while he was there he met and married the daughter of Mr.
+Shaw. The young man has succeeded to the business of his father, and is
+now at the head of one of the largest mercantile houses in the republic.
+
+Mrs. Guzman Blanco is the handsomest woman in the
+
+[Illustration: A VENEZUELA BELLE.]
+
+country. She is a tall, slender brunette, with brilliant eyes and
+complexion and a sylph-like figure. Her husband worships her, and she is
+said to be the only person in the land to whom the Dictator’s iron will
+has ever yielded. She is quite as famous for her loveliness of
+disposition as for her personal attractions, and her charity and
+generosity are proverbial. Every artist in Venezuela has painted her
+portrait a number of times, and in the room which Guzman Blanco uses as
+an office there are seven pictures of her, in various costumes and
+attitudes, and two busts in marble. Mrs. Guzman Blanco is the leader in
+fashion as well as society, and all her dresses are made by Worth. Each
+spring and fall, when they are received from Paris, the ladies of
+Caracas are invited to examine them. In a room adjoining the chamber are
+a number of large glass-cases, like those in a modiste’s shop, in which
+her treasures always hang; and whenever a reception is given by the
+Dictator this wardrobe is open to visitors--a new and novel idea, but
+one which gives the ladies of Venezuela great pleasure. Mrs. Guzman
+Blanco was in New York with her husband a couple of years ago, where her
+beauty attracted much attention.
+
+The Venezuelans are the most courteous people that can be imagined.
+Impoliteness is unpardonable. The clerk with whom you deal over his
+counter expresses his wish that you may live long and prosper, and
+thanks you gratefully for giving him the pleasure of showing his goods,
+whether you purchase anything or not. When a gentleman meets a lady, be
+she his sweetheart or his grandmother, he always says he “is lying at
+her feet,” and he would rather be shot than pass before her. They are
+not the semi-barbarians some people in the northern continent suppose.
+They have accomplishments which ought to make the rest of America
+ashamed. Usually they are able to speak three or four different
+languages, have refined tastes in art and music, and, while they lack
+ingenuity, and usually do things in the hardest way, are nevertheless
+possessed of the keenest perceptive faculties, and seem almost to read
+your thoughts. It is not difficult to make known your wants, even if you
+cannot understand a word of their language. They do not allow smoking in
+the street-cars and public places, as in Mexico and Havana, and although
+it is the privilege of the masculine gender to stare at the feminine
+with all the eyes they have, the men are never rude, and ask the pardon
+of a beggar when they refuse to give him alms.
+
+But the people always put the locks upon the wrong door, and wrong side
+up. When they build a house, it seems as if they studied the most
+difficult mode of construction. They erect solid walls first, and then
+chisel out cavities for the timbers to rest in. There are no stoves or
+chimneys, and charcoal is the only fuel. Gas is produced at four dollars
+and a half per thousand feet, from American coal which costs twenty
+dollars a ton. There is no glass in the windows, but a grating of iron
+bars keeps out intruders, and heavy wooden shutters shut out the air and
+light. Such blinds as are common in North America would be the most
+admirable protection, but no one has ever introduced them, and the
+people will continue to swelter behind solid shutters until the end of
+time.
+
+[Illustration: THE LOWER FLOOR OF THE HOUSE.]
+
+The rooms of houses are not plastered, but the joists are all exposed.
+The floors are of tile, and paper is pasted upon the walls, which are of
+cement and stone. In the court of every house are the most beautiful
+flowers. Tuberoses grow on great trees, and the oleander is as common as
+the lilac in New England. The parks look like the botanical gardens of
+the North, and in the evening are always thronged with gentlemen and
+ladies until a late hour.
+
+Guzman Blanco, the uncrowned king of Venezuela, the man whose authority
+is more absolute in this republic than is that of any king in Europe in
+his own dominions, is a native of Caracas, where he was born fifty-five
+years ago. His father was the private secretary of Bolivar, and at one
+time a member of his cabinet. He died only a short time since, and his
+funeral was a pageant which was surpassed in the history of the country
+only by the demonstration at the removal of Bolivar’s remains. He was
+active in the affairs of State almost until his death; now an exile, now
+a minister, vibrating between the extremes of power and poverty, as the
+party to which he was attached was up or down; and under this confusion,
+in the atmosphere of revolution, young Guzman was educated. He added the
+name of Blanco--that of his mother--to his baptismal name, to
+distinguish him from his father, and became Guzman Blanco; but he is
+more often called General Guzman by the people nowadays. When a mere boy
+he became a soldier, and had his ups and downs until the year 1874, when
+he led a successful revolution against the existing authority and became
+President. Since that year several attempts have been made to overturn
+him, but none has succeeded, and being a man to win friends as well as
+to acquire power, his political strength has grown with years until his
+authority is now absolute.
+
+There is, and always will be, a difference in opinion as to his personal
+character and motives. That he is vain and imperious is admitted, and
+that many of his acts would not be tolerated by such a people as those
+who live in the United States cannot be questioned; but, conceding
+everything his enemies may say as true, it is nevertheless a fact that
+since Guzman Blanco has been ruler over this republic it has prospered
+and had peace--something it never had before. There have been varied and
+extensive improvements; the people have made rapid strides in progress;
+they have been given free schools and released from the bondage of the
+Church; the credit of the Government has been improved, its debts
+reduced, and the interest to its creditors is for the first time in
+history paid promptly, in full and in advance. The moral as well as the
+mental and commercial improvement of the people has been the result of
+his acts, and as long as he lives their lives and property will be safe.
+
+A man under whose influence such progress has been made can be pardoned
+for the delinquencies of which Guzman Blanco is accused; and while his
+vanity is amusing, it nevertheless, in the forms it takes, illustrates
+the pride he feels in his achievements, and the realization of the
+importance of his career in the history of his republic.
+
+Upon the pedestal of one of the five statues he has erected to his own
+memory appear the words:
+
+     TO THAT ILLUSTRIOUS AMERICAN,
+
+     THE PACIFICATOR AND REGENERATOR OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA,
+
+     =GENERAL ANTONIO GUZMAN BLANCO.=
+
+In these words the purpose and ambition of the man appear. To be the
+“Pacificator and Regenerator” where Bolivar was the Liberator is worthy
+the ambition of any man; and he who will erect a statue of Washington as
+the ideal his people should carry in their minds cannot be without a
+good motive somewhere in his consciousness. Future historians, when they
+look back upon the career of Guzman Blanco, will be more generous than
+contemporaneous critics, and will forget that he erected these statues
+to himself.
+
+There are three statues to Guzman now standing in Caracas, but nobody
+would believe it if the number of tablets erected in his honor were
+told. You can scarcely look in any direction without being officially
+informed in letters carved in enduring marble that this, that, or the
+other thing was done by the order of, or under the administration of,
+that illustrious American, etc.
+
+One night all these statues and many of the tablets were pulled down. It
+is a curious story, and the United States has what the play-bills call a
+contemporaneous human interest in the affair, for the _casus belli_ was
+a Boston girl.
+
+Guzman, when he was President, had a nephew of whom he was very fond,
+and who was made by him the commander-in-chief of the Venezuelan army.
+He was engaged to an American girl, whose parents lived in Caracas then,
+but now in Boston. For some reason the girl’s father and the President
+had a violent quarrel, and the former was notified that it would be to
+his welfare to leave the country. In these Spanish-American countries a
+man who values his life never awaits a second invitation of this sort,
+and the Boston gentleman, with his family, took the next steamer. They
+were accompanied to La Guayra by the young general, who made no secret
+of his sympathy with the father of his _fiancée_, and expressed his
+views of the President’s tyranny in a very emphatic manner. Guzman sent
+for the young man, and advised him to hold his tongue and let the girl
+go. The passionate lover gave his uncle some very plain words, which
+ended in his being offered a choice between his commission in the army
+and his North American sweetheart. He broke his sword over his knees,
+threw the severed blade at Guzman’s feet, and tore off his epaulettes.
+That night all the statues of Guzman fell down. It was discovered that
+the bronze had been sawed where the feet met the pedestals, and a rope
+used to tumble them over. Of course the young general was suspected, and
+he followed his girl to Boston to escape his uncle’s wrath. The romance
+ended in a marriage, as all good love stories do, and after residing in
+Boston the couple returned to Caracas, where they now live--she one of
+the most attractive and accomplished ladies in the city, and he an
+exporter of coffee and chocolate. Guzman has never forgiven him, and
+some of his friends think his life is not safe there, but he laughs at
+their timidity.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD PATIO.]
+
+Guzman’s private residence is the finest in Venezuela, and a full-length
+portrait of James G. Blaine adorns his parlor. That apartment is very
+handsomely decorated and upholstered, the work having been done by
+artists imported from Paris; but there is such a vivid brilliancy in the
+frescoing, the fabrics, and the furniture that one wishes these tropical
+people who have so much money had a little more refinement of taste.
+
+One of the most striking incidents in the career of this extraordinary
+man was his defiance of the Pope. To realize its full significance, it
+must be understood that Venezuela has always been a Catholic country;
+that there was not a Protestant church in the whole country; that Guzman
+was himself born and baptized a Catholic, and that under the
+Constitution the archbishop was a member of the National Council. Guzman
+first suppressed all the monasteries and nunneries of the country, and
+confiscated their property, which was converted into houses of useful
+education. Then, in 1876, he sent to Congress a message, in which he
+said:
+
+     “I have taken upon myself the responsibility of declaring the
+     Church of Venezuela independent of the Roman Episcopate, and ask
+     that you further order that parish priests shall be elected by the
+     people, the bishop by the rector of the parish, and the archbishops
+     by Congress, returning to the uses of the primitive Church founded
+     by Jesus Christ and His apostles. Such a law will not only resolve
+     the clerical question, but will be besides a grand example for the
+     Christian Church of republican America, hindered in her march
+     towards liberty, order, and progress by the policy, always
+     retrograde, of the Roman Church, and the civilized world will see
+     in this act the most characteristic and palpable sign of advance in
+     the regeneration of Venezuela.
+
+“GUZMAN BLANCO.”
+
+To this the Congress replied:
+
+     “Faithful to our duties, faithful to our convictions, and faithful
+     to the holy dogmas of the religion of Jesus Christ, of that great
+     Being who conserved the world’s freedom with His blood, we do not
+     hesitate to emancipate the Church of Venezuela from that Episcopacy
+     which pretends, as an infallible and omnipotent power, to absorb
+     from Rome the vitality of a free people, the beliefs of our
+     consciences, and the noble aspirations and destinies which pertain
+     to us as component parts of the great human family. Congress offers
+     to your Excellency and will give you all the aid you seek to
+     preserve the honor and the right of our nation, and announces now
+     with patriotic pleasure that it has already begun to elaborate the
+     law which your Excellency asks it to frame.”
+
+This declaration of independence caused a great sensation in the
+Catholic Church, and excommunication was threatened to all who failed in
+their allegiance to the Vatican; but neither the Government nor the
+people were to be intimidated, and the Pope has since tried diplomatic
+measures to restore union with the Mother Church. There has been a
+nuncio there for several years, and he resides there still, but is
+making no progress.
+
+Macuto is the Newport of Venezuela--the summer, or rather the winter
+resort of the wealthy and aristocratic, who find the temperature of
+Caracas trying upon their constitutions, and seek sea-air, sea-bathing,
+and flirtations under the palms. It is six miles from La Guayra, and is
+reached by a tramway, over which a little dummy engine goes shrieking
+every half hour, and by a broad boulevard which would furnish as
+delightful a drive as that upon the beach at Long Branch were it not for
+the dust, which is almost hub-deep, and nearly suffocates one. La
+Guayra, as I have stated, has the blissful reputation of being the
+hottest place on earth, shut in as it is by mountains on all sides but
+the west, and blistering not only in the direct heat but in that
+reflected from the rocks, which is a great deal more oppressive--a
+pocket which no air except the west wind, the hottest of all, can reach.
+But Macuto is around the corner, one might say--around a point of rocks,
+and upon a little peninsula that stretches out from the beach, where it
+can catch not only all the breezes that ruffle the sea, but the winds
+that come from the mountains, down a ravine through which flows a
+beautiful stream as cool as one in the Adirondacks.
+
+It was Guzman Blanco, of course, who found out this little settlement of
+fishermen, built the seawall to protect the peninsula, made the
+boulevard from the city, built the railroad, brought plenty of fresh
+water from the mountains, and built bath-houses there; so that the
+people of La Guayra can in twelve minutes leave the hottest place on
+earth for one where the air is always fresh and cool, where yellow-fever
+never comes, and where a good salt-water bath can be had for the sum of
+six cents in Venezuela money.
+
+The bathing arrangements are quite odd. The sharks are so numerous that
+it is dangerous to bathe in the surf, and nobody cares to have his legs
+bitten off; so a semicircular pen of piling has been erected, at
+government expense, reaching about a hundred feet into the sea. Through
+this piling the surf beats fiercely. The pen is divided in the centre by
+a high wall, one side being for the ladies and the other for the
+gentlemen. At the shore end is a miniature castle of stone, likewise
+divided into two rooms, with a row of benches around the wall, and hooks
+over them on which to hang clothes. Everybody bathes _au naturel_;
+bathing-dresses are unknown. You pay five cents for a ticket, and ten
+cents for a sheet, which is used as drapery and as a towel, and then
+undress. The attendant hands you the sheet when you are stripped, and,
+concealing your nakedness with that protection, you climb down the stone
+stair-way, hang your sheet over the railing, and plunge in. The water is
+glorious, warm and salty, so dense that it will almost bear you on the
+surface, and deep enough to swim and dive. When you have had enough of
+it, you climb up the stairs, seize your sheet and throw it around you,
+and sit on the bench until you are dry enough to resume your clothes.
+Some of the more modest ladies, or, they say, those who have no charms
+to display, wear in the water a sort of night-dress made of towelling,
+but the pretty ones wear nothing but smiles--not even a blush.
+
+During the day everybody stays in-doors after the bathing-hour, which is
+about nine o’clock in the morning. The fashionable get up about eight
+o’clock, drink a cup of coffee, eat a roll, go to mass, saunter down to
+the bath, and return in time to dress for breakfast, the most elaborate
+meal of the day, which is served about eleven o’clock. The menu offers
+soup, fish, game, steaks, sweetmeats, and wine. Then the people loll
+around till dinner, which comes after five o’clock in the afternoon, and
+is a repetition of the breakfast, except that roasts are served instead
+of steaks. After dinner everybody goes to the grand promenade along the
+beach. The band plays, the ladies are gayly dressed, the gentlemen twirl
+their canes, admire their small feet in the moonlight, and chatter like
+a lot of magpies. The promenading and gossiping are kept up until
+midnight, except twice a week, on Thursdays and Sundays, when there is
+dancing at the hotel or at some one of the private residences. The
+season lasts from October, when the rainy period ends, until April, when
+it begins; but families from Caracas and other cities seldom remain at
+Macuto more than three or four weeks. The charge at the hotel is four
+dollars per day--about three dollars and a quarter in American money. If
+some one would build a first-class American hotel here, and provide the
+comforts that are found in the States, it would be a paying investment;
+and I would not wonder if a subsidy would be paid by the Government.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE IN THE ROUGH.]
+
+The coffee plantations, or _quintas_, as they are called, extend from
+the coast far up into the mountains, and are very prolific. The people
+here claim to raise the best coffee in the world; and it is a singular
+fact asserted by the exporters that only the poorer grades go to the
+United States, while all of the better quality is sent to France and
+Germany. Just why this is so no one explains, further than repeating the
+remark so often made that the Americans do not like good coffee.
+
+[Illustration: SEPARATING THE COCOA-BEANS.]
+
+Another curious fact is that chocolate costs more here than it does in
+New York--here where it is grown and manufactured, for very little of
+the genuine article is sold in our market. When the cocoa-beans are
+thoroughly dried in the sun they are shipped in gunny sacks to market,
+where the chocolate manufacturer gets hold of them. He grinds them into
+a fine powder of a gray color that looks like Graham flour, mixes it
+with the pure juice of the sugar-cane, called _papillon_, and flavors
+the mixture with the juice of the vanilla-bean. After being boiled for a
+certain length of time, this is poured into moulds and allowed to
+harden, when it becomes the chocolate of commerce. The Caracas
+chocolate, as all the product of Venezuela is termed, is considered the
+best in the world. It costs sixty-five cents per pound at the factories
+there, but can be purchased for forty-five or fifty cents a pound in
+New York. The best cocoa-beans are forty cents a pound here, but the
+Yankee manufacturer has a way of increasing their weight and reducing
+their value by adulteration. Pipe-clay is cheap and heavy, and it is
+supposed to be harmless. It weighs five times as much as cocoa, and as
+the profit in lager-beer is in the foam, so is the profit in chocolate
+in the pipe-clay, or whatever substance it may be mixed with.
+
+Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo are the two great exporting markets of
+Venezuela, from which the greater part of the coffee and chocolate is
+shipped. The former place is famous for being one of the most
+unhealthful in the world, and the bay upon which it is situated is
+called Golfe Triste (the gulf of tears), because of the terrible
+scourges which are born in its miasmas. The bottom of the bay is said to
+be literally covered with the bones of those who have been heaved
+overboard for the lack of a better place to bury them. The ghost of that
+most famous of all freebooters, Sir Francis Drake, haunts the place, for
+he died here of yellow-fever, and his body lies in a leaden coffin
+thirty fathoms deep in the sea. The place is called Puerto Cabello (the
+port of the hair), on the pretence that ships are so safe in its harbors
+that they might be tied to their moorings with a single hair. This is
+something of an exaggeration, but nevertheless the harbor is the best on
+the Spanish Main, and has such abrupt banks that a vessel can be run up
+against the shore anywhere to take her cargo.
+
+Off the coast of Puerto Cabello lies the island of Curaçoa, the
+quaintest, most novel, and altogether most interesting place on the
+Spanish Main. It is a fragment of Amsterdam, set upon a coral rock in
+the middle of the sea. It has always been a colony of Holland, with all
+the picturesque quaintness, stupidity, and wooden-shoe-oddity of the
+fatherland. Leaving the tropic scenes of Spanish America at bedtime and
+waking up in Holland in the morning makes you feel like one of Plato’s
+troglodytes, who were raised in a cavern and then suddenly dropped into
+the world. You cannot quite allay the feeling that something has been
+done to you; the appearance of things has changed so suddenly and
+completely that you do not feel quite right about it.
+
+[Illustration: PUERTO CABELLO.]
+
+Curaçoa looks like a toy town built by a child of uncommonly incoherent
+mind, by taking blocks out of a box and setting them up in irregular
+rows regardless of size, shape, or color. The general effect is a
+nightmare of gable-ends and dormer-windows painted a bright yellow.
+Immense warehouses with great gaping doors and windows stand beside
+quaint little Dutch cottages surrounded by beautiful gardens, and stores
+several stories high, of the most elaborate architecture, rise beside
+low structures as flat fronted and as square cornered as a dry-goods box
+with a Dutch oven on top of it. Quaint dormer-windows stare at you from
+the most unexpected places; hideous yellow towers, like the legs of some
+petrified monster sticking up into the air, meet your view in all
+directions; and great prison-like fortresses, with port-holes like the
+eyes of needles, and ponderous doors lapping over like the covers of a
+banker’s ledger, appear with surprising frequency. The streets are
+narrow, crooked, and rough. They begin in the most unreasonable places
+and go nowhere. Some of them start broadly, but wind around like the
+track of a serpent, growing narrower and narrower until they suddenly
+end, like the edge of a wedge, against a stone wall.
+
+Curaçoa is a great place for business, although it is so quiet and
+sleepy that one might think the whole town had taken a dose of laudanum.
+It is the distributing point of a large amount of commerce, a harbor of
+refuge for vessels in distress, the haven of political exiles from South
+America, and the hotbed of conspiracies and revolutions against
+neighboring republics.
+
+South of Curaçoa is Maracaibo, with its curious lake, in which are towns
+built upon stilts, that give the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice, to
+this land. The explorers, like tourists of modern times, were given to
+tracing resemblances in America to what they were familiar with in
+Europe, and they imagined these huts rising on piles above the water
+looked like the city of canals and gondolas. But there is no more
+resemblance to Venice than to Chicago, and the name of Venezuela, like
+that of the continent, is a falsehood which the world has allowed to
+stand uncontradicted.
+
+
+
+
+QUITO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF ECUADOR.
+
+
+On the west coast of South America is found the perfection of
+sea-travel--fine ships, fair weather, and a still sea. Although one
+floats under, or rather over, the equator, the atmosphere is cool, the
+breezes delicious, and the water as smooth as a duck-pond. The Pacific
+Navigation Company is a British institution, founded by an American, Mr.
+William Wheelwright, of New York, which has been sending vessels from
+Panama to Liverpool, through the Straits of Magellan, for over forty
+years, and has not only a monopoly of transportation on the coast, but
+subsidies from the British Government and the various South American
+States whose ports it enters. It charges enormous rates for freight and
+passengers, the tariff from Valparaiso being forty dollars per ton for
+freight and two hundred and ninety-seven dollars per head for passengers
+for a distance about as great as from New York to Liverpool; but the
+company gives its patrons the best the country affords, and until the
+recent steam greyhounds were turned out to race across the ocean, had
+the finest and largest ships afloat. One set of vessels run from Panama
+to Valparaiso, where a change is made to another set, built for heavy
+seas, which go through the Straits of Magellan, via Rio de Janeiro, to
+Liverpool.
+
+Those which ply along the west coast from Panama southward are built for
+fair weather and tropical seas, with open decks and airy state-rooms,
+through which the breezes bring refreshing coolness. Such vessels would
+not live long in the Atlantic nor in the Caribbean Sea, but find no
+heavy weather
+
+[Illustration: ALONG THE COAST.]
+
+on the Pacific, where the wind is “never strong enough to ruffle the fur
+on a cat’s back,” as the sailors say, and ships sail in a perpetual
+calm. The trip to Chili, however, is long and tiresome, lasting
+twenty-five days. Less than half the time is spent at sea, as there are
+thirty-eight ports at which the vessels, under the company’s contracts,
+are obliged to call. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of Ecuador,
+and next to Callao, Peru, and Valparaiso, Chili, the most important
+place on the coast, is the first stopping-place, four days from Panama.
+Although the westernmost city of South America, Guayaquil has about the
+same longitude as Washington, and is only two degrees south of the
+equator. It is sixty miles from the sea, on a river which looks like the
+Mississippi at New Orleans, and stretches along the low banks for more
+than two miles.
+
+One’s first impression, if he arrives at night, is that the ship has
+anchored in front of a South American Paris, so brilliant are the
+terraces of gas-lamps, rising one after the other, as the town slopes up
+towards the mountains. When morning dawns the deception is renewed, and
+one has a picture of Venice before him, with long lines of white
+buildings, whose curtained balconies look down upon gayly clad men and
+women floating upon the river in quaint-looking, narrow gondolas and
+broad-bosomed rafts. Unless he is warned in time, the traveller meets
+with a sudden and disgusting surprise upon disembarking, for the
+gondolas are nothing but “dug-outs” bringing pineapples and bananas from
+up the river; the rafts are balsam-logs lashed together with vines, and
+the houses are dilapidated skeletons of bamboo, whitewashed, which look
+as if they had been erected by an architectural lunatic, and would
+tumble into the river with the first gust of wind. The streets are dirty
+and have a repulsive smell, and the half-naked Indians which throng them
+are continually scratching their bodies for fleas and their heads for
+lice. Half the filth that festers under the tropic sun in Guayaquil
+would breed a sudden pestilence in New York or Chicago, yet the
+inhabitants say it is a healthy city, where yellow-fever or cholera
+never comes.
+
+A narrow-gauge street railway, or _tramvia_, as they call it, reaches
+from the docks a couple of miles to the edge of the city, and upon its
+cars the products of the plantations are brought to the docks and loaded
+by lighters upon outgoing vessels. Like all Spanish ports, this one has
+no wharfage, but ships of whatever tonnage have to anchor in the river a
+mile or so from shore, and release or receive freight upon barges, which
+are towed, not by tugs, for there is not such a thing in all that
+region, but by oarsmen in a row-boat. Passengers have to reach the
+steamers in a similar way.
+
+When we arrived there we were immediately surrounded by a crowd of
+boatmen, who clambered up the sides of the vessel, screaming with all
+the strength of their lungs the merits of their boats. Their
+vociferousness and persistency would make the Niagara Falls hackmen
+green with jealousy; and the fact that most of them were bare up to
+their thighs, and entirely shirtless, made the scene picturesque,
+although somewhat alarming to a timid person. The costume of the Ecuador
+boatmen is equivalent to a pair of cotton bathing-trunks, and they are
+as much at home in the water as in their canoes.
+
+[Illustration: THE RIVER AT GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+With twenty-five or thirty of these naked black men surrounding him,
+shoving and pushing one another, screaming, gesticulating, and
+performing a war-dance of the most extraordinary description, a timid
+man is apt to be deceived by appearances, and imagine that he has fallen
+into the hands of a tribe of hungry cannibals, instead of a party of
+innocent Sambos who wish to promote his welfare. As soon as these
+maniacs discovered we were Americans, they were smart enough to
+introduce into the bedlam as much of our mother-tongue as they could
+command, making the scene all the more amusing. One big fellow, black as
+midnight, with only about half a yard of muslin and a dilapidated panama
+hat to protect his person from the elements, jumped up and down, yelling
+at the top of his lungs, “Me Americano! me Americano! Me been to
+Baltimoore!” Becoming interested in the fellow, we learned that he had
+been a sailor on a Spanish man-of-war which several years ago visited
+that city.
+
+Among the crowd of howling dervises was a pleasant-looking fellow with a
+whole pair of pantaloons and a linen duster on. He was not so noisy as
+the rest, and could speak a little English. Taking him aside, I told him
+how large our party was, and where we wanted to go. He agreed to take us
+and our luggage ashore for two dollars, and was at once engaged;
+whereupon, instead of going off and minding their own business, the
+crowd began to abuse Pepe--for that, he said, was his name--and the rest
+of us in the most violent manner; and when the baggage was brought up
+they seized upon it, and each man attempted to carry a piece into his
+own boat. But the mate of the steamer was equal to the occasion, and
+laid about him with so much energy that the deck was soon cleared.
+
+The street railway only extends to the limits of the city, but a short
+walk beyond it gives one a glimpse of the rural tropics. At one end of
+the main street, which runs along the river front, is a fortress-crowned
+hill, from the summit of which a charming view of the surrounding
+country can be obtained, but the better plan is to take a carriage and
+drive out a few miles. The road is rough and dusty, but passes among
+cocoa-nut groves and sugar plantations, through forests fairly blazing
+with the wondrous passion-flower, so scarlet as to make the trees look
+like living fire; with pineapple-plants and banana-trees bending under
+the enormous loads of fruit they carry. The rickety old carriage passed
+along until our senses were almost bewildered by visions none of us had
+ever seen. Nowhere can one find a more beautiful scene of tropical
+vegetation in its full glory, and no artist ever mingled colors that
+could convey an adequate idea of nature’s gorgeousness here.
+
+The most beautiful thing in the tropics is a young palm-tree. The old
+ones are more graceful than any of our foliage plants, but they all show
+signs of decay. The young ones, so supple as to bend before the winds,
+are the ideal of grace and loveliness, as picturesque in repose as they
+are in motion. The long, spreading leaves, of a vivid green, bend and
+sway with the breeze, and nod in the sunlight with a beauty which cannot
+be described.
+
+[Illustration: THE RIVER ABOVE GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+There is considerable business done in Guayaquil, and some of the
+merchants carry stocks of imported goods valued at half a million
+dollars, with an annual trade of double that amount. It is the only town
+in Ecuador worth speaking of in a commercial point of view, and its
+tradesmen do the entire wholesale business of that republic. The
+shipments of cocoa, rubber, hides, coffee, ivory, nuts, and cinchona
+(quinine) bark amount to about $6,000,000 a year, and the imports, the
+President of Ecuador told us, amount annually to $10,000,000. There is
+no way to ascertain the truth of his Excellency’s statements, as the
+Government keeps no statistics of its commerce, and he admitted that it
+was only an estimate based upon the amount of duties collected; but one
+may be allowed to doubt that a country like Ecuador, the most backward,
+ignorant, and impoverished in all America, can purchase for many years
+in succession twice as much as it sells.
+
+[Illustration: AN AVERAGE DWELLING.]
+
+Founded in 1535 by one of the lieutenants of Pizarro, Guayaquil has been
+the market for five hundred miles of coast ever since, but now it is
+almost destitute of native capital, nearly all the merchants being
+foreigners, mostly English and German, with one or two from the United
+States. It is the only place in Ecuador in which modern civilization
+exists; the rest of the country is a century behind the times. Since its
+foundation Guayaquil has been burned several times, and often plundered
+by pirates; now its commercial condition seems secure from all dangers
+except revolutions, which are epidemic in Ecuador. In fact, the country
+would feel queer without one. Earthquakes are frequent, but the elastic
+bamboo houses only shiver--they never fall. To the torch of the
+revolutionist, however, they are like tinder, and the blocks that have
+been burned over testify to its effectiveness as a weapon of
+destruction.
+
+[Illustration: GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+Over the entrances to the houses are tin signs, each of which represents
+the flag of the country of which the dweller within is a citizen; and
+upon these signs are painted warnings to revolutionary looters or
+incendiaries--“This is the property of a citizen of Great Britain;” or,
+“This is the property of a citizen of Germany;” or, “This is the
+property of a citizen of the United States”--and the robber and
+torch-bearer are expected to respect them as such, but seldom do.
+
+Bolivar freed Ecuador from the Spanish yoke, as he did Colombia,
+Venezuela, Bolivia, and Peru, and it was one of the five States which
+formed the United States of Colombia under his presidency; but the
+priests had such a hold upon the people that liberty could not live in
+an atmosphere they polluted, and the country lapsed into a state of
+anarchy which has continued ever since. The struggle has been between
+the progressive element and the priests, and the latter have usually
+triumphed. It is the only country in America in which the Romish Church
+survives as the Spaniards left it. In other countries popish influence
+has been destroyed, and the rule which prevails everywhere--that the
+less a people are under the control of that Church the greater their
+prosperity, enlightenment, and progress--is illustrated in Ecuador with
+striking force.
+
+[Illustration: A PERSON OF INFLUENCE.]
+
+One-fourth of all the property in Ecuador belongs to the bishop. There
+is a Catholic church for every one hundred and fifty inhabitants: of the
+population of the country ten per cent. are priests, monks, or nuns; and
+two hundred and seventy-two of the three hundred and sixty-five days of
+the year are observed as feast or fast days.
+
+The priests control the Government in all its branches, dictate its laws
+and govern their enforcement, and rule the country as absolutely as if
+the Pope were its king. As a result seventy-five per cent. of the
+children born are illegitimate. There is not a penitentiary, house of
+correction, reformatory, or benevolent institution outside of Quito and
+Guayaquil; there is not a railroad or stage-coach in the entire country,
+and until recently there was not a telegraph wire. Laborers get from two
+to ten dollars a month, and men are paid two dollars and a quarter for
+carrying one hundred pounds of merchandise on their backs two hundred
+and eighty-five miles. There is not a wagon in the republic outside of
+Guayaquil, and not a road over which a wagon could pass. The people know
+nothing but what the priests tell them; they have no amusements but
+cock-fights and bullfights; no literature; no mail-routes, except from
+Guayaquil to the capital (Quito), and nothing is common among the masses
+that was not in use by them two hundred years ago. If one-tenth of the
+money that has been expended in building monasteries had been devoted to
+the construction of cartroads, Ecuador, which is naturally rich, would
+be one of the most wealthy nations, in proportion to its area, on the
+globe.
+
+[Illustration: A FAMILY CIRCLE.]
+
+There once was a steam railroad in Ecuador. During the time when Henry
+Meiggs was creating such an excitement by the improvements he was making
+in the transportation facilities of Peru, the contagion spread to
+Ecuador, and some ambitious English capitalists attempted to lay a road
+from Guayaquil to the interior. A track seventeen miles long was built,
+which represents the railway system of Ecuador in all the geographies,
+gazetteers, and books of statistics; but no wheels ever passed over this
+track, and the tropical vegetation has grown so luxuriantly about the
+place where it lies that it would now be difficult to find it. Last year
+a telegraph line was built connecting Guayaquil with Quito, the highest
+city in the world; but there is only one wire, and this is practically
+useless, as not more than seven days out of the month can a message be
+sent over it. The people chop down the poles for firewood, and cut out
+pieces of the wire to repair broken harness whenever they feel so
+disposed. Then it often takes a week for the line-man to find the break,
+and another week to repair it. In the Government telegraph office I saw
+an operator with a ball and chain attached to his leg--a convict who had
+been sent back to his post because no one else could be found to work
+the instrument. A young lady took the message and the money. There is a
+cable belonging to a New York company connecting Guayaquil with the
+outside world, but rates are extremely high, the tariff to the United
+States being three dollars a word, and to other places in proportion.
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL AT GUAYAQUIL, BUILT OF BAMBOO.]
+
+Although almost directly under the equator, the temperature of Guayaquil
+seldom rises above ninety, and after two o’clock in the day it is always
+as cool as a pleasant summer morning in New England. A fresh breeze
+called the _chandny_ blows over the ice-capped mountains, and brings
+health to a city which would otherwise be uninhabitable. On clear
+afternoons Mount Chimborazo, or “Chimbo” as they call it for short,
+until recently supposed to be the highest in the hemisphere, can be
+seen--white, jagged, and silently impressive--against the clear sky.
+
+[Illustration: A COMMERCIAL THOROUGHFARE.]
+
+The road to Quito is a mountain-path around the base of Chimbo,
+traversed only on foot or mule-back, and then only during six months of
+the year; for in the rainy season it is impassable, except to
+experienced mountaineers.
+
+During the rainy seasons the recent President, Don Jesus
+
+[Illustration: THE PRESIDENT’S PALACE.]
+
+Maria Caamaño, resided in Guayaquil, in a barracks guarded by soldiers,
+where he could watch the collection of customs and see to the
+suppression of revolutions. He was the representative of the Church
+party, and the people of the interior were loyal to him; but the liberal
+element, which mostly exists on the coast, where a knowledge of the
+world has come, was in a perpetual state of revolt, and required
+constant attention. A fortress overlooking the town of Guayaquil, and a
+gun-boat in the harbor, keep the people in subjection. We called upon
+the President at his headquarters, and found him swinging in a hammock
+and smoking a cigarette. He is a man of slight frame, with noticeably
+small hands and feet, which he appeared quite anxious should not escape
+our observation. He has a pleasant and intelligent face, but seemed to
+be bewildered when we drew him into conversation about the commerce of
+his country. He was educated in Europe, and has the reputation of being
+a man of culture, although the abject tool of the priests.
+
+[Illustration: THE OUTSKIRTS OF GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+Notwithstanding the rest of the country is still in the middle ages,
+Guayaquil shows symptoms of becoming a modern town. It has gas,
+street-cars, ice-factories, and other improvements, all introduced by
+citizens of the United States. The custom-house is built of pine from
+Maine and corrugated iron from Pennsylvania, and a citizen of New York
+erected it. An American company has a line of paddle-wheel steamers,
+constructed in Baltimore, on the river, and the only gun-boat the
+Government owns is a discarded merchant-ship which plied between New
+York and Norfolk. Some of the houses, although built of split bamboo and
+plaster, are very elegantly furnished, and the stores show fine stocks
+of goods. But the rear portion of the city is so filthy that one has to
+hold his nose as he passes through it. The people live in miserable dirt
+hovels, and the buzzard is the only industrious biped to be seen.
+
+[Illustration: A BUSINESS OF IMPORTANCE.]
+
+There is no fresh water in town, but all that the people use is brought
+on rafts from twenty miles up the river, and is peddled about the place
+in casks carried upon the backs of donkeys or men. It looks very funny
+to see the donkeys all wearing pantalettes--not, however, from motives
+of modesty, as the native children go entirely naked, and the men and
+women nearly so, but to protect their legs and bellies from the gadfly,
+which bites fiercely here. Bread as well as water is peddled about the
+town in the same way, and vegetables are brought down the river on rafts
+and in dug-outs, which are hauled upon the beach in long rows, and
+present a busy and interesting scene. Guayaquil is famous for the finest
+pineapples in the world--great juicy fruits, as white as snow and as
+sweet as honey. It is also famous for its hats and hammocks made of the
+pita fibre from a sort of cactus. The well-known Panama hats are all
+made in Guayaquil and the towns along that coast, but get their name
+because Panama merchants formerly controlled the trade.
+
+[Illustration: A PINEAPPLE FARM.]
+
+One afternoon, at Guayaquil, I witnessed a singular ceremony, which is,
+however, very common there. One of the churches had been destroyed by an
+earthquake, and funds were needed to repair it. So the priest took the
+image of the Virgin from the altar, and the holy sacrament, and carried
+them about the city under a canopy, clad in his sacerdotal vestments. He
+was preceded by a brass band, a number of boys carrying lighted candles
+and swinging incense urns, and followed by a long procession of men,
+women, and children. The assemblage passed up and down the principal
+street, stopping in front of each house. While the band played, priests
+with contribution plates entered the houses, soliciting subscriptions,
+and the people in the procession kneeled in the dust and prayed that the
+same might be given with liberality. Where money was obtained a blessing
+was bestowed; where none was offered a curse was pronounced, with a
+notice that a contribution was expected at once, or the curse would be
+daily repeated.
+
+[Illustration: A WATER MERCHANT.]
+
+All imported goods are first brought to Guayaquil, and from that point
+distributed. Those destined for Quito are conveyed by steamboat up the
+rivers for a distance of sixty miles. From the termination of the
+steamboat route the distance to Quito is two hundred and sixty miles,
+making the
+
+[Illustration: A FREIGHT TRAIN ON THE WAY.]
+
+total distance from Guayaquil three hundred and twenty miles. Between
+the upper end of the steamboat route and Quito all packages of
+merchandise that do not weigh more than two hundred pounds are conveyed
+on the backs of horses, mules, or donkeys. The average cost in United
+States currency--in which all values are stated--is four dollars per one
+hundred pounds between Guayaquil and Quito. Pianos, organs, safes,
+carriage-bodies, large mirrors, and some other articles too heavy or too
+bulky to be carried on a single horse are placed on a frame of bamboo
+poles and carried on the shoulders of men the entire land portion of the
+journey. A piano weighing about six hundred pounds can be carried by
+twenty-four men in two divisions, one half serving as a relay to the
+other half. Although labor is very low-priced, the man-carriage is quite
+expensive. A cart-road, or railroad, both of which are feasible and
+practicable, would greatly reduce the expense of transportation, and
+would materially influence domestic manufactures, as well as the
+introduction of foreign manufactured products. It seems almost
+impossible that any American goods could, after undergoing such a
+tremendous carriage, compete with native manufactures, however crude, in
+Quito, and yet they do. Nearly all the furniture in use in that city is
+brought from the United States in separate parts and put together on
+arrival; and in that, the highest and oldest city in America, many
+people sleep on Grand Rapids beds. The twelve breweries running in Quito
+import their hops from the United States and Europe, and with railroad
+facilities American beer, as well as hops, could be liberally sold in
+Quito. American refined sugars are largely consumed, although the
+native products are very good.
+
+[Illustration: A PASSENGER TRAIN.]
+
+Ecuador, with about one million inhabitants, has only forty-seven
+post-offices, but they are so widely distributed that it requires a mail
+carriage of 5389 miles to reach them all; seventy-two miles by canoes
+and 5317 by horses and mules. About five hundred miles of the seaboard
+service is also covered by foreign steamship mail service. Between Quito
+and Guayaquil there are two mails each way per week by couriers--the
+usual time one way, travelling day and night, being six days. Other
+sections of the country are less favored by mail service, the receipt
+and departure of mails ranging from once a week to once a month, as
+people happen to be going.
+
+During the year 1885 there were carried within the country 2,989,885
+letters, and 50,700 letters were sent to foreign countries, eighty per
+cent. of them being between Guayaquil and the neighboring towns. No
+interior postage is charged on newspapers, whether of domestic or
+foreign publication. Interior letter postage is five cents each
+one-fourth ounce. The postage on letters to foreign countries is twelve
+cents each half ounce and one cent per ounce on newspapers.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON CARRIER.]
+
+The social and political condition of Ecuador presents a picture of the
+dark ages. There is not a newspaper printed outside of the city of
+Guayaquil, and the only information the people have of what is going on
+in the world is gained from the strangers who now and then visit the
+country, and from a class of peddlers who make periodical trips,
+traversing the whole hemisphere from Guatemala to Patagonia. These
+peddlers are curious fellows, and there seems to be a regular
+organization of them. They are like the old minstrels that we read of in
+the novels of Sir Walter Scott. They practise medicine, sing songs, cure
+diseased cattle, mend clocks, carry letters and messages from place to
+place, and peddle such little articles as are used in the households of
+the natives. It often takes them three or four years to make a round
+trip, going invariably on foot, and carrying packs upon their backs.
+When their stock is exhausted they replenish it at the nearest source of
+supply, and are ever welcome visitors at the homes of the natives. This
+internal trade does not amount to much in dollars and cents, but
+supplies the lack of retail establishments and newspapers.
+
+[Illustration: HOTEL ON THE ROUTE TO QUITO.]
+
+The capital and the productive regions of Ecuador are accessible only by
+a mule-path, which is impassable for six months in the year during the
+rainy season, and in the dry season it requires eight or nine days to
+traverse it, with no resting-places where a man can find a decent bed,
+or food fit for human consumption. This is the only means of
+communication between Quito and the outside world, except along the
+mountains southward into Bolivia and Peru, where the Incas constructed
+beautiful highways which the Spaniards have permitted to decay until
+they are now practically useless. They were so well built, however, as
+to stand the wear and tear of three centuries, and the slightest attempt
+at repair would have kept them in order.
+
+Although the journey from Guayaquil to Quito takes nine days, Garcia
+Moreno, a former President of Ecuador, once made it in thirty-six
+hours. He heard of a revolution, and springing upon his horse went to
+the capital, had twenty-two conspirators shot, and was back at Guayaquil
+in less than a week. Moreno was President for twelve years, and was one
+of the fiercest and most cruel rulers South America has ever seen. He
+shot men who would not take off their hats to him in the streets, and
+had a drunken priest impaled in the principal plaza of Quito, as a
+warning to the clergy to observe habits of sobriety or conceal their
+intemperance. There was nothing too brutal for this man to do, and
+nothing too sacred to escape his grasp. Yet he compelled Congress to
+pass an act declaring that the republic of Ecuador “existed wholly and
+alone devoted to the services of the Holy Church,” and forbidding the
+importation of books and periodicals which did not receive the sanction
+of the Jesuits. He divided his army into four divisions, called
+respectively “The Division of the Blessed Virgin,” “The Division of the
+Son of God,” “The Division of the Holy Ghost,” and “The Division of the
+Body and Blood of Christ.” He made the “Sacred Heart of Jesus” the
+national emblem, and called his bodyguard the “Holy Lancers of Santa
+Maria.” He died in 1875 by assassination, and the country has been in a
+state of political eruption ever since.
+
+[Illustration: WAITING FOR THE MULES TO FEED.]
+
+Although the road to Quito is over an almost untrodden wilderness, it
+presents the grandest scenic panorama in the world. Directly beneath the
+equator, surrounding the city whose origin is lost in the mist of
+centuries, rise twenty volcanoes, presided over by the princely
+Chimborazo, the lowest being 15,922 feet in height, and the highest
+reaching an altitude of 22,500 feet. Three of these volcanoes are
+active, five are dormant, and twelve extinct. Nowhere else on the
+earth’s surface is such a cluster of peaks, such a grand assemblage of
+giants. Eighteen of the twenty are covered with perpetual snow, and the
+summits of eleven have never been reached by a living creature except
+the condor, whose flight surpasses that of any other bird. At noon the
+vertical sun throws a profusion of light upon the snow-crowned summits,
+when they appear like a group of pyramids cut in spotless marble.
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE SEA.]
+
+Cotopaxi is the loftiest of active volcanoes, but it is slumbering now.
+The only evidence of action is the frequent rumblings, which can be
+heard for a hundred miles, and the cloud of smoke by day and the pillar
+of fire by night, which constantly arises from a crater that is more
+than three thousand feet beyond the reach of man. Many have attempted to
+scale it, but the walls are so steep and the snow is so deep that ascent
+is impossible even with scaling-ladders. On the south side of Cotopaxi
+is a great rock, more than two
+
+[Illustration: SOMEWHERE NEAR THE SUMMIT.]
+
+thousand feet high, called the “Inca’s Head.” Tradition says that it was
+once the summit of the volcano, and fell on the day when Atahaulpa was
+strangled by the Spaniards. Those who have seen Vesuvius can judge of
+the grandeur of Cotopaxi if they can imagine a volcano fifteen thousand
+feet higher shooting forth its fire from a crest covered by three
+thousand feet of snow, with a voice that has been heard six hundred
+miles. And one can judge of the grandeur of the road to Quito if he can
+imagine twenty of the highest mountains in America, three of them active
+volcanoes, standing along the road from Washington to New York.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALTAR.]
+
+The city of Quito lies upon the breast of a very uncertain and
+treacherous mother, the volcano Pichincha, which rises to an altitude of
+sixteen thousand feet, or about four thousand five hundred feet above
+the plaza. Since the Conquest the volcano has had three notable
+eruptions--in 1575, 1587, and 1660, when the city was almost entirely
+destroyed. In 1859 there was a severe earthquake followed by an
+eruption, which, while it did not do much damage in the city itself,
+caused great destruction and loss of life in the surrounding towns and
+villages. In 1868 the great convulsion which extended along the entire
+South Pacific coast was severely felt in Ecuador, where, it is stated,
+seventy-two towns were destroyed and thirty thousand people killed.
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN QUITO.]
+
+There was a great scare in Ecuador in the summer of 1868 because of the
+violent eruption of the volcano Tunguragua, one of the largest in the
+group, rising nearly two thousand feet above the line of perpetual
+snow; but after a few days of agitation, in which immense masses of lava
+and ashes were thrown out of the crater, the eruption subsided without
+doing much damage.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE PIZARRO FIRST LANDED.]
+
+Here in these mountains, until the Spaniards came, in 1534, existed a
+civilization that was old when Christ was crucified; a civilization
+whose arts were equal to those of Egypt; which had temples four times
+the size of the Capitol at Washington, from a single one of which the
+Spaniards drew twenty-two thousand ounces of solid silver nails; whose
+rulers had palaces from which the Spaniards gathered ninety thousand
+ounces of gold and an unmeasured quantity of silver. Here was an empire
+stretching from the equator to the antarctic circle, walled in by the
+grandest groups of mountains in the world; whose people knew all the
+arts of their time but those of war, and were conquered by two hundred
+and thirteen men under the leadership of a Spanish swineherd who could
+neither read nor write.
+
+The age of Quito is unknown. The present city was built by the Spaniards
+after the Conquest, but it stands upon the foundations of a city they
+destroyed, which was older than the knowledge of men. The history of the
+ancient place dates back only a few years before the arrival of the
+Spaniards in the country; for they, ignorant men, interested in nothing
+but plunder, destroyed every means by which its antiquity could have
+been traced.
+
+Ecuador was the scene of the first conquest. The Spaniards, under
+Pizarro, landed first on the island of Puna, at the mouth of the harbor
+of Guayaquil, and first stepped upon the main coast at Tumbez, in Peru,
+a few miles southward. Here they found that the Incas, for the first
+time in the history of that remarkable race, were at war. Huayna-Capac,
+the greatest of the Incas, made Quito his capital, and there lived in a
+splendor unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. At his death he divided
+his kingdom into two parts, giving Atahualpa the northern half, and
+Huscar what is now Bolivia and the southern part of Peru. The two
+brothers went to war, and while they were engaged in it Pizarro came.
+Everybody who has read Prescott’s fascinating volumes knows what
+followed. With the aid of the Spaniards Atahualpa conquered his brother,
+and then the Spaniards conquered him. When he lay a prisoner in the
+hands of the guests he had treated so hospitably, he offered to fill his
+prison with gold if they would release him. They agreed, and his willing
+subjects brought the treasure; but the greedy Spaniards, always
+treacherous, demanded more, and Atahualpa sent for it. Runners were
+hurried all over the country, and the simple, unselfish people
+surrendered all their wealth to save their king. But Pizarro became
+tired of waiting for the treasure to come, and the men in charge of it,
+being met by the news that Atahualpa had been strangled, buried the gold
+and silver in the Llanganati, where the Spaniards have been searching
+for it ever since.
+
+No amount of persuasion, temptation, or torture could wring from the
+Indians the secret of the buried gold. Two men of modern times are
+supposed to have known its hidingplace. One of them, an Indian, became
+mysteriously rich, and built the Church of San Francisco, in Quito. On
+his deathbed he is said to have revealed to the priest who confessed him
+that his wealth came from the hidden Inca treasure, but he died without
+imparting the knowledge of its location.
+
+[Illustration: EQUIPPED FOR THE ANDES.]
+
+Another man, Valverde by name, a Spaniard, married an Inca woman, and is
+supposed to have learned the secret from her, for he sprang from abject
+poverty to the summit of wealth almost in a single night, “without
+visible means of support.” Valverde, when he died, left as a legacy to
+the King of Spain a guide to the buried treasure. Hundreds of fortunes
+have been wasted, and hundreds of lives have been lost, in vain attempts
+to follow Valverde’s directions. They are perfectly plain to a certain
+point, where the trail ends, and cannot be followed farther because of a
+deep ravine, which the credulous assert has been opened by an earthquake
+since Valverde died. These searches have been prosecuted by the
+Government as well as by private individuals; and if all the money that
+has been spent in the search for Atahualpa’s ransom had been expended
+on roads and other internal improvements, the country would be much
+richer, and the people much more prosperous than they are.
+
+The devotion of the Indians to the memory of their king, who was
+strangled three hundred and fifty years ago, is very touching. When “the
+last of the Incas” fell, he left his people in perpetual mourning, and
+the women wear nothing but black to-day. It is a pathetic custom of the
+race not to show upon their costumes the slightest hint of color. Over a
+short black skirt they wear a sort of mantle, which resembles in its
+appearance, as well as in its use, the _manta_ that is worn by the
+ladies of Peru, and the _mantilla_ of Spain. It is drawn over their
+foreheads and across their chins, and pinned between the shoulders. This
+sombre costume gives them a nun-like appearance, which is heightened by
+the stealthy, silent way in which they dart through the streets. The
+cloth is woven on their own native looms, of the wool of the llama and
+the vicuna, and is a soft, fine fabric.
+
+While the Indians are under the despotic rule of the priests, and have
+accepted the Catholic religion, three hundred and fifty years of
+submission have not entirely divorced them from the ancient rites they
+practised under their original civilization. Several times a year they
+have feasts or celebrations to commemorate some event in the Inca
+history. They never laugh, and scarcely ever smile; they have no songs
+and no amusements; their only semblance to music is a mournful chant
+which they give in unison at the feasts which are intended to keep alive
+the memories of the Incas. They cling to the traditions and the customs
+of their ancestors. They remember the ancient glory of their race, and
+look to its restoration as the Aztecs of Mexico look for the coming of
+Montezuma. They have relics which they guard with the most sacred care,
+and two great secrets which no tortures at the hands of the Spaniards
+have been able to wring from them. These are the art of tempering copper
+so as to give it as keen and enduring an edge as steel, and the
+burial-place of the Incarial treasures.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD INCA TRAIL.]
+
+The Spaniards are the aristocracy, poor but proud--very proud. The mixed
+race furnishes the mechanics and artisans; while the Indians till the
+soil and do the drudgery. A cook gets two dollars a month in a
+depreciated currency, but the employer is expected to board her entire
+family. A laborer gets four or six dollars a month and boards himself,
+except when he is fortunate to have a wife out at service. The Indians
+never marry, because they cannot afford to do so. The law compels them
+to pay the priest a fee of six dollars--more money than most of them can
+ever accumulate. When a Spaniard marries, the fee is paid by
+contributions from his relatives.
+
+It is a peculiarity of the Indian that he will sell nothing at
+wholesale, nor will he trade anywhere but in the marketplace, on the
+spot where he and his forefathers have sold garden-truck for three
+centuries. Although travellers on the highways meet whole armies of
+Indians bearing upon their backs heavy burdens of vegetables and other
+supplies, they can purchase nothing from them, as the native will not
+sell his goods until he gets to the place where he is in the habit of
+selling them. He will carry them ten miles, and dispose of them for less
+than he was offered at home. An old woman was trudging along one day
+with a heavy basket of pineapples and other fruits, and we tried to
+relieve her of part of her load, offering ten cents for pineapples which
+could be had for a quartillo, or two and a half cents, in market. She
+was polite but firm, and declined to sell anything until she got to
+town, although there was a weary, dusty journey of two leagues ahead of
+her. The guide explained that she was suspicious of the high price we
+offered, and imagined that pineapples must be very scarce in market, or
+we would not pay so much on the road; but it is a common rule for them
+to refuse to sell except at their regular stand. A gentleman who lives
+some distance from town said that for the last four years he had been
+trying to get the Indians, who passed every morning with packs of
+alfalfa (the tropical clover), to sell him some at his gate, but they
+invariably refused to do so; consequently he was compelled to go into
+town to buy what was carried past his own door. Nor will the natives
+sell at wholesale. They will give you a gourdful of potatoes for a penny
+as often as you like, but will not sell their stock in a lump. They will
+give you a dozen eggs for a real (ten cents), but will not sell you five
+dozen for a dollar. This dogged adherence to custom cannot be accounted
+for, except on the supposition that their suspicions are excited by an
+attempt to depart from it.
+
+In Ecuador there are no smaller coins than the quartillo, and change is
+therefore made by the use of bread. On his way to market the purchaser
+stops at the bakery and gets a dozen or twenty breakfast-rolls, which
+cost about one cent each, and the market-women receive them and give
+them as change for small purchases. If you buy a cent’s worth of
+anything and offer a quartillo in payment, you get a breakfast-roll for
+the balance due you. The landlord at the hotel requires you to pay your
+board in advance, because he has no money to buy food and no credit with
+the market-men; the muleteers ask for their fees before starting,
+because their experience teaches them wisdom. There is scarcely a
+building in the whole republic in process of construction or even
+undergoing repairs. Death seems to have settled upon everything
+artificial, but Nature is in her grandest glory.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL COUNTRY MANSION.]
+
+Architecturally, Quito is not unlike other Spanish-American towns,
+except that it is dirtier and a little more dilapidated. There is not
+even an excuse for a hotel, and private hospitality is restricted by the
+poverty of the people. Few people ever go there--only those who are
+compelled--and the demand for a hotel is not sufficient to justify the
+establishment of one. One-fourth of the entire city is covered with
+convents, and every fourth person you meet is a priest, or a monk, or a
+nun. There are monks in gray, monks in blue, monks in white, monks in
+black, and orders that no one ever heard of before. There are all sorts
+of priests, also, in all sorts of rigs, wearing the outlandish hats
+which are seen elsewhere only upon the theatrical stage. Some of the
+holy fathers look as if they had just been “making up” for a comic
+opera, and the jolly or grim old fellows one sees in Vibert’s pictures
+are found on almost every corner in Quito.
+
+[Illustration: A WAYSIDE SHRINE.]
+
+At the entrance to many dwellings may be seen the figure of a saint with
+candles burning around it, and the people appear to be continually
+coming from or going to church. The bells are constantly clanging, and
+it seems to a stranger as if the entire city were given up to perpetual
+devotions. The next most noticeable thing is the filthiness. The streets
+are used as water-closets, in daylight as well as in the dark, and are
+never cleaned from one year’s end to another. There are no wagons or
+carriages, and only seldom can a cart be seen, the backs of mules, men,
+and women being the only vehicles of transportation. There is an
+unaccountable prejudice against water in every form, the natives
+believing that its frequent use will cause fevers and other diseases.
+When they have returned from a journey they never think of washing their
+faces for several days, for fear of taking a fever, but wipe off the
+flesh with a dry towel. I do not believe a Quito woman ever washes her
+face. She keeps it constantly covered with chalk, and looks as if some
+one had been trying to whitewash her. I do not know how she would look
+_al fresco_, but she has beautiful eyes, lips, and teeth, and a perfect
+figure till she reaches the age of thirty-five or thereabouts, after
+which she becomes either very fat or very lean.
+
+[Illustration: CHARCOAL PEDDLER.]
+
+If it were not for the climate, Quito would be in the midst of a
+perpetual pestilence; but notwithstanding the prevailing filthiness,
+there is very little sickness, and pulmonary diseases are unknown.
+Mountain fever, produced by cold and a torpid liver, is the commonest
+type of disease. The population of the city, however, is gradually
+decreasing, and is said to be now about sixty thousand. There were five
+hundred thousand people at Quito when the Spaniards came, and a hundred
+years ago the population was reckoned at double what it now is. Half the
+houses in the town are empty, and to see a new family moving in would
+be the sensation of the decade. Most of the finest residences are locked
+and barred, and have remained so for years. The owners are usually
+political exiles, who are living elsewhere, and can neither sell or rent
+their property. Political revolutions are so common, and the results are
+always so disastrous to the unsuccessful, that there is a constant
+stream of fugitives leaving the State.
+
+Although Ecuador is set down in the geographies as a republic, it is
+simply a popish colony, and the power of the Vatican is nowhere felt so
+completely as here. The return of a priest from a visit to Rome is as
+great an event as the declaration of independence; and so subordinated
+is the State to the Church that the latter elects the President, the
+Congress, and the judges. Not long ago a law was in force prohibiting
+the importation of any books, periodicals, or newspapers without the
+sanction of the Jesuits. A crucifix sits in the audience-chamber of the
+President and on the desk of the presiding officer of Congress. All the
+schools are controlled by the Church, and the children know more about
+the lives of the saints than about the geography of their own country.
+There is not even a good map of Ecuador.
+
+No lady ever goes to mass (and all go once a day) without a small Indian
+boy or a maid-servant following her with a strip of carpet or hassock,
+upon which she kneels during service. There are no pews in the churches,
+but the floors are marked off like a chess-board, and each square
+numbered. These squares, about two or three feet in dimensions, are
+rented to those who belong to the parish, and when a man goes to church
+he hunts for his place on the floor and kneels down within the narrow
+space.
+
+As in Mexico, servants go in droves. Families seldom have less than four
+or five, and each adult brings along all his or her kin, who are
+expected to lodge and feed with the father’s or mother’s employer. But
+it does not cost much to keep them, and the wages of my lady’s maid in
+New York or Chicago would support a whole village. They want nothing
+but black beans, called frijoles, and tortillas. Meat and bread are
+unknown luxuries.
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT BUILDING AT QUITO.]
+
+The Spaniards are famous for their politeness, and in Ecuador, as in all
+other parts of South America, courtesy is a part of their religion. The
+lowest, meanest man in Quito is politeness personified, but it is all on
+the surface. He will stab you or rob you as soon as your back is turned.
+The Ecuadorian gentleman will promise you the earth, but will not give
+you even a pebble. This hypocrisy results in mutual distrust. No one
+ever believes what is said to him; partnerships in business are seldom
+formed, and corporations are unknown. If a man gets a little cash he
+never invests it in public enterprises, but keeps it in a stocking for
+fear he may be swindled--and the fear is well founded. Only the Indians
+keep faith, and that exclusively among themselves. To steal from a
+Spaniard they consider not only proper but justifiable. The Spaniards
+stole all they have from them. They never rob, swindle, or betray one
+another. They are as faithful as death to their own race.
+
+[Illustration: COURT OF A QUITO DWELLING.]
+
+Once upon a time there was a revolutionary conspiracy among the Indians.
+An uprising was to occur simultaneously all over the republic. As the
+natives could neither read nor write, they were given bundles of sticks,
+each bundle containing the same number. One was to be burned each day,
+and the night after the last was burned was to see the uprising. None
+betrayed the secret. Of the many thousands who were admitted to the
+conspiracy not one violated faith.
+
+All sorts of labor are done in the most primitive manner. The
+agriculturists do not plough, but plant the seed by poking a hole in the
+ground with a stick. Threshing and corn-shelling are done by driving
+horses over the grain. The hair is removed from hogs, not by hot water
+and scraping, but by burning. Everything is done in the slowest and most
+difficult way. For that reason, and because the interior is so isolated
+from the rest of mankind, the country does not know the meaning of the
+words progress and prosperity. Until the influence of the Romish Church
+is destroyed, until immigration is invited and secured, Ecuador will be
+a desert rich in undeveloped resources. With plenty of natural wealth,
+it has neither peace nor industry, and such a thing as a surplus of any
+character is unknown. One of the richest of the South American
+republics, and the oldest of them all, it is the poorest and most
+backward.
+
+On the south-west side of Quito, within half a mile of the city’s
+centre, flows the Machangari River, a small, rapid, and never-failing
+stream. The rapid fall of the water provides mill-sites every few rods,
+which are utilized by six small flour-mills and a small manufactory of
+woollen blankets. The six flour-mills, having a total of eighteen run of
+stone, give employment to twenty-four men, whose daily wages range from
+twelve to twenty-five cents. In the whole woollen blanket manufactory
+forty persons are employed, at average daily wages of twelve cents.
+Aside from the water-motors mentioned, the only motor in use is a small
+steam-engine in a suburban village, used in a sugar refinery where
+twelve persons work for wages ranging from twelve to twenty cents per
+day. The manufacture of adobe, hard brick, and roofing-tile is carried
+on more or less in conjunction, and gives employment to about three
+hundred men and women, the women exercising the right of doing any kind
+of work
+
+[Illustration: WHAT THE EARTHQUAKES LEFT]
+
+performed by the men. No machinery is used, the brick and tile being
+moulded by hand in a box. These workers receive each twelve cents a day.
+The making of pottery is carried on in a small way at about fifty
+places, furnishing work for about one hundred persons, who when hired
+earn twelve cents a day. There is one manufactory of silk and high hats
+at which twelve men are employed, at twenty-five cents a day. There are
+also about fifty places at which Indian felt hats are made, a total of
+one hundred persons being employed, with wages at twelve cents a day.
+Matting manufacturing is carried on at three places, at which hand-looms
+only are used. The material employed is the fibre of the cactus, which
+is very serviceable. Thirty persons at this pursuit earn from eighteen
+to twenty cents per day wages. There is no foundery in Quito, and all of
+the iron-working is restricted to what is done in a few blacksmith
+shops. There is one combined cart and blacksmith shop, at which carts
+are made and general repairing is done, employing ten men at twenty-five
+cents a day. The industries mentioned have long been established. There
+are also numerous tailor shops, shoe-shops, tin-shops, and carpenter
+shops. At the latter are made sofas, bureaus, tables, and all other
+articles of furniture difficult of transportation by pack-animals.
+Nearly all the chairs in use were brought from the United States, packed
+in parts, and were put together when sold. Coffins also are made at the
+carpenter shops. All of the work done at these shops is done by hand.
+
+[Illustration: A PROFESSIONAL BEGGAR.]
+
+The only industry that has sprung up in recent years is that of
+beer-making, which has been inspired and promoted by the German element.
+There have been established twelve breweries, which employ a total of
+one hundred and twenty men, at average daily wages of twenty cents. The
+barley used is of native growth, and is bought at a low price. The hops
+are imported from the United States and Europe, and by reason of
+expensive transportation are very costly.
+
+[Illustration: AN ECUADOR BELLE.]
+
+Though Quito has a population of about sixty thousand, it has had for a
+long period considerable note as a place of art in sculpture and
+painting, and has several public-schools of ordinary grade, and three
+universities, in charge of the priests, yet it has never been a field in
+which literature thrived, or the business of printing flourished. It
+contains no newspaper, and but one weekly journal is issued. This is the
+oficial paper, and is devoted solely to the publication of official
+documents. Its circulation is about one thousand copies, exclusively
+among government and foreign officials, and is gratuitous. The principal
+printing establishment is owned and managed by the Government, in which
+twenty persons are employed. Among its material are one rotary press (on
+which the official paper is printed), five hand-lever presses, and a
+good assortment of type. No work is done except for government use.
+There are five other small printing concerns, each employing from two to
+six persons, at which is done the miscellaneous printing of the public.
+They use nothing but hand-lever presses. The presses and type were
+purchased, in the United States.
+
+Revolutions in Ecuador are frequent, and they usually begin by an
+attempt to assassinate the President. The plan of procedure is usually
+for the discontented political faction to create a mutiny in the army,
+either by bribes to the officers or promises of promotion. As the
+private soldiers always obey their officers, like so many automatons,
+and are as willing to fight on one side as the other, to secure the
+officers is to secure the army. The next step is to seize the barracks
+and arsenal, put the President to death, proclaim some one else
+provisional dictator, and then call a junta, or convention, to nominate
+“a constitutional Executive.” Señor Caamaño seems to bear a charmed
+life, for during his term of four years as President he had numerous
+remarkable escapes. The last attempt to assassinate him was in January,
+1886, while he was journeying from Guayaquil to Quito. He was riding, as
+travellers usually do, by night, to escape the heat of the sun, when his
+small escort was attacked by a band of mountaineers, and fled, leaving
+the President to look out for himself. He jumped from his horse, ran
+into the forest which lines the road, and creeping through the trees to
+the river, swam to the other side, and made his way, thirty miles on
+foot, to the hacienda of a friend, where he knew he would find refuge.
+For two days and nights he was in the forest without food, and when he
+finally reached a safe haven was totally exhausted. For a week or ten
+days he lay ill with a fever, but couriers were sent to Guayaquil and
+Quito who arrived there before the reports of his assassination, and
+assured the officials of the Government of his safety. At the same time
+a mutiny broke out at the military garrisons in both cities, but was
+quelled, and the leaders summarily shot.
+
+Since the inauguration of Don Antonio Flores as President, in 1888,
+Ecuador has been at peace, and shows bright promises for the future. He
+is the foremost statesman of the republic; has ability, wealth,
+knowledge, and experience surpassing most of his fellow-citizens, and,
+what is equally effectual among the Spanish-American people, the
+prestige of a venerated name. His father was a Venezuelan, and at one
+time represented New Grenada in the Cortes at Madrid. General Flores
+stood with Bolivar at the head of the Revolution for Independence,
+organized the Republic of Ecuador, and was its first President. The son
+has inherited his father’s ability, his patriotism and zeal, and has
+spent his life in the civil, diplomatic, judicial, and military service.
+He did not seek the presidency, and therefore entered upon the duties of
+his office free of all entanglements, and with the one purpose, to
+modernize this Hermit of Republics, and bring its people to the standard
+of nineteenth century civilization.
+
+From Guayaquil to Callao, and in fact to the end of the continent, the
+western coast of South America presents an unbroken line of mountains,
+with a strip of desert between them and the sea. Occasionally some
+stream from the mountains brings down the melted snow and opens an
+oasis. These oases have been utilized by the planters as far back as the
+Conquest, when the industrious Jesuits made as vigorous a war upon the
+desert as upon the Incas, and conquered one as easily as they conquered
+the other. Wherever this barren strip has been irrigated it produces
+enormous crops of sugar, coffee, and other tropical products, and the
+whole of it might be redeemed by the introduction of a little capital
+and industry. If the money that has been wasted in revolutions had been
+expended in the development of its mines, and the soldiers had dug
+irrigating ditches with as much ardor as they have fought each other,
+there would be no richer country on the globe. Wherever the Incas
+touched the earth it produced in profusion, and their wealth was
+fabulous. Their empire extended three thousand miles north and south,
+and about four hundred miles east and west, from the Pacific to the
+great forests of the Amazon, which their simple tools were unable to
+subdue.
+
+In no part of the world does nature assume more imposing forms. Deserts
+as repulsive as Sahara alternate with valleys as rich and luxuriant as
+those of Italy. Eternal summer smiles under the frown of eternal snow.
+The rainless region--this desert strip which lies between the Andes and
+the sea--is
+
+[Illustration: A HOTEL ON THE COAST.]
+
+about forty miles in width, and the panorama presented to the voyager is
+a constant succession of bare and repulsive wastes of sand and rocks,
+uninhabited, whose silence is broken only by the incessant surf, the
+bark of the sea-lions, and the screams of the water-birds which haunt
+its wave-worn and forbidding shore. The coast is dotted with small rocky
+islands, which have been the roost of myriads of birds for ages, and
+furnish guano for commerce. The steamers seem to furnish them their
+only entertainment, and they surround every vessel which passes, soaring
+about and above the masts, screaming defiance to the invaders of their
+resorts. The water, too, is full of animal life. Nowhere does the sea
+offer science so many curious forms of animate nature; monsters unknown
+to northern waters can be seen from the decks of the steamers, and at
+night their movements about the vessel are shown by a line of fire which
+always follows their fins. The water is so strongly impregnated with
+phosphorus that every wave is tipped with silver, and every fish that
+darts about leaves a brilliant trail like that of a comet. The larger
+fishes, the sharks and porpoises, find great sport in swimming races
+with the ship, and under the bowsprit a small army of them are to be
+seen every evening, sailing along beside the vessel, darting back and
+forth before its bows, leaping and plunging over one another. Their
+every motion is apparent, and the outlines of their bodies are as
+distinct as if drawn with a pencil of fire. Nowhere is this phenomenon
+so conspicuous.
+
+The first point beyond Guayaquil is the island of Puna, where Pizarro
+first landed, and where he waited with a squad of thirteen men while the
+deserters from his expedition went back to Panama in his ships,
+promising to send reinforcements, which afterwards came. Beside Puna is
+the famous Isle del Muerto (dead man’s island), which looks like a
+corpse floating in the water. Just below, and the northernmost town of
+Peru, is Tumbez, where Pizarro met the messengers from Atahualpa’s army
+who came to ask the object of his visit.
+
+Behind Tumbez are the petroleum deposits of Peru, which have been known
+to the natives ever since the times of the Incas, but they were ignorant
+of the character or the value of the oil. A Yankee by the name of
+Larkin, from Western New York, came down here to sell kerosene, and
+recognized the material which the Indians used for lubricating and
+coloring purposes as the same stuff he was peddling. An attempt has been
+made to utilize the deposits, which are very extensive, but so far they
+have not been successful in producing a burning fluid that is either
+safe or agreeable.
+
+At each of the little ports on the Peruvian coast the steamer stops and
+takes on produce for shipment to Liverpool or Germany. These towns are
+simply collections of mud huts, inhabited by fishermen or the employés
+of the steamship company, dreary, dusty, and dirty. Back in the country,
+along the streams which bring fertility and water down from the
+mountains, are places of commercial importance, the residences of rich
+hacienda owners, and the scenes of historic events as well as
+prehistoric civilization. The products of the country are sugar, coffee,
+cocoa, and cotton, while those of the town are “Panama” hats and fleas.
+In each one of the ports the natives are busy braiding hats from
+vegetable fibres, and the results of their labor find a market at Panama
+and in the cities of the coast, where, as in Mexico, a man’s character
+is judged by what he wears on his head. The hats are usually made of
+_toquilla_, or _pita_, an arborescent plant of the cactus family, the
+leaves of which are often several yards long. When cut, the leaf is
+dried, and then whipped into shreds almost as fine and tough as silk.
+Some of these hats are made of single fibres, with not a splice or an
+end from the centre of the crown to the rim. It often requires two or
+three months to make them, and the best ones are braided under water, so
+as to make the fibre more pliable. They sometimes cost as much as two
+hundred and fifty dollars, but last a lifetime, and can be packed away
+in a vest-pocket, turned inside out, and worn that way, the inside being
+as smooth and well finished as the other. The natives make beautiful
+cigar-cases too; but it is difficult for a stranger to purchase either
+them or their hats, because they have an idea that all strangers are
+rich, and will pay any price that is asked. One old lady offered me a
+cigar-case of straw, such as is sold in Japanese stores for one or two
+dollars, and politely agreed to sell it for twenty dollars. When I told
+her I could get a silver one for that price, she came down to eighteen
+dollars, then to twelve dollars, and finally to one dollar. They have
+no idea of the value of money, and are habitually imposed upon by local
+traders, who exchange food for their straw-work at merely nominal rates,
+and then sell the hats at enormous figures.
+
+At each of the ports where the steamer stops an army of officials come
+aboard to get a good dinner or breakfast and a cocktail or two at the
+expense of the steamship company. They wear gay uniforms and swords, and
+there is usually one inspector, or official, for every ten packages of
+merchandise. First, there is the “captain of the port,” with his
+retinue; then the governor of the district, with his staff; then the
+collector of customs, with a battalion of inspectors; and, finally, the
+commandante of the military garrison and all his subordinates. The deck
+of the vessel fairly swarms with them, and as the steamer’s arrival is
+the only event to give variety to the monotony of their lives, they
+celebrate it for all it is worth. It is little wonder that the
+governments of these South American countries are poor, with all these
+tax-eaters at every little town of four or five hundred inhabitants.
+
+[Illustration: CUSTOMS OFFICERS.]
+
+There are a great many more railroads in Peru than is generally
+supposed. Nearly all of the coast towns have a line connecting them
+with the plantations of the interior; and as there are no harbors, but
+only open roadsteads, expensive iron piers have been constructed through
+the surf from which merchandise is lifted into barges or lighters and
+taken to the ships, which anchor a mile or so from the shore. Where
+there are no piers the lighters are run through the surf when the tide
+is high, are loaded at low tide, and then floated off to buoys to await
+the arrival of vessels.
+
+[Illustration: A HOME ON THE COAST.]
+
+All along the coast there is a system of “deck trading” carried on by
+the people of the country. Men and women come on board with market
+produce, fruits, and other articles, which are strewn about the deck,
+and are sold to people who visit the vessel at each port for the purpose
+of buying. These traders are charged passage-money and freight by the
+steamship companies, but are a nuisance to the other passengers. Each
+female trader brings a mattress to sleep upon, a chair to use during the
+day, her own cooking and chamber utensils, and spends a greater part of
+her life abroad, sailing from one port to another.
+
+At Payta we took on a battalion of Peruvian soldiers, with one
+brass-mounted officer to every seven men. The Peruvian soldier always
+has his wife with him; at least there is a woman who maintains such a
+relation. The ceremony of marriage is not observed, nor is it to any
+great extent in civil life, for the expense of matrimony is so great
+that among the _cholos_, as the peasants are called, men and women live
+their lives together without any formality, and with the sanction of
+public sentiment, even if they lack the sanction of the law. For this
+the Catholic Church is responsible, and to it can be traced the cause of
+the illegitimacy of more than half of the population. The fee charged by
+the priests for performing the ceremony of marriage is so excessive that
+the poor cannot pay it; hence marriage is practically placed under what
+may be called a prohibitory tariff. This prevails in all of the South
+American countries where the Church still holds its power, but in those
+which are now under the control of the Liberal party the rite of civil
+marriage has been established by law, and the ceremony now costs from
+twenty-five cents to a dollar.
+
+With each company of Peruvian troops is a squad of women called
+_rabonas_, generally one to every three or four men, volunteers who
+serve without pay but receive rations, and are given transportation by
+the Government. They are always with the men--in camp, on the march, and
+in battle. In camp they do the cooking and other necessary work; on the
+march they share the exposure and fatigue, being treated exactly as the
+men are, and do most of the foraging for the messes to which they
+belong. In battle they nurse their own wounded, rob the dead, cut the
+throats of enemies whom they find lying alive on the field, carry water
+and ammunition, and perform other brutal or useful services. They are
+always enumerated in the rosters of troops and in the reports of
+casualties, which read: so many men and so many rabonas killed and
+wounded; for they share the soldier’s death as well as his privations.
+
+Some of these wives of the regiment have children with them, and there
+is scarcely a company without a dozen or so little youngsters, without
+any clew to their paternity, following their mothers’ heels. They are
+poor, miserable, degraded creatures, just one degree above the dogs with
+which
+
+[Illustration: PERUVIAN SOLDIER AND RABONA.]
+
+they sleep. Their powers of endurance are extraordinary. Often it is the
+case that they will march twenty or thirty miles over a dusty road,
+carrying a child on their back, without water or food. When the latter
+is scarce they eat leaves of the coca-tree, which when mixed with lime
+are said to be very palatable and nourishing. Each woman carries a
+little bag of lime round her neck, into which she dips her fingers and
+draws out a few grains of powder to leaven a lump of leaves she is
+constantly chewing. The poor children have the hardest time, for they
+are always without rest or shelter, and often without food. But it is
+the experience they are born into, and they know nothing of a better
+life. The officers told me that the children often die on the march,
+when their mothers strip the clothes from them, and throw the bodies
+into the sand or woods, without even a burial or a tear, glad to be
+relieved of an encumbrance by death.
+
+With the battalion which boarded our steamer at Payta were two women and
+thirty children. They were quartered upon the hurricane-deck, without
+any shelter but the starlit tropic sky, and were packed in, men and
+women together, like steers in a cattle-car. Water and food were
+furnished them, the latter consisting only of frijoles and tortillas.
+Instead of complaining of their beds upon the surface of the shelterless
+deck, the soldiers told me that it was the most comfortable place they
+had found for months, and would be glad to stay there always; but the
+passengers and officers of the ship would have objected, as the stench
+that came from them was something horrible, resembling that which is
+usually noticed in a crowded emigrant-car.
+
+One night, on the unsheltered deck of the vessel, without surgical
+assistance or even the knowledge of the officers or crew, a child was
+born. The mother wrapped it in an old blanket and laid it down upon the
+boards. Thirty-six hours afterwards she, with the rest of the party,
+climbed down th ship’s side on a ladder, got into a launch in which
+there was scarcely standing-room, and was towed to shore, where a long
+and tiresome march into the mountains was to be begun the same night. On
+her arms was the baby, and on her back was a bag which looked as if it
+weighed fifty or sixty pounds. She was a mere girl, perhaps sixteen or
+seventeen years of age, and they said it was her first baby, of which
+she, like all young mothers, was uncommonly proud. This appeared to be a
+commonplace occurrence, for it was scarcely noticed by the other women
+or men of the crowd, and when I asked an officer which of his company
+was the father of the child, he replied, “_Dios sabe_” (God knows). He
+said there had been four similar accouchements in his company within six
+months, and that he thought the mothers and babies were all doing well.
+
+“Will the child live?” I asked the surgeon.
+
+“Live? yes; you couldn’t drown it.”
+
+The custom of having rabonas with the army grew out of the habit the
+Indians had of taking their wives to war, and the marital ties became
+slackened by common consent. The Government not only licenses but
+encourages the practice, as it makes the men more contented, and, as a
+sanitary measure, the surgeons say, is beneficial. The ratio of disease
+is very small in the armies where the rabonas are allowed, as compared
+with that in others, and any experienced surgeon can see why this is so.
+
+All the private soldiers in South America, at least upon the west coast,
+are Indians or negroes, and all the officers white. A white man, a
+Spaniard, whatever be his station in life, cannot be forced or persuaded
+to carry a musket. During the defence of Lima against the army of Chili,
+however, lawyers, merchants, clerks, and everybody, regardless of caste
+or condition, served in the ranks as they did during our war, but
+without uniform. They would fight in defence of their homes, but were
+too proud to wear the uniform of a common soldier. Hence the rank and
+file is composed chiefly of Indians, or _cholos_, a term which is used
+to designate the mixed race descended from the ancient and aboriginal
+Inca and his conqueror the Spaniard. There are very few full-blooded
+Indians in the country, for during the three hundred and fifty years of
+Spanish supremacy the original inhabitants were almost entirely
+exterminated. There are a good many negroes and Chinamen in Peru who are
+mixed with the natives indiscriminately, and they all go to compose the
+cholos.
+
+There are military schools for the education of officers, and the line
+and staff of the armies are made up of the sons of the aristocracy, as
+in Germany and England. They wear a very gaudy uniform, and always
+appear in it, whether on duty or not. Officers are never seen in
+anything but full military dress, with plenty of gold lace and
+“flubdubs.”
+
+The soldiers are all “volunteers.” Conscription is forbidden by the
+constitution of most of the republics, and a “volunteer” is an Indian
+who is captured on the highway, or in a saloon, or at his home, and
+locked up until there are enough to send to headquarters, where he is
+taken before a recruiting-officer, and made to sign a statement setting
+forth that he “volunteered” to serve his country as long as his services
+are needed. Then his hands are tied behind him, and he is lashed to a
+dozen or more other “volunteers,” who are driven down to the garrison,
+where uniforms are put on them, muskets furnished, and they are turned
+over to a drill-sergeant, who puts them through the simple tactics until
+they know how to carry a gun and fire it. I saw a drove of about one
+hundred and fifty of these “volunteers” come into Lima one day, tied up
+like chickens or turkeys in bunches of ten each, with an escort of
+twenty men, who had probably gone through the same process of
+“volunteering” a year or so before, and rather enjoyed the remonstrances
+of the conscripts. Behind the column came seventy-five or so women,
+weeping and chattering, and some of them had children tugging at their
+hands and skirts. The women could stay with their husbands if they
+liked, and become rabonas, and probably most of them did. With such
+material composing its army did Peru attempt to defend its coast and
+cities, with their enormous wealth, against assault by Chili.
+
+[Illustration: LOOKING SEAWARD.]
+
+The soldiers of Chili are of an entirely different sort. They are
+naturally belligerent, and in the late war with Peru were promised free
+license to plunder. The soldiers of Peru were peaceable, quiet,
+inoffensive cholos, a silent, suffering race of people who had served
+under a system of peonage all their lives, had no idea what they were
+fighting for, and made as weak a defence as possible. Whenever they met
+the Chillanos in battle they always fled, even when they outnumbered the
+enemy; for the Chillano, reckless, daring, and combative, never remained
+in line of battle, but always fought with a charge and a whoop, carrying
+everything before him, taking no prisoners, but cutting the throat of
+every man he could reach.
+
+The battle of Arica is a good example of all the engagements of the war
+between Chili and Peru. South of that town, which lies upon the Pacific
+coast, rises a great hill or promontory twelve hundred feet, and almost
+perpendicular, out of the sea, and then slopes off at a steep grade to
+the plain behind it. Upon the peak of this precipice the Peruvians
+placed a heavy battery for the protection of the city, manned by about
+twelve hundred soldiers. The Chillano men-of-war came in one day and
+engaged this fort in an artillery duel at long range which lasted until
+nightfall. During the darkness about two thousand soldiers were landed
+above the town; they flanked it, and creeping carefully to the foot of
+the hill, lay until daylight, when they dashed up the slope with a
+fearful charge. The cannon were all turned seaward, and were useless;
+the men were surprised in their sleep, and the demoralization among the
+Peruvians was so great that scarcely a shot was fired. Being shut off
+from escape, they jumped over the precipices into the sea, preferring
+drowning to having their throats cut with the knives of the Chillanos,
+who always carry them for that purpose. This was known, and always will
+be known, as the Arica massacre, for nearly three-fourths of the
+Peruvians were slaughtered.
+
+The island of San Lorenzo, which was once the seat of a powerful
+fortress, protects the harbor of Callao, the second port on the Pacific
+coast of South America in population and commercial importance. It is
+the headquarters of the steamship lines and of the great mercantile
+houses, and the population is about one-half of foreign birth. One can
+hear all the languages of the earth spoken at Callao, and when we
+
+[Illustration: A BOATMAN ON THE COAST.]
+
+arrived upon the dock there was a group to illustrate the cosmopolitan
+character of the citizens. A Chinaman, an Arab, a negro, and a Frenchman
+were sitting upon a box, while around them were clustered Spaniards,
+Englishmen, Irishmen, Germans, and Italians. The city is irregular and
+shabby-looking, but has been a place of great wealth. Millions after
+millions of dollars’ worth of silver have been shipped from here by the
+Spaniards--silver stolen from the temples of the Incas, or dug from the
+mines which they operated before the Spaniards came. It was here that
+the old buccaneers used to rendezvous and waylay the galleons on their
+way to Spain. Of recent years the importance of Callao has very much
+decreased. A constant succession of wars and revolutions in Peru has
+destroyed its commerce; and although there is usually a great deal of
+shipping in the harbor, the present amount of trade is below that of the
+past. There are two lines of railroad to Lima, the capital of the
+republic, which lies six miles up in the foot-hills of the Andes.
+
+
+
+
+LIMA.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF PERU.
+
+
+Although the glory of Lima has long since faded, it is easy to see how
+grand and beautiful the place was in the days of its ancient prosperity,
+when it was called “The City of the Kings.” Few places possess such
+historical or romantic interest as this old vice-regal, bigoted,
+corrupt, licentious capital of Peru, the second city founded by the
+Spaniards in South America, and the seat of Spanish power for more than
+three centuries. Pizarro selected the location, and founded the city on
+the 6th of January, 1535, that being the anniversary of the
+manifestation of the Saviour to the wise men, the Magi. The pious old
+cutthroat called it “The City of the Kings”--_Ciudad de los Reyes_. The
+Emperor gave the infant capital a coat of arms of his own design, being
+three golden crowns upon an azure field, with a star above them. But the
+name Lima, which was an Inca term to denote the presence of an oracle
+near where the city stood, was at once applied to the place by the
+natives, and being so much easier to pronounce, soon forced itself into
+common usage in spite of Pizarro and the King, and is now alone
+recognized.
+
+The population of Lima is about one hundred and twenty-five thousand. It
+has been much larger, for during the last twelve years war and decay
+have been the rule, and peace and growth the exception. Before that time
+there had been quite a “boom,” owing to the energy of Henry Meiggs, the
+California fugitive, and to the introduction of railroads; but the
+devastation of foreign invaders and the havoc of domestic revolutionists
+have made Lima only a pitiful shadow of its former greatness.
+
+[Illustration: LIMA AND ITS ENVIRONS.]
+
+The churches and convents and monasteries of Lima are the finest and
+most expensive in America, while the architecture of private structures
+surpasses that of any other Spanish-American city except Santiago. The
+old palace of Pizarro, which was erected by him when the city was
+founded, and in which he was assassinated, is still used for the offices
+of the Government; while the Senate occupies the council-chamber of the
+old Inquisition building, which is famous for its ceiling of carved
+work, and infamous for the cruel and bloody work that has been done
+within its walls. This ceiling was imported from Spain in the year 1560,
+and was carved by the monks of the mother-country as a gift to the
+Inquisition council of the new. Here sat the most extensive and
+important dependency of the Church of Rome, extending its jurisdiction
+over the whole of the New World, roasting heretics upon live coals or
+stretching them upon the rack, long after the Inquisition in Europe had
+ceased to exist. The torture-room, which adjoined the council-chamber,
+is now a retiring-room for the Senate, while the dark pockets in the
+walls, in which heretics were sealed up until they were smothered, are
+used as closets and wardrobes.
+
+The Chamber of Deputies occupies the ancient home of the College of St.
+Marcas, the oldest institution of learning in America, founded by the
+Society of Jesus in 1551, sixty-nine years before the Pilgrims landed at
+Plymouth.
+
+The San Franciscan convent and church are two of the most extensive
+structures in the whole of America, and cost as much as the Capitol at
+Washington, if not more. The whole interior is covered with the most
+beautiful tiles, which have stood the test of three centuries, and still
+surpass the best that modern genius can produce. These tiles are
+celebrated all over Europe, not only for the enormous quantity of
+them--for they cover many acres of surface--but for the beauty of their
+design and perfect finish. In this convent is shown the bed on which St.
+Francis died, the sack-cloth robe that he wore, his sandals, his rosary,
+and the coffin in which his body was taken to Rome. The monk who acted
+as our cicerone insisted that the founder of his order died in the room
+in which these relics were, and pointed out the exact spot where he
+breathed his last; but a brief cross-examination brought him up to an
+explanation that he meant that this room was modelled upon the one in
+which St. Francis died.
+
+Lima did produce a saint, however--Santa Rosa, a woman who was famous
+for her wealth, her beauty, her self-abnegation, and her devotion to
+the Church, and was canonized by Pope Clement X. in 1671. Her remains
+lie in the Church of Santo Domingo, and an extensive convent has been
+erected in her honor. She was the only American ever canonized, and the
+fact that a Peruvian received this exclusive honor has made her not only
+the patron saint, but one of the great figures in the history of the
+Catholic Church on this continent. The anniversary of her birth is
+always celebrated throughout South America, and the third centennial,
+which occurred in April, 1886, was the occasion of one of the grandest
+demonstrations ever seen on the coast of the South Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN INTERIOR.]
+
+Six months before, the most reverend archbishop at Lima, the dean of the
+Catholic hierarchy in Spanish America, issued an eloquent pastoral,
+calling upon his flock to unite with him in honoring the memory of Santa
+Rosa, the only American saint and the patroness of two continents. The
+invitation was generously responded to. The Government immediately made
+as liberal an appropriation of money as was possible in the depleted
+condition of the treasury; private citizens and corporations contributed
+to the funds, and a commission of distinguished persons was appointed to
+form a programme of the festivities. A cordial invitation was sent by
+the archbishop to the principal religious dignitaries in South and
+Central America and Mexico to visit Lima on this memorable occasion, and
+to accept the national hospitality.
+
+On the 20th the ceremonies were commenced. The body of Santa Rosa was
+taken from its resting-place in the Church of Santo Domingo, and borne
+in solemn procession to the church erected in her honor. The day was
+declared a holiday. From every housetop flags and streamers were
+floating; the different legations and consulates hoisted their national
+emblems; flowers were strewn in the streets through which the cortege
+was to pass; and from the windows and balconies hung superb drapery of
+silk and velvet. The remains of the saint, deposited in a beautifully
+ornamented urn, were carried on the shoulders of the Dominican monks,
+and the mayor and municipality of the city, with the few remaining
+survivors of the War of Independence, acted as the guard of honor. The
+municipal and private schools of both sexes followed, the little girls
+charmingly dressed in white and blue, the favorite colors of Santa Rosa,
+and with garlands of roses in their hands. Along the route the different
+fire brigades had erected artistic arches from their ladders and
+apparatus, and as the procession passed, white doves were loosened from
+their fastenings, and flew gracefully amid the banners and canopies
+overhanging the streets. In some of the streets traversed carpets were
+laid down and covered with roses. Arriving at the Church of Santa Rosa
+of the Fathers, the precious urn was deposited on the altar, surrounded
+by a dazzling blaze of light, and was watched over during the night by a
+special guard of honor.
+
+The next day the same ceremony was repeated, the object being to carry
+the remains of the saint to those places with which her life was most
+intimately associated. Thus the Convent of Santa Catalina, the Church of
+Santa Rosa of the Mine--establishments founded by the intercession of
+the Rose of Peru--were visited, and the final ceremonies were performed
+at the cathedral. The interior of the cathedral, larger than the
+cathedral in New York, was handsomely decorated with hangings of scarlet
+velvet bound with gold; the superb altar, with its pillars cased in
+silver, covered with lights and flowers; and the venerable archbishop,
+with his numerous retinue of monsignori, canons, and friars, officiated
+at the solemn high-mass, with the votive offering especially permitted
+by the Holy Father, in reply to a request from the Lima ecclesiastics.
+
+The square without was filled by troops from the citadel of Santa
+Catalina, national salutes were fired, and all Lima in gala dress was in
+the streets. The Ministers of State, the Justices of the Supreme and
+Superior courts, and all of the principal authorities, joined in the
+procession, which, after the conclusion of the ceremony at the
+cathedral, proceeded to Santo Domingo to deposit the remains underneath
+the grand altar, where for nearly three centuries they have rested.
+
+Santa Rosa was born at Lima in the year 1586. She was of humble parents,
+her father being a matchlock man in the escort of the viceroy, and her
+mother a woman of the lower class. She was christened under the name of
+Isabel, but while yet an infant the beautiful color appearing on her
+cheeks caused her to be called Rosa. From her earliest years she
+manifested a deep religious spirit, and although poor in the world’s
+goods, her extraordinary charity and self-sacrifice for the poor and
+sick brought her into the notice of the people. Refusing all the
+inducements and invitations to enter upon a monastic life, she steadily
+dedicated her efforts towards doing good. Many miraculous cures are
+attributed to her. She died in 1617. Shortly after her death the
+authorities of Lima petitioned the archbishop that the necessary
+investigation be initiated to establish her sanctity, and when the
+proofs were obtained they were laid before Pope Urban VIII. at Rome, who
+in 1625 sent a commission to Lima to conclude the investigation. After
+due consideration of the facts presented to the Holy College at Rome,
+Pope Clement IX., in 1668, ordered the canonization of Rosa under the
+title of St. Rosa of Lima.
+
+In Lima, for a population of about one hundred and twenty thousand,
+there are one hundred and twenty-six Catholic churches and twelve
+monasteries and convents; and the same religious privileges extend all
+over Peru. There are two Protestant churches in the republic. One of
+them is in Lima, and is usually without a pastor, being of the Church of
+England school, and supported by the English-speaking residents; the
+other is at Callao, and an active young Protestant, Rev. Mr. Thompson,
+formerly of Philadelphia, is its pastor. The church is unsectarian, and
+is largely sustained by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, a British
+corporation which has a monopoly of commerce on the west coast, and
+keeps its headquarters at Callao. No attempt at Protestant missionary
+work has ever been made in Peru, although Mr. Thompson says the field is
+very inviting. His time is spent mostly among the sailors who haunt
+Callao by the hundreds, and in looking after the English-speaking
+congregation under his charge. There is no Sunday in Peru. The shops are
+open on that day as usual, and in the afternoon bull-fights,
+cock-fights, and similar entertainments are always held. The women
+invariably go to mass in the morning, and represent the entire family,
+as very few men are ever seen in the churches. Under President Prado,
+from 1869 to 1876, the Catholic Church was subjected to the same sort of
+treatment it has received in the other republics, but his successors
+were more hospitable towards the priests, and the Church is regaining
+much of its ancient influence. Some of the confiscated monasteries have
+been restored, and a bishop presides over the lower branch of the
+national legislature, having been elected by a popular vote in one of
+the interior cities. He is a jolly-looking old padre, rosy and rotund,
+and has not the appearance of suffering much mortification of the flesh.
+
+The bones of Pizarro, the Indian butcher, lie in the crypt of the grand
+cathedral which he built in 1540, and which is still the most imposing
+ecclesiastical edifice in all America. It is said to have cost nine
+million dollars; and that amount may have been spent upon it, but the
+money came from the old Inca temples, which were robbed of their gold
+and silver ornaments and stripped of their carved timbers by the
+Spaniards. The latter never produced anything in Peru by their own
+efforts. They simply expended their plunder for the benefit of
+themselves and the Church. Of the ninety millions of dollars in silver
+and gold which Pizarro is said to have realized from his evangelical
+work among the Indians, the King of Spain got one-fifth and the Church
+even a larger share, so that it could afford to build cathedrals and
+convents as fine as those of Europe, and endow them with fabulous
+wealth. Prescott says that from a single Inca temple Pizarro took 24,800
+pounds of gold and 82,000 pounds of silver. One of his lieutenants asked
+for the nails which supported the ornaments in this temple, and got
+22,000 ounces of silver. It was this money that erected the magnificent
+churches which Lima has to-day, and which made the capital of the New
+World the most luxurious and profligate known to history.
+
+Later, the marvellous products of the mines of Potosi and Cerro de Pasco
+added to the fabulous wealth of Peru. In 1661 La Palata, the viceroy,
+rode from the palace to the cathedral on a horse every hair of whose
+mane and tail was strung with pearls, whose hoofs were shod with shoes
+of solid gold, and whose path was paved with ingots of solid silver. It
+was during this time that the galleons from the East, “from far Cathay,”
+laden with gems and silks and spices, went to Callao to exchange them
+for the products of Potosi and Pasco; while, out of sight, on the verge
+of the horizon, Sir Francis Drake and the bold John Hawkins and other
+buccaneers lay-to in their swift-sailing cruisers to snatch the
+
+[Illustration: GRAND PLAZA, LIMA.]
+
+treasure-ships as they came around the island of San Lorenzo, and carry
+home the booty to lay it at the feet of Elizabeth, the virgin queen of
+England.
+
+But all this grandeur is gone, and the last traces of it are now to be
+found in the pawn-shops of Lima, which are full of rare old silver,
+paintings, china, and lace. The people are so poor that they are
+compelled to sell their jewels to get bread and meat. The stagnation of
+business has deprived them of their ordinary incomes from real estate,
+and the war has taken off the laborers, so that the sugar haciendas and
+the mills are idle. I met people whose incomes were formerly hundreds of
+thousands of dollars, from rentals and interest on investments, who are
+now compelled to patronize the pawn-shops, because their tenants cannot
+pay rent and their investments no longer produce a profit. The
+paper-money of the country is as valueless as the Confederate bills were
+during our civil war. One issue, the Incas, is entirely worthless. The
+Government tried to enforce its circulation by locking up men who
+refused to accept it as legal tender; but the merchants marked up the
+prices of their goods, and charged two thousand dollars a yard for
+calico, when the Treasury surrendered, and issued another loan which is
+almost as bad as the first. You give a twenty-dollar bill to your
+bootblack and two hundred and fifty dollars an hour for a hack. It costs
+about six hundred dollars a day for board at the hotel, and fifty
+dollars for a bunch of cigarettes.
+
+House-owners who have leased their property for a term of years without
+specifying in what sort of money the rent shall be paid are compelled to
+accept this worthless paper at par. I met a lady whose income from rents
+ten years ago was more than a thousand dollars a week in gold, but now
+it is only the same amount in paper--scarcely enough to pay the
+servants--and she is selling her bric-à-brac to live. The haciendas and
+farms are no longer tilled, because for several years past all the
+laborers have been pressed into the army; and the sugar plantations are
+useless, for the machinery by which they were operated was destroyed by
+the Chilians during the recent war.
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN CHAMBER.]
+
+The devastation which the Chilian army created was almost equal to that
+caused by Pizarro when he invaded the homes of the peaceful Incas. The
+lines of march of the Chilians are shown by the complete destruction of
+everything they could break down or burn. Whole cities, villages, farms,
+factories, were swept away by a malicious desire to do as much injury as
+possible, regardless of the rights of non-combatants, and in violation
+of all the laws of civilized war. The beautiful winter resorts of Peru,
+Milleflores (its Newport) and Chorillos (its Long Branch), the
+residence-places of the wealthy people and the haunts of those who
+sought rest--where there were palaces as beautiful as those of Paris,
+and parks like the legendary gardens of Babylon--were entirely
+destroyed, not by accident, but by dynamite and other explosives.
+Exquisite marble statues now lie in fragments upon the ground, artistic
+fountains were shattered, trees were girdled, irrigating ditches
+destroyed, and every possible vandalism was committed, not only on the
+property of Peruvians, but upon that of foreigners, whose claims for
+damages will amount to more than Chili can ever pay.
+
+The magnificent trees in the parks, along the boulevards, and even in
+the botanical garden, were cut down for fuel by the soldiers of Chili;
+the entire museum of Peruvian curiosities, one of the largest and finest
+in the world, was packed up and shipped to Santiago; the books in the
+National Library were thrown into sacks and sent after the museum, and
+historical paintings were cut from their frames as private plunder. The
+greatest painting of Peru--Marini’s “Burial of Atahualpa, the last of
+the Incas”--was stolen from the wall where it hung, but the protests of
+the diplomatic corps induced the Chilians to return it. The churches and
+private houses were stripped in a similar manner, and what could not be
+stolen was burned. Nothing was sacred in the eyes of these modern
+vandals, whose purpose was to deprive the Peruvians of everything they
+prized.
+
+The evidence of a refined taste in art and music is everywhere apparent
+in Peru. There is scarcely a home without a piano, and the city of Lima
+once rivalled Madrid in its treasures of art. There remain but two
+notable statues--that of Columbus, in marble, representing him in the
+act of handing a crucifix to an Indian girl; and that of Bolivar the
+Liberator, upon a rearing horse, in bronze (like the statue of Jackson
+in Washington), which stands in front of the old Inquisition building,
+on the spot where heretics were burned two hundred years ago. The
+famous arch over the old bridge, which was erected in 1610, has been
+destroyed, and many other artistic ornaments of the city which have been
+written of again and again are gone.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A LIMA DWELLING.]
+
+The President occupies the former residence of Henry Meiggs, the
+Californian, who did so much for Peru. It is a magnificent structure,
+erected and furnished when money had no value to the owner; but, like
+everything else in Lima, it is only a relic of its original beauty, and
+as a measure of economy a corner of the lower floor is rented for a
+grocery.
+
+Those who have travelled everywhere say that the women of Lima are the
+most beautiful in the world. There is something about the climate of the
+country, where rain never falls,
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN PALACE.]
+
+and where decay is almost unknown, that gives them a brilliancy of
+complexion that women of other lands do not possess. Perhaps their
+national costume does much to heighten their beauty, for any woman not
+positively ugly would look well in the embroidered manta that the ladies
+of Lima always wear. This manta is a shawl of black China crape, and the
+amount of silk embroidery upon it indicates the wealth of the wearer.
+Some of them are extremely beautiful and cost as much as five hundred
+dollars; but ordinary mantas, such as the majority wear, can be bought
+for fifteen or twenty dollars in Peruvian money, which is worth
+twenty-five per cent. less than American gold. A very common article of
+dyed cotton is imported from England at a cost of three or four dollars,
+for the use of the negro and Indian women. The manta is worn by every
+woman, regardless of her rank or wealth, whenever she appears on the
+street; but in their homes, at the opera, and when they go out to
+afternoon receptions or evening balls, the ladies adopt the Parisian
+styles, and dress with a great deal of taste.
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN BELLE.]
+
+The manta is square in shape and about two yards in size. It is folded
+so as to be triangular, and the centre of the fold is placed upon the
+forehead, where there is usually a bit of lace that hangs down to the
+eyes. One end of the manta falls down the front of the dress as far as
+the knee, while the other is thrown around the shoulders and fastened at
+the breast with an ornamental pin. Thus, usually only the face is shown;
+and when a maiden or a matron wishes to disguise herself, she draws the
+shawl up so as to cover her mouth and nose, and permit only her great
+black, roguish eyes to be seen. And such eyes! Always large, age never
+seems to dim them, and no degree of self-discipline can rob them of or
+subdue their coquettish appearance. The poet who wrote
+
+                      “Of that dark queen
+    For whose mere smile a world was bartered,”
+
+described a Lima lady. The manta is usually drawn so closely about the
+figure as to show its outlines with the most conspicuous distinctness,
+and the young women of Lima are as famous for their beauty of form as
+for their beauty of face.
+
+[Illustration: WATCHING THE PROCESSION.]
+
+They are always slender, generally short of stature, and as graceful as
+sylphs; but they lose their beauty of figure with maternity, and one
+seldom finds a married woman more than thirty or thirty-five years of
+age, if she is the mother of children, who retains the statuesque grace
+of maidenhood. They ripen early, reach their prime at sixteen or
+seventeen, and generally marry at that age. At twenty-five they are fat,
+but they never lose the radiance of their eyes or their complexion.
+Their stoutness comes from the lack of exercise and the excessive use of
+sweetmeats, for they spend their lives in rocking-chairs, munching
+_dulces_, as they call confectionery.
+
+There is a romantic story about the manta which explains the reason that
+it is always black. The Peruvian women never wear colors in the street,
+and this custom is observed by the aristocracy as well as by the
+peasantry; nor do they ever wear bonnets except at an opera, and there
+very seldom. The same is true of the women of Ecuador and Chili,
+although in the city of Valparaiso, which is the most modern in its
+customs and in the style of living of any place on the west coast, the
+use of the manta is gradually dying out, and it is worn only at church.
+No woman with a bonnet on will be admitted to any Catholic church on the
+west coast. Sometimes strangers wear them in, but the sextons and ushers
+invariably ask that they be removed. Mrs. Admiral Dahlgren, of
+Washington, in her book called “South Sea Sketches,” relates that she
+was ordered out of a church because she was wearing a bonnet, and
+misunderstanding what was said to her, took no notice of the command
+until quite a commotion was raised, when some lady explained its cause.
+A bonnet is called a _gorra_ in Spanish, and Mrs. Dahlgren was very much
+amused at its similarity to the familiar Irish ejaculation.
+
+It is said that the custom of wearing the manta originated among the
+Incas, but that they wore colors until the assassination of Atahualpa,
+their king, by the Spaniards under Pizarro. Then every woman in the
+great empire, which stretched from the Isthmus of Panama to the Strait
+of Magellan, abandoned colors and put on a black manta, and it has since
+been worn as perpetual mourning for “the last of the Incas.” There is
+probably some truth in this story, for in the graves of the Incas that
+have been destroyed by scientific resurrectionists, have been found
+female mummies with mantas of brilliant colors wrapped around them, and
+fastened
+
+[Illustration: THE DAUGHTER OF THE INCAS.]
+
+with pins very much like those worn at the present day. It is also true
+that the natives, the peons of Peru and Ecuador, the descendants of the
+Incas, never wear anything except black, and still celebrate with
+impressive and appropriate ceremonies the anniversary of the day on
+which Atahualpa was strangled. In Chili the custom has died out, for the
+Inca empire was never able to sustain itself there against the savage
+Araucanian tribes of Indians who inhabited the southern range of the
+Andes.
+
+The Inca women in Peru and Ecuador are not at all pretty. They are
+dwarfish in stature, broad across the shoulders, and resemble in feature
+the squaws of the North American tribes, except that they have the
+almond-shaped eyes of the Mongolians; and it is probably true, as urged
+by the antiquarians, that the Incas were of the same origin as the
+Chinese, for their customs, their adeptness at all sorts of ingenious
+work, and their manner of living bear a striking resemblance to those of
+the interior provinces of the Chinese empire. The Incas have had their
+blood diluted by intermarriage with the lower grades of the Spanish
+race, and it is very difficult to find pure natives now. The people of
+the mixed race are called cholos.
+
+It is the transplanted Spanish rose, the pure Castilian type, that
+blooms with the greatest beauty in the gardens of Peru. The climate has
+refined it, and has clarified the dark olive tint that is found in
+Castile. The greatest beauties in Lima are the descendants of the oldest
+families--those of the longest residence in the country--and their
+loveliness appears not only to have been transmitted from generation to
+generation, but to have been enhanced thereby. This is true not alone of
+the aristocrats, for some of the loveliest girls belong to the humbler
+families, and are found in the tenement-houses, clothed in the shabbiest
+garments, which serve only to heighten their loveliness, and to make
+them fair prey for the wolves that prowl around in Lima as they do
+everywhere else. The fate of these girls, if described, would make a
+chapter more horrible to contemplate than the disclosures recently made
+in London. Their beauty is a fatal gift, and their poverty and ignorance
+make them an easy prey to the tempter. Seldom are they allowed to remain
+at home after the age of fourteen or fifteen, when they become the
+mistresses of the haughty dons. But the social laws of Spanish America
+are so liberal that these women are treated much better than in lands of
+higher civilization, for it is not only expected that every
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE WAR.]
+
+man who can support a mistress will do so, but his reputation will
+suffer among his fellows if he does not.
+
+Just now the country is prostrated, the effect of a long series of wars
+during which it was robbed of everything that the army of Chili could
+carry away; so that there is very little gayety and not much display of
+dress. But the people retain the relics of their former prosperity, and
+the ladies of the present generation have inherited the treasures their
+mothers bought and wore at the time when money was so plenty. Much of
+this finery--the jewels and laces--has gone to the pawnbrokers, and many
+of the most aristocratic families in the republic are now living upon
+its proceeds. The women are, like the French, very skilful in
+dress-making, and everything they wear is becoming. They imitate the
+Parisian styles with the greatest ingenuity, and have remarkable taste
+in making over old clothes.
+
+The pawnshops are full of beautiful things. Here are toilet sets of
+solid silver, beautifully chased, including the meaner vessels of the
+bedroom, which betoken the luxury and extravagance of an age when the
+mines of the Andes were pouring out silver, and the guano-beds of the
+sea were being turned into gold. Similar reminiscences of ancient glory
+can be seen to-day in the toilets of the ladies, in the heirlooms which
+they wear on their wrists, on their breasts, and in their ears, as well
+as in the rich, old-fashioned fabrics which their grandmothers wore
+before them, made in the days when people did not intend things to wear
+out.
+
+It is very difficult to secure admission to the aristocratic circles of
+Peru. They are as exclusive as any such circle in the world, and social
+laws are rigid. But an American who goes to Lima with good letters of
+introduction will be received with cordial hospitality, and be admitted
+to circles which the resident, however rich and respectable, can never
+enter. American naval officers are especially welcome, and the Peruvian
+belles are as strongly attracted by the glitter of brass buttons as are
+their sisters in the United States. Since the war there have been few
+public balls and few receptions, as the people are living from hand to
+mouth, with little hope to brighten the commercial horizon; but when you
+bring a letter to a Peruvian gentleman, his house and all his belongings
+“are at your disposition, señor,” and he is offended unless you accept
+his hospitality, although you may be aware that he has to pawn some
+heirloom to pay for the dinner he gives you.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE ORDINARY SORT OF HOUSE.]
+
+The ancient social restrictions which make it a breach of decorum for a
+gentleman to meet a lady alone until after marriage, still exist in
+Peru. If you call at the residence of Señor Bustamente you must ask for
+him, and if he is not at home you may leave your compliments for the
+ladies of the family, but under no circumstances ask to see them. If he
+is
+
+[Illustration: A VERY COMMON SPECTACLE.]
+
+at home your welcome will be cordial, and you will be asked to a seat
+upon the sofa, which is always reserved for guests, and is the place of
+honor. You will be entertained by him until the ladies appear one by
+one, for they always stop to dress. No Spanish-American lady is ever
+ready to receive a caller. The lady of the house and her daughters will
+chat with you about the opera and the bull-fight and the latest scandal,
+and will perform brilliantly upon the piano, but beyond that her powers
+of entertainment do not go. If you can get Señorita Dolores over in the
+corner--and she will be delighted with a _tête-à-tête_--you will find
+that she knows nothing whatever about the world beyond her own limited
+circle of acquaintance. She has not the vaguest idea of the United
+States, and does not know whether Paris is in America, or New York in
+England. She will look at you with her great eyes with the most childish
+innocence, and ask if the bullfights in New York are as exciting as
+those of Lima, and if there is as agile a picador in the States as Señor
+Rubio. When you tell her that bull-fighting is not recognized as a
+legitimate amusement in New York, she will exclaim “Santa Maria!” and
+ask what entertainment you have when the opera-house is closed. Then,
+when you say that eight or ten theatres are always open, she will cry
+out to papa across the room to take her to New York by the next steamer.
+
+The señorita got her education at a convent, has learned to embroider,
+to play the piano, to dance, and has committed to memory the lives of
+the saints; and there her accomplishments end. She is so beautiful that
+you are sorry you explored her mind; you feel guilty of having exposed
+her ignorance; you wish that you could simply sit and look at her, a
+picture of loveliness, forever; but when you ask her to dance, and she
+moves away with you in a waltz or mazourka, you discover that however
+empty her head may be, the education of her feet has not been neglected.
+No one who has ever waltzed with a Peruvian girl will wish for another
+partner. She is simply animated gracefulness, and her endurance is
+remarkable. She clings a little closer than our girls would consider
+consistent with propriety, and dances with an abandon that would call
+out a remonstrance from a watchful mamma in the States. She gives her
+whole mind and soul to it, regardless of consequences, and sighs when
+the music ceases, as if there were nothing more in life to enjoy.
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN MILK-PEDDLER.]
+
+The air and light of Lima are very favorable for photography, and the
+city has galleries as fine as any in New York. The reception-rooms,
+corridors, show-windows, and even the ceilings, are lined with portraits
+of belles of the town, which are on sale not only there but at the
+news-stands and printshops. In Havana and Venezuela, to have the
+photograph of a young lady is equivalent to the announcement of an
+engagement, but in Peru it signifies nothing. You can buy the portraits
+of your neighbors’ daughters anywhere in town, and their popularity is
+estimated by the number sold. Lima girls, with their great black eyes
+and shapely figures, make fine subjects for a photographer, and
+strangers usually take home collections of the pictures of beauties.
+The photograph dealers have their portraits put up in covers ready for
+the market, like views of Niagara Falls or Coney Island.
+
+Milk is peddled about Lima by women, who sit astride a horse or a mule,
+with a big can hanging on either side of the saddle. When they ride up
+to a door-way they give a peculiar shrill scream, which the servants
+within recognize.
+
+Most of the embroidery and other similar work in Lima is done by the
+nuns, who are very expert at it. They make the finest sort of lace,
+embroider towels, napkins, handkerchiefs, and skirt-fronts for dresses
+on silk and velvet. At some of the shops you can buy dress patterns;
+that is, skirt-fronts, sleeves, collar, cuffs, belt, etc., embroidered
+in the finest possible style, and ready to make up. It is one of the
+ancient customs handed down from the days of the viceroys. The nuns make
+most of the confectionery sold in the city, moulding the unrefined sugar
+into artistic shapes, coloring it to imitate nature, and flavoring it to
+suit the palate.
+
+The fashionable entertainment in Peru is bull-baiting. The bull is not
+killed, as in Spain and Mexico and other countries, and no horses are
+slaughtered in the ring. The animal is simply teased and tortured to
+make a Liman holiday. The young men of the city do the baiting, and it
+is regarded as a very high-toned sort of athletic sport, like polo at
+Newport. The young ladies take darts made of tin, decorate them with
+ribboned lace and rosettes, and give them to their lovers to stick into
+the hide of the bull. The great feat is to cast these darts so as to
+strike the bull in the fore-shoulder or in the face, and in order to do
+it he who throws them must stand before the animal’s horns. Active young
+fellows perform very dexterously, but it takes nerve and agility, and at
+times fair señoritas have seen their lovers badly gored.
+
+Another form of entertainment is what is called _Buena Noche_, or “Good
+Night.” Then the band plays in the principal plaza, fireworks are
+exploded at the expense of the shopkeepers and saloon-men, whose profits
+are increased,
+
+[Illustration: MINDLESS OF CARE.]
+
+hucksters surround the place with tables, selling cakes, candies,
+ice-cream, and peanuts, and all the populace come out to gossip and
+flirt. These festivals furnish about the only opportunity for Vilkins to
+get a word alone with his Dinah, for on a “Buena Noche” he can offer her
+his arm, and promenade up and down the plaza, murmuring soft nothings in
+her ear as long as she will hear them, or until the great bell of San
+Pedro strikes midnight, when there are a hustle and a bustle, and
+everybody goes home.
+
+Some of the largest and finest stores in Lima are owned and managed by
+Chinese merchants, who have the monopoly of the trade in mantas and silk
+dress-goods. Italians usually keep the bodegas and eating-houses. There
+are half a dozen large American mercantile establishments, and the house
+of Grace Brothers, of which Mr. William R. Grace, ex-mayor of New York,
+is the head, practically monopolizes the foreign trade of Peru. Much of
+the business in the interior is done by itinerant peddlers, who carry
+their wares on their backs, and tramp over the whole continent from the
+Isthmus to Patagonia. There is also a class of itinerant doctors of
+Indian blood, called _collahuayas_, who travel on foot from Bogota, in
+Colombia, to Buenos Ayres, carrying the news from place to place, and
+practising a sort of voodoo system over the sick. They are well known
+throughout the country, and exercise a remarkable influence among the
+natives, who entertain them as guests of distinction wherever they go.
+
+All the benevolent institutions of Lima are supported by a “Sociedad de
+Beneficencia,” an organization of citizens who raise money by private
+subscriptions, and by bull-fights, cock-fights, and lotteries. The
+Penitentiary is a noble building, erected on the plan of the
+Philadelphia House of Correction, by a Philadelphia architect, the
+prisoners in which are engaged in making uniforms, shoes, and other
+equipments for the army. Capital punishment is abolished in Peru, but
+political offenders are tried by military courts, and shot when found
+guilty of conspiracy or treason. There are in the prison one hundred and
+thirty-five unhanged murderers serving out life sentences.
+
+There are four daily newspapers in Lima, in which are published
+cablegrams from all parts of the world. They are edited with ability,
+but their writers indulge in the grandiose, florid style that sounds
+very funny to the plain-spoken American. One of the editors was sent to
+jail and fined five hundred dollars, besides having his paper
+suppressed, for making some reflections upon the acts of Congress; but
+as soon as he got out of prison he started another paper, and he is now
+blazing away in the most fearless manner, just as if the penitentiary
+were not half empty and the Government in need of convict labor. The
+papers make their appearance on the street about ten o’clock at night,
+and are cried by newsboys, who make as much racket as our own. In the
+morning carriers deliver copies to regular subscribers. Advertising
+patronage seems to be pretty good in Lima, for the newspapers have about
+two pages of display “ads.” to every one of reading matter; but they do
+not get good rates, and times are so hard that the merchants give very
+little cash, but require the editors to “trade it out” in the country
+fashion. Advertising is always an index to commerce, and the condition
+of Peru is illustrated by the fact that almost every merchant in Lima is
+selling out at cost--_gran realization_, they call it. Credit is not
+given at the stores except to the Government, and that is compulsory.
+The foreign merchants will not sell to the authorities except for cash,
+and the native merchants do not want to, for only in one instance in a
+hundred are they ever paid.
+
+All the houses in Lima are built on the earthquake plan--either of great
+thick walls of adobe, or mere shacks of bamboo reeds, lashed together by
+thongs of rawhide, and plastered within and without with thick layers of
+mud. This style of architecture will answer in a country where it never
+rains, and where cyclones never come, but if a good pour should fall in
+Lima, much of the town would be washed into the river Rimac and carried
+out to sea. There is never more than one entrance to a house, and that
+is protected first by a great iron grating, and then by solid doors. The
+windows are covered with bars. This was done as a precaution against
+bandits in early times, and against revolutionists in later days; and a
+very essential precaution it has been, for during the time of the
+viceroy bands of robbers came down from the mountains, and hordes of
+pirates from the sea. Through the single entrance passes every one who
+comes and goes--the butcher, the baker, the priest who comes to shrive
+the dying, and the young man to whom Mercedes is engaged.
+
+The roofs of the dwellings are always perfectly flat, and among the
+common people are used as barn-yards and henneries. In many cases a cow
+spends all her days on the roof of her owner’s residence, being taken up
+when a calf, and taken down at the end of life as fresh beef. In the
+mean time she is fed on alfalfa, and the slops from the kitchen.
+Chicken-coops are still more common on the roofs of dwellings, and in
+the thickly populated portions of the town your neighbors’ cocks waken
+you at daylight with reminders of St. Peter.
+
+Lima is a poor place to sell umbrellas, for along the coast from the
+northern boundary of Peru, far south-west to the end of the Chilian
+desert, rain never falls. There is a disagreeable, dismal, sticky,
+rheumatic dew, however, which is worse than a shower; for during the
+winter season, beginning in April and ending in October, it penetrates
+the thickest clothing, and gives one the sensation described by
+Mantilini as “demnition moist.” The thermometer is pretty regular,
+however, and ranges from sixty to eighty degrees Fahrenheit during the
+year, January being the hottest month, and July the coolest. Pulmonary
+complaints are unknown, but fevers are very common, and the mortality
+among infants is pitiable. At Callao yellow-fever is usually endemic,
+and there are three or four deaths every week among the marine
+population, as the sanitary regulations are not well enforced, and the
+city is dirty.
+
+The chamber occupied by the Peruvian House of Deputies is a long, narrow
+apartment in what was formerly the University of St. Mark, the oldest
+institution of learning in America, having been founded in 1551, and
+confiscated by the Government from the Church in 1869. The spectators
+sit in a very high, narrow gallery over the heads of the
+representatives, who are arranged in two rows of chairs, without desks,
+around the three walls of the chamber, the presiding officer and clerks
+having the fourth wall at their back. The centre of the room is occupied
+by a long table, at one end of which sits the presiding officer, who is
+a priest (with an appearance of having lived on the fat of the land),
+and at the other end a crucifix is placed, upon which the members of
+Congress are sworn to support the Constitution. When a formal speech is
+made, the orator stands upon a platform, with a desk or table before
+him, and a running debate is participated in by members from their
+chairs.
+
+The Senate Chamber is in the old Inquisition building, just across the
+Plaza de Bolivar, in which one hundred heretics are said to have been
+burned to death, and thousands publicly scourged.
+
+The people of Peru entertain the most cordial sentiments towards the
+United States, which is the more remarkable because of the feeling
+prevalent in all classes that the administration of President Garfield
+was the cause of many of the losses and much of the misery which they
+suffered during the war with Chili. They cannot be convinced that they
+were not trifled with and betrayed at the most critical period of their
+history, and that Mr. Blaine was not responsible. Without entering into
+the controversy as to whether Mr. Blaine authorized General Hurlbut to
+interfere, or whether General Hurlbut’s action was voluntary, it is
+nevertheless true that the moment he stepped in Chili held back, and the
+moment he withdrew she renewed the devastation of her sister republic
+with a hundred-fold more energy than before. If our Government had taken
+the same stand in the war between Chili and Peru that she occupied
+regarding the troubles in the Central American States, thousands of
+lives, property worth millions of dollars, and the richest resources of
+Peru might have been saved. Mr. Blaine’s original attitude was that the
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF CUZCO AND THE NEVADO ASUNGATA FROM THE BROW OF
+THE SACSAHUAMAN.]
+
+United States would not tolerate the dismemberment of Peru, and that was
+clearly and plainly announced, with a wholesome effect. All at once the
+protest was withdrawn, without warning, without any premonition, and
+then, with a knife at her throat and a revolver at her heart, Peru
+consented to surrender the coveted provinces.
+
+General Hurlbut had been condemned for acting imprudently, for getting
+our Government into a scrape without excuse, for committing it to a
+policy that was not tenable; but no one can visit Peru and see the
+results of the war without respecting the memory of General Hurlbut. He
+acted from the noblest impulses, in behalf of humanity, in defence of
+civilization. Whether he tried to put a stop to the war with or without
+authority, he was justified in doing so--justified in trying to prevent
+the burning of defenceless cities, the murder of non-combatants, the
+robbery of homes, and the despoliation of everything that was sacred.
+
+Peru was overcome, conquered, and resistless. Her army was destroyed,
+and her citizens, who had attempted to defend her capital with what
+weapons they could gather, were smitten down like grass before the
+scythe. There was scarcely a voice to be raised in defence of the women
+and children. Then the pillage commenced. Dynamite and petroleum were
+the weapons of Chili, and millions of dollars’ worth of private property
+was swept away daily, until the Chilians got tired of murder, of rapine,
+of pillage and devastation. It was these which General Hurlbut tried to
+prevent, and had our Government supported him, or at least had not
+interfered, he would have been successful. As it is, the Chilians laugh
+and the Peruvians mutter curses, when “the foreign policy of the United
+States” is mentioned. It is said that Hurlbut exceeded his instructions,
+and much of the blame of failure was thrown upon him. He was a proud and
+sensitive man, and felt censure keenly. His disgrace, and the neglect of
+his Government to sustain him in the attitude he had taken, not only
+shortened but ended his life, and he died in Lima a broken-hearted man.
+But he has been canonized by the people of Peru as a political saint,
+and they worship his memory as they do that of Bolivar--the Washington
+of South America, the man who gave liberty to five republics. They
+regard Hurlbut as the noblest of all Americans. His portrait hangs in
+their parlors, and is still for sale at the photograph galleries and
+picture stores. His funeral was attended by the greatest demonstration
+Peru has ever witnessed, and the grateful people would erect a statue to
+him if they had money enough left to pay the expense.
+
+When Chili conquered Peru, Admiral Lynch, the Irishman who commanded the
+Chilian army, set up General Iglesias as “provisional President until
+the pacification of the country.” General Caceres, who commanded a
+division of _montañes_, or mountaineers, refused to surrender, and
+rejected the terms of peace dictated by Chili. He retired to the Andes,
+and carried on a guerilla warfare as long as the Chilian army was in
+Peru. When Lynch and his legions retired, Caceres turned his attention
+to the government with the alliterative title which the Chilians left in
+Lima, and for three years kept Iglesias busy defending the coast and the
+capital from his assaults. Business was almost entirely suspended;
+commerce was stagnant, because Peruvians were producing nothing, and had
+no money to pay for imported goods. The people lived on the pawn-shops,
+and the Government, deprived of its revenues, resorted to extreme
+conscription and confiscation measures. Caceres hovered around Lima for
+three years with his army of Indian guerillas, doing little fighting,
+but producing terror everywhere. Iglesias had no force to suppress his
+rival, and could only defend the capital and chief seaports against
+attack.
+
+In the centre of Lima, as in all Spanish-American towns, is a plaza, or
+public square, with a fountain and statuary in the centre, and the
+palace, the cathedral, the archbishop’s residence, the municipal
+offices, and other public institutions facing it on the four sides. Into
+this plaza, the very heart of the city, in August, 1885, the Government
+troops permitted Caceres and his mountaineers to come; but they had
+
+[Illustration: BETWEEN BATTLES, BALLS.]
+
+sufficient notice of his approach to enable them to place sharp-shooters
+in the towers of the churches, cannon on the roof of the palace, and
+musketeers on the roofs of all the buildings around it. The buildings
+are two stories high, with the front walls reaching two or three feet
+above the roof, so that those who participated in this novel defence of
+the city had good breastworks to protect them. When Caceres came into
+the plaza he was met with volleys from all sides, and the pavements were
+strewn with the dead. He made a desperate struggle, but his Indians, few
+of whom had ever been in a city before, and none of whom had ever been
+under fire, scattered and were lost in the labyrinth of narrow streets,
+where they were pursued and killed by cavalrymen, who plunged out of the
+palace at full gallop when it was seen that the forces of Caceres were
+wavering. Of the three thousand men who came with the mountain general,
+two thousand lay dead or wounded upon the pavements of Lima before the
+battle was two hours old, and with the rest, who were called together by
+trumpeters, Caceres retired to Arequipa to prepare for another campaign.
+
+On the last day of December, 1885, he repeated the attack with better
+success, and captured the city, ending a seven years’ war in Peru. A
+provisional government was organized until April, when Caceres was
+elected constitutional President, and has since, in a thorough, wise,
+and patriotic way, been trying to restore a crushed and devastated
+nation.
+
+General Andres Caceres, the successful leader, the chosen President of
+Peru for a term ending April, 1890, is a man about fifty years of age, a
+native of the ancient town of Ayacucho, and the son of a colonel of the
+army of Chili. His mother was a Peruvian, and his father spent the later
+years of his life in Peru. The mother had Indian blood in her veins, and
+from her Caceres has inherited much of the Indian disposition and
+character which have given him his popularity among the montañes who
+followed his standard in the struggle. At an early age Caceres entered
+the army, and having by his daring energy and military skill won the
+confidence and admiration of President Castilla, was sent to Europe to
+learn the art of war in the French and German military schools. Upon his
+return he was detailed for duty as an engineer, but when the war with
+Chili broke out he was made a general of division, and was perhaps the
+most successful officer in the Peruvian army.
+
+Don Miguel Iglesias, the head of the government which Caceres tried so
+long to overthrow, is a descendant of one of the oldest and most
+aristocratic families of Peru, and before the war with Chili he occupied
+several posts of eminence and honor, having been Secretary of the
+Treasury, and afterwards Secretary of War. He is a _plantador_, or
+planter, and lives at the old town of Caxamarca, which the readers of
+Prescott’s story of the Conquest will remember as the seat of Atahualpa.
+During the war with Chili General Iglesias also took a prominent part,
+but was not considered a successful military leader, having no taste or
+inclination in that direction. After the downfall of the Calderon
+government Iglesias was made provisional President, and continued to
+exercise power for four years, but lacked the energy and ability
+necessary to meet the crisis; and although the people generally regarded
+him as an honest and patriotic man, he lost their confidence, and the
+victory of Caceres was welcomed.
+
+Another of the leading men of Peru is Don Nicolas Pierola, who has been
+a conspicuous figure in the political dramas and military tragedies that
+have been enacted during the last ten years, and will continue to be
+heard from in the future. He has had a most remarkable career, having
+been four times banished from the republic. Pierola is a son-in-law of
+the ill-starred Emperor Iturbide of Mexico, whose daughter he met while
+a student in Paris. His life has been a romantic one, and illustrates
+the ups and downs of South American politics. Pierola _père_ was a
+famous scientist and _littérateur_, and was the intimate friend and
+co-worker of Humboldt, Sir Humphry Davy, Doctor Von Tschudi, the
+Austrian philosopher, and other men of that age. He was for a long time
+a professor of natural sciences at the University of Madrid, and
+returned to Peru, his native country, to pursue his inquiries into the
+traditions of the Incas, and to preside over the university at Arequipa,
+the second city in Peru. He had something to do with politics too, and
+was the Peruvian Minister of Finance for several years.
+
+[Illustration: A WARRIOR AT REST.]
+
+Pierola the younger, who was educated in Europe, is one of the most
+accomplished and able men in South America. He commenced life as an
+editor, and in 1864 became the manager of _El Tiempo_, the organ of
+President Pezot, who was overthrown by a revolutionary army under
+General Prado. The latter banished the young and ardent editor until he
+was himself overthrown. Then Pierola returned to Peru, and became the
+Minister of Finance under President Balta, being the ruling spirit of
+the administration, and inaugurating the vast system of public
+improvements under Henry Meiggs. Prado again led a successful
+revolution, and in 1878 Pierola was banished for the second time. When
+the war with Chili broke out he returned to Peru, and tendered his
+allegiance and his sword to the man who had driven him into exile. His
+services were accepted, and he became the commander of a regiment, and
+afterwards a general of division.
+
+In December, 1879, President Prado deserted his post and secretly fled
+from the country, leaving a proclamation on his desk which authorized
+the Vice-President to exercise the duties of the office “until he had
+returned from the transaction of some very urgent and important business
+which demanded his presence abroad.” The army of Chili had been
+successful in several battles, and was marching upon the capital. The
+army of Peru had been practically destroyed; its ports were blockaded,
+its treasury was empty, and the President, Prado, had fled from the
+results of his blundering imbecility. He has never returned, and is
+understood to be in Europe.
+
+There was a mere gleam of hope left for Peru, and the people called on
+Pierola to become their leader. A junta or convention of leading men was
+quickly called, and the power of military and political chief, which is
+the polite way of describing a dictator, was conferred upon Pierola. He
+had no money, no ammunition, and only the frightened remnants of a
+demoralized army; but he made the best fight he could, and compelled the
+Chilian army to stop the carnival of devastation they had begun. When
+Peru was conquered the Chilian Government would not recognize Pierola as
+dictator, and in the absence of Prado, the constitutional President, set
+up a dummy administration of their own choice, with which terms of peace
+were made, forfeiting the strip of territory containing the deposits of
+guano and nitrate of soda. This was what
+
+[Illustration: GATE-WAY TO THE ANDES.]
+
+Chili desired, and for this she made the war. Her Government knew that
+Pierola would never consent to sacrifice the richest portion of the
+republic, hence it refused to treat with him, and caused his banishment
+for the third time.
+
+Pierola went to France again, and remained in exile until May, 1885,
+when he was sent for by the business men of Lima, who endeavored to
+secure a suspension of hostilities between Caceres and Iglesias, the
+leaders of the rival factions of Peru, and to place Pierola in power, in
+order to restore peace to the country and revive its paralyzed trade and
+industries. He returned reluctantly, and his friends arranged to have
+him proclaimed President, but the Iglesias Government hearing of the
+plot, banished him for a fourth time, shortly before Caceres captured
+the city. Pierola is now in France, but expects to return to Peru, and
+do his share towards restoring the country. This can be done only by the
+introduction of foreign capital and labor, as the land-owners and
+merchants of Peru are bankrupt, and the native laboring element largely
+reduced by the casualties of almost thirteen years of constant warfare.
+A large amount of English and American capital is already going into the
+country, and will tempt labor to follow. The most important act of the
+Government has been to contract with Mr. Michael P. Grace, of New York,
+recently, for the completion of the famous Oroya railroad, and the
+development of the Cerro del Pasco mines.
+
+A quarter of a century ago an unknown man, a fugitive from justice,
+arrived at the port of Callao, and appeared among the Spaniards, as
+Manco Capac, at once the Adam and the Christ of the Incas, appeared to
+the Indians two thousand years before. As the mysterious and deified
+Manco Capac taught the Indians a knowledge of the agricultural and
+mechanical arts, this unknown man taught their successors to build
+railroads, and stands to-day as the ideal of Yankee enterprise and
+engineering genius. He plunged the Government of Peru into a debt that
+will never be paid, but laid the foundations for a system of internal
+development that would bring the republic great wealth if peace could be
+only secured.
+
+[Illustration: HENRY MEIGGS.]
+
+Everybody has heard of Henry Meiggs, the partner of Ralston, the
+California banker, who drowned himself in the Golden Gate, the friend of
+Flood, O’Brien, Mackey, Sharon, and one of the princes of the golden era
+of ’49. Bret Harte has written of him, and Mark Twain has used him as a
+text. He committed forgeries in San Francisco years ago, and when his
+crime was discovered he took a boat and rowed out into the bay; but
+instead of jumping overboard, as Ralston did twenty years afterwards, he
+climbed upon the deck of a schooner, purchased her, and sailed away from
+the scene of his remarkable career. He went to Peru, bringing much of
+his wealth and all of his irresistible energy with him. These he applied
+to the difficulties that had staggered that country, and overcame them.
+He sent back money to California to reimburse with good interest those
+who lost by his forgeries, but remained away till he died, one of the
+richest, most influential, and famous men on the coast. From Ecuador to
+Patagonia, through Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, Meiggs’s enterprises
+extended, and the result is a series of railroads at right angles with
+the coast, connecting the interior of the country with the seaports, and
+giving the estates, and the mines in the mountains, the sugar haciendas,
+and the nitrate beds, easy outlets to the ocean. Nearly every port on
+the west coast has its little railroad, from twenty to two hundred and
+fifty miles in length, some of them reaching into the very heart of the
+Andes, the arteries of the continent’s commerce, and intended to make
+profitable possessions which would otherwise have no worth.
+
+The Oroya road, which Meiggs left incomplete, has been counted as the
+eighth wonder of the world, for there is nothing in the Rocky Mountains
+or the Alps which compares with it as an example of engineering science,
+or presents more sublime scenery. But neither scenic grandeur nor
+engineering genius can alone make a railroad pay, particularly if it
+goes nowhere. In this instance the money gave out, and Meiggs died when
+the road was only partially completed, there remaining fifty miles
+between the present terminus (Chicla) and the point which was aimed
+at--the mines of Cerro del Pasco, one of the richest and most extensive
+silver deposits in the world. Most of the grading and tunnelling between
+Chicla and the mines has been completed, and it only remains to lay the
+ties and rails and put in the bridges to send a locomotive over the
+Andes into the great valley which stretches north and south between the
+two Cordilleras. This Mr. Grace has agreed to do. The completion of the
+line to the mining regions will cost ten million dollars, but that
+portion already constructed and in operation, with all its rolling
+stock, station-houses, and equipments of every sort, he gets for
+practically nothing, as under the conditions of a ninety-nine years’
+lease he has the use of the railroad and all that belongs with
+
+[Illustration: THE HEART OF THE ANDES.]
+
+it free for the first seven years, and pays but twenty-five thousand
+dollars per year rental for the property during the remainder of the
+term. In other words, Mr. Grace gets a property which cost twenty-seven
+million six hundred thousand dollars, eighty-six miles of railroad
+already equipped and in operation, fifty miles of the most expensive
+tunnelling and grading in the world for nothing, provided he will
+complete the line. And more than this, he gets the Cerro del Pasco
+silver mines, which were worked for centuries by the Jesuits, and have
+yielded hundreds of millions of dollars even under the primitive system
+of working which was applied to them by the monks and the native
+Indians. They were discovered by a native, who while watching sheep on
+the hills was overtaken by night. He piled together a few stones, under
+the lee of which he built a fire. In the morning he noticed that the
+heat had split some of the stones, and he was attracted by something
+shining from what had been the interior of one of them. He picked up the
+stone, and took it home to show to his friends. The bright substance was
+found to be silver, and the great mines of the Cerro del Pasco were
+discovered.
+
+From 1630 to 1824 the mines of the Cerro del Pasco are said to have
+produced nearly twenty-seven thousand two hundred tons of pure silver.
+The ore is not in fissure veins, but in an enormous mass, similar to the
+carbonates of Leadville, and yields from forty to one hundred dollars
+per ton. It is worked at a cost of three dollars per ton. Even the
+tailings, which the priests and Indians have left during the two and a
+half centuries they have been digging away in their rude manner, can be
+shipped to New York at a profit, and they amount to millions of tons,
+with silver enough in them, it is estimated, to pay the cost of
+constructing the road, and to afford it a business that will pay the
+expense of operating.
+
+[Illustration: AN INCA REMINISCENCE.]
+
+About ten per cent. of the Cerro del Pasco district is now occupied by
+native miners, who are pegging along in the old-fashioned way, losing
+more silver than they gain in their operations, and securing about
+one-quarter of the profit they could obtain by the use of improved
+machinery. Their mines are constantly flooded with water, and have to be
+abandoned for the greater part of the year. There are also a number of
+old mines, which were worked first by the Jesuits and then by the
+Government, but which have been given up long since and allowed to fill
+with water. These abandoned mines Mr. Grace agrees to pump and place in
+working order, and when they are cleared he has the privilege of working
+them to his own profit for ninety-nine years. The local miners have
+agreed to give him twenty per cent. of their gross product for
+introducing pumping machinery and operating it. The same set of pumps
+will serve the whole district, and the revenue which will be derived
+from the native miners will pay the expense of keeping in order the
+mines which Mr. Grace will operate. It is estimated that seven hundred
+and fifty thousand dollars will clean up the property and pay for the
+necessary machinery to do thorough work, and the profits cannot be
+overestimated if all that is told of the mines is true.
+
+I will not repeat the fables and tradition about these mines, of which
+the air is full. The El Dorado for which the world was hunting two
+centuries ago was but a shadow of the substance said to have been found
+here. Away in the heart of the Andes, almost beyond the reach of men,
+involving an enormous cost for transportation, and an expense of
+operation which miners of modern times would consider unprofitable, the
+priests and monks in past centuries found untold tons of treasure. The
+one-fifth which was always set apart for the King of Spain, and of which
+a record was scrupulously kept by the viceroys, reached into the
+millions, and the tithes which were paid to the Church amounted to
+millions more. During the last few decades the mines have scarcely been
+worked, for as large a product of silver as Peru could consume was found
+in more convenient localities.
+
+[Illustration: COWHIDE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC.]
+
+The railroad was begun by Mr. Meiggs in 1870. Starting from the sea, it
+ascends the narrow valley of the once sacred Rimac, rising five thousand
+feet in the first forty-six miles to a beautiful valley, where the
+people of Lima have found an attractive summer resort; then it follows a
+winding, giddy pathway along the edge of precipices and over bridges
+that seem suspended in the air, tunnels the Andes at an altitude of
+fifteen thousand six hundred and forty-five feet--the most elevated spot
+in the world where a piston-rod is moved by steam--and ends at Oroya,
+twelve thousand one hundred and seventy-eight feet above the sea.
+Between the coast and the summit there is not an inch of down grade, and
+the track has been forced through the mountains by a series of
+sixty-three tunnels, whose aggregate length is twenty-one thousand feet.
+The great tunnel of Galera, by which the pinnacle of the Andes is
+pierced, will be, when completed, three thousand eight hundred feet
+long, and will be the highest elevation on the earth’s surface where any
+such work has been undertaken. Besides boring the mountains of granite
+and blasting clefts along their sides to rest the track upon, deep
+cuttings and superb bridges, the system of reverse tangents had to be
+adopted in cañons that were too narrow for a curve. So the track zigzags
+up the mountain side on the switch and back-up principle, the trains
+taking one leap forward, and after being switched on to another track,
+another leap backward, until the summit is won; so that often there are
+four or five lines of track parallel to each other, one above another,
+on the mountain side. Almost the entire length of the road was made by
+blasting. There is no earth in sight except what was carted for use in
+ballasting, and the work of grading was done, not by the pick and
+shovel, but with the drill and hundreds of thousands of pounds of
+powder.
+
+[Illustration: INCA RUINS OF UNKNOWN AGE.]
+
+It is estimated that the construction of this road cost Peru seven
+thousand lives. Pestilence and accident, landslides, falling boulders,
+premature explosions, _sirroche_--a disease which attacks those who are
+not accustomed to the rare air of the high latitudes--fevers due to the
+deposits of rotten granite, and other causes resulted in a frightful
+mortality during the seven years the road was under construction; but
+the project was pushed on until the funds gave out. The cost in human
+life was no obstacle. At several points it was necessary to lower men by
+ropes over the edges of precipices to drill holes in rocks and put in
+charges of blasting-powder, and this reckless mode of construction was
+attended by frequent fatalities. A curious accident occurred at one
+point on the line, where a plumber was soldering a leak in a water-pipe.
+A train of mules, loaded with cans of powder, was being driven up the
+trail. One of them rubbed against the plumber, who struck at the animal
+with his red-hot soldering-iron, which in some way came in contact with
+the powder, and caused an explosion that blew the whole train of mules,
+the gang of workmen, the plumber, and everybody who was by, over the
+precipices, the sides and bottom of which were strewn with fragments of
+men and mules for a mile.
+
+[Illustration: A SETTLEMENT OF THIS CENTURY.]
+
+The scenic grandeur of the Andes is presented nowhere more impressively
+than along the cañon of the Rimac River, which this railroad follows.
+The mountains are entirely bare of vegetation, and are monster masses of
+rock, torn and twisted, rent and shattered by tremendous volcanic
+upheavals. At
+
+[Illustration: A CITY OF FOUR CENTURIES AGO.]
+
+the bottom of the cañon, and where it occasionally spreads out into a
+valley of minute dimensions, are the remains of towns and cities, whose
+origin is hidden in the mists of fable, and whose history is unknown.
+This region bears no resemblance to any other picture of nature--lifted
+above the rest of the world, as coldly and calmly silent, as
+impenetrable, as the arctic stars. Here was developed a civilization
+which left memorials of its advancement, genius, and industry carved in
+massive stone, and written upon the everlasting hills in symbols which
+even the earthquakes have been unable to erase. Here are the ruins of
+cities which were more populous than any that have existed in Peru
+since--evidences of industry which their destroyers were too indolent to
+imitate, and of a skill which could cope with everything but the
+destructive weapons of the invaders. A survey of their remains justifies
+the estimates given of their enormous population, which are that the
+people once herded in these narrow valleys were as numerous as those now
+spread over the United States. The struggle which they had to sustain
+themselves is shown in the traces of their industry and patience. They
+built their dwellings upon rocks, and buried their dead in caves, in
+order to utilize what soil there was for agriculture. They excavated
+great areas in the desert until they reached moisture enough for
+vegetation, and then brought guano from the islands of the sea to fill
+these sunken gardens. They terraced every hill and mountain side, and
+placed soil in the crevices of the rocks, until not an inch of surface
+that could grow a stalk of maize was left unproductive.
+
+The steep mountains along the Rimac are terraced up to the very summit,
+these terraces being often as narrow as the steps of a stairway, and
+many of them are walled up with stone. They are veritable
+hanging-gardens, and lie on such slopes that they look as if it were
+impossible for any one to get foothold to cultivate them, or even for
+the roots of what was planted there to sustain the mighty winds which
+sometimes sweep down the valley.
+
+[Illustration: A BIT OF INCA ARCHITECTURE.]
+
+The irrigation system of the Incas was perfect, their ditches extending
+for hundreds of miles, and curving around the hills, here sustained by
+high walls of masonry, and there cut through the living rock. They were
+carried over narrow valleys upon enormous embankments, and show evidence
+of engineering skill as great as that which lifted the Meiggs railroad
+above
+
+[Illustration: RELIC OF A PAST CIVILIZATION.]
+
+the clouds into the mountains. Massive dams and reservoirs were erected
+to collect the floods that came from the melting snows, and the water
+was taken to localities which were rainless. Under these conditions, in
+this great struggle for existence, the Incas established and sustained a
+Government--the first in which the equal rights of every human being
+were recognized--and worshipped a being whose attributes were similar to
+those of the Christian God. The great sea, breaking with ceaseless
+thunder upon the rocky coast, impressed the dweller in the desert with
+reverence and awe, and he recognized by an equally natural logic that
+the sun was the source of light and happiness. Hence these two objects,
+the sun and the sea, were personified, and were seated upon the thrones
+in the magnificent pantheons of the Incas. The race which conquered them
+came with dripping swords and lust for plunder. Skilled in the arts of
+peace, but powerless in war, there was no adequate resistance, and the
+blood-and-gold-thirsty Pizarro rode up this valley on a mission of
+murder, rapine, and destruction. The towns stand as he left them, with
+not even an echo to break the silence. Occasionally the Spaniards built
+new places of residence to utilize the improvements of the Incas, but in
+1882 the Chilian army came down the valley, and treated the Peruvians as
+Pizarro had treated the race which he found here.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN.]
+
+A visit to the Incas’ cemeteries, where millions of bodies are buried in
+the drifting sand, gives a clew to the extent of the original
+population, as well as to their arts, religion, and customs. The dead
+were preserved after the custom of ancient Egypt, and a few moments’
+toil with a shovel will disclose mummies whose features are perfectly
+preserved, whose eyes are petrified, whose fingers are clasped with
+rings, and who are surrounded with such implements and utensils as those
+who buried them thought they would need in the other world. As the
+soldier takes his blanket and the cooking-kit, his food and his
+portable treasures, so did the doctrine of future life cause the dead
+Incas to be equipped for their departure from one world to another. In
+this rainless region, protected by the magnetic sand, nothing can decay,
+and the contents of the Inca graves are as well preserved as if their
+age were counted by days instead of centuries. Wood, vegetable, and
+flesh petrify, fabrics and articles of stone and clay are preserved.
+There is no moisture to produce decay of the bodies, and there are no
+insects to consume them. The contents of the sand-hills are protected
+from every form of destruction, and their extent has never been
+measured.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD SETTLER.]
+
+[Illustration: FRESH FROM THE TOMB.]
+
+It is still fashionable to go on resurrection expeditions to the Inca
+burying-grounds for mummies, and for the articles that were placed in
+their graves. In each grave are found articles of decoration, as well as
+the utensils required by the spirits to set up house-keeping in the
+happy land--rings and other ornaments of gold and silver, cups and
+platters of both metals made in quaint designs, copper articles, strings
+of beads, weaving and cooking apparatus, water-jugs, weapons of war, and
+other curiosities that interest antiquarians nowadays. Professor
+Ramondi, a distinguished French scientist in Lima, has a collection of
+Inca relics for which he was offered two hundred thousand dollars in
+gold by the British Museum. Under the patronage of the Government he is
+writing a voluminous work on the antiquities of Peru, three volumes of
+which have been published, and five more are yet to come.
+
+The most curious things in Peru are the mummies’ eyes--petrified
+eyeballs--which are usually to be found in the graves, if one is careful
+in digging. The Incas had a way of preserving the eyes of the dead from
+decay, some process which modern science cannot comprehend, and the
+eyeballs make very pretty settings for pins. They are yellow, and hold
+light like an opal. It is an accepted theory among scientists, however,
+that before the burial of their mummies the Incas replaced the natural
+eye with that of the squid, or cuttle-fish, and that these beautiful
+things are shams.
+
+
+
+
+LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA.
+
+
+“The Callao painter” is something that skippers dread. Its brush is the
+breeze, and its pigments are in the air. It comes and goes without
+premonition, and its work is usually done in the night. A vessel will
+enter the harbor of Callao with its timbers as white as the virgin snow,
+and its planking as clean as holy-stone and elbow-grease can make them.
+The disgusted sailors may awaken in the morning and find everything
+covered with a brown, nasty film, which penetrates the cabin, and even
+the battened hatchways of the vessel, filling the air with a repulsive
+odor, and clinging to the wood-work until it is scraped off. It looks
+like a chocolate-colored frost, but does not melt in the sun. When it is
+damp one can remove it easily, but if it once dries it sticks like
+paint, and its tenacity is not easily overcome. The origin and source of
+this mysterious and aggravating artist is unknown, but it is peculiar to
+that harbor. Nowhere else is the phenomenon noticed, or at least
+ship-masters who have sailed the world over say that Callao is the only
+place where a ship can be painted inside and outside in a single night.
+Of course there are theories about it which may or may not hold good,
+and over them scientific minds have argued, and will argue interminably.
+Some say that the guano is forced up by vapors into the atmosphere,
+while others assert that it is a species of volcanic dust driven through
+the water by subterranean forces. However, the only point on which all
+agree is that it is a repulsive phenomenon, and has been the cause of
+more profanity than anything else which seamen encounter on the west
+coast. It is never noticed on land, but only in the harbor, and for a
+few miles up and down the shore.
+
+The glory of Callao as a shipping centre has departed. Where formerly
+there were a hundred vessels in the harbor, there are only half a dozen
+now. The lack of trade in Peru, the poverty of the people, the enormous
+tariffs imposed by the Government, and the exorbitant port dues charged,
+have driven commerce away. Two years ago the Government in its poverty
+and need of funds was willing to dispose of everything it could control
+for spot cash, and practically sold the harbor at Callao to a French
+company, to whom the docks and anchorage have been leased for a term of
+years at two hundred thousand dollars a year. This company has the right
+to tax shipping to any extent it pleases, and has established a system
+of rules so oppressive as to drive most of the vessels away.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE PERU’S WEALTH CAME FROM.]
+
+From Callao to Valparaiso the coast is a panorama of desolation--a
+constant succession of bleak and barren cliffs, with not a green or
+lovely thing for fifteen hundred miles. On one side is the Pacific
+Ocean, with its great swells sweeping almost around the globe, as
+regular and constant as the throbbings of the human pulse. On the other
+side rise the impenetrable Andes in a range whose altitude averages
+fifteen thousand feet, and whose peaks tower twenty and twenty-two
+thousand feet above the sea. Between the ocean and the mountains for a
+thousand miles, with a varying width from twenty to fifty miles, lies a
+strip of drifting sand, which no rivers water, and where rain never
+falls. All the water used by the inhabitants is taken from the ocean,
+that for mechanical purposes being used in its natural condition, and
+that for food being condensed into steam, and purged of its salt by
+machinery. There is not a well or a spring along the coast, and
+drinking-water is an article of merchandise, like ice or flour, costing
+about seven cents a gallon to the consumers.
+
+Some distance below Callao, upon a great rock which rises from the sea,
+and shows an unbroken surface to the western sun, is carved the image of
+a candelabra--an eight-horned candlestick--about one hundred feet long
+and fifty feet across from end to end of the lower arms. The execution
+is perfect, and it is said to be carved in lines about a foot deep and a
+yard wide. When and how the picture came there no one can tell. The
+oldest sailor on the coast says that the oldest man he knew when a boy
+could tell nothing of its origin. They call it “The Miraculous
+Candlestick,” and pious Catholics say that St. James dropped it when he
+came to Peru and placed himself at the head of the Spaniards, at the
+time they were driving the Incas out of their ancient homes.
+
+In the interior of Peru, upon a similar rock, is the imprint of a human
+foot as long as a pikestaff, which is supposed to mark where the Apostle
+alighted when he dropped down from heaven to aid in the subjugation of
+the heathen and the triumph of the Cross. At any rate, like the foot of
+St. James, this image of the Holy Candlestick, if made by human labor,
+must have cost months and months of toil at a time when such things were
+needed to impress the Indians with a reverence for the Church of Rome
+and the doctrines it taught. Sometimes, if the wind blows seaward, the
+carving is covered by the drifting sand, when the padre of the nearest
+village goes down with a lot of Indians to dig it out.
+
+[Illustration: A PERUVIAN PORT.]
+
+The first port of importance on the coast south of Callao is the town of
+Mollendo (pronounced _Molyendo_), the western terminus of the railway
+that furnishes means of communication for Bolivia and the interior of
+Peru to the sea. It was built in 1876 by Henry Meiggs for the Peruvian
+Government, at a cost of forty-four million dollars--an enormous average
+of one hundred and thirty-five thousand dollars per mile; for it is only
+three hundred and twenty-five miles long. Its western terminus is the
+highest point now reached by steam, being something over fourteen
+thousand five hundred feet above the sea, although the Oroya road will
+be higher when it reaches the Cerro del Pasco mines. No other railway in
+the world can show an equal amount of excavation or such massive
+embankments, but the Oroya road has more tunnels. The line is now under
+the management of a Boston man, Mr. Thorndike, and everything is
+conducted upon the United States plan. Along the side of the track, for
+a distance of eighty-five miles, is an eight-inch iron pipe, for the
+purpose of supplying the stations with water, as there is none on the
+coast; and it is the longest aqueduct in the world, coming from springs
+in the mountains, seven thousand feet above the sea, to the port of
+Mollendo.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD TRAIL.]
+
+Across a hot, lifeless, desolate desert the railway runs one hundred and
+seven miles to the city of Arequipa--the name appropriately signifying
+“a place of rest;” and it is one of the oldest, most celebrated, and
+beautiful towns in Peru, situated in a small oasis in the desert, rich
+in its agricultural resources, and surrounded by valuable mines. Just
+behind the city is as magnificent and imposing a mountain as can be
+found anywhere in the world--the volcano Misti, 18,538 feet high, and
+covered with eternal snow. The city was founded by Pizarro in 1540, and
+has always been second to Lima in size and importance, being the
+political as well as the commercial capital of the Southern provinces,
+and the seat of a university which for nearly three hundred years has
+been the most famous upon the west coast in South America, and has
+
+[Illustration: AREQUIPA.]
+
+graduated the most eminent scholars and statesmen in the history of
+Peru.
+
+Crossing the Paso de Arricroo between the greatest cluster of peaks in
+the Andes, south of Quito, the railway reaches Vuicarrago, one hundred
+miles from Arequipa, the highest town in the world, where the barometer
+in the plaza shows an elevation of 14,443 feet. The ascent to it is
+usually made by stages, the traveller taking two or three days for it,
+so as to accustom himself gradually to the altitude; for the sudden
+change from tide-water to this enormous elevation--a distance of only
+two hundred and seven miles--generally brings on that distressing
+disease sirroche. It is always painful, and often dangerous. The first
+symptom is numbness of the limbs, then dizziness and nausea; the blood
+bursts from the ears and nose, the lips crack and bleed, a feeling of
+faintness makes it impossible to stand, and there is no cure but
+absolute quiet or a return to a lower altitude. During the construction
+of the railway a great many men died from the effects of the dreaded
+sirroche, which is often followed by a sudden and quickly fatal mountain
+fever. Few people escape the ailment, and no animal but the llama and
+others of that species native to the mountain regions can survive. At
+every town along the road droves of llamas can be seen which have been
+driven in from the mountain settlements laden with furs and skins, or
+with ore from the mines. The llama is the only beast of burden in the
+Upper Andes, and is docile, patient, sure-footed, and speedy. It can
+carry a burden of one hundred pounds, which is fastened to a
+pack-saddle, and when that weight is exceeded will lie down and refuse
+to move until the surplus is removed. The llama is about as large as a
+one-year-old colt or a good-sized black-tail buck. It has a heavy coat
+of wool; but those that are used for transportation purposes are seldom
+sheared.
+
+The vicuña, a sort of gazelle, a gentle, timid animal, is found in large
+numbers in the interior of the Andes, particularly in Bolivia. It is
+fawn-colored, has long, soft, silken hair, with a peculiar gloss that
+resembles what are known as “changeable
+
+[Illustration: THE VICUÑA.]
+
+silks,” and changes color in different lights. In the old Inca days,
+before the Spanish invasion, centuries ago, the vicuña was the royal
+ermine of the Inca kings, and no one but the Imperial family and nobles
+of a certain rank was allowed to wear it. The animal was also protected
+by some sacred tradition, and was allowed to go unharmed in the forests,
+where it accumulated in great numbers; but the Spanish invaders,
+regardless of all rights, human and divine, hunted it down, and
+slaughtered it for food. The Indians expected that some severe penalty
+would be visited upon the invaders for destroying and eating the sacred
+animal, and lost faith when they escaped divine retribution. Now vicuña
+skins are very scarce and are expensive, and the natives attempt to
+
+[Illustration: LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+impose upon strangers who seek them robes made of the skins of guanaco
+kids, killed and skinned the moment they are born.
+
+The guanaco is supposed to be a cross of the vicuña and the llama, and
+is next in value and beauty to the vicuña. If the kid is killed the
+moment it is born the hair has the same color, and is about as fine as
+the genuine vicuña, but is not so long or so luscious. This animal is
+numerous, easily domesticated, and breeds rapidly. It is almost as
+plentiful in South America as the goat, and is valuable for its skin and
+flesh. The body is deep at the breast, but narrow at the loins, and is
+covered with long, soft, very fine hair, which is usually a pale yellow,
+except under the belly, where it is a beautiful snowy white. It has many
+of the characteristics of the North American deer, being very
+swift-footed and graceful, combined with the strength and endurance of
+the llama, being able to carry a load of from seventy-five to one
+hundred and twenty-five pounds for a long distance. The flesh resembles
+that of the antelope, but is not as juicy as venison. The skin is
+invaluable to the Indians, as it furnishes the material of which their
+garments are made. Occasionally in the stomach of a guanaco is found
+what is called a “bezoar” stone, a magical sort of affair, which will
+cure any kind of disease if carried in the pocket. Large numbers of
+guanaco skins are sent to Europe, where they are used for carriage
+robes, for lining coats and cloaks, for trimming, and for other purposes
+to which fine fur is adapted. Large quantities of alpaca and also llama
+wool are exported from Chili and Peru; some of it comes to the United
+States.
+
+The alpaca is a sort of cross between the llama and the sheep. The
+llamas, alpacas, and guanacos have a peculiar way of defending
+themselves. If abused or made angry by teasing, they will turn upon
+their assailants, and squirt a pint or so of saliva, like a shower-bath,
+from between their teeth, being able to throw it with great force five
+or six feet. If this saliva gets into the mouth or eyes, or upon any
+place on the flesh where the skin is broken, it is poisonous, and
+inflammation sets in at once. It is said that men frequently die of
+blood-poisoning from this cause, and a native will keep clear of the
+nose of a vicious guanaco as a colored person will avoid the heels of an
+Irish mule.
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN CUZCO.]
+
+Traversing the pass of Alto del Crucero, 14,660 feet above the level of
+the sea, and the highest altitude reached by any railway in the world,
+the road descends into the great basin of Titicaca, the heart of the
+Andes, stretching northward and southward between the two great chains
+of the Cordilleras for fifteen hundred miles, almost level, and twelve
+thousand feet above the ocean. Here in majestic splendor lies Lake
+Titicaca, one of whose islands was the Eden of the Incas, the birthplace
+of that prehistoric empire whose civilization has been the wonder and
+mystery of centuries. Here Manco
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF AN INCA TEMPLE.]
+
+Capac (the Adam) and Mama Ocllo (the Eve) of Inca tradition, the
+Children of the Sun, arose like Aphrodite, and bearing a golden rod,
+marched down the valley until they reached the place where Cuzco now
+stands, and there commanded the Indians to erect a city, the seat of an
+Imperial dynasty which lasted a thousand years, and possessed a wealth
+and an industry that had no measure. Around the lake stand the mighty
+temples and palaces, erected of blocks of stone as large as those of the
+Pyramids, quarried and conveyed by means that still remain a mystery,
+and will never be known. These monuments of an extinct civilization,
+these evidences of art and industry that surpass any prehistoric
+architecture on the earth, are standing now in mute impressiveness,
+mocking decay, as they taunted the conquistadors who tried to overthrow
+them. But the Spaniards stripped them of their treasures, murdered their
+inmates, and destroyed everything that could not withstand their power.
+
+[Illustration: CONVENT OF SANTA DOMINGO, CUZCO.]
+
+The riches of Peru and Bolivia have been their curse from the time when
+Pizarro invaded the continent to the plunder of their nitrate deposits
+by Chili. It is true that few countries have suffered from such an evil,
+but it is nevertheless a fact that the wealth of these republics has
+been the cause of their disasters. For three hundred years the people
+sat with folded hands, and enjoyed the profits of the development of
+their natural resources by foreigners, and now, stripped of them, sit
+impoverished, mourning the departure of their prosperity.
+
+Just how much plunder Pizarro got in his raids upon the Incas is not
+known, and cannot be estimated, but millions went to the King of Spain
+as his twenty per cent.; the Catholic Church got millions more as her
+share; Sir Francis Drake, John Hawkins, and other pirates got away with
+an immense amount of gold and silver; and the quantity expended in the
+erection of churches, convents, monasteries, and palaces by the viceroys
+is incalculable. History asserts that ninety millions of dollars’ worth
+of precious metals was torn from the Inca temples, and the faithful
+subjects of Atahualpa filled the room in which he was imprisoned with
+gold, in their endeavor to satisfy the avarice of the invaders. Prescott
+and Robertson and other historians tell fabulous stories of the wealth
+of the Incas, and we know it was enough to restore financial prosperity
+to Spain, and to give every cutthroat who came to the coast a fortune.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT THE SPANIARDS LEFT.]
+
+The amount of money made by Peru from her guano deposits cannot be
+estimated any more accurately than by the plunder stolen from the Incas.
+The exports have continued from 1846 to the present day, and the annual
+shipments have amounted to millions of tons, valued between twenty and
+thirty million dollars, and this to the benefit of a State whose
+population has never reached two millions, and three-fourths of which
+were Indians who had no share in its profits. The exhausted lands of the
+Old World required this manure to revive them, and their owners paid
+high prices for what cost Peru nothing. The result of this revenue was
+the continuation of the extravagance among the people which was
+practised by their forefathers when the mountains poured out streams of
+silver. It was an epidemic of riches, and the Government of Peru,
+instead of wisely hoarding its source of wealth and protecting it,
+plunged into a system of reckless expenditure, until the end of the war
+found its revenues cut off and the country burdened with a debt of two
+hundred and fifty million dollars which it never can pay.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE GUANO LIES.]
+
+But even if Peru and Bolivia have been robbed of all their guano, the
+deposits of nitrate of soda in the deserts along their coasts would have
+made them rich again; but Chili has stolen these also. The whole coast,
+from the twenty-third to the twenty-fifth parallel of latitude, appears
+to be one solid mass of this valuable mineral, fit for a hundred
+different uses, and worth in the market from forty to sixty dollars a
+ton. It was discovered in 1833 by an accident, the hero of the
+discovery being a forlorn old Englishman by the name of George Smith.
+There is no telling how much lies in the mines, but it is the opinion of
+those who have explored the country that at the present rate of
+excavation it will take eight or ten centuries to dig it away.
+
+[Illustration: A NITRATE MINING TOWN.]
+
+Under the sand of this desert, which drifts before the wind like snow,
+nature has laid the bed of nitrate. No one knows how it was formed, and
+man has not attempted to measure its extent. The sand is first shovelled
+off, and then a crust of sun-baked clay from four to twelve inches thick
+is removed. This discloses a bed of white material that looks like
+melting marble, full of moisture, and is as soft as cheese. The strata
+is often four or five feet thick, and averages two or three feet. It is
+broken up by crow-bars and shovelled into carts, then taken to crushers,
+which grind it up into particles as large as pebbles. These are lifted
+by elevators into great vats, where it is boiled until dissolved in
+ordinary sea-water. Then the solution is run off into a series of
+shallow iron vats exposed to the air, which, being moistureless, and
+heated by constant sunshine, causes rapid evaporation. The salt from the
+water mixed with the nitrate causes crystallization, and after a
+certain period of exposure to the air and sun the vats are found to be
+covered upon the bottom and sides with white sparkling crystals, like
+alabaster, under a yellowish liquor. This liquor is carefully drawn off,
+for it is even more valuable than the saltpetre, and is conducted by
+pipes to another crucible, where it is boiled and chemically treated
+until it produces the iodine of commerce, useful for a hundred medical
+and chemical purposes, and costing as much per ounce as the saltpetre
+brings per hundred-weight. The liquor having been withdrawn, the
+saltpetre is shovelled upon drying-boards, where it is exposed to the
+sun for a while, then put into bags and shipped to Europe and America.
+It is graded like wheat and corn, according to quality. The highest
+grade goes to the powder-mills, the next to the chemical works, and the
+third to the fertilizer factories, where it is made into manure. The
+iodine is packed in little casks, and covered with green hides, which
+shrink with drying until they are as tight as a drum-head, and keep out
+moisture. It was these nitrate of soda deposits that caused the late war
+between Chili and Peru.
+
+After the independence of South America, when the several republics were
+being divided, Bolivia was given a little strip of land between Peru and
+Chili in order that she might have a pathway to the sea. It lay between
+the twenty-third and the twenty-fifth parallels, and was so recognized
+on all the maps of Chili, as well as those of other nations. It was a
+barren, waterless desert, worthless in every respect, as was originally
+supposed, but some years ago the rich deposits of silver and nitrate of
+soda were discovered. When their value became known, Chili suddenly
+ascertained that under some ancient right this strip of territory
+belonged to her, and kindly offered to divide it with Bolivia in such a
+way as to leave the silver and soda on the Chilian side. Bolivia of
+course resisted, and having a treaty of offence and defence with Peru,
+called upon the latter nation to assist in the defence of her rights.
+This was the real cause of the war. The ostensible excuse for it was
+that Bolivia charged an export duty of ten cents a hundred-weight on
+nitrate exported. This the Chilians deemed excessive, and sent a fleet
+to defend her citizens in refusing to pay it. Now that she has secured
+the territory and the mines, she charges one dollar and twenty-five
+cents a hundred-weight export duty on the same article at the same
+place, and thinks people impertinent when they complain. The results of
+the war are that Bolivia has not only lost her seaports and her nitrate,
+but Peru has lost all her guano and a large portion of her richest
+territory, while Chili is so much the richer.
+
+[Illustration: GUANO ISLANDS.]
+
+At one time Peru might have prevented the invasion of her territory, and
+caused the entire army of Chili to perish, but the instincts of noble
+generosity and the unwritten law of common humanity were observed. If
+Peru had been as merciless as Chili the struggle would have been
+shortened and the result would have been different. Along the coast from
+Guayaquil, Ecuador, to Coquimbo, Chili, a distance of more than two
+thousand miles, stretches a desert on which a drop of rain never fell.
+Occasionally a stream, born of a union between the burning sun and the
+eternal snows of the Andes, finds its way to the sea, bringing
+nourishment to the soil and making a little oasis where men can live.
+But unless the water-supply is very great--and it is only so
+occasionally--the stream is swallowed by the thirsty sands and absorbed
+by the atmosphere, which is so dry that nothing ever decays, and causes
+more rapid evaporation than is known elsewhere. In this desert lie the
+nitrate mines, and towns have sprung up around them the inhabitants of
+which are supplied with water by artificial means. Salt water is turned
+into fresh by means of enormous condensers, and a supply is kept in vast
+iron reservoirs, from which it is sold to the people at a price about
+the same as we pay for beer. At the saloons one can get a glass of
+filtered ice-water for five cents; at the reservoirs a bucket of warm,
+nasty stuff is sold for ten.
+
+If you ask a learned man why it never rains there, he will say that the
+clouds are deprived of all their moisture when they cross the mountains
+from the eastward, and when they come up from the westward ocean are at
+once sucked dry by the heat that radiates from the sun-baked sands.
+Occasionally along the coast are found immense cemeteries in which the
+Incas buried their dead; and the contents of the graves are as well
+preserved as if their age were counted by weeks instead of centuries.
+The most interesting and extensive of the burial grounds is at
+Pachacamac, south of Lima, in Peru, where millions of bodies lie, often
+in three stratas, and very generally in two. Near this place was the
+famous temple dedicated to Pachacamac, the chief divinity of the Incas,
+and whom they acknowledged as the creator of the world. It was the Mecca
+of that day, and each believer was expected to visit it at least once in
+his life. The pilgrims came from all parts of the empire, bringing
+votive-offerings, which made the temple very rich; and Pizarro is said
+to have obtained a vast quantity of plunder from it. Around the temple
+arose a large city of monasteries to accommodate the priests and
+devotees, and inns to shelter the pilgrims; but the place is in ruins
+now.
+
+[Illustration: ACROSS THE CONTINENT.]
+
+At one of these towns the whole army of Chili was concentrated--forty
+thousand men--preparing for the invasion of Peru. The Peruvian gun-boat
+_Huascar_ (pronounced _Wascar_) came into the harbor, and with a few
+shots might have destroyed the reservoirs and the condensing
+establishments, and left these forty thousand men to die of thirst, for
+there was no fresh water within two hundred and fifty miles of them. But
+the commander of the _Huascar_ had a heart. He was a noble, generous
+German--Admiral Grau--and he sent word to the Chillano commander that he
+presented his army with their lives. He said he would not attack
+defenceless men, and sailed off in pursuit of some Chillano gun-boats
+which had run away when they saw the _Huascar_ coming.
+
+[Illustration: A STATION ON THE ROAD.]
+
+The present terminus of the Bolivia railroad is at Puno, a little town
+of five thousand inhabitants, at an elevation of twelve thousand five
+hundred feet; but it is proposed to extend it farther up the valley,
+through another pass of the Andes, and then down the eastern slopes to
+the head of navigation on the Amazon--neither a difficult nor an
+expensive undertaking. An expedition has recently started from Buenos
+Ayres to make an exploration from the head of navigation on the Paraguay
+River into the mountains of Bolivia, for the purpose of constructing a
+cart-road, and ultimately a railroad to connect the mining regions of
+the latter republic with the Atlantic ports of the continent, and great
+hopes are entertained of its success. The little town of Puno owes its
+origin to the rich mines that surround it, and some of them are
+producing generously. It has a small amount of other commerce in hides
+and wool, coca-leaves, and cinchona. It is the centre of the alpaca wool
+trade, and considerable is exported.
+
+To reach La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, from Puno one must cross Lake
+Titicaca, sailing its full length, and, reaching its southern shores,
+mount a mule and ride twenty-five miles along the ancient highway of the
+Incas, a wonderful road, nearly four thousand miles long, built eight
+hundred years or more ago, and still in a good state of preservation,
+notwithstanding the neglect of the Spaniards to keep it in repair.
+
+Perhaps the most glorious monuments of the civilization of the Incas
+were the public or royal roads, extending from the capital to the
+remotest parts of the empire. Their remains are still most impressive,
+both from their extent and the amount of labor necessarily involved in
+their construction, and in contemplating them we know not which to
+admire most--the scope of their projectors, the power and constancy of
+the Incas who carried them to a completion, or the patience of the
+people who constructed them under all the obstacles resulting from the
+topography of the country and from imperfect means of execution. They
+built these roads in deserts, among moving sands reflecting the fierce
+rays of a tropical sun; they broke down rocks, graded precipices,
+levelled hills, and filled up valleys without the assistance of powder
+or of instruments of iron; they crossed lakes, marshes, and rivers, and
+without the aid of the compass followed direct courses in forests of
+eternal shade. They did, in short, what even now, with all of modern
+knowledge and means of action, would be worthy of the most powerful
+nations of the globe. One of the principal of these roads extended from
+Cuzco to the sea, and the other, which is followed to La Paz, ran along
+the crest of the Cordilleras from one end of the empire to the other,
+their aggregate lengths, with their branches, being about four thousand
+miles. Modern travellers compare them, in respect of structure, to the
+best works of the kind in any part of the world. In ascending mountains
+too steep to admit of grading, broad steps were cut in the solid rocks,
+while the ravines and hollows were filled with heavy embankments,
+flanked with parapets, and planted with shade-trees and fragrant shrubs.
+They were from eighteen to twenty-five Castilian feet broad, and were
+paved with immense blocks of
+
+[Illustration: CHASQUIS AT REST.]
+
+stone. At regular distances on these roads tambos--buildings for the
+accommodation of travellers--were erected. To these conveniences were
+added the establishment of a system of posts, by which messages could be
+transmitted from one extremity of the Incas’ dominions to the other in
+an incredibly short time. The service of the posts was performed by
+runners--for the Peruvians possessed no domestic animals swifter of foot
+than man--stationed in small buildings, likewise erected at easy
+distances from each other all along the principal roads. These
+messengers, or _chasquis_, as they were termed, wore a peculiar uniform,
+and were trained to their particular vocation. Each had his allotted
+station, between which and the next it was his duty to speed along at a
+certain pace with the message, dispatch, or parcel intrusted to his
+care. On drawing near to the station at which he had to transmit the
+message to the next courier, who was then to carry it farther, he was to
+give a signal of his approach, in order that the other might be in
+readiness to receive the missive and no time be lost; and thus it is
+said that messages were forwarded at the rate of one hundred and fifty
+miles a day.
+
+[Illustration: CHASQUIS ASLEEP IN THE MOUNTAINS.]
+
+The bridges constructed by the Peruvians were exceedingly simple, but
+were well adapted for crossing those rapid streams which rush down from
+the Andes and defy the skill of the modern engineer. They consisted of
+strong cables of the cabuya, or of twisted rawhide stretched from one
+bank to the other, something after the style of the suspension-bridges
+of our times. Poles were lashed across transversely, covered with
+branches, and these were again covered with earth and stones, so as to
+form a solid floor. Other cables extended along the sides, which were
+interwoven with limbs of trees, forming a kind of wicker balustrade. In
+some cases the mode of transit was in a species of basket or car,
+suspended on a single cable, and drawn from side to side with ropes. It
+would appear at first glance that bridges of this description could not
+be very lasting, yet a few still exist which are said to have been
+constructed by the Incas more than four hundred years ago. The modern
+inhabitants of some parts of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili still use the same
+means of crossing their torrent rivers.
+
+[Illustration: A BIT OF LA PAZ.]
+
+The city of La Paz has about seventy thousand inhabitants, mostly Aymara
+Indians, poor, degraded, and ignorant. The full name of the place is La
+Paz de Ayacucho, and it means “the peace of Ayacucho,” being so
+christened in 1825, to commemorate the victory which established the
+independence of Bolivia from the hated crown of Spain. At that time the
+republic was a part of the old Province of Peru, and a separate State
+was founded by Bolivar, the Venezuelan Liberator of the Continent, who
+gave freedom to these people as he did
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AT LA PAZ.]
+
+to his own countrymen, and the new republic was christened in his honor.
+La Paz was originally called Nuestra Señora de la Paz--“the peace of the
+Virgin”--by Alonzo de Mendoza, who founded it in 1548. It is thirteen
+thousand feet above tide-water, and is surrounded by a group of gigantic
+mountains, the most notable of which is the volcano Illiniani,
+twenty-one thousand three hundred feet high. Through the city runs the
+river Chiquiapo, a noble mountain-stream, which is crossed by a number
+of fine old bridges. The streets are narrow, irregular, and uneven,
+being paved with stone, and having narrow sidewalks, scarcely broad
+enough for two people to pass. The town resembles all others of Spanish
+construction, except that the houses are mostly built of stone instead
+of adobe, the walls being massive and enduring, and in some instances
+ornamented with carved stone or stucco-work. The cathedral is large and
+grand, the front being handsomely carved, and in a niche over the
+entrance stands a marble image of the Virgin, which was presented to the
+city by Charles of Spain, and transported from the seaboard at an
+enormous cost. The cathedral is built entirely of stone, and was over
+forty years in course of erection, hundreds of men being constantly
+employed. No derricks or other machinery were used in its construction,
+but the walls were built in a curious way. As fast as a tier of stone
+was laid, the earth was banked up against it inside and outside, and
+upon this inclined plane the stones for the next tier were rolled into
+their places. Then more earth was thrown on, and the process repeated
+until, when the walls were finished, the whole building was immersed in
+a mountain of dirt. This was allowed to remain until the roof was laid,
+when the earth was carried away upon the backs of llamas and men. It is
+said to have taken thirteen years to clear out the inside of the
+building, as the earth could only be taken away through the narrow
+windows and doors. There are fourteen other churches of considerable
+size, and several large monasteries, which are now used for military
+barracks and schools. A university is sustained by the Government, and
+there is a nominal free-school system, but education is at a low ebb.
+
+In the centre of the city runs the Alameda, a public promenade which is
+frequented by all classes of citizens, and during the twilight hours is
+quite gay. The cemetery is very extensive, and one of the finest in
+South America. There are few stores or shops, most of the trading being
+done in the market-places, where all things are sold, and by peddlers
+who go through the city with baskets of provisions and notions upon
+their heads, crying their wares. The way customers call street-venders
+is worth noticing and imitating. They step to the door or open a window,
+and give utterance to a short sound resembling shir-r-r-r-r--something
+between a hiss and the exclamation used to chase away fowls--and it is
+singular what a distance it can be heard. If the peddler is in sight,
+his attention is at once arrested; he turns, and comes direct to the
+caller, now guided by a signal addressed to his eyes--closing the
+fingers of the right hand two or three times, with the palm downward, as
+if grasping something--a sign in universal use, and signifying “Come.”
+There is here no bawling after people in the streets, for in this quiet
+and ingenious way all classes communicate with passing friends or others
+with whom they wish to speak. The practice dates, I believe, from
+classical times. A curious custom is the peddling of fuel through the
+streets. Llamas are loaded with their own excrement, which when dried in
+the sun is called _taquia_, and sold by the basketful. It is used by all
+classes for cooking.
+
+[Illustration: AN ANCIENT BRIDGE IN LA PAZ.]
+
+The mineral wealth of Bolivia has been proverbial almost from time
+immemorial. The silver-mines of Potosi have long been celebrated as
+perhaps the richest deposit of silver ore in the world. From the year
+1545, when they were discovered, to the year 1864, these mines,
+according to official data, produced the enormous sum of $2,904,902,690
+of our money. Besides Potosi there are other rich silver-mines, and many
+large deposits of gold. The great want of these mines is skilled labor
+and improved modern machinery. In early days the Indians were forced to
+work them against their will, and were treated with great harshness and
+cruelty. The historical student will call to mind the efforts of
+philanthropists to mitigate their sufferings. When their labor could no
+longer be controlled, the mines fell into comparative decay. The
+Indians will not work them with energy and industry to-day. They
+doubtless hold in memory through their traditions the wrongs inflicted
+on their ancestors by merciless taskmasters. If worked by experienced
+miners, with all the improved modern machinery, the gold and silver
+deposits would yield as abundant returns, perhaps, as in the days of
+their early history. Recently a party of Californians have gone into the
+country and taken charge of a gold-mine. If a good many others would
+follow them, mining in Bolivia would experience a renaissance that would
+remind the Bolivians of the El Dorado of the olden time.
+
+[Illustration: A BOLIVIAN ELEVATOR.]
+
+The most useful to mankind of all the natural products of South America
+was quinine, the drug made from the bark of the cinchona-tree, which was
+discovered in Bolivia by a Franciscan friar in the early days of the
+Conquest, and was called cinchona in honor of the Countess of Conchona,
+whose husband was the Viceroy of Peru. She introduced it into Spain as a
+remedy for fevers, and there is no drug in the catalogue that has been
+used in such quantities or with such success by suffering mankind. The
+entire supply formerly came from Peru and Bolivia, and it was known as
+Peruvian bark, but afterwards the forests along the entire chain of the
+Andes were found to contain it, and it furnished one of the chief
+articles of export from South America for three centuries. The supply
+has been greatly diminished by the destruction of the trees, as it was
+the habit formerly to cut down the trunk, and strip it as well as the
+branches of the bark. Nowadays the forests are protected by law, and the
+trees are allowed to stand, a portion of the bark being stripped off
+each year, which nature replaces again.
+
+[Illustration: A BOLIVIAN CAVALRYMAN.]
+
+England, with that provident foresight which characterizes much of her
+political economy, several years ago sent agents into Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia, under the direction of the celebrated botanist Mr. Spruce, and
+made a collection of cinchona plants, which were taken to Java, Ceylon,
+and India, and there have been transplanted and cultivated with great
+success and profit. It is found that under proper treatment the tree
+produces a very much greater amount of quinine, of a much superior
+quality, and at less cost than the bark can be gathered in the mountains
+of South America, so that shipments have almost entirely ceased, and the
+market receives its supply from the British possessions.
+
+[Illustration: A HOME IN THE ANDES.]
+
+Another plant is coming into prominence, and its export has very largely
+increased within the last few years. This is the coca, from which
+cocoaine and other medicinal and nerve stimulants are made. In the
+valleys of the Andes there are, and have been from time immemorial,
+extensive plantations of the coca shrub. It is indigenous in these
+regions, but the natives of Peru and Bolivia cultivate the plant in
+terraces which are likened to the vineyards of Tuscany and the Holy
+Land. _Erythroxylon coca_ is allied to the common flax, and forms, says
+Dr. Johnston, a shrub of six or eight feet, resembling our blackthorn,
+with small white flowers and bright green leaves. The leaves, of which
+there may be three or four crops in the year, are collected by the
+women and children, and dried in the sun, after which they are ready for
+use, and form the usual money exchange in some districts, the workmen
+being paid in coca-leaves. Among the Peruvians and Bolivians the
+coca-leaves are rolled with a little unslaked lime into a ball
+(_acullico_) and chewed in the mouth. Coca-chewing resembles in some
+respects the smoking of opium. Both must be taken apart, and with
+deliberation. The coca chewer, three or four times in the day, retires
+to a secluded spot, lays down his burden, and stretches himself perhaps
+beneath a tree. Slowly from the _chuspa_, or little pouch, which is ever
+at his girdle, the leaves and the lime are brought forth. The ball is
+formed and chewed for perhaps fifteen or thirty minutes, and then the
+toiler rises refreshed as quietly as he lay down, and returns to that
+monotonous round of labor in which the coca is his only and much-prized
+distraction. Some take it to excess, and to these the name of _coquero_
+is given. This is particularly common among white Peruvians of good
+family, and hence the name “Blanco Coquero” in that country is a term of
+reproach equivalent to our “habitual drunkard.” The Indians regard the
+coca with extreme reverence. Von Tschudi, the Austrian scientist, who
+made the most thorough study of the ancient customs of the Incas, says,
+“During divine worship the priests chewed coca-leaves, and unless they
+were supplied with them it was believed that the favor of the gods could
+not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that the supplicator
+for Divine grace should approach the priests with an acullico in his
+mouth. It is believed that any business undertaken without the
+benediction of coca-leaves could not prosper, and to the shrub itself
+worship was rendered. During an interval of more than three hundred
+years Christianity has not been able to subdue this deep-rooted
+idolatry, for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious
+powers of this plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro del Pasco
+throw chewed coca upon hard veins of metal, in the belief that it
+softens the ore and renders it more easy to work. The Indians even at
+the present time put coca-leaves into the mouths of dead persons, in
+order to secure them a favorable reception on their entrance into
+another world, and when a Peruvian on a journey falls in with a mummy,
+he, with timid reverence, presents to it some coca-leaves as his pious
+offering.”
+
+[Illustration: JUAN FERNANDEZ.]
+
+The coca-plant resembles tea and hops in the nature of its active
+principles, although differing entirely from them in its effects. In the
+coqueros the latter are not inviting. “They are,” says Dr. Von Tschudi,
+“a bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an
+ugly black mark at the angles of the mouth. The inveterate coquero is
+known at the first glance; his unsteady gait, his yellow skin, his dim
+and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring, his quivering lips, and his
+general apathy all bear evidence of the baneful effect of the coca-juice
+when taken in excess.” The general influence of moderate doses is gently
+soothing and stimulating; but coca has in addition a special and
+remarkable power in enabling those who consume it to endure sustained
+labor in the absence of other food.
+
+[Illustration: CUMBERLAND BAY.]
+
+Down the coast, just before reaching the city of Valparaiso, is an
+island which possesses an interest for every one who has been a boy.
+Occasionally an excursion visits the place, and the Englishmen, who
+constitute a large fraction of the population of Valparaiso, with what
+few Americans there are, go over to spend a day or two, and renew their
+youth. It is the island of Juan Fernandez, where Robinson Crusoe and his
+man Friday, “who kept things tidy,” had the experience that has given
+the world of boys as much enjoyment as any that ever came from a book.
+There was a Robinson Crusoe--there is not a doubt of it--and there was a
+man Friday too, and the island stands to-day exactly as it is described
+in the narrative; but the surprising adventures of Mr. Crusoe as
+therein related do not correspond exactly with the local traditions of
+the story. The island was a favorite stopping-place for vessels in the
+South Seas, as it has good ship-timber, plenty of excellent water,
+abounds in fruits, goats, rabbits, and other flesh for food, and the
+rocks on the coast are covered with lobsters, shrimps, and crayfish. It
+was a popular resort for buccaneers also, who ran into a well-protected
+harbor to repair damages and get provisions. Juan Fernandez, a famous
+Spanish navigator, discovered it in 1563, and the King of Spain gave him
+a patent to the island, but as he never occupied it his title lapsed. In
+1709 the Scotchman Selkirk, or Selcraig, became mutinous on board the
+ship _Cinque Ports_, and had to choose between being hung at the
+yard-arm or put ashore at Juan Fernandez alone. He took the latter
+alternative, and was left on the rocks with his sailor’s kit and a small
+supply of provisions. To his surprise, after he had been on the island a
+few days, he found a companion in an Indian from the Mosquito Coast of
+Central America, who some years before had come down on the pirate
+_Damphier_, and going ashore on a hunting expedition, was lost and
+abandoned by his comrades. This was the man Friday. Some years after,
+Selkirk and the Indian were rescued by Captain Rogers, of an English
+merchant-ship, and taken to Southampton, where the Scotchman told his
+story to Daniel Defoe, and it got into print, with some romantic
+exaggeration.
+
+The island is accurately described in the story, and the visitor who is
+familiar with “Robinson Crusoe” can find the cave, the mountain-paths,
+and other haunts of the hero without difficulty; but Defoe has located
+it in the wrong geographical position, having placed it on the other
+side of the continent, and mixed up Montevideo with Valparaiso. It is
+about twenty-three miles long and ten miles wide in the broadest part,
+and is covered with beautiful hills and lovely valleys, the highest peak
+reaching an elevation of nearly three thousand feet. A hundred years ago
+the Spaniards introduced blood-hounds to kill off the goats and rabbits,
+and to keep the pirates away, but the scheme did not work. Upon her
+independence, in 1821, Chili made Juan Fernandez a penal colony, but
+thirty years after the prisoners mutinied, slaughtered the guards, and
+escaped. Then it was leased to a cattle company, which has now thirty
+thousand head of horned cattle and as many sheep grazing upon the hills.
+There are fifty or sixty inhabitants, mostly ranchmen and their
+families, who tend the herds and raise vegetables for the Valparaiso
+market.
+
+Great care has been taken to preserve the relics of Alexander Selkirk’s
+stay upon the island, and his cave and huts remain just as he left them.
+In 1868 the officers of the British man-of-war _Topaz_ erected a marble
+tablet to mark the famous lookout from which Mr. Crusoe, like the
+Ancient Mariner, used to watch for a sail, “and yet no sail from day to
+day.” The inscription reads: “In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, a
+native of Largo, county of Fife, Scotland; who lived upon this island in
+complete solitude for four years and four months. He was landed from the
+_Cinque Ports_ galley, 96 tons, 16 guns, A.D. 1704, and was taken off in
+the _Duke_, privateer, on February 12th, 1709. He died Lieutenant of
+H.B.M.S. _Weymouth_: 47 years. This tablet is erected upon Selkirk’s
+lookout by Commodore Powell and the officers of H.B.M.S. _Topaz_, A.D.
+1868.”
+
+[Illustration: TABLET TO ALEXANDER SELKIRK.]
+
+No one ever goes to Juan Fernandez without bringing away rocks and
+sticks as relics of the place. There is a very fine sort of wood
+peculiar to the island which makes beautiful canes, as it has a rare
+grain and polishes well.
+
+
+
+
+SANTIAGO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF CHILI.
+
+
+Nature never intended there should be a city where Valparaiso stands,
+but the enterprise of the Chillanos, aided by English and German
+capital, has built there the finest port on the west coast of South
+America, and the only one with all the modern improvements. The harbor
+is spacious and beautiful, and ten months in the year it is perfectly
+safe for shipping, but during the remaining two months, when northern
+gales are frequent, vessels are often driven from their anchorage, and
+compelled to cruise about to avoid being dashed upon the rocks on which
+the city is built. The harbor is circular in form, with an entrance a
+mile or so wide facing the north. A breakwater built across the entrance
+would give the shipping perfect protection, but the sea is so deep--more
+than a hundred fathoms--that such a work is considered impracticable. In
+this harbor, drawn up in lines like men-of-war ready for review, are
+hundreds of vessels, bearing the flags of almost every nation on the
+earth except that of our own. Occasionally the Stars and Stripes are
+seen, but so seldom that, as an American resident expressed it, “they
+cure all the sore eyes in town.” Trade is practically controlled by
+Englishmen, all commercial transactions are calculated in pounds
+sterling, and the English language is almost exclusively spoken upon the
+street and in the shops. An English paper is printed there, English
+goods are almost exclusively sold, and this city is nothing more than an
+English colony.
+
+In Valparaiso, as everywhere else in Chili, there is an intense
+prejudice against the United States, growing out of the attitude assumed
+by our Government during the late war with Peru. The prejudice has been
+aggravated and stimulated by the English residents. This, with the
+natural arrogance of the Chillanos, who think they have the finest
+country on earth, and that the United States is their only rival, makes
+it rather disagreeable sometimes for Americans who go there to reside.
+For this and other reasons our commerce with Chili has fallen off from
+millions to hundreds of thousands, and it will be difficult to increase
+it as long as the prejudice of the people exists, and lines of English,
+French, German, and Italian vessels connect Valparaiso with the markets
+of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+There is no steam communication with the United States, and all freight
+is sent in sailing-vessels around the Horn or by way of Hamburg or
+Havre. The freight charges from Valparaiso to New York by way of the
+Isthmus are more than double those to the European ports, and it is
+about thirty per cent. cheaper to ship goods from New York to Europe,
+and from there to South America, than by way of Aspinwall and Panama.
+Passenger fares as well as freight are subject to this discrimination.
+One can go from Valparaiso to Europe _via_ the Strait of Magellan--a
+voyage of forty-one days--cheaper than to Panama--a voyage of twenty
+days, which ought to be made in ten. It costs about ten cents per mile
+on a steamer from Valparaiso to the Isthmus, to California, or to New
+York, and about two cents a mile to Europe. As if this were not enough,
+the steamship company, a British corporation which controls navigation
+on the west coast, arranges its time-tables so as not to connect with
+the New York steamers at the Isthmus, and its steamers usually arrive at
+Panama the day after the Pacific Mail ship leaves Aspinwall, so as to
+subject the traveller to the expense and annoyance of ten days’ delay on
+the fever-haunted Chagres. Freight and mails receive the same treatment,
+and every possible obstacle is raised to divert trade from the United
+States to Europe.
+
+Valparaiso means “the Vale of Paradise,” but somehow or other there was
+a misconception in this particular, for there is no vale and no symptoms
+of Paradise. An almost perpendicular mountain ridge forms a crescent
+around the bay, towards the shores of which descend steep, rocky
+escarpments. Here and there watercourses have furrowed ravines, or
+barancas, as they are called, which offer the only means of reaching the
+outer world. Along the narrow strip of sand which lies between the sea
+and the cliffs the town stretches three or four miles. In some places
+there is width enough for only a single street, at others for three or
+four running parallel to each other, but they only extend a few blocks.
+The one street, the only artery of commerce in Valparaiso, is “the Calle
+Victoria,” stretching around the entire harbor, and skirted by all the
+banks and hotels, the counting-houses of the wholesale firms, the shops
+of the retailers, the Government buildings, and the fine private
+residences. The rocky cliffs have been terraced as the town has grown,
+and the city now extends back upon the hills a long distance, one man’s
+house being above another’s, and reached by stairways, winding roads,
+and steam “lifts,” which carry passengers up inclined planes, like those
+at Niagara and Pittsburg. What roads there are were laid out by the
+goats that formerly fed upon the mountain side, and these twist about in
+the most confusing and circuitous fashion. One has to stop and pant for
+breath as he climbs them, and an alpenstock is needed in coming down.
+The hacks in Valparaiso have three horses attached to them, and the
+teaming is done in carts drawn by four oxen.
+
+An evening view of Valparaiso from a steamer in the bay is quite novel,
+as the lines of lights, one above the other, give the appearance of a
+city turned up on end. Electric lamps are placed upon the crests of the
+cliffs, throwing their rays over into the streets and upon the terraces
+below with the effect of moonlight. During the day, however, the
+irregular rows of houses, of different shapes and elevations, clinging
+to the precipices, look as if a strong wind might blow them overboard,
+or an earthquake shake them off into the bay.
+
+The business portion of Valparaiso along the beach shows some fine
+architecture, more elaborate than is to be seen elsewhere in Central and
+South America, there being a rivalry in handsomely carved façades and
+other adornments. The shops and stores are as large, and contain as
+complete an assortment of goods, as those in any city in the world.
+There is no city in the United States having the population of
+Valparaiso (125,000) with so many fine shops, and such a display of
+costly and luxurious articles. The people are wealthy and prosperous,
+the foreign element is large and rich, and the place is famous, as is
+Santiago, the capital, for the extravagance of its citizens. Some of the
+private residences are palatial in their proportions and equipments, and
+millions of dollars are represented under the roofs of bankers and
+merchants. There are clubs as fine as the average in New York or London,
+public reading-rooms, libraries, picture-galleries, and all the elements
+which go to make up modern civilization. The parks and plazas are filled
+with beautiful fountains, and with statuary of bronze and marble, much
+of which, to the shame of Chili, was stolen from the public and private
+gardens of Peru during the late war. The Custom-house is being torn away
+to give place to a magnificent monument to Arthur Pratt, an Irish hero
+of that struggle. Pratt’s reckless courage made him the ideal of all
+that is great and noble in the mind of the Chillanos, who have erected a
+monument to his memory in nearly every town. Streets and shops, saloons,
+mines, opera-houses, and even lotteries are named in his honor, and the
+greatest national tribute is to destroy the old custom-house in order to
+erect his monument in the most conspicuous place in the principal city.
+
+The oddest thing to be seen in Valparaiso is the female street-car
+conductors. The street-car managers of Chili have added another
+occupation to the list of those in which women may engage. The
+experiment was first tried during the war with Peru, when all the
+able-bodied men were sent to the army, and proved so successful that
+their employment has become permanent, to the advantage, it is said, of
+the companies, the women, and the public. The first impression one forms
+of a woman with a bell-punch taking up fares is not favorable, but the
+stranger soon becomes accustomed to this as to all other novelties, and
+concludes that it is not such a bad idea after all. The street-cars are
+double-deckers, with seats upon the roof as well as within, and the
+driver occupies a perch on the rear platform, taking the fare as the
+passenger enters. The Chillano is a rough individual; he is haughty,
+arrogant, impertinent, and abusive. There is more intemperance in Chili
+than in any other of the South American States, and consequently more
+quarrels and murders, but the female conductors are seldom disturbed in
+the discharge of their duties, and when they are, the rule is to call
+upon the policemen,
+
+[Illustration: VICTORIA STREET, VALPARAISO.]
+
+who stand at every corner, to eject the obstreperous passenger.
+
+Street-car riding is a popular amusement with the young men about town.
+Those who make a business of flirting with the conductors are called
+“mosquitoes” in local parlance, because they swarm so thickly around the
+cars, and are so great a nuisance. Not long ago a comic paper printed a
+cartoon in which some of the best-known faces of the swells of
+Valparaiso appeared on the bodies of mosquitoes swarming around the car
+of “Conductor 97,” who had the reputation of being the prettiest girl on
+the line. This put a stop to the practice for a while, and caused some
+of the fashionable young men to retire to the country, but it was soon
+resumed again. The conductors, or conductresses, are usually young, and
+sometimes quite pretty, being commonly of the mixed race--of Spanish and
+Indian blood. They wear a neat uniform of blue flannel, with a jaunty
+Panama hat, and a many-pocketed white pinafore, reaching from the breast
+to the ankles, and trimmed with dainty frills. In these pockets they
+carry small change and tickets, while hanging to a strap over their
+shoulders is a little shopping-bag, in which is a lunch, a
+pocket-handkerchief, and surplus money and tickets. Each passenger, when
+paying his fare, receives a yellow paper ticket, numbered, which he is
+expected to destroy. The girls are charged with so many tickets, and
+when they report at headquarters are expected to return money for all
+that are missing, any deficit being deducted from their wages, which are
+twenty-five dollars per month.
+
+The women of Chili are not so pretty as their sisters in Peru. They are
+generally larger in feature and figure, have not the dainty feet and
+supple grace of the Lima belles, and lack their voluptuous languor. In
+Valparaiso half the ladies are of the Saxon type, and blonde hair looks
+grateful when one has seen nothing but midnight tresses for months.
+Here, too, modern costumes are worn more generally than in other South
+American countries, and the shops are full of Paris bonnets. But the
+black manta, with its fringe of lace, is still common enough to be
+considered the costume of the country, and is always worn to mass in the
+morning. The manta is becoming to almost everybody. It hides the defects
+of homely forms and figures, and heightens grace and beauty. It makes an
+old woman look young, a stout woman appears more slender under its
+graceful folds, and even a skeleton would look coquettish when wrapped
+in the rich embroidery which some bear.
+
+In Chili mantas and skirts of white flannel are worn by
+_penitentas_--women who have committed sin, and thus advertise their
+penitence, or those who have taken some holy vow to get a measure nearer
+heaven, and who go about the street with downcast eyes, looking at
+nothing and recognizing no one. They hover around the churches, and sit
+for hours crouched before some saint or crucifix. In the great cathedral
+at Santiago and in the smaller churches everywhere these penitentas, in
+their snow-white garments, are always to be seen on their knees, or
+posing in other uncomfortable postures, looking like statues. They
+cluster in groups around the confessionals, waiting to receive
+absolution from some fat and burly father, that they may rid their
+bodies of the mark of penitence they carry, and their souls of sin.
+Ladies of high social position and great wealth are commonly found among
+the penitentas, as well as young girls of beauty and winning grace. The
+women of Chili are as pious as the men are proud, and this method of
+securing absolution is quite fashionable. Souls that cannot be purged by
+this penitential dress retire to a convent in the outskirts of the city,
+called the Convent of the Penitentes, where they scourge themselves with
+whips, mortify the flesh with sackcloth, sleep in ashes and upon stone
+floors, and feed themselves on mouldy crusts, until the priests by whose
+advice they go give them absolution. They are usually women who have
+been unfaithful to their marriage vows, or girls who have yielded to
+temptation. After the society season and the carnivals, at the end of
+the summer, when people return from the fashionable resorts, and at the
+beginning of Lent, these places are full. For those whose sins have
+been too great to be washed out by this process, whose shame has been
+published to the world, and who are unfitted under social laws to
+associate with the pure, other convents are open as a refuge. Young
+mothers without husbands are here cared for, and their babes are taken
+to an orphan asylum in the neighborhood, to be reared by the nuns for
+the priesthood and other religious orders.
+
+It was from one of these places that the famous Henry Meiggs got his
+second wife, and the adventure is still related with great gusto by the
+gossips of Chili. An American dentist named Robinson lived in the same
+block on which the convent was situated, and from the roof of his house
+the garden of the nuns was plainly visible. Boccaccio never told a more
+romantic tale, for it involved notes tied to stones and thrown into the
+garden, rope-ladders, excited nuns, infuriated parents, and an outraged
+Church. But the adventure was followed by forgiveness and marriage, and
+the widow now lives in Santiago, in the luxury which her legacy from the
+great railroad contractor provides.
+
+In the orphan asylum at Santiago there are said to be two thousand
+children of unknown parentage, supported by the Church, and this in a
+city of two hundred thousand people. There is a very convenient mode for
+the disposition of foundlings. In the rear wall surrounding the place is
+an aperture, with a wooden box or cradle which swings out and in. A
+mother who has no use for her baby goes there at night, places the
+little one in the cradle, swings it inside, and the nuns on guard
+hearing a bell that rings automatically, take the infant to the nursery.
+The next morning the mother, if she has no occupation to detain her,
+applies for employment as a wetnurse. However this plan may be regarded
+by stern moralists, it is certainly an improvement on infanticide, a
+crime almost unknown in Chili. But one may hunt the country over to find
+a house of correction for men. Sin, shame, and penitence appear to be
+the exclusive attributes of the weaker sex. Men are never seen at the
+confessional; they never wear white wrappings to advertise their guilt;
+and at mass in the morning the average attendance is about one man to
+every hundred women.
+
+Santiago is reached from Valparaiso by a railway which is run on the
+English plan, and is similar in its equipment and system of management
+to those of Europe. The scenery along the line is picturesque, the
+snow-caps of the Andean peaks being constantly in view, and Aconcagua,
+the highest mountain on this hemisphere, can be seen nearly the entire
+distance. A few miles from Valparaiso, and the first station on the
+road, is Vin del Mar, the Long Branch of Chili, where many of the
+wealthy residents of the country have fine establishments, and usually
+spend the summer. It is by far the most modern and elegant fashionable
+resort in South America, and reminds one of the popular haunts along the
+Mediterranean. The journey to Santiago is made in about five hours, and
+one is agreeably surprised when he arrives to find in the capital of
+Chili one of the finest cities on the continent.
+
+Although the climate of Santiago is similar to that of Washington or St.
+Louis, the people have a notion that fires in their houses are
+unhealthful, and, except in those built by English or American
+residents, there is nothing like a grate or a stove to be found.
+Everybody wears the warmest sort of underclothing, and heavy wraps
+in-doors and out. The people spend six months of the year in a perpetual
+shiver, and the remainder in a perpetual perspiration. It looks rather
+odd to see civilized people sitting in a parlor, surrounded by every
+possible luxury that wealth can bring (except fire) wrapped in furs and
+rugs, with blue noses and chattering teeth, when coal is cheap, and the
+mountains are covered with timber. But nothing can convince a Chillano
+that artificial heat is healthful, and during the winter, which is the
+rainy season, he has not the wit to warm his chilled body. It is odd,
+too, to see in the streets men wearing fur caps, and with their throats
+wrapped in heavy mufflers, while the women who walk beside them have
+nothing on their heads at all. During the morning, while on the way from
+mass, or while shopping, the women wear the manta, as they do in Peru,
+but in the afternoons, on the promenade, or when riding, they go
+bareheaded. Although the prevailing diseases are pneumonia and other
+throat and lung complaints, and during the winter the mortality from
+these causes is immense, the Chillano persists in believing that
+artificial heat poisons the atmosphere; and when he visits the home of a
+foreigner, and finds a fire, he will ask that the door be left ajar, so
+that he may be as chilly as usual. At fashionable gatherings,
+dinner-parties, and that sort of thing, I have seen women in full
+evening-dress with bare arms and shoulders, with the temperature of the
+room between forty and fifty Fahrenheit. They often carry into the
+_salon_ or dining-room their fur wraps, and wear them at the table,
+while at every chair is a foot-warmer of thick llama wool, into which
+they poke their dainty slippered toes. These foot-warmers are ornamental
+as well as useful, have embroidered cases, and are manufactured at home,
+or can be purchased of the nuns, who spend much of their time in
+needle-work.
+
+Every lady seen on the street in the morning carries a prayer-rug, often
+handsomely embroidered, which she kneels upon at mass to protect her
+limbs from the damp stone floors of the churches, in which there are
+never any pews. It used to be the proper thing to have a servant follow
+my lady, bearing her rug and prayer-book, but that fashion has now
+become obsolete.
+
+The shops do not open until nine or ten o’clock in the morning, close
+from five to seven to allow the proprietors and clerks to dine, and are
+then open again until midnight, as between eight and eleven o’clock at
+night most of the retail trading is done. The finest shops are in the
+arcades or _portales_, like the Palais Royal in Paris, and are
+brilliantly lighted with electricity. Here the ladies gather, swarming
+around the pretty goods like bees around the flowers, and of course the
+haughty and impertinent dons come also to stare at them. It seems to be
+considered a compliment, a mark of admiration, to stare at a woman, for
+she never turns away. To these nightly gatherings come all who have
+nothing serious to detain them, and the flirtations begun at the
+portales are the curse of the women of Santiago. It is not rude to
+address a lady who has returned your glance, and while she may repulse
+her admirer, she will nevertheless boast of the attention as a
+pronounced form of flattery.
+
+The shops are full of the prettiest sorts of goods, the most expensive
+diamonds, jewellery, and laces. The Santiagoans boast that everything
+that can be found in Paris can be purchased there, and one easily
+believes it to be true. There is plenty of money in Chili; the people
+have a refined taste and luxurious habits. Many of the private houses
+are palatial, and the toilets of the women are superb. The equipages to
+be seen in Santiago are equal to those of New York or London, and the
+Alameda, on pleasant afternoons, is crowded with handsome carriages,
+with liveried coachmen and footmen, like Central Park or Rotten Row.
+
+The Alameda is six hundred feet in width, broken by four rows of
+poplar-trees, and stretches the full length of the city--four
+miles--from “Santa Lucia” to the Exposition Park and Horticultural
+Gardens. In the centre is a promenade, while on either side is a
+drive-way one hundred feet wide. The promenade is dotted with a line of
+statues representing the famous men or commemorating the famous events
+in the history of Chili, a country which has assassinated or sent into
+exile some of her noblest sons, but never fails to perpetuate their
+memory in bronze or marble. On the Alameda, from three to five o’clock
+every afternoon during the season, several military bands are placed at
+intervals of half a mile or so, and the music calls out all the
+population to walk or drive. During the summer the music is given in the
+evening instead of the afternoon, when the portales are deserted for the
+out-door promenade.
+
+Fronting the Alameda are the finest palaces in the city, magnificent
+dwellings of carved sandstone often one or two hundred feet square, with
+the invariable patio and its fountains and flowers in the centre. Houses
+which cost half a million dollars to build and a quarter of a million to
+furnish
+
+[Illustration: SANTA LUCIA.]
+
+are common; and there are some even more expensive. The former residence
+of the late Henry Meiggs, surrounded by a forest of foliage and a
+beautiful garden, stands in the centre of a park eight hundred feet
+square. It is a conspicuous example of extravagance, having cost a mint
+of money, every timber and brick and tile being imported at enormous
+expense. It is at present unoccupied, and in a state of decay, there
+being no one, since the death of Meiggs, with the courage or the means
+to sustain such grandeur. But though the nabobs seek the boulevard of
+the city to display their wealth and architectural taste, some of the
+side streets have residences quite as grand, and even more aristocratic.
+These more retired quarters have an air of gentility which the Alameda
+has not acquired--a sort of established aristocratic repose--a riper,
+richer, and more honorable quiet, that suggests something of social
+distinction and haughty exclusiveness, venerable solitude and commercial
+solidity. Another monument to the extravagance of men is known as
+“O’Brien’s Folly.” It is a magnificent structure, modelled after a
+Turkish palace, and its cost was fabulous. The owner was an Irish
+adventurer, who discovered one of the richest silver mines in Chili, and
+who lived like a prince until his money was gone. His castle is now
+unoccupied, and he is again in the mountains prospecting for another
+fortune.
+
+“Santa Lucia” is the most beautiful place I have seen in South America.
+It is a pile of rocks six hundred feet high, cast by some volcanic
+agency into the centre of the great plain on which the city stands. It
+was here that the United States Astronomical Expedition of 1852, under
+Lieutenant Gillis, made observations. Before that time, and as far back
+as the Spanish Invasion, it was a magnificent fortress, commanding the
+entire valley with its guns. Tradition has it that the King of the
+Araucanians had a stronghold here before the Spaniards came. After the
+departure of the United States expedition Vicunæ McCenna, a
+public-spirited man of wealth in Santiago, undertook the work of
+beautifying the place. By the aid of private subscriptions, and much of
+his own means, he sought all the resources that taste could suggest and
+money reach to improve on nature’s grandeur. His success was complete.
+Winding walks and stairways, parapets and balconies, grottoes and
+flower-beds, groves of trees and vine-hung arbors, follow one another
+from the base to the summit; while upon the west, at the edge of a
+precipice eight hundred feet high, are a miniature castle and a lovely
+little chapel, in whose crypt Vicunæ McCenna has asked that his bones be
+laid. Below the chapel, three or four hundred feet on the opposite side
+of the hill, is a level place on which a restaurant and an out-door
+theatre have been erected. Here, on summer nights, come the population
+of the city to eat ices, drink beer, and laugh at the farces played upon
+the stage, while bands of music and dancing make the people merry. This
+is the resort of the aristocracy. The poor people go to Cousino Park, at
+the other end of the Alameda, drink _chicha_, and dance the _cuaca_
+(pronounced _quaker_), the Chillano national dance.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZAMA-CUACA.]
+
+The cuaca is a sort of can-can, except that it is decent, and the men
+instead of the girls do the high kicking. But when the dancers are under
+the influence of chicha--that liquor which tastes like hard cider, but
+is ninety per cent. alcohol--skirts and modesty are no impediments to
+the success of the dance. The couples pair off and face each other,
+while on benches near by are women thrumming guitars and singing a wild
+barbaric air in polka time. Each woman and man has a handkerchief which
+he or she waves in the air, and they sway around in postures that are
+intended to show the grace and suppleness of the performer, and often
+do. The dance usually ends with a wild carousal, in which men and women
+mingle promiscuously, embrace each other, and then go off to the chicha
+bars to get stimulants for the next. It is common in fashionable society
+to end the tertulias with the cuaca, as in the United States with the
+ancient “Virginia reel;” and if the young people are unusually
+hilarious, scenes occur which watchful dowagers desire to prevent.
+School-girls at the convents dance the cuaca when the nuns will allow
+them; and although in its ordinary form it is not nearly so immodest as
+some of our dances, license has been taken so often as to bring it into
+disrepute. One evening at the opera a pretty married woman was pointed
+out as the most graceful and agile cuaca dancer in Chili, and it was
+asserted that she could throw her heels higher than her head.
+
+At the other end of the Alameda are the Exposition grounds and
+Horticultural gardens, laid out in good style, and improved to the
+highest degree of landscape architecture. There is a fine stone and
+glass building, a miniature copy of the Crystal Palace in London, used
+as the National Museum of Chili, whose contents were mostly stolen from
+Peru during the late war. A zoological garden has been added, to exhibit
+the animals brought from Peru, like the curiosities of the museum, as
+contraband of war. The elephant died from the severity of the climate,
+two of the lions are missing from the same cause, and the rest of the
+menagerie are suffering from exposure and cold to which they are
+unaccustomed.
+
+The opera-house at Santiago is owned by the city, and is claimed to be
+the finest structure of the sort in all America. It certainly surpasses
+in size, arrangement, and gorgeousness any we have in the United States.
+It is built upon the European plan, with four balconies, three of which
+are divided off into boxes upholstered in the most luxurious manner. The
+balconies are supported by brackets, so that there are no pillars to
+obstruct the view. Under the direction of the mayor, each year, the
+boxes are sold at auction for the season, and the receipts given, in
+whole or in part, as a subsidy to the opera management.
+
+[Illustration: EXPOSITION BUILDING, SANTIAGO.]
+
+Everywhere one goes in Santiago and other cities in Chili are to be seen
+the ornaments of which Peru was so mercilessly plundered--statuary and
+fountains, ornamental street-lamps, benches of carved stone in the parks
+and the Alameda, and almost everything that beautifies the streets.
+Transports that were sent up to Callao with troops brought back cargoes
+of pianos, pictures, furniture, books, and articles of household
+decoration stolen from the homes of the Peruvians. Lampposts torn up
+from their foundations, pretty iron fences and images from the
+cemeteries, altar equipments of silver from the churches, statuary from
+the parks and streets, and everything that the hands of thieves and
+vandals could reach, were stolen. Clocks--one of which now gives time to
+the marketplace of Santiago--were taken from the steeples of the
+churches, and even the effigies of saints were lifted from the altars
+and stripped of the embroideries and jewels they had received from their
+devotees. In the courtyard of the post-office at Santiago are two
+statues of marble which cause the American tourist to start in surprise,
+for George Washington and Abraham Lincoln stand like unexpected ghosts
+before him. Their presence is not announced in any of the guide-books,
+which is accounted for by the fact that they, like most everything else
+of the kind in Chili, were brought from Peru.
+
+The new hotel, in the eyes of foreigners who have been compelled to stop
+at the old ones, is the finest ornament in Santiago. It is a magnificent
+structure, with three hundred thousand dollars’ worth of furniture from
+Paris, and a five thousand dollar cook from the same place. All the
+rooms have grates for fires--which is an innovation--and are furnished
+as handsomely as any of the hotels in New York, while the restaurant is
+as good as Delmonico’s. Of course there must be some oddity about the
+place--it would not be suited to the country if there were not--and here
+it is that the bar is placed in the café where the ladies lunch. It is
+the only hotel bar in South America; and the proprietor, who wanted to
+introduce all the modern improvements, was rather bewildered in
+selecting the location of this one. It is a gorgeous affair of silver
+and crystal, and the ladies admire it as much as do the men. At first
+they were disposed to walk up and say, “The same for me, if you please,”
+with their brothers and husbands, but have been convinced that the
+proper form is to sit at the tables and take their drinks there. To see
+a lady drinking a cocktail in the bar-room of the Grand Central of
+Santiago may startle the prohibitionist who goes there, but it is quite
+as much the fashion as is the sucking of mint-juleps through a straw on
+the balconies of a Long Branch hotel.
+
+The Chillano is the Yankee of South America--the most active,
+enterprising, ingenious, and thrifty of the Spanish-American
+race--aggressive, audacious, and arrogant, quick to perceive, quick to
+resent, fierce in disposition, cold-blooded, and cruel as a cannibal. He
+dreams of conquest. He has only a strip of country along the Pacific
+coast, so narrow that there is scarcely room enough to write its name
+upon the map, hemmed in on the one side by the eternal snows that crown
+the Cordilleras, and on the other side by six thousand miles of sea. He
+has been stretching himself northward until he has stolen all the
+sea-coast of Bolivia, with her valuable nitrate deposits, all the guano
+that belonged to Peru, and contemplates soon taking actual possession of
+both those republics. He has been reaching southward by diplomacy as he
+did northward by war; and under a recent treaty with the Argentine
+Republic he has divided Patagonia with that nation, taking to himself
+the control of that valuable international highway, the Strait of
+Magellan, and the unexplored country between the Andes and the ocean,
+with thousands of islands along the Pacific coast whose resources are
+unknown. By securing the strait, Chili acquired control of steam
+navigation in the South Pacific, and has established a colony and
+fortress at Punta Arenas by which all vessels must pass.
+
+Reposing tranquilly now in the enjoyment of the newly acquired territory
+along the Bolivian and Peruvian border, and deriving an enormous revenue
+from the export tax upon nitrate, the Chillano contemplates the internal
+dissensions of Peru, and waits anxiously for the time when he can step
+in as arbitrator and, like the lawyer, take the estate that the heirs
+are silly enough to quarrel over. It is but a question of years when not
+only Peru but Bolivia will become a part of Chili; when the aggressive
+nation will want to push her eastern boundary back of the Andes, and
+secure control of the sources of the Amazon, as she has of the
+navigation of the strait.
+
+On the beautiful Alameda of Santiago stands a marble monument erected
+several years ago, after the partition of Patagonia, to commemorate the
+generosity of the Argentine Republic. That statue will some day be
+pulled down by a mob. The people are already regretting the impulsive
+cordiality which suggested it, and are looking with jealous eyes at the
+progress and prosperity of their eastern neighbor. But Chili will find
+in the Argentines a more formidable foe than the nation has yet met, and
+her generals will have some of the conceit taken out of them if the
+armies of the two ever come into collision. Although the Argentine
+Republic is making more rapid strides towards national greatness, there
+is no
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF BERNARD O’HIGGINS, SANTIAGO.]
+
+doubt that at present, in all the conditions of modern civilization,
+Chili leads the Southern Continent, and is the most powerful of all the
+republics in America except our own. Her statesmen are wise and able,
+her people are industrious and progressive, and have that strength of
+mind and muscle which is given only to the men of temperate zones. There
+is a strong similarity between the Chillanos and the Irish. Both have
+the same wit and reckless courage, the same love of country and
+patriotic pride; and wherever a Chillano goes he carries his opinion
+that there never was and never can be a better land than that in which
+he was born; and although he may be a refugee or an exile, he will fight
+in defence of Chili at the drop of the hat. There is something
+refreshing in his patriotism, even if it be the most arrogant vanity.
+Our people are becoming ashamed of their Fourth of July, and the
+Declaration of Independence is the butt of professional jokers. The
+Chillano will cut the throat of a man who will not celebrate with him
+the 18th of September, his Independence Day; and there is a law in the
+country requiring every house to have a flag-staff, and every flag-staff
+to bear the national colors--a banner by day and a lantern by night--on
+the anniversaries of the republic. All the schools must use text-books
+by native authors, all the bands play the compositions of native
+composers, and visiting opera and concert singers are compelled to vary
+their performances by introducing the songs of the country. It is said
+that a Frenchman can never be denationalized. The same is true of the
+Chillano. There has not been a successful revolution in Chili since
+1839; and although there is nowhere a more unruly and discordant people,
+nowhere so much murder and other serious crimes, in their love of
+country the haughty don and the patient peon, the hunted bandit and the
+cruel soldier, are one.
+
+[Illustration: PATRICK LYNCH.]
+
+Many of the leading men of Chili are and have been of Irish descent.
+Barney O’Higgins was the liberator, the George Washington of the
+republic, and Patrick Lynch was the foremost soldier of Chili in the
+late war. The O’Learys and McGarrys and other Chillano-Irish families
+are prominent in politics and war and trade. There is a sympathetic
+bond between the shamrock and the condor, and nowhere in South America
+does the Irish emigrant so prosperously thrive. Chillano wit is
+proverbial. The jolly, care-for-nothing peasant is the same there as
+upon the old sod, and the turgid, grandiloquent style of literature
+which prevails in other portions of Spanish-America in Chili finds a
+substitute in the soul-stirring, fervid oratory which is one of the
+gifts of the Irish race. A Chillano driver who was beating a mule was
+remonstrated with. The man looked up and remarked that it was the most
+obstinate animal he ever drove. “The beast thinks he ought to have been
+a bishop,” he said.
+
+The vanity of the Chillano passes all comprehension. The officers of the
+army and navy actually offered their services, through the British
+minister, to England when there was a rumor of war with Russia; and with
+the slightest encouragement they would be willing to take the domestic
+as well as the international complications off the hands of the British
+cabinet. One day the English paper at Valparaiso published a satire,
+announcing that the Lords of the Admiralty had selected three leading
+Chillano naval officers to command the Bosporus, the Baltic, and the
+North Atlantic fleets. The officers as well as the people would not
+accept the bogus cablegram as a joke until the next issue of the paper,
+in which it was explained; and the former were actually polishing up
+their swords and uniforms to take their new commands.
+
+The Chillano is not only vain but cruel--as cruel as death. He carries a
+long curved knife, called a _curvo_, as the Italian carries a stiletto
+and the negro a razor, and uses it to cut throats. He never fights with
+his fists, and knows not the use of the shillalah; he never carries a
+revolver, and is nothing of a thug; but as a robber or bandit, in a
+private quarrel or a public mob, he always uses this deadly knife, and
+springs at the throat of his enemy like a blood-hound. There is scarcely
+an issue of a daily paper without one or two throat-cutting incidents,
+and in the publications succeeding feast-days or carnivals their bloody
+annals fill columns.
+
+[Illustration: PEONS OF CHILI.]
+
+As a soldier the Chillano is brave to recklessness, and a sense of fear
+is unknown to him. He will not endure a siege, nor can he be made to
+fight at long range; but as soon as he sees the enemy he fires one
+volley, drops his gun, and rushes in with his curvo. His endurance is as
+great as his courage, and no North American Indian can travel so far
+without rest or go so long without food and water as the Chillano peon,
+or _roto_, as the mixed race is called. As the cholo in Peru is the
+descendant of the Spaniards and the Incas, so is the roto in Chili the
+child of the Spaniards and the Araucanian Indians, the race of giants
+with which the early explorers reported that Patagonia was
+peopled--“Menne of that bigginess,” as Sir Francis Drake reported, “that
+it seemed the trees of the forests were uprooted and were moving away.”
+They have the Spanish tenacity of purpose, the Indian endurance, and the
+cruelty of both. Each soldier, in the mountains or the desert, carries
+on his breast two buckskin bags. In one are the leaves of the
+coca-plant, in the other powdered lime made of the ashes of
+potato-skins. The coca is the strongest sort of a tonic, and by chewing
+it the Chillano soldier can abstain from food or drink for a week or ten
+days at a stretch. He takes a bunch of leaves as big as a quid of
+tobacco in his mouth, and occasionally mixes the potato-ashes with the
+saliva to give the juice a relish. Canon Kingsley, in that remarkable
+novel, “Westward Ho!” describes two of the band of Amyas Leigh as
+deserting their companions at the sources of the Amazon, and takes them
+into a beautiful bower with two Dianas of the Indian type. There they
+chew coca-leaves with the girls, sink into a voluptuous stupor, and give
+themselves up to love, like the lotos-eaters, until Amyas comes to
+remonstrate. The men recommend him to follow their example with the
+Venus who has been found in an Indian queen and admires the young
+commander; and the Puritan is on the point of yielding to the
+fascination of the scene, when a reptile comes, strangles one of the
+girls, and revives the moral instincts of the men. The reverend
+word-painter was misinformed as to the peculiar influence of the drug,
+as it does not produce a stupor in those who use it. It is not a
+narcotic, but a stimulant.
+
+The Chillano soldier is not easily subjected to discipline, and
+outvandals the Vandals in the destruction of property, as the present
+condition of Peru will prove. He burns and destroys everything within
+his reach that has sheltered an enemy. No authority can restrain his
+hand. The awful scenes of devastation that took place have nothing to
+parallel them in the annals of modern warfare. On the battle-fields
+nine-tenths of the dead were found with their throats cut, and the
+Chillanos took no prisoners except when a whole army capitulated. They
+ask no quarter and give none. The knowledge of this characteristic, and
+the fear of the Chillano knife, were powerful factors in the subjugation
+of the more humane Peruvians.
+
+The Chillanos are cruel to beasts as well as to men. Horses are very
+cheap in Chili. A good native broncho can be purchased for five dollars,
+and his owner knows no mercy. The beasts are driven until they drop, and
+then new ones are sought and subjected to the same treatment. No care is
+taken to protect or make the animals comfortable. Although the weather
+is usually cold, stables for horses or cattle are almost unknown. When
+their labor is over they are turned into a corral, or a pasture, or the
+street, to seek their own food.
+
+The Chillanos are also careless of machinery. While they are quick to
+learn, and have much native mechanical ingenuity, they cannot be trusted
+as machinists. The magnificent cruiser _Esmeralda_, one of the finest
+ships-of-war afloat, was built in England for the Chillian Government at
+a cost of one and a half million dollars, but she had not been in the
+hands of native engineers six weeks before her engines needed repairs
+and her boilers were ruined. In 1885, during the troubles between
+England and Russia, she was chartered by the British Government, but
+afterwards returned to Chili. The Chillanos have a line of steamers
+running from Valparaiso up and down the coast. They are the finest ships
+on the Pacific, built on the Clyde, with all modern improvements, but
+the engineers and captains are Englishmen or Scotchmen. The Government
+owns and manages the railroads in the republic, but the locomotive
+drivers are foreigners. Every three or four years--usually before a
+Presidential election--these men are discharged and natives employed in
+their stead; but until election is over, and the old engineers are
+restored to their places, there is a carnival of accidents, and
+passenger travel is practically suspended. On all railroads are heavy
+grades and dangerous curves, requiring the greatest care on the part of
+locomotive drivers. The reckless Chillano thinks it great fun to run a
+train down a grade at full speed, and a collision is his delight. He
+enjoys seeing things smashed up, and knows nothing of the necessity of
+operating trains on schedule time.
+
+[Illustration: THE “ESMERALDA.”]
+
+In trade the Chillano is a Yankee. At market or in the native shops the
+buyer is not expected to pay the price first asked. He is expected to
+enter into a _negotio_, and the seller is disappointed if he loses an
+opportunity to show his shrewdness in the barter. There is no regularly
+established price for any article. A market-woman will ask two dollars
+for a basket of fruit for which she expects to get fifty cents. She
+will haggle and chatter, plead and remonstrate, and if you start towards
+another stall, will abandon half a dozen other customers and follow you
+around, until she finally “splits the difference,” and goes away smiling
+at her success. The traveller meets with this experience everywhere,
+particularly at the posadas; and the only safe way to avoid being
+mercilessly swindled is to make a bargain in writing beforehand.
+
+Most of the hotel-keepers are women, whose husbands are engaged in other
+occupations; but all the servants, including the cooks and
+chamber-“maids,” are men. There are better cooks and better classes of
+food than in other South American countries, and one seldom fails to
+find a good inn even in the country villages. The markets of Chili, too,
+are better. The beef, mutton, and other meats have the flavor that is
+found only in temperate climates; the fish are not so rank and coarse as
+those caught in tropical waters; and while vegetation is not so
+prolific, the fruits of the earth have a finer taste. There are oysters
+equal to those of New Orleans or Mobile, clams and lobsters, and plenty
+of shrimps, called _camarons_.
+
+Another oddity is the milk stations. At distances of a few blocks on all
+but the principal business streets is a platform where a cow is tied,
+which is milked to order by a dairy-maid whenever a customer calls. On a
+table near by are found measures, cans, and glasses, and often a bottle
+of brandy, so that a thirsty man can mix a glass of punch if he chooses.
+In the morning these stands are surrounded by servants from the
+aristocratic houses, women and children, with cups and buckets, awaiting
+their turn; and as fast as one cow is exhausted another is driven upon
+the platform.
+
+The scarcity of lumber has caused the poorer classes to use corrugated
+sheet-iron as a building material, while the rich use stone for exterior
+walls, and sun-dried brick or adobe for partitions. There are whole
+blocks in Valparaiso in which nothing but corrugated-iron houses can be
+seen, both roof and walls being of the same material. It is said to bear
+the effects of earthquakes well. People expect an earthquake about once
+in ten days the year round, and more frequently during the changes of
+season; but great damage is seldom done. There are two kinds of
+earthquake, the _terremoto_ and the _temblor_. The latter is only a
+quivering or shaking of the ground, and is quite common; the other
+describes the convulsions of the earth when it cracks and rolls like the
+swell of the sea, overthrows cities, and buries towns in their own
+ruins. Valparaiso and Santiago have never known any of the latter sort,
+which are confined to the mountain districts and the neighborhood of
+volcanoes.
+
+There are more comforts among the people than elsewhere upon the
+continent, and a higher degree of taste, as is shown by the articles
+offered for sale in the shops as well as in the houses of the residents,
+which is owing in a great degree to the example of the large foreign
+population. The Rev. Dr. Trumbull, who has been in Chili forty-five
+years, says that he has noticed a marked change in this respect within
+the last decade, and has seen a gradual and permanent growth in
+refinement and honesty.
+
+In Chili, as in all the Spanish-American countries, every man and woman
+is named after the saint whose anniversary is nearest the day on which
+he or she was born, and that saint is expected to look after the welfare
+of those christened in his or her honor. These names sound well in
+Spanish, but when they come to be translated into unpoetic English there
+is an oddity, and often something comical, about them. For example, the
+name of the recent President of Chili is Domingo Santa Maria--which,
+being interpreted, means Sunday St. Mary. The name of the President of
+Ecuador is Jesus Mary Caamaño (apple), and that of the Governor of the
+Province of Valparaiso is Domingo Torres (Sunday Bull). A waiter at the
+hotel happened to be a Christmas gift to his parents, whose family name
+was Vaca (cow), and in honor of the day they called him Jesu Christo
+Vaca. Such blasphemy would not be tolerated in any other country; but
+the use of the Saviour’s name is very common, even upon the signs of
+stores and saloons in cities, and in the nomenclature of the streets. I
+met a girl once whose name was Dolores Digerier (sorrowful stomach).
+
+In Chili women are employed not only as street-car conductors, but they
+do all the street-cleaning, and gangs of them with willow brooms
+sweeping the dirt into the ditches can be seen by any one who has
+curiosity enough to get up at daylight. They occupy the markets, too,
+selling meats as well as vegetables. On the streets they keep
+fruit-stands, and have canvas awnings under which, if you choose, you
+can sit and eat watermelons, a fruit much esteemed in Chili. Outside of
+the cities the women keep the shops and the drinking-places, and do all
+the garden work. The laundry work is done at public fountains, as in
+other of the Spanish-American countries; but the washer-women of Chili
+do not go almost naked, as some of their neighbors do.
+
+The native Peruvian, the descendant of the ancient Incas, has learned
+nothing since the Conquest, and has forgotten most of the arts his
+fathers knew, among them being the process by which the ancient race
+rendered copper as hard as steel. Thousands of dollars have been offered
+for that secret by modern bidders, but it is lost forever, and the
+ingenuity and knowledge of modern chemists cannot discover the process.
+The modern Inca wears the same blanket, or poncho, made of vicuña hair,
+that his fathers did, and the same shoes made of raw hide. He has
+rougher roads to travel than has the native of Central America, hence
+his shoe is made to curl over on the sides and behind, so as to protect
+the toes and the heel from contact with the rocks. It is cut in a single
+piece from hide when green, and is made to curl by stretching it over a
+primitive sort of last and keeping it in position until dry. The shoe is
+attached to the foot by a thong, which passes along the entire top of
+the shoe, laced through holes cut in the hide, and ending at the heel in
+two strips, which are secured around the ankle. The evolution of the
+native shoe is found in Chili; and although it lacks the maturity and
+sanctity of age, which the Peruvian article enjoys, is a rather more
+nobby
+
+[Illustration: INCA QUEEN AND PRINCESS.]
+
+affair. The sole is made of wood, rudely cut by hand with a knife, and
+over the instep passes a piece of patent leather reaching from the toes
+to the ankle, which is nailed to the sole by rows of brass-headed tacks.
+The toes and heel are entirely without protection, and it requires a
+great deal of experience to keep the shoe on. It is worn in the coldest
+weather, over a very heavy and thick stocking knit of llama wool, and an
+uglier pair of feet and legs than are shown by the short-skirted peasant
+women of Chili were never seen. The men wear the same sort of shoe--not
+quite so fancy in design nor of such fine materials, however; but as
+they spend most of their time in the saddle it is not so bad.
+
+The Crœsus of South America is a woman, Donna Isadora Cousino, of
+Santiago, Chili, and there are few men or women in the world richer than
+she. There is no end to her money and no limit to her extravagance, and
+the people call her the Countess of Monte Cristo. She traces her
+ancestry back to the days of the Conquest, and has the record of the
+first of her fathers who landed early on the shores of the New World.
+His family was already famous, for his sire fought under the ensign of
+the Arragons before the alliance with Castile. But the branch of the
+family that remained in Spain was lost in the world’s great shuffle two
+or three centuries ago, and none of them distinguished themselves
+sufficiently to get their portraits into the collection which Señora
+Cousino has made of the lineage she claims.
+
+Like her own, the ancestors of her late husband came over in the early
+days, and in the partition of the lands and spoils of the Conquest both
+got a large share, which they kept and increased by adding the portions
+given to their less thrifty and less enterprising associates, until the
+two estates became the largest, most productive, and most valuable of
+all the haciendas of Chili, and were finally united into one by the
+marriage, twenty-four years ago, of the late Don and his surviving
+widow. While he lived he was considered the richest man in Chili, and
+she the richest woman, for their property was kept separate, the husband
+managing his estate and the wife her own, and the people say that she
+was altogether the better “administrator” of the two. This fact he
+acknowledged in his will when he bequeathed all of his possessions to
+her, and piled his Pelion upon her Ossa; so that she has millions of
+acres of land, millions of money; flocks and herds that are numbered by
+the hundreds of thousands; coal, copper, and silver mines; acres of real
+estate in the cities of Santiago and Valparaiso; a fleet of iron
+steamships, smelting-works, a railroad, and various other trifles in the
+way of productive property, which yield her an income of several
+millions a year that she tries very hard to spend, and under the
+circumstances succeeds as well as could be expected. From her coal-mines
+alone Señora Cousino has an income of eighty thousand dollars a month;
+and there is no reason why this should not be perpetual, as they are the
+only source in all South America from which fuel can be obtained, and
+those who do not buy of her have to import their coal from Great
+Britain. She has a fleet of eight iron steamships, of capacities varying
+from two thousand to three thousand six hundred tons, which were built
+in England, and are used to carry the coal up the coast as far as
+Panama, and around the Strait of Magellan to Buenos Ayres and
+Montevideo. At Lota she has copper and silver smelting-works, besides
+coal-mines, and her coaling ships bring ore down the coast as a return
+cargo from upper Chili, Peru, and Ecuador; while those that go to Buenos
+Ayres bring back beef and flour and merchandise for the consumption of
+her people.
+
+Although Lota is only a mining town, as dirty and smoky as any of its
+counterparts in Pennsylvania, it is the widow’s favorite place of
+residence, and she is now building a mansion that will cost at least a
+million dollars. The architect and the chief builder are Frenchmen, whom
+she imported from Paris, and much of the material is also imported. Not
+long ago she shipped a cargo of hides and wool in one of her own
+steamers to Bordeaux, and it is to return laden with building supplies
+for this mansion. She herself has no time to go across the sea, but the
+captain of her ship will bring with him decorators and designers and
+upholstery men, who will finish the interior of her mansion regardless
+of expense.
+
+The structure stands in the centre of what is undoubtedly the finest
+private park in the world--an area of two hundred and fifty acres of
+land laid out in the most elaborate manner, containing statuary,
+fountains, caves, cascades, and no end of beautiful trees and plants.
+The improvement of the natural beauty of the place is said to have cost
+Señora Cousino nearly a million dollars, and she has a force of thirty
+gardeners constantly at work. The superintendent is a Scotchman, and he
+informed me that his orders were to make the place a paradise, without
+regard to cost. In this park there are many wild animals and
+domesticated pets, some of which are natives of the country, others
+imported; and the flowers are something wonderful.
+
+Señora Cousino has another park and palace an hour’s drive from
+Santiago, the finest estancia in Chili, perhaps in all South America;
+nor do I know of one in North America or Europe that will equal it. This
+is “Macul,” and the estate stretches from the boundaries of the city of
+Santiago far into the Cordilleras, whose glittering caps of everlasting
+snow mark the limit of her lands. In the valleys are her fields of
+grain, her orchards, and her vineyards, while in the foot-hills of the
+mountains her flocks of sheep and herds of cattle feed. Here she gives
+employment to three or four hundred men, all organized under the
+direction of superintendents, most of whom are Scotchmen. She has in her
+employ at “Macul” one American, whose business is that of a general
+farmer; but his time is mostly occupied in teaching the natives how to
+operate labor-saving agricultural machinery.
+
+Farming in Chili is conducted very much as it was in Europe in old
+feudal times, each estate having its retainers, who are given houses or
+tenements, and are paid for the amount of labor they perform. It is said
+that Señora Cousino can marshal a thousand men from her two farms if she
+needs them. The vineyard of “Macul” supplies nearly all the markets of
+Chili with claret and sherry wines, and the cellar of the place, an
+enormous building five hundred feet long by one hundred wide, is kept
+constantly full. Señora Cousino makes her own bottles, but imports her
+labels from France. On this farm she has some very valuable imported
+stock, both cattle and horses, and her racing stable is the most
+extensive and successful in South America. She takes great interest in
+the turf, attends every racing meeting in Chili, and always bets very
+heavily on her own horses. At the last meeting her winnings are reported
+to have been over one hundred thousand dollars outside of the purses won
+by her horses, which are always divided among the employés of the
+stables.
+
+In addition to “Macul” Señora Cousino has another large estate about
+thirty miles from Santiago; but she gives it very little attention, and
+has not been there for a number of years. In the city she has two large
+and fine houses, one of them being the former residence of Henry
+Meiggs--the finest in Santiago at the time it was built. All the timber
+and other materials used in its erection was brought from California. It
+is built mostly of red cedar. The construction and architecture are
+after the American plan, and in appearance and arrangement it resembles
+the villas of Newport.
+
+The other city residence of Señora Cousino is a stone mansion erected on
+the Spanish plan, with a court in the centre, and is ornamented with
+some very elaborate carving. The interior was decorated and furnished
+many years ago by Parisian artists at an enormous cost, and the house is
+fitting for a king. There is no more elaborate or extensive residence in
+America, and the money expended upon it would build as fine a house as
+that of W. H. Vanderbilt in New York. The widow, however, spends but
+very little time within its walls, as she prefers her home at Lota,
+where most of her business is.
+
+Her ability as a manager is remarkable, and she directs every detail,
+receiving weekly reports from ten or twelve superintendents who have
+immediate charge of affairs. While she is generous to profligacy, she
+requires a strict account of every dollar earned or spent upon her vast
+estates, and is very sharp at driving a bargain. One of her Scotch
+superintendents told me that there was no use in trying to get ahead of
+the señora. “You cannot move a stone or a stick but she knows it,” he
+said. In addition to her landed property and her mines she owns much
+city real estate, from which her rentals amount to several hundred
+thousand dollars a year. She is also the principal stockholder in the
+largest bank in Santiago. Not long ago she presented the people of that
+city with a park of one hundred acres, and a race-course adjoining it.
+
+[Illustration: SEÑORA COUSINO.]
+
+Fabulous stories of the señora’s extravagance are told. A million of
+dollars is a trifle to a woman whose income is so enormous, and there is
+nothing in the world that she will not buy if she happens to want it.
+She does not care much for art, but has a collection of diamonds that is
+very large and valuable, and she sometimes appears loaded down with
+them. Usually she looks quite shabby, as she has no taste or ambition
+for dress, and her party toilets, which are ordered from Paris, are
+seldom worn. Of late she has been a sufferer from sciatica, which has
+not only destroyed the señora’s own pleasure, but has seriously impaired
+the comfort of those who have relations with her. Although a
+comparatively young woman, being somewhere between forty-five and fifty
+years of age, she declares that she will never marry again; and there is
+not a man in Chili who has the courage to ask her. Not long since she
+took a fancy to a young German with a very blond beard and hair, and
+insisted that he should give up his business and make his home with her.
+The inducements she offered were sufficient, and for several months the
+young man has been tied to her apron-strings, having the ostensible
+employment of a private secretary. But the señora is very fickle, and
+will probably throw him overboard, as she has many others, when the whim
+seizes her.
+
+Señora Cousino has two daughters and one son. Neither of the girls
+inherits her mother’s business ability, or at least has not developed
+it; but they are very popular in society. Señorita Isadora, the elder,
+has a great deal of musical talent, and performs on the violin and
+piano. Both are bright and pretty. One is about seventeen, and the other
+nineteen years of age. Their brother, a young man of twenty-three or
+twenty-four, will share the property with them. It is quite an unusual
+thing for a youth with so much money to develop the business capacity
+and industry which he shows. He looks after the estancia at “Macul,” and
+spends from six to eight hours a day in the saddle, riding about the
+place. He seldom joins in the festivities that his mother enjoys so
+much, and is quite pronounced in his disapproval of her extravagance.
+He is to marry a young lady of rather humble station, and it is
+expected that the Meiggs mansion, which has been previously described,
+will be presented to the bride by his mother as a wedding-gift.
+
+The struggle between the Catholic Church and the liberal progressive
+element in Chili, which has been going on for a number of years, is now
+at its height. In all of the nations of Central and South America a
+similar struggle has occurred. In Mexico and all Central America, in
+Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chili, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay
+the Liberals are uppermost, and have control of the State. Ecuador and
+Bolivia are still in the hands of the priests, and are ruled at Rome.
+But even in these republics there is a growing tendency towards
+liberalism, and the day will soon arrive when the power of the Church in
+politics will be overcome, and its authority over temporal affairs
+denied. The Clerical party is growing in Peru. It has revived during the
+prostration of that republic, and although the liberal element is still
+in power, the Government is so weak that it cannot defy the Church as it
+once could. Therefore, the priests and monks and Jesuits, who were
+driven out years ago, are returning in large numbers to resume their
+authority over the common people and intrigue for an administration
+favorable to them.
+
+In Chili there has been no confiscation of church property, as in some
+of the other States, and at the capital there are still over two
+thousand monks and as many nuns. The Jesuits have been expelled for
+engaging in conspiracy against the Government, but the outer orders of
+friars are permitted to remain. A dispute between the archbishop and the
+President some years ago caused the former to retire from Chili, and the
+Pope sent over a nuncio to try and arrange matters; but this legate
+criticised the Government so severely from the pulpit that he was given
+a passport and an escort of military, and now there are no relations
+whatever between the Pope and Chili, although the Catholic faith is
+still recognized by the Constitution as the established religion of the
+republic. The radical element of the Liberal party favors extreme
+measures, but the Conservative faction, of which Ex-President Santa
+Maria is the leader, wisely prefers to take steps slowly, and avoid
+revolution.
+
+The Liberal party has a majority in Congress, and has passed several
+laws by which the authority and influence of the Church has been greatly
+crippled. The Liberal majority in Congress has placed the appointment of
+bishops in the hands of the President of the republic instead of the
+Pope; it has declared civil marriage to be the only legal one; it has
+opened the cemeteries to Jew and Gentile; taken the registers of births,
+marriages, and deaths out of the hands of the Church, and given them to
+civil magistrates; established non-sectarian schools, and passed a
+compulsory education law, under which all citizens who send their
+children to the priests and nuns to be taught have to pay a tax or fine
+to the State. These measures have all been bitterly fought by the
+clergy, but they have been compelled to yield in every instance. Just
+now the last act of Congress in this direction, establishing civil
+marriage, and recognizing the legitimacy of only those children born of
+parents wedded in this way, is the bone of contention, and has caused
+the bitterest struggle which the State has seen.
+
+It formerly cost twenty-five dollars to be married by the Church, and a
+large part of its revenues came from that source. The peons, who
+scarcely ever are able to accumulate so much money, therefore lived in a
+state of concubinage, and more than half the children born in Chili were
+illegitimate. Now a marriage certificate can be secured from a civil
+magistrate for twenty-five cents, and persons cohabiting without it are
+subject to fine and imprisonment. The archbishop has issued a decree
+excommunicating from the Church all persons who are married by the civil
+right, and the Catholics of the country, comprising ninety-nine per
+cent. of the population, are in a serious dilemma. They are compelled to
+choose between excommunication and imprisonment, and therefore in the
+upper classes weddings are no longer fashionable. Some people go first
+to the church and then to the magistrate, and run the risk of
+excommunication; but the more conscientious prefer to remain single.
+
+Just now in Santiago there is a young man of brilliant attainments, a
+member of Congress and a leader of the Liberal party, who wants to marry
+the daughter of a prominent merchant. The engagement has been existing
+for several years, and both parties are willing to fulfil it according
+to a civil law; but the girl’s mother is a devout Catholic, and will not
+consent to a wedding without the blessing of a priest. The young man is
+willing to go to the church as well as to the magistrate, but the
+archbishop has forbidden any priest to marry him without a full
+retraction by him of his political record. This he refuses to make, and
+the couple are preparing to go to the United States or some European
+country to have the ceremony performed.
+
+Not long ago there was a marriage in high life in one of the southern
+provinces of Chili, which attracted wide attention from the fact that it
+was the first defiance of the Church in that part of the country. On the
+Sunday following the wedding the couple were denounced by the bishop
+from the pulpit of the cathedral, and the Catholic newspaper published
+some brutal comments to the effect that the young couple had placed
+themselves on the level of beasts by cohabiting without the blessing of
+the Church. The bride’s brother belabored the editor so that he will be
+a cripple for life, and would have given the bishop a similar
+chastisement had not the latter kept out of the way.
+
+At the last Presidential election, which occurred in June, 1886, Señor
+Balmaceda, the Liberal candidate, was elected to succeed President Santa
+Maria, who had served his full term of four years. He was bitterly
+opposed by the priests, who realized that his success would be their
+permanent discomfiture, and there were several serious riots, in which
+many were killed and wounded. But Balmaceda was peacefully inaugurated
+in September, and the Congress which assembled at the same time has an
+overwhelming majority in sympathy with the Administration. The issue at
+the election was the enforcement of the civil marriage statute, and
+some measures will be taken to reduce the Church to subjection. A law to
+expel from the country priests who intimidate citizens from obeying the
+civil marriage act has already been proposed. This will be open war; but
+priests who threaten to excommunicate will be sent into exile, where
+they will shortly be followed by the monks and nuns, and a general
+confiscation of church property will be the next step. It is estimated
+that one-third of the entire property in Chili is owned by the Church.
+Much of this property is held in trust for certain saints, to whom it
+has been bequeathed by devout persons, or purchased by the gifts of the
+people. Saint Dominic, for example, is one of the largest
+property-holders in South America, and has an income of more than a
+million dollars a year from his estates, which are ably managed by the
+Dominican friars. It is proposed to assess a tax upon these estates,
+which now pay nothing towards the support of the Government; and if the
+monks refuse to pay, the property will be confiscated.
+
+Protestantism is making rapid progress in Chili. There are several
+missions under the care of the Presbyterian Board of the United States,
+and a number of self-supporting churches and schools. There is also a
+Presbyterian College and Theological Seminary, and a Young Ladies’
+Seminary with about one hundred and fifty boarding scholars; but the
+common people still cling to the superstitions and practices of the
+past. Crucifixes upon which the bodies of bleeding Christs are
+displayed, with all the symbols of the Crucifixion--the sponge, hammer,
+nails, spear, and other implements--are erected in the public streets.
+They are accompanied by an announcement from the archbishop that whoever
+says a certain number of prayers at these places will receive total
+absolution for all past sins.
+
+A beautiful marble monument has been erected on the site of the church
+which was burned about twenty years ago on the Feast of the Virgins. As
+usual on that day, high mass was celebrated by the bishop, and at this
+particular church, which was that of the patron saint of maidens, there
+was a
+
+[Illustration: A BELLE OF CHILI DRESSED FOR MORNING MASS.]
+
+very large attendance of girls from all classes of society. The church
+was handsomely draped, and cords to which candles were hung were
+stretched between the pillars. Being insecurely placed, these burning
+candles fell into the crowd below and set the clothing of the girls on
+fire. There was a panic, and the entire crowd became jammed against the
+doors, which, folding inward, could not be opened. The roof caught fire
+and, burning, fell with crushing destruction upon the heads of those
+below. The priests took no means to rescue the worshippers, but managed
+to get out unharmed themselves, carrying with them all the plate and
+other valuable contents of the altar. Their cowardice and neglect were
+universally condemned, and they were compelled to leave the country.
+
+It is not known how many lives were lost, and the inscription upon the
+monument--which stands in the centre of a plaza occupying the site of
+the church--gives no clew; but it is estimated that at least three
+thousand young ladies perished, and there was mourning in almost every
+house in Santiago. After the fire the bodies were found packed in a
+solid mass of flesh, the heads and upper portions of the forms being
+destroyed, while the limbs and lower portions of the bodies were
+uninjured. Since that calamity the Feast of the Virgins has been
+celebrated with mourning in Chili.
+
+It is one of the rules of the Church that no women shall participate in
+the services except as silent worshippers. All the music and singing is
+given by men, usually monks, who are well trained. Sometimes, as on
+Easter or Christmas, when mass is celebrated with more than usual
+magnificence, opera-singers of both sexes are introduced into the choir
+to assist in the performance; but the women are compelled to dress in
+the clothes of men, for fear of offending St. Paul or some other
+anti-woman’s rights potentate by wearing petticoats.
+
+At the beginning of the fishing season at Valparaiso it is customary to
+take the image of St. Peter, the patron of fishermen, in a boat and row
+it over the bay, in order to bless the fish; and those who expect to
+reap the reward of this patronage are highly taxed to pay for this
+performance. Every method by which money may be extorted from the
+people, every pretence which their ingenuity can invent, is practised by
+the priests to enrich the Church, and the funds are wasted by them in
+riotous living. Their looks are sufficient to convict them of the
+gluttony and libertinism of which they are accused, and it is a common
+thing to see them reeling through the streets in a state of
+intoxication.
+
+In the wall of one of the handsomest residences, by the side of the main
+entrance, is a niche in which a statue of the Mother of Christ has been
+placed--a gaudy, tinsel-covered figure, with a halo of gas-jets and a
+mantle of gilt-embroidered satin. An iron grating protects the image
+from the street, but through the bars have been thrust garlands of
+flowers and gifts of various sorts--votive offerings from people in
+bodily distress or mental disorder. The lady who lives in this house,
+the wife of a wealthy native merchant, some years ago became very ill,
+and made a vow to the Virgin that if her health was restored she would
+show her gratitude in this manner; and there the statue stands to
+illustrate the woman’s piety. Almost daily people who are ill, as its
+owner was, and others in distress of mind from some cause or another,
+come to it with such offerings as their condition permits them to make,
+and trustfully appeal to the Holy Mother for relief. It is said that
+many miraculous cures have resulted from faith in the power of this
+image, and people always lift their hats and reverently cross themselves
+as they pass it by.
+
+The 13th of May is the anniversary of the most destructive earthquake
+Santiago has ever seen, which occurred about forty years ago. The
+responsibility for the calamity lay with a woman who had a private
+saint, a household idol, to whom she offered prayers. This image deemed
+fit to withhold from her some favor she had asked, and she, angry, cast
+it violently into the street. This caused the earthquake! and it did not
+cease until the fear-stricken people took the image to the Church of St.
+Augustine, near by, where it was placed in a niche of honor, and has
+since been devoutly worshipped by them as the patron or preventer of
+earthquakes. For the lack of a better name, and because the image bears
+no resemblance to any saint that was ever known or told of, the people
+call him “Señor May.” Originally he was “Señor Thirteenth of May,” but
+now plain “Señor May,” for short. Each year, as the 13th of May comes
+round--the anniversary of his “martyrdom,” as the people call it--the
+entire population assemble to pay honor to the saint, and appeal for his
+intercession in preventing a recurrence of the earthquake, and, as
+everybody knows, these appeals have never been denied. “Señor May”
+protects the city at least one day in the year. As the church is not
+large enough to accommodate the multitude, the saint is taken out into
+the street and carried at the head of a procession, in which the bishop,
+the municipal authorities, companies of military, religious orders, and
+others march. The occasion is recognized by the Government and the
+municipality, and by commercial circles. Business houses are closed, and
+factories dismiss their workmen to take part in the ceremonies. The day
+is celebrated as universally as Thanksgiving Day in the United States,
+and the saint receives rich gifts from people who are grateful that
+their houses have not been shaken to pieces.
+
+I was present at the celebration in 1885. First in the procession came a
+squad of policemen to clear the way, for the entire population was
+jammed into the streets; and in the windows and upon the roofs of houses
+the nobility and gentry of the city stood, watching the performance as
+eagerly as the gamins of the streets, and throwing garlands and bunches
+of flowers into the path over which “Señor May” was to pass. Men fought
+and cursed, struck and stabbed each other in the struggle to do homage
+to the image, and all the police in the city were present to preserve
+order and arrest disturbers of the solemn scene. The Government offices
+were closed, and the President himself, the leader of the anti-Church
+party, did not go to the palace.
+
+Following the policemen came a line of monks in cowls and frocks of all
+colors. There were monks in white, monks in black, monks in gray, and
+monks in brown--Carmelites, Capuchins, Franciscans, and every order
+being represented. Then came a procession of priests in their vestments,
+with novitiates, each bearing a lighted candle and chanting some
+monotonous service. Behind them were a dozen altar-boys, some with
+incense-lamps which perfumed the air, and others with trays of flowers,
+which were scattered in the street for the bishop, who came next, to
+tread upon. He walked under a crimson canopy, wearing his most
+resplendent vestments, and bearing in his hands the Host--the Holy
+Sacrament--the body and blood of the Redeemer. Behind him were other
+incense-burners, and more boys with flowers. Then came, borne upon the
+shoulders of twenty men, the image of “Señor May”--an ugly and
+repulsive-looking effigy, draped with the most fantastic garments, rich
+embroideries, and much gold lace. Upon the pedestal were packages and
+caskets containing the offerings received that day; and as he passed
+along one and another would be added, handed from the houses or the
+crowd to the priests of St. Augustine’s Church, who surrounded the image
+to collect them.
+
+The crowd fell upon their knees as this ghastly feature of fanaticism
+passed by. Every head was uncovered, and every reverent tongue murmured
+a prayer. Men pushed and struggled, women screamed, and the policemen
+struck forward and backward with their swords to prevent the people from
+surging into the streets. Then came more chanting priests, and another
+battalion of monks, then more incense-bearers, and a spectacle of even
+greater repulsiveness--an image of a bleeding Christ upon a crucifix,
+naked, with the drapery of a ballet-dancer about his loins! More priests
+and more monks, and then a band of music and a regiment of infantry in
+parade uniforms, followed by a long line of bareheaded men, each with a
+lighted candle in his hand. This part of the procession received large
+and continual additions. People from the crowd fell into line at the
+rear, and were furnished with candles by attendants, who carried boxes
+of them in a cart, until the line reached out for a mile or more. After
+the parade the images were returned to the Church of St. Augustine,
+where high mass was celebrated by the bishop, to which admission was
+secured only by ticket.
+
+The next morning the newspapers contained long descriptions of the
+procession. The contest then, as now, going on between the Liberal party
+and the clerical element for political control gives the utterances of
+the official organ of the Government (Liberal) peculiar significance. I
+quote the brief paragraphs in which reference was made to the event of
+the month:
+
+“The procession of ‘Señor May’ took place yesterday, accompanied by many
+religious festivities in the temple of St. Augustine. The people and the
+municipality joined with the church to give a transcendent recognition
+in a most solemn and impressive manner of the historic ‘Señor May.’ From
+the early hours of the day the surroundings of the temple of St.
+Augustine were occupied by great throngs of the faithful, who awaited
+the inauguration of the parade. A little before four o’clock there
+arrived the forces of the army, with the national band at their head,
+and took position in front of the church in accordance with the orders
+from the commander-in-chief of the army.
+
+“Having been put in motion, the procession filed with difficulty through
+the great number of people who crowded the streets and followed with
+many prayers and significant rejoicing. The pedestals of the saints were
+beautifully adorned and covered with many valuable and votive offerings,
+the tender gifts of piety from the faithful. A committee from the
+municipal authorities, appointed to contribute to the solemnity of the
+occasion, participated in the ceremonies. The bands of music played
+various sentimental airs during the march.
+
+“To resume, the acts of recognition to the most potent ‘Señor May,’ made
+in compliance with the vows of the year 1847, after the terrible
+catastrophe of the 13th of the present month, have been perfectly
+carried out by the Catholic capital of Chili.”
+
+Farming in Chili is conducted on the old feudal system, very much as it
+is in Ireland. The country is divided into great estates owned by people
+who live in the cities, and seldom visit the haciendas. There are only
+two classes of people, the very rich and the very poor, the landlords
+and the tenants. On each estate are a number of cottages with garden
+patches around them, which are occupied by the tenants, and in payment
+for which the landlord is entitled to so many days’ labor each year at
+his option. Should more labor than is due be required of the tenant, he
+is paid for it, not in money, but in orders upon the supply store or
+commissary of the estate, where he can get clothing or food or
+rum--especially rum. Tenants are usually given small credits at these
+stores, and are kept in debt to the landlords. As the law prohibits them
+from leaving a landlord to whom they owe money, the poor are kept in
+perpetual slavery, like the party in mythology who was always rolling a
+stone uphill. Even under this cruel system of peonage master and slave
+usually get along pretty well together, but old-fashioned feudal wars
+are kept up between estates, as was the case in England centuries ago.
+The peon will always fight for his landlord, and bloody encounters are
+constantly occurring. There are in Chili to-day the same old family
+feuds that existed in the Middle Ages of Europe between the Montagues
+and the Capulets. Somebody stepped upon the coat-tails of somebody else,
+or kicked his poodle dog, away back in the early history of the country,
+and the two families have been slashing and hacking at each other ever
+since, while nobody can explain what it is all about. The tenant will
+always cut a throat in his master’s honor, but he can never get any
+richer in Chili than he is to-day.
+
+Everybody goes on horseback; even the beggars ride. The gear of the
+Chili saddle-horse--and horses are seldom broken to harness, all the
+teaming being done with oxen--is a most curious and complicated affair.
+The bit is a long, heavy, flat piece of iron, which rests on the horse’s
+tongue, and presses against the roof of his mouth. At each end is a
+hole, through which is passed a large iron ring about four inches in
+diameter, which encircles the lower jaw. At each side of the mouth is
+placed another iron ring to which the reins are fastened. The whole
+affair weighs about five pounds, and is sufficiently powerful to break a
+horse’s jaw if suddenly jerked. The reins are made of fine-plaited hide
+or horse-hair, about the thickness of the forefinger, and are joined
+together when they reach the pommel of the saddle, terminating in a long
+lash called a _chicote_, at the end of which is either a handsome tassel
+or a small piece of lead. When not in use the chicote hangs down the
+flank of the horse, often dragging on the ground. Sometimes the load of
+lead is heavy, and furnishes a weapon of offence and defence as
+formidable as a slung-shot, and the poor horse is often beaten with it
+without mercy. Fancy bits are made of plated or solid silver, and
+bridles plated with gold, with reins made of golden wire, can be found
+in the larger cities. I saw a bridle in Chili, belonging to Señora
+Cousino, that is said to have cost two thousand five hundred dollars;
+and one often hears of gifts of this sort that are worth one thousand
+dollars or more.
+
+The Chili saddle is even more queer and complicated than the bridle.
+First, six or seven sheepskins are placed upon the horse’s back, one on
+top of the other; a leather strap is passed around them and firmly
+secured; a skeleton saddle, or rather a piece of wood cut in the shape
+of a saddle-tree, with a cantle at each end, comes next, and on top of
+this any number of sheepskins; or, if the owner is rich, rare furs
+furnish a seat, which is called the _montura_. The four corners are
+fastened down by broad leather straps, ornamented with silver or brass
+buckles, to enable the rider to wedge himself in, and the whole is bound
+around the horse’s belly with a broad band of leather or canvas.
+Sometimes aristocratic and wealthy riders have a high pommel like that
+of the Mexican saddle, which is covered with silver, and stamped on the
+top with his family coat of arms. The amount of silver on a man’s riding
+equipment is understood to indicate his wealth and station in life, and
+there is a great deal of competition in this direction among the swell
+caballeros. The stirrups of the ordinary citizen are made of two huge
+pieces of wood, with a hole cut through for the foot, while those of the
+aristocrat are brass or silver slippers. The wooden affair, the poor
+man’s stirrup, is rudely cut out of oak, or other hard wood, by hand,
+and usually weighs as much as four or five pounds. The brass one is
+quite as heavy, but much more ornamental.
+
+[Illustration: A SOLID SILVER SPUR.]
+
+When the rider is seated in the saddle his legs are entirely concealed
+by the furs and sheepskins, which add to his warmth, and on his back he
+wears the _poncho_ of the country, which is the most comfortable and
+convenient garment that human ingenuity has ever produced. It is about
+the size of the rubber poncho used in the United States, but is woven of
+vicuña hair or lamb’s-wool, and keeps the wearer cool by day, as the
+rays of the sun cannot penetrate it, and warm by night. It answers as
+well for an umbrella as for an overcoat, and sheds the rain better than
+rubber, for the oil is not extracted from the wool of which it is made.
+The vicuña is the mountain-goat of the Andes, but is becoming scarce,
+and nowadays a vicuña poncho is as rare and expensive as a camel’s-hair
+shawl, which it very much resembles, being worth from one hundred and
+fifty to five hundred dollars. A fully equipped saddle-horse of a
+caballero, or gentleman, with vicuña poncho and spurs of silver, with
+saddle and bridle mounted with the same metal, often represents an
+investment of four or five thousand dollars. Very often the stirrup is
+made of solid silver, beautifully chased, and those used by ladies are
+generally so. The English manufacturers are able to produce the
+ornaments and stirrups so much cheaper than the native workmen, who have
+no labor-saving machinery, that nearly all are now imported, and they
+have succeeded in imitating the poncho very well too. But among the
+aristocrats it is considered the height of vulgarity to use modern
+English saddlery or the imitation poncho, for these articles have been
+handed down from generation to generation, and the older they are the
+more valuable, no sort of usage wearing them out.
+
+In Guatemala I was presented with a pair of stirrups which had been worn
+by the cavalry of Cortez when they made their raid into Central America
+and conquered that continent in 1535. This pair was handed down from
+generation to generation, in the family of Mr. Sanchez, the “Minister of
+Hacienda,” or Finance, of the Guatemala Government: they are made of
+iron, with wide flanges to protect the feet and legs of the cavalier
+from the high grass and brambles of the country through which he had to
+ride. This style was long ago abandoned, and is now only seen in
+museums.
+
+[Illustration: OVER THE ANDES.]
+
+He who wishes to make the journey from the Chilian to the Argentine
+Republic and the east coast of South America has a choice of routes. He
+may go by sea, around through the Strait of Magellan, which will cost
+him fifteen days’ time and two hundred dollars in money, or he may climb
+over the Andes on the back of a mule, a journey of five days, three of
+which only are spent in the saddle amid some
+
+[Illustration: MOUNT ACONCAGUA.]
+
+[Illustration: USPALLATA PASS.]
+
+of the grandest scenery in the world. The highest mountain in the
+Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua, which rises 22,415 feet above the sea
+to the northward from Valparaiso and Santiago, and in plain view from
+both cities when the weather is clear. Chimborazo was for a long time
+supposed to be the king of the Andes, and in the geographies published
+twenty years ago it is described as the highest summit in the world. No
+one has ever reached the peak of either mountain, owing to the depth of
+snow and impassable gorges, but recent measurements, taken by means of
+triangulation, give Aconcagua an excess of about 2000 feet over old
+“Chimbo.” Scientists have reached an altitude higher than the summit of
+either in the Himalaya Mountains of India, where Mount Everest is
+claimed to rise between 27,000 and 30,000 feet. Humboldt made Chimborazo
+famous, and very few travellers have gone beyond the point he reached;
+but no serious attempt has ever been made to explore the summit of
+Aconcagua, as the Chillanos do not often go where their horses cannot
+carry them. In mountain gloom and glory Chimborazo is said to surpass
+all rivals, standing as it does within sight of the sea, and surrounded
+by a cluster of twenty peaks, like a king and his counsellors. But
+Aconcagua is grand enough, and has nothing near it to dwarf its size.
+The latitude in which it stands brings the snow line much lower than
+upon Chimborazo and the other peaks of Ecuador, which are almost upon
+the line of the equator, and the purity of the atmosphere gives the
+spectator an opportunity to see its picturesqueness at a long distance.
+
+From Santiago, Chili, there is a Government railway as far as the town
+of Santa Rosa, which passes around the base of Aconcagua, and furnishes
+the traveller with a most sublime panorama of mountain scenery. There
+mules and men are hired for the ride over the Cumbre Pass to Mendoza, on
+the eastern slope of the Andes, to which a railroad has been recently
+opened by the Argentine Government. Here one can take a Pullman sleeper,
+and ride to Buenos Ayres as comfortably as he can go from New York to
+St. Louis, the distance being about the same.
+
+This railroad was opened in May, 1885, with a grand celebration, in
+which the Presidents of Chili and the Argentine Republic, with retinues
+of officials, participated. The event was as important to the commercial
+development of Argentine as was the first Pacific Railway to the United
+States, as it opened to settlement millions of square miles of the best
+territory in the republic, and furnished a highway between the two seas.
+
+[Illustration: CAUGHT IN THE SNOW.]
+
+The people of the United States have very little conception of what is
+going on down in that part of the world. They do not realize that there
+is in Argentine a republic which some day is to rival our own--a country
+with immense resources, similar to those of the United States, situated
+in a corresponding latitude, prepared to furnish the world with beef and
+mutton and bread, and stretching a net-work of railways over its area
+that will bring the products of the pampas to market. Geographers do not
+keep pace with the development of this part of South America, and to
+present accurate accounts of its condition should be rewritten every
+year. Who knows, for instance, except those who have been there, that a
+man can ride from Buenos Ayres across the pampas to the foot-hills of
+the Andes in a Pullman car?
+
+[Illustration: ROAD CUT IN THE ROCKS.]
+
+The late war between Peru and Chili robbed Bolivia of all her sea-coast,
+and the ports from which her produce was shipped, and at which her
+imports were received, now belong to the Chillanos, who charge heavy
+export and import duties. The opening of this railroad has caused the
+trade of Bolivia to be diverted to the Atlantic, and the extension of
+the line to the northward, which is already in progress, will make
+Buenos Ayres and other cities on the river La Plata the _entrepots_ for
+Bolivian commerce. It is not much farther now from the centre of Bolivia
+to the Argentine Railway than to the Pacific coast, and the feeling of
+resentment towards Chili
+
+[Illustration: A STATION IN THE MOUNTAINS.]
+
+makes the difference exceeding small. Long trains of mules are passing
+up and down the mountains, and their numbers will constantly increase
+until the Pacific sea-ports will see nothing that is grown or used in
+the country which Chili so ruthlessly robbed. One great difficulty,
+however, lies in the fact that from April to November the mountain
+passes are blockaded with snow, and it is always dangerous, and often
+impossible, to make the journey. Native couriers, who use snow-shoes,
+and find refuge in “casuchas,” or hollows of the rocks, during storms,
+cross them the year round, carrying the mails. Sometimes, indeed often,
+they perish from exposure or starvation, or perhaps are buried under
+avalanches. The passes are about thirteen thousand feet high, and are
+swept by winds that human endurance cannot survive. During the summer
+the journey is delightful, and though attended by many discomforts, has
+its compensations to those who are willing to rough it, and who are fond
+of mountain scenery. Ladies often venture, and enjoy it. Not long since
+a party of thirteen school-ma’ams from the United States, who are
+teaching under contract with the Argentine Government, crossed the
+mountains to Chili, and had “a lovely time.” Plenty of mules and good
+guides can be secured at the termini of the railways, but travellers
+have to carry their own food and bedding. There are no hotels on the
+way, but only “schacks,” or log houses, which furnish nothing but
+shelter. Very often people who are not accustomed to high altitudes are
+attacked with sirroche, from which they sometimes suffer severely.
+
+The road over the mountains is always dangerous, clinging as it does to
+the edge of mighty precipices and upon the sides of mountain cliffs, and
+only trained mules can be used on the journey. During the winter season
+the winds are often so strong as to blow the mules with their burdens
+over the precipices, and leave them as food for the condors that are
+always soaring around. These birds know the dangerous passes, and keep
+guard with the expectation of seeing some traveller or mule go tumbling
+over the cliffs. Cowhide bridges, the construction of which is not
+satisfactory to nervous men, stretch across the ravines after the manner
+of modern suspension-bridges, and a floor or path, made of the branches
+of trees lashed together with hides, and just wide enough for a mule to
+pass, is laid. Travellers usually dismount and lead their mules when
+they cross these fragile structures, for the hide ropes which are
+intended to keep people from stepping off do not look very secure. The
+oscillation of these bridges is very great, and a man who is accustomed
+to giddiness will want to lie down before he gets half-way over. It is
+remarkable that so few accidents happen, and when they do occur it is
+usually because a traveller is reckless or a mule is green. The foxes
+sometimes gnaw the hides, but no accidents have occurred from this cause
+for many years.
+
+[Illustration: THE CONDOR.]
+
+The journey on mule-back usually takes five days of travel, at the rate
+of twenty or thirty miles a day, but good riders, with relays of mules,
+often make it in three days. The whole route is historical, as it has
+been in use for centuries. There is scarcely a mile without some
+romantic association, not a rock without its incident; and tradition,
+incident, and romance line the path from end to end. The Incas used the
+path before the Spaniards conquered the country, and Don Diego de
+Almagro crossed it in 1535 as he passed southward to Chili after the
+conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+
+PATAGONIA.
+
+
+The spinal column of the hemisphere, extending from the Arctic to the
+Antarctic Sea, and called the Cordilleras, breaks suddenly at the foot
+of the Southern continent, and is divided by a narrow and deep ravine
+called the Strait of Magellan. Before the strait is reached, along the
+western coast of South America are numberless islands, cast into the sea
+by some convulsion of nature, like sparks flung from hammered iron. Few
+of these islands have ever been explored, but they all bear a close
+resemblance to the main-land in their geological formation, and it is
+believed that deposits of copper, silver, and other minerals, as well as
+coal, exist under their surfaces. On Chiloe, the largest of the Chili
+archipelago, mining companies are already operating to a small extent,
+but of the resources of the other islands little or nothing is known.
+They rise in picturesque outlines from the water, some of them to an
+elevation of several thousand feet, and the panorama presented to
+voyagers in what is known as Smythe’s Channel is beautiful and grand.
+This is a narrow fiord, named from its first explorer, scooped out, the
+geologists say, by the action of ice during the glacial epoch, running
+along the main coast, and protected against the violence of the ocean by
+the numerous fragmentary formations that line the shore. A glance at the
+map of Patagonia will show how many of these islands there are, and how
+slender is the thread of sea which separates them from the continent.
+
+The water in the channel is deep and smooth, but the passage is avoided
+by navigators because of the powerful currents and the frequency of
+snow-storms, which prevail at all seasons of the year. Vessels that take
+this course are compelled to anchor at night, unless there is a very
+bright moon, and always lie up when the snow falls, because of the
+circuitous turns, and the danger of collisions with ships and icebergs.
+Smythe’s Channel is so narrow in places that two steamers cannot pass
+between the mighty rocks which rise on either side. Most of the
+steamships prefer to risk the storms which rage outside, where they can
+have plenty of sea-room, and shorten their voyages by sailing at night
+as well as by day. There is no more dangerous sailing in the world than
+off the west coast of Patagonia and around the Horn, and vessels bound
+southward from Valparaiso are very lucky if they enter the Strait of
+Magellan without catching a gale of wind.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE FROWARD (PATAGONIA), STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.]
+
+The glaciers of Switzerland and Norway are insignificant beside those
+which can be seen from ships passing the Strait of Magellan. Mountains
+of green and blue ice, with crests of the purest snow, stretch fifteen
+and twenty miles along the channel in some parts of the strait. They
+are by no means as lofty as those of Europe, but appear more grand,
+rising as they do from the surface of the water in a land where winter
+always lingers, and where the sun sets at three o’clock in the
+afternoon. The line of perpetual snow begins at an elevation of only two
+thousand feet, and water always freezes at night, even in the
+summer-time. The highest mountains in Terra del Fuego are supposed to
+reach an altitude of seven thousand or eight thousand feet, but the eye
+of man has seldom seen them, covered as they are with an almost
+perpetual haze or mist, and presenting difficulties which the most
+ardent and experienced climber cannot surmount. The highest mountain
+known in this region is Mount Sarmiento, one of the most imposing of the
+Andean peaks, which rears a cone of spotless snow nearly seven thousand
+feet, almost abruptly from the water at its feet. It stands in what is
+known as Cockburn Channel, not far from the Pacific, and on clear days
+its summit can be distinguished from the decks of passing ships. The
+beauty of this peak is much enhanced by numerous blue-tinted glaciers,
+which descend from the snowy cap to the sea, and look, as Darwin the
+naturalist, who once saw it, said, “Like a hundred frozen Niagaras.”
+There are other mountains quite as beautiful, but they sit in an
+atmosphere which is seldom so clear as that which surrounds Sarmiento,
+and cannot often be seen by voyagers.
+
+The Terra del Fuego Indians, the ugliest mortals that ever breathed, are
+always on the lookout for passing vessels, and come out in canoes to beg
+and to trade skins for whiskey and tobacco. The Fuegians, or “Canoe
+Indians,” as they are commonly called, to distinguish them from the
+Patagonians, who dislike the water, and prefer to navigate on horseback,
+have no settled habitation. They have a dirty and bloated appearance,
+and faces that would scare a mule--broad features, low foreheads, over
+which the hair hangs in tangled lumps, high cheek-bones, flat noses,
+enormous chins and jaws, and mouths like crocodiles’, with teeth that
+add to their repulsiveness. Their skin is said to be of a copper color,
+but is seldom seen, as they consider it unhealthy to bathe. They are
+short in stature, round-shouldered, squatty, and swelled, a physical
+deformity said to be due to the fact that most of their lives is spent
+in canoes. The women are even more repulsive in their appearance than
+the men, and the children, who are uncommonly numerous, look like young
+baboons. Their intelligence seems to be confined to a knowledge of
+boating and fishing, and they exercise great skill in both pursuits.
+Scientists who have investigated them say that they are of the very
+lowest order of the human kind, many degrees below the Digger Indians.
+
+[Illustration: FUEGIANS VISITING A MAN-OF-WAR.]
+
+Although these people are in a perpetual winter, where it freezes every
+night, and always snows when the clouds shed moisture, they go almost
+stark naked! The skins of the otter and guanaco are used for blankets,
+which are worn about the shoulders and afford some protection; but under
+these neither women nor men wear anything whatever except shoes and
+leggings made of the same material, which protect the feet from the
+rocks. There is some little attempt at adornment made by both sexes in
+the way of necklaces, bracelets, and ear-rings made of fish-bones and
+sea-shells, which are often ingeniously joined together. The women will
+sell the skin blankets that cover their backs for tobacco, standing
+meantime as nude as a statue of Venus!
+
+Their food consists of mussels, fish, sea animals, and similar sorts,
+which they catch with the rudest kind of implements. Their fishing-lines
+are made of grass, and their hooks of fish-bones. For weapons they have
+bows and spears, the former having strings made of the entrails of
+animals, and the latter being long, slender poles, with tips of
+sharpened bone. They also use slings with great dexterity, which are
+made of woven grass, and are said to bring down animals at long range.
+During the day they are always on the water in canoes or dugouts made of
+the trunks of trees, the whole family going together, and usually
+consisting of a man, two or three wives, and as many urchins as can be
+crowded into the boat. When night falls they go ashore and build a fire
+upon the rocks, to temper the frigid atmosphere. Around this fire they
+cuddle in a most affectionate way. The name of the islands upon which
+they live came from these fires. The early navigators, when passing
+through the strait, were amazed to see them spring up as if by magic all
+over the islands every night at sundown, and so they called them Terra
+del Fuego, or the Land of Fire. The English shorten the appellation, and
+thus the place is known as “Fireland.”
+
+No one has ever been able to ascertain whether these people possess any
+sort of religious belief or have religious ceremonies. Across the strait
+the Patagonians, or Horse Indians, are of a higher order of creation,
+and perform sacred rites to propitiate the evil and good spirits, in
+which, like the North
+
+[Illustration: A FUEGIAN FEAST.]
+
+American savages, they believe; but the Fuegians are too degraded to
+contemplate anything but the necessity of ministering to their passions
+and appetites. They eat fish and flesh uncooked, and appreciate as
+dainties the least attractive morsels. Their language is an irregular
+and meaningless jargon, apparently derived from the Patagonians, with
+whom they were, some time in the distant past, connected. Bishop
+Sterling, of the Church of England, a devoted and energetic man, who has
+charge of missionary work in South America, with headquarters on the
+Falkland Islands, has made some attempt to benefit these creatures, but
+with no great success. He has a little schooner in which he sails
+around, and has succeeded in ingratiating himself among the Fuegians by
+giving them presents of beads and twine, blankets and clothing. They use
+the first for ornaments, the second for fishing gear, but trade off the
+other things for rum and tobacco the first chance they get. As long as
+his gifts hold out he will be kindly received, no doubt, and his
+devotion will meet with encouragement, but if he should land among them
+without the usual plunder they would probably kill him at breakfasttime
+and pick his ribs for lunch. Towards the Atlantic coast the savages are
+of a higher order, and the bishop has established a missionary station
+in a little town in which they live. His assistants have succeeded in
+persuading the inhabitants of this village to wear clothing, and they
+run a primary school from which much good may come.
+
+The Falkland Islands lie off the coast of Terra del Fuego about two
+hundred and fifty miles, and belong to the British crown. There is a
+town of about eight hundred inhabitants called St. Louis, where the
+Governor lives, and a coaling station is maintained for the benefit of
+English men-of-war. The chief use of the islands otherwise is
+sheep-raising, and the wool exports are becoming quite large. Nothing
+else grows there, however, because of the low temperature and the
+barrenness of the soil. One line of steamers touches at the Falklands
+once a month or so, carrying provisions to the colony and bringing away
+the wool.
+
+One of the curious things about the Strait of Magellan is the
+Post-office. In a sheltered place, easy of access from the channel, but
+secluded from the Indians, is a tin box, known to every seaman who
+navigates this part of the world. Every passing skipper places in this
+box letters and newspapers for other vessels that are expected this way,
+and takes out whatever is found to belong to him or his men. All the
+newspapers and books that seamen are done with are deposited here, and
+are afterwards picked up by the next vessel to arrive, and replaced with
+a new lot. It is a sort of international postal clearing-house, and
+sailors say that the advantages it offers have never been abused during
+the half century the system has existed.
+
+Every time a vessel passes through the strait the Fuegian Indians come
+out in their canoes to show their sociability,
+
+[Illustration: THE SIGNS OF CIVILIZATION.]
+
+and trade what property they are fortunate enough to be possessed of for
+tobacco and rum. The steamer we were on ran through several fleets of
+dugouts, greatly to the danger of those who occupied them, as they
+paddled across our course in the most reckless manner. In each of the
+frail canoes were three or four people and several children, who
+screamed and gesticulated in the most violent manner. They came so near
+the ship that we could distinguish their features and hear their words,
+which were clamors for _tabac_ (tobacco) and _galleta_ (food). In one
+canoe stood an old hag with long gray hair, and a face that reminded me
+of Meg Merriles. A more weird and witchlike being never presented itself
+to human eye, and she did not have a thread upon her dirty skin from
+head to foot. Stark, staring naked she stood in the group around her,
+with the thermometer about forty degrees above zero, and, as she saw the
+vessel did not propose to stop, shook her wrinkled arms at us, and
+uttered curses loud and deep. There was a fire in the boat in which she
+stood, and around it huddled another woman, naked, but with a guanaco
+robe over her shoulders, and several children, while the father sat in
+the stern and paddled his own canoe, leaving the wife or mother,
+whichever she was, to do all the talking.
+
+In another canoe stood a repulsive-looking man, who had taken off his
+guanaco robe, and stood naked, flapping it at us, and yelling like a
+lunatic. His companions were two naked women and several youngsters, and
+they all joined in the chorus with a vigor that we expected would split
+their throats, leaving the canoe to drift as it would, finally coming
+into collision with another, at which there was a good deal of
+scrambling, and an exchange of Fuegian compliments, the nature of which
+we could not understand. What they wanted was rum and tobacco, having
+acquired a taste for this pernicious weed from the sailors. For a plug
+of “Navy” they would exchange a guanaco blanket that could not be bought
+in New York for seventy-five dollars, as the guanaco is one of the
+rarest and finest of skins. The anger and disgust that was pictured upon
+the faces of these creatures when they found that the vessel was not
+slackening her speed would have furnished a model for the expressions on
+the souls that are lost. The passengers were about as much disappointed
+as the Fuegians, for having all read and heard of them, we anticipated
+much gusto, as the Spaniards say, in making their acquaintance.
+
+Scientists have long differed as to whether the Firelanders were
+cannibals, but this point has been recently settled by a practical
+demonstration, and there is no doubt that they actually eat human flesh
+when they can get it, and pick the bones very clean. In October, 1884,
+during a snow-storm, the steamer _Cordillera_, of the Pacific Steam
+Navigation Company’s line, struck a rock in the Strait of Magellan,
+about forty miles west of Punta Arenas, and to save as much as possible
+of the ship and cargo the captain drove her upon the beach, where she
+now lies, almost within a stone’s-throw of passing vessels. The wreck
+was soon after abandoned by all but two men, who were left in charge
+until wrecking machinery could be brought from Valparaiso. One of these
+men was William Taylor, a quartermaster or petty officer of the ship,
+and his companion, an ordinary seaman. They were well armed, and it was
+supposed were capable of protecting themselves, but it turned out that
+they were not. One night I was sitting upon the rickety old dock at
+Punta Arenas, waiting for the purser of our ship to take me on board,
+when Taylor was introduced to me, and told his story in a most graphic
+way.
+
+He said that when he and his partner were left in charge of the vessel,
+it was with the understanding that they were to be relieved on the 21st
+of December, and they were given food enough to last until that time.
+After the captain and crew had gone, and the two men were alone on the
+ship, the Indians made their appearance nearly every day, and bits of
+food were thrown over the side of the vessel into their canoes. Taylor
+and his companion each carried two revolvers, and were not at all
+alarmed, as the vessel lay very high on the sand, and it did not seem
+possible that the Indians could climb up its iron sides. Although
+several canoes hovered around the place daily, the savages made no
+unfriendly demonstrations, and no notice was taken of them further than
+to exchange salutations, and give them meat and bread now and then. One
+day the Indians traded them a string of fresh fish for a plug of
+tobacco, and at other times gave them furs for the same consideration.
+About noon on the 15th of December, while the sailor was cooking dinner
+in the galley, Taylor, who was at work below, heard several shots fired
+from a revolver on deck, with shrieks and other sounds, which proved
+that a fight was going on there. He drew both of his pistols, and
+rushing up-stairs, saw the bleeding body of his companion lying upon the
+deck, and one of the savages hacking at it with the cook’s knife. About
+twenty or twenty-five others were performing a war-dance around one of
+their number who lay dead, and a single glance at the scene convinced
+Mr. Taylor that he could find no pleasure in attending the
+
+[Illustration: PORT FAMINE.]
+
+circus. The Indians did not see him, and he crept quickly below and
+stowed himself in a large coil of rope in the forward part of the hold.
+The space in the centre of the coil was large enough to contain his body
+in a stooping position, and making the hatchway as fast as he could, he
+piled bags of beans around the sides and on the top of the rope, so as
+to entirely conceal it. For two days he hid himself here, feeding upon
+dry uncooked beans and a box of sea-biscuits, which he fortunately found
+in the hold; but he was entirely without water. The third day, fearing
+that he would die of thirst, he crept out and drew a bucket of water
+from a cask on the second deck, which he carried back to his place of
+concealment. On this excursion he neither heard nor saw signs of the
+Indians, and after two days more had passed, screwed his courage up to
+the point of making an exploration. Arranging everything so that he
+could make a hasty retreat if necessary, and using bean-bags to make a
+rifle-pit from which he could defend himself if pursued, he crept
+quietly into the saloon of the vessel, where he found that the Indians
+had been indulging in “a high old time.” Glasses and crockery were
+smashed, mattresses were dragged from the cabin, and everything that
+was movable lay scattered helter-skelter over the dining-tables and
+floor. It was evident that a search had been made for him, as doors
+which were locked had been broken open, although no attempt had been
+made to remove the coverings from the hatchways which led into the hold.
+Only one deck presented signs of a search, and above all was perfectly
+quiet. Going up-stairs, Taylor found human bones, picked clean,
+scattered around the galley. He did not touch them, because to look at
+them gave him the “shivers,” he said, but he saw enough to convince him
+that not only had the body of his companion been eaten, but also that of
+the savage who had been killed in the fray. It was evident that the
+savages had enjoyed a long and lively picnic, for there were several
+places on the deck where fires had been built. It was a wonder to him
+that the vessel had not been burned to the water’s edge. While hunting
+around for food, he found the head of his companion with the neck
+chopped off close to the jaws, the eyes punched out, and the fleshy part
+of the cheeks cut off. The sight of this was so horrible that he
+abandoned further exploration, and returned to his place of confinement
+so faint and bewildered that he could scarcely find his way. That night
+he crept out again, and finding some canned meat and fruit, lowered
+himself overboard and swam ashore, concluding that the Indians would
+return to the vessel, and that he would be safer in the rocks and
+bushes. Here he concealed himself for several days, awaiting the vessel
+that was to arrive from Valparaiso on the 21st of the month. The 25th
+passed without any sign of relief, and on the morning of the 26th he
+started on foot for Punta Arenas, where he arrived two days after. Here
+he told his story, and instead of being welcomed with hospitality, was
+arrested and thrown into jail, charged with the murder of his companion.
+A boat was sent down to the wreck, and such evidence was found there as
+to convince every one of the truth of his statement; whereupon he was
+released, and is now at Punta Arenas, in the employment of the Steamship
+Company, on an old hulk which lies in the harbor and is used for the
+storage of coal.
+
+I have not told the story in as graphic a manner as it was related to me
+by William Taylor that night under the antarctic stars, but have given
+only the facts of his narrative, without embellishment of sailors’ slang
+and oaths. He lives in the hope of “steering within hailing distance of
+some of the savages, when he proposes to give them something worse than
+a rope’s-end.”
+
+It is believed there is much gold in Terra del Fuego, as nuggets have
+been discovered by the missionaries in the streams. The Argentine
+Government proposes to make an exploration soon, and sanguine people
+think the time is not far distant when the islands of the archipelago
+will be filled with successful prospectors. Seals and other fur-bearing
+animals are plenty, but many skins are not sent to market for the reason
+that supplies can be obtained cheaper elsewhere.
+
+There used to be a State called Patagonia, and one can still find it
+referred to in old geographies, but by the combined efforts of Chili and
+the Argentine Republic it has been wiped off the modern maps of the
+world. The United States ministers at the capitals of the two republics
+named assisted in dissecting the territory, and were presented with
+beautiful and costly testimonials as tokens of the artistic manner in
+which it was done. It was agreed that the boundary-line of Chili should
+be extended down the coast and then run eastward, just north of the
+Strait of Magellan, so that the Argentines should have the pampas, or
+prairies, and Chili the strait and the islands. The map of Chili now
+looks like the leg of a tall man, long and lean, with a very high instep
+and several conspicuous bunions.
+
+It was a diplomatic stroke on the part of Chili to get control of the
+Strait of Magellan, that great international highway through which all
+steamers must go; and the archipelago along the western coast,
+comprising thousands of islands which have never been explored, and
+which are believed to be rich in what the world holds valuable, also
+fell to her share; but the Argentines got the best of the bargain in
+broad plains, rich in agricultural resources, rising in regular terraces
+from the Atlantic seaboard to the summits of the Cordilleras, whose
+snowy crests stand like an army of silent sentinels, marking the line
+upon which the two republics divide--plains as broad and useful as those
+which stretch between the Mississippi River and the ranges of Colorado,
+and as good for cattle as they are for corn.
+
+[Illustration: STARVATION BEACH.]
+
+It was a rather unusual proceeding, this partition of the Patagonian
+estates. It is commonly the custom to divide property after the owner’s
+death; but in this instance the inheritance was first shared by the
+heirs, and then the owner was mercilessly slaughtered. They called it a
+grand triumph of the genius of civilization over the barbarians, and the
+success of the scheme certainly deserved such a designation; but in this
+case as in many others the impediment to civilization was swept away in
+a cataract of blood. General Roca, the recent President of the Argentine
+Republic, was the author and executor of the plan of civilizing
+Patagonia, and he did it as the early Spanish Conquistadors introduced
+Christianity into America, with the keen edge of a sword. His success
+won him military glory and political honors, and made him what he is
+to-day, the greatest of the Argentinians.
+
+There were originally two great nations of Indians in what was known as
+Patagonia, but the Spaniards called them all Patagonians, because of the
+enormous footprints they found upon the sand. The early explorers
+reported them to be a race of giants. The first white man that
+interviewed these people was Magellan, the great navigator who
+discovered the strait which bears his name, and who was the first to
+enter the Pacific Ocean. He had with him a romancer by the name of
+Pigafetta, who gave the world a great amount of interesting information
+without regard to accuracy. All the navigators who followed Magellan
+felt in duty bound to see and describe as amazing things as their
+predecessor had witnessed, and even went much further in their endeavors
+to keep up the European interest in the New World. Hence, in the
+sixteenth century, fables which are still repeated, but have no more
+foundation than the tales of the warrior woman who gave a name to the
+greatest stream on earth, found their way into history.
+
+This man Pigafetta, for example, says that the Patagonia Indians “were
+of that biggeness that our menne of meane stature could reach up to
+their waysts, and they had bigg voyces, so that their talk seemed lyke
+unto the roar of a beaste.” In order to secure credit for courage, the
+early navigators told astonishing yarns about the fierceness of these
+Indians, who still have a reputation for fighting which, no doubt, is
+well founded. Rum and disease have, however, made sad work among the
+race, which is in its decadence; and the ambition of the Patagonian now
+is only equal to that of the North American Indian--that is, to get
+enough to eat with the least possible labor. They hang around the
+ranches to pick up what is thrown to them in the way of food, stealing
+and begging, and occasionally they bring in skins to the settlements to
+exchange for fire-water.
+
+[Illustration: USE OF LASSO AND BOLAS.]
+
+Later explorers discovered that there were two distinct races among the
+aborigines: first, the canoe Indians of the coast; and, second, the
+hunters of the interior, who are expert horsemen, raise cattle, and
+resemble the Sioux of the United States or the Apaches of the Mexican
+border. The two nations spoke languages entirely different, and had no
+resemblance in their manner or habits of life. Those of the south, who
+extended over into the curious islands of Terra del Fuego, are uglier in
+appearance, fiercer in disposition, and are believed to be cannibals. In
+fact, there is a recent instance of man-eating in the Strait of Magellan
+which appears to be authentically reported. The canoe Indians are called
+_Tehueiche_, and the horsemen of the north--the plains or pampa
+Indians--are called _Chenna_. The latter appear to be closely allied to
+the Araucanians of Chili, a race which the Spaniards were never able to
+subdue, but with which they have intermarried extensively, and produced
+the present peon of Chili, who has all the vivacity and impulsiveness of
+the Spaniard united with the muscular development, the courage, and the
+endurance of the Indian. The frontier of the Argentine Republic, until a
+few years since, was constantly harassed by the Chennas--murder, arson,
+and pillage were the rule--and the development of the nation was
+seriously checked, until General Roca was sent out with an army to
+exterminate them.
+
+[Illustration: IN THEIR OSTRICH ROBES.]
+
+The dividing line between the Argentine Republic and what was known as
+Patagonia was the river Negro, which flows along the forty-first
+parallel, about nine hundred miles north of the Strait of Magellan. The
+greater portion of this country is well-watered pampas, or prairies,
+that extend in plainly marked terraces, rising one after the other from
+the Atlantic to the Andes; but towards the south the land becomes more
+bleak and barren, the soil being a bed of shale, with thorny shrubs and
+tufts of coarse grass, upon which nothing but the ostrich can exist. The
+winters are very severe, fierce winds sweeping from the mountains to the
+sea, with nothing to obstruct their course. These winds are called
+_pamperos_, and are the dread of those who navigate the South Atlantic.
+During the winter months the Indians were in the habit of driving their
+cattle northward into the foot-hills of the Andes for protection; and,
+leaving them there, they made raids upon the settlements on the
+Argentine frontier, killing, burning, and stealing cattle and horses.
+Terror-stricken, the ranchmen fled to the cities for protection; so that
+year by year the frontier line receded towards Buenos Ayres, instead of
+extending farther upon the plains.
+
+[Illustration: A PATAGONIAN BELLE.]
+
+President Roca was then a general of cavalry, and had won renown in the
+war against Lopez, the tyrant of Paraguay. He was sent with two or three
+regiments to discipline the Indians, and he did it in a way that was as
+effective as it was novel. While the Indians were in the mountains with
+their cattle he set his soldiers at work, several thousands of them, and
+dug a great ditch, twelve feet wide and fifteen feet deep, from the
+mountains to the Rio Negro, scattering the earth from the excavation
+over the ground with such care as to leave nothing to excite the
+savages’ suspicions. Then, when the ditch was completed, he flanked the
+Indians with his cavalry and drove them southward on the run. Being
+ignorant of the trap set for them, the savages galloped carelessly along
+until thousands of them were piled into the ditch, one on top of the
+other--a maimed, struggling, screaming mass of men, women, children, and
+horses. Many were killed by the fall, others were crushed by those who
+fell upon them, while those who crawled out were despatched by the
+sabres of the cavalrymen.
+
+Those who were not driven into the ditch fled to the eastward hunting
+for a crossing, which the soldiers allowed them no time to make, even if
+they had had the tools. Shovels and picks and spades were unknown among
+the Patagonians, and as they are the wards of no nation, muskets and
+ammunition had never been furnished them to do their fighting with. It
+was very much such a chase as Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces gave
+General Howard in the North-west a few years ago, and finally ended in
+General Roca’s driving the Indians into a corner, with the impassable
+Rio Negro behind them, where the slaughter was continued until most of
+the warriors fell. The remainder were made prisoners and distributed
+around among the several regiments of the Argentine army, in which they
+have proven excellent soldiers. The women and children were sent to the
+Argentine cities, where they have since been held in a state of
+semi-slavery by families of officials and men of influence. The dead
+were never counted, but were buried in the ditch which encompassed their
+destruction.
+
+Northern Patagonia was thus cleared of savages, and civilization
+stretched out its arms to embrace the pampas, which are now being
+rapidly populated with ranchmen. The grass is very similar to that of
+our own great plains, but water is more plentiful and regular than in
+the South-west Territories of the United States. Towards the Andes there
+is some timber, and the foot-hills are well wooded. Grazing land in this
+country is sold at a nominal price by the Argentine Government, or is
+leased to tenants for a term of eight years, in lots of six thousand
+acres, at a rental of one hundred dollars per year. Locations nearer the
+cities, of course, cost more money, and are hard to get, as they are
+already occupied by people who secured titles to the land years ago by
+“concessions” from Congress or other means.
+
+Not long ago the United States Consul at Buenos Ayres received a letter
+from a New York capitalist, in which the latter proposed that they
+should pool their issues and secure a “concession” from the Argentine
+Government to gather up the wild cattle on the pampas. The capitalist,
+who had been overhauling his geography, discovered that “immense herds
+of wild horses and cattle are roaming ownerless upon the pampas of the
+Argentine Republic and Patagonia,” and thought it would be a good scheme
+to take a lot of Texas cow-boys down and corral them, if the permission
+of the Government could be obtained. He proposed that the consul should
+obtain such permission, while he would furnish the cow-boys and the
+necessary capital, and the two would become partners in the Patagonia
+cattle trade on an extensive scale.
+
+The astonished consul did not answer the letter. It was a tempting
+scheme, but there were several obstacles in the way of its success, the
+first being that there were no wild cattle on the pampas, and never had
+been. The Indians had large herds, which were “absorbed” by prominent
+officials when General Roca concluded his scheme of extermination; but
+it would be quite as reasonable to make such a proposition to the
+Governor of Colorado. There are about thirty million cows, five million
+horses, and one hundred million sheep grazing on the pampas of the
+Argentine Republic and Patagonia, but they are all properly branded, and
+valued at something like four hundred millions of dollars. The annual
+number of beeves slaughtered reaches nearly four millions, and about ten
+million sheep are turned into mutton each year.
+
+The Argentinians think that their country is to be the greatest of all
+the world in cattle and wool production, and the figures loom up very
+much like it, as the increase within the last twenty years has been
+about four hundred per cent. At present the Argentine Republic has more
+sheep than any other nation, but the value of the wool product is less
+by one-third than that of Australia, because the fleece is so much
+lighter. The clip per animal in Australia is worth about one dollar,
+while in the Argentine Republic it sells for about fifty cents.
+
+The capital of Patagonia, if the territory of that name may be said to
+have a capital, as there is only one town within its limits, is Punta
+Arenas, or Sandy Point, located about one-third of the distance from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific, in the Strait of Magellan. It belongs to Chili,
+and was formerly a penal colony; but one look at it is enough to
+convince the most incredulous that whoever located it did not intend the
+convict’s life to be a happy one. It lies on a long spit which stretches
+out into the strait, and the English call it Sandy Point, but a better
+name would be Cape Desolation. Convicts are sent there no longer, but
+some of those who were sent thither when Chili kept the seeds and
+harvests of her revolutions still remain there. There used to be a
+military guard, but that was withdrawn during the war with Peru, and all
+the prisoners who would consent to enter the army got a ticket of leave.
+The Governor resides in what was once the barracks, and horses are kept
+in what was used as a stockade. Hunger, decay, and dreariness are
+inscribed upon everything--on the faces of the men as well as on the
+houses they live in--and the people look as discouraging as the mud.
+
+They say it rains in Punta Arenas every day. That is a
+mistake--sometimes it snows. Another misrepresentation is the published
+announcement that ships passing the strait always touch there. Doubtless
+they desire to, and it is one of the delusions of the owners that they
+do; but as the wind never ceases except for a few hours at a time, and
+the bay on which the place is located is shallow, it is only about once
+a week or so that a boat can land, because of the violent surf. Our
+arrival happened to be opportune, for the water was smooth, and we
+landed without great difficulty, the only drawbacks being a pouring rain
+and mud that seemed bottomless.
+
+The town is interesting, because it is the only settlement in Patagonia,
+and of course the only one in the strait. It is about four thousand
+miles from the southernmost town on the west coast of South America to
+the first port on the eastern coast--a voyage which ordinarily requires
+fifteen days; and as Punta Arenas is in about the middle of the way, it
+possesses some attractions. Spread out in the mud are two hundred and
+fifty houses, more or less, which shelter from the ceaseless storms a
+community of eight hundred or one thousand people, representing all
+sorts and conditions of men, from the primeval Indian type to the pure
+Caucasian--convicts, traders, fugitives, wrecked seamen, deserters from
+all the navies in the world, Chinamen, negroes, Poles, Italians,
+Sandwich Islanders, wandering Jews, and human drift-wood of every tongue
+and clime cast up by the sea and absorbed in a community scarcely one of
+which would be willing to tell why he came there, or would stay if he
+could get away. It is said that in Punta Arenas an interpreter for every
+language known to the modern world can be found, but although the place
+belongs to Chili, English is most generally spoken. There are a few
+women in the settlement, some of them faithful mothers and wives, no
+doubt, but the most of them have defective antecedents, and are noted
+for a disregard of matrimonial obligations.
+
+There are some decent people here--ship agents and traders who came for
+business reasons, a consul or two, and among others an Irish physician,
+Dr. Fenton, who is the host and oracle sought for by every stranger who
+arrives. Occasionally some yachting party stops here on a voyage around
+the world, or a man-of-war cruising from one ocean to the other, and
+steamers bound from Europe to the South Pacific ports, or returning
+thence, pass every day or two; so that communication is kept up with the
+rest of the universe, and the people who live at this antipodes, where
+the sun is seen in the north, and the Fourth of July comes in the depth
+of winter, are pretty well informed as to affairs at the other end of
+the globe. The latitude corresponds to about that of Greenland, and if
+you tip the globe over you will see that it is the southernmost town in
+the world, farther south than the Cape of Good Hope or any of the
+inhabited islands. The emotions that come with the contemplation of the
+fact that you are about as far away from anywhere as one can go are
+quite novel; but in the midst of them you are summoned to confront the
+fact that the world is not as large as it looks to be, for here is a man
+who used to live where you came from, and another who once worked in an
+office where you are employed. There is a news-stand where you can
+purchase London and New York papers, often three or four months old, but
+still fresh to the long voyager, and shops at which Paris confectionery
+and the luxuries of life can be had at Patagonia prices.
+
+There is a curiosity-shop near the landing, which is kept by an old
+fellow who was once a sailor in the United States navy, and fought under
+Admiral Farragut at Mobile--at least he says he did, and he speaks like
+a truthful man. Here are to be purchased many interesting relics; and
+passengers who are fortunate enough to get ashore, go back to their ship
+loaded down with Indian trifles, shells and flying fish, tusks of
+sea-lions, serpent-skins, agates from Cape Horn, turtle-shells, and the
+curious tails of the armadillo, in which the Indians carry their
+war-paint. But the prettiest things to be bought at Punta Arenas are the
+ostrich rugs, which are made of the breasts of the young birds, and are
+as soft as down and as beautiful as plumage can be.
+
+The plumes of the ostrich are plucked from the wings and tail while the
+bird is alive, but to make a rug the little ones are killed and skinned,
+and the soft fluffy breasts are sewed together until they reach the size
+of a blanket. Those of a brown color and those of the purest white are
+alternated, and the combination produces a very fine artistic effect.
+They are too dainty and beautiful to be spread upon the floor, but can
+be used as carriage robes, or to throw over the back of a couch or
+chair. Sometimes ladies use them as panels for the front of dress
+skirts, and thus they are more striking than any fabric a loom can
+produce. Opera cloaks have been made of them also, to the gratification
+of the æsthetic. They are too rare to be common, and too beautiful to
+ever tire the eye.
+
+This town of Sandy Point is quite a market for other sorts of furs,
+which are brought in by the Indians of Patagonia from the mountains.
+Several large houses in Valparaiso and Buenos Ayres have agents there,
+and the shipments to Europe are quite large. The chief articles of
+export in this line are ostrich feathers and guanaco (pronounced
+_wanacko_) skins.
+
+[Illustration: THE GUANACO.]
+
+The fur-bearing animals of South America are numerous, and some of them
+are very fine. The mountains of the lower half of the continent abound
+with vicuñas, guanacos, alpacas, and chinchillas, while the archipelago
+of Chili and Terra del Fuego, with its thousands of islands, fairly
+swarm with seals. Very many furs are shipped to Europe, but the seals
+are seldom touched except by the native Indians, who use their flesh for
+food and their skins for garments. The supply of seals is practically
+inexhaustible. They are found in large numbers as far north as
+Guayaquil, on the west coast, and the passengers on the steamships
+passing up and down are entertained by their antics. The seals have
+helped the sea-birds to create the supply of guano upon the Peruvian
+coast, and this valuable fertilizing material is largely composed of
+decayed seal flesh and bones, as well as the remnants of the fishes they
+have dined upon for thousands of years.
+
+The skins of the northern seals are worthless, but farther south, as the
+archipelago is reached, a colder climate exists, the fur is thicker, and
+the skins have value. If the reader will take the map of South America,
+and examine the configuration of the continent south of the fortieth
+parallel, he will see how numerous these islands are, and every one of
+them is swarming with seals. There have been some attempts at
+seal-fishing in Terra del Fuego, but the Indians are so fierce as to
+make it dangerous for small parties to visit the islands, and only a few
+skins are shipped from Punta Arenas.
+
+The guanaco skins are considered very fine. These are the wearing
+apparel of the Indians, and with the ostrich rugs constitute the chief
+results of their chase. In Patagonia ostriches are not bred, as at the
+Cape of Good Hope, but run wild, and are getting exterminated rapidly.
+The Indians chase them on horseback, and catch them with _bolas_--two
+heavy balls attached to the ends of a rope. Galloping after the ostrich,
+they grasp one ball in the hand, and whirl the other around their heads
+like a lasso coil. When near enough to the bird, they let go, and the
+two balls, still revolving in the air if skilfully directed, will wind
+around the long legs of the ostrich, and send him turning somersaults
+upon the sand. The Indians then leap from the saddle, and if scarce of
+meat they will cut the throat of the bird and carry the carcass to camp.
+If they have no need of food, they will pull the long plumes from the
+tail and wings, and let him go again to gather fresh plumage for the
+coming season.
+
+The bolas are handled very dexterously, and well trained Indians are
+said to be able to bring down an ostrich at a range of two or three
+hundred yards. But it is not often necessary to draw at that distance.
+Horses accustomed to the chase can overtake a bird on an unobstructed
+plain; but the
+
+[Illustration: PATAGONIAN INDIANS.]
+
+birds have the advantage of being “artful dodgers,” and as they carry so
+much less weight, can turn and reverse quite suddenly. The usual mode of
+hunting them is for a dozen or so Indians to surround a herd and charge
+upon it suddenly. In this way several are usually brought down before
+they can scatter, and those that get away are pursued. As they dodge
+from one hunter they usually run afoul of another, and before they are
+aware they are tripped by the entangling bolas. People who are passing
+through the strait often stop over and await another steamer at Punta
+Arenas to enjoy an ostrich chase. They can secure trained horses and
+guides at moderate rates. One who has never thrown the bolas will be
+amazed, the first time he tries it, to find how difficult it is to do a
+trick that looks so easy.
+
+
+
+
+BUENOS AYRES.
+
+CAPITAL OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE HARBOR, BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+The Chillanos claim to be the Yankees of South America, and it is their
+proudest boast, but the Argentinians are more entitled to that
+distinction. Chili, commercially and in her political affinities, is to
+all intents and purposes an English colony. She reckons her transactions
+in pounds, shillings, and pence, and her statute-books bear the law of
+entail. There is no democracy outside her constitution, and a peon can
+never be anything else. The poor may not acquire land, but must be the
+retainers of the rich and the tenants of the great estates which are
+tied up forever from them. In the Argentine Republic, on the contrary,
+the pampas are divided like the prairies of our own great West. Any man
+may acquire an estancia by location upon the public lands and the
+payment of a nominal price per acre; so the country is settling up with
+those who have fled from the conditions that exist in Chili, free
+thought, free speech, free air, and free land being their inducement.
+The city of Buenos Ayres is the only one of the South American capitals
+in which modern ideas and manners of life prevail. The town is of
+mushroom growth, like Chicago. There were no old prejudices to uproot,
+no antiquated bigotry to tear down. It looks less like Spain than any of
+the other capitals, and more like a modern American community.
+
+The first impressions of the traveller are unfavorable, and you wonder
+what possessed the Spaniards to locate this capital where it stands. But
+Buenos Ayres is like Topsy--it simply “growed.” The first man who came
+was Juan Diaz de Solis, in 1515. He discovered the Rio de la Plata, and
+was murdered by the Indians. Then came the famous Sebastian Cabot, who
+explored the country as far up the river as Paraguay ten years later,
+and was followed by Pedro de Mendoza in 1535, who obtained permission
+from the Spanish Government to equip an expedition to subdue the
+country, provided--as was always the rule in the Pickwick Club--he did
+the same at his own expense. Mendoza came with eleven hundred men, went
+ashore where he first saw land, established a camp as a basis of
+operations, and from the purity of the atmosphere called it Buenos
+Ayres, or “good air.” He had no intention of founding a city at this
+location; his purpose was to rest there a while and keep a base of
+supplies, until he had found a path to the mythical El Dorado, which was
+supposed to lie somewhere in the interior of South America.
+
+The approach to Buenos Ayres, which stands about one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Rio Plata--or “the river Plate,” as it is more commonly
+called by English writers--is perplexing to navigators, as the mouth of
+the river is beset with mud-banks and sand-bars--accumulations that come
+down from the interior of the continent upon the swift waters, and, like
+the shoals in the Mississippi, are constantly shifting. The voyage from
+the Strait of Magellan to the place is not a comfortable one, and the
+captain is always glum and anxious. When it is calm weather he is
+nervous, and keeps his eye on the barometer for fear of a gale; and
+when the gale comes, as it does about three or four days in a week, the
+jokes of the passengers do not appear to entertain him. These gales are
+called _pamperos_, and sweep across the pampas of Patagonia with the
+violence of a tornado. Many a brave ship has gone down a victim of their
+fierceness, and the sailors are as much afraid of them as of the
+tempests which haunt Cape Horn.
+
+Our captain was unusually anxious, because we had a priest on board.
+Ever since the days of Jonah there has been a superstition among sailors
+that clergymen always bring bad luck, particularly a Catholic priest. In
+trying to discover why the forebodings over a priest should be greater
+than those over a Protestant parson, the conclusion is reached that it
+is because the priest wears the sign of his office in his apparel, and
+is thus more conspicuous. Many captains of sailing-vessels will not take
+clergymen as passengers under any circumstances, always protesting, of
+course, that they do not share the common superstition, but basing their
+objections upon the ground that it would demoralize the sailors. A
+missionary to one of the South American countries waited in New York for
+over three months to get passage by a sailing-vessel, and although
+several started in the mean time for the port he wanted to reach, he was
+finally obliged to go on a steamer by way of England. The steamer was
+lost in a storm off the coast of British Guiana. He and other of the
+passengers were saved in the life-boats, but the chief mate and several
+of the seamen were drowned. This superstition prevails among sailors of
+all races, but the Spaniards are the most sensitive to it, as they are
+to omens of all kinds. The Spanish seamen believe that if the decks are
+wet by the sea the first day out, they will have fine weather for the
+rest of the voyage, and for this reason they often leave their moorings
+in a storm when skippers of other countries would wait for fair weather.
+There is scarcely a tar in the Spanish service who cannot find some
+significance in every incident.
+
+Through the Strait of Magellan and up the east coast of
+
+[Illustration: THE CITY OF BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+South America vessels are followed by myriads of sea-birds--albatrosses,
+Mother Carey’s chickens, and a beautiful species of the gull variety not
+found elsewhere, known as the “cape pigeon.” Their plumage is beautiful,
+of the purest white, mixed with the most intense black, and nature has
+clothed them so warmly for the severe climate in which they live that
+their skin is as thick as fur, and is used for the manufacture of robes
+and rugs. More than a hundred breasts of these birds are needed for an
+ordinary sized robe, however, so that they are a luxury few can afford.
+I saw in Montevideo a mass of tiny feathers, black and white, as fine
+and soft as eider-down, that was lined with scarlet silk, and cost two
+hundred and fifty dollars. Nothing more beautiful could be imagined.
+Robes made of the breasts of ostriches are lovely enough, but one of
+cape-pigeons’ breasts is passing lovely.
+
+The sailors catch them by throwing overboard a long piece of coarse
+twine and trailing it in the wake of the ship. As hundreds of the birds
+are constantly sailing along the surface of the water, they get tangled
+in the cord and are drawn in, but it requires as much dexterity to get
+them aboard as to land a lively trout. Sometimes brass or tin tags are
+tied to their necks, with names and dates scratched upon them, when they
+are released. The officers of our ship reported that upon a previous
+voyage they got a bird with one of these tags on, bearing inscriptions
+showing that it had been caught twice before. They gave the little
+stranger another indorsement and let him go. The albatrosses of the
+southern hemisphere are very large, sometimes measuring ten and twelve
+feet from wing to wing; but they are worthless, and are stupid, awkward
+birds, that often dash themselves against the side of a ship from pure
+stupidity.
+
+There is no port of importance between Punta Arenas, in the Strait, and
+the river Plate except Bahia Blanca (White Bay), near where the United
+States astronomical expedition made its observations at the last transit
+of Venus. The entire coast for fifteen hundred miles is barren of
+civilization, except the cabin of some hardy frontiersman, who has set
+up a ranch and is waiting for the country to grow down to him.
+
+[Illustration: LOADING CARGO AT BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, lies a few miles below Buenos Ayres,
+on the other side of the river, and vessels usually touch there, for it
+is a place of great commercial importance, more accessible to shipping
+and more favorably located in every respect than the latter city, which
+lies stretched along a low sandy bank seven or eight miles beyond the
+anchorage of ships. There is no harbor at Buenos Ayres--not even an
+excuse for one--and it is beyond the power of human genius to give
+vessels direct access to the city. The water is so shallow that they
+anchor seven, eight, and ten miles out, and are loaded and unloaded by
+means of flat-bottomed lighters, which are towed back and forth. Two or
+three times a week during the winter, when a pampero is blowing, the
+water is carried out to sea by force of the wind, and these lighters are
+left high and dry upon a beach over which they were floating a few hours
+before. Then they have to be unloaded by means of carts on wheels eight
+to ten feet in diameter, which are driven into the water until nothing
+can be seen of the mules that draw them but their indignant noses and
+nodding ears. It is amusing to see the heads of these mules sticking out
+of the water at an elevation which must be very uncomfortable, but one
+they are used to. Passengers who arrive on these occasions are
+transferred from the ship to a lighter, then to a mule-cart, and
+sometimes are carried ashore on the back of a stormy Italian, who never
+fails to swear by all the saints and the Virgin that the man on his back
+is the heaviest he has ever carried, and demands more than the regular
+fee for extra baggage, so to speak. Lacking confidence in the sincerity
+of the cargador, the passenger will promise him heaven and earth and the
+sea if he will not drop him into the water, and then fights it out when
+he gets safely ashore.
+
+[Illustration: GOING ASHORE AT BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+Notwithstanding the commercial disadvantages of Buenos Ayres, it is the
+most enterprising, prosperous, and wealthy city in South America--a
+regular Chicago--the only place on the whole continent where people seem
+to be in a hurry, and where everybody you meet appears to be trying to
+overtake the man ahead of him. It is all bustle and life night and day,
+and is so different from the rest of South America that the traveller is
+more impressed than he would be if he came direct from the United
+States. Elsewhere people always put off till to-morrow what they are
+absolutely not compelled to do to-day. In the other countries mañana
+(manyana) is king, and mañana means to-morrow, but in Buenos Ayres the
+idea seems to be that the liveliest turkey gets the most grasshoppers,
+and everybody is trying to get as many as he can. Merchants do not shut
+up shop to go to dinner, as is the rule elsewhere in Spanish-America,
+and morning newspapers are not printed on the afternoon of the previous
+day. To do as much as possible this week, and a good deal more, is the
+motto, and that accounts for the progress of the republic.
+
+And it is a republic, not only in name but in fact. There is no bossism
+there, as in other Spanish-American countries. Every man is a sovereign,
+and he will not permit the soldiers to count the votes. There is always
+a good deal of a rumpus during election times, and the defeated party
+often raises a revolution, but since the tyrant Rosas was overthrown, no
+man has attempted to bully or oppress the Argentine people.
+
+Our knowledge of the Argentine Republic amounts to little more than we
+know of the Congo State, and the man who goes there from the United
+States is kept in a state of astonishment until he leaves. Then, as he
+sits on shipboard and reflects over what he has seen, he cannot find an
+exclamation point big enough to do justice to his description of the
+country. The Argentinians think it is wicked indifference on our part to
+know so little about them, for the surprise of the few American visitors
+wounds their self-esteem. They are a proud people, like all the rest of
+the Spanish race, and, unlike some nations, have many things to be proud
+of. They know all about us. There are many men in the Argentine Republic
+who can tell you the percentage of increase in population, industry, and
+progress in the United States, as shown by the latest statistics, but
+how many people in the United States are aware that that country is
+growing twice as fast as ours? How many members of the Senate or the
+House of Representatives at Washington, how many members of the Cabinet
+or Justices of the Supreme Court, know that the increase of population
+in the Argentine Republic during the last twenty-five years has been one
+hundred and fifty-four per cent., while in the United States it has been
+only seventy-nine per cent., and that Buenos Ayres is growing as fast as
+Denver or Minneapolis?
+
+The people are right when they assert that their country is the United
+States of South America, and there is nothing else that they are so
+proud of. They study and imitate our institutions and our methods, and
+in some cases improve upon them. You can buy the New York dailies and
+illustrated papers at any of the news-stands in Buenos Ayres, although
+they are six weeks old, and the people purchase and read them. They
+understand the significance of the cartoons in _Puck_, and read
+_Harper’s Magazine_ and the _Century_. Blaine’s book and Grant’s Memoirs
+are on sale, and the issues of our Presidential campaigns are as well
+understood as their own local squabbles.
+
+The greatest benefit to be derived by a traveller in the countries of
+South America is to make him think well of his own; but, nevertheless,
+his vanity receives a severe shock when he comes to the Argentine
+Republic, and discovers how little he knows of what is going on in the
+world.
+
+The succession of surprises that greet one on either hand keep him
+reminded of his own ignorance. It is perfectly natural, however, because
+we have no communication with the Argentine Republic, and have not had
+since the day when steam was substituted for canvas as a motive power on
+the sea. There was a time when we almost monopolized the commerce of
+that country, but during our civil war the ships were withdrawn, and the
+sailors went into the navy. Then when peace came all hands were called
+to the development of our own resources, and we were so busily engaged
+in building railroads, opening up farms, establishing ranches, working
+mines, and erecting new towns and cities in the great West, that we
+forgot that there was anybody to be looked after in South America.
+Twenty-five years ago our knowledge of the continent was pretty good,
+but we have learned nothing since. Our geographies read as they did
+then, our histories have not been rewritten, and our maps remain
+unaltered. But in the mean time mighty changes have been taking place
+among our neighbors that have escaped our attention. They have been
+growing as we have grown, and instead of a few half-civilized,
+ill-governed people upon the pampas of the Argentine Republic, a great
+nation has sprung up, as enterprising, progressive, and intelligent as
+ours, with “all the modern improvements,” as house agents say, and an
+ambition to stand beside the United States in the front rank of modern
+civilization. While we have been occupied with our own internal
+development, the European nations have gone in and taken the commerce to
+which we by the logic of political and geographical considerations are
+entitled.
+
+Twenty-three lines of steamships connect the Argentine Republic with the
+markets of Europe, and from forty to sixty vessels are sailing back and
+forth each month. In the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or in what they call
+the harbor, are dozens of steamships and scores of sailing-vessels,
+showing every flag but that of the United States; for an American
+steamer never goes there, and only occasionally a bark or brigantine,
+chartered at New York or Philadelphia, with a cargo of lumber or railway
+supplies. Nearly all the goods these people buy of us are sent by way of
+Europe, as mails and passengers usually go, and very little is bought in
+the United States that can be purchased elsewhere. The reason for this
+is very plain--we have no transportation facilities, while those
+afforded for trade in Europe are as regular and convenient as exist
+between Liverpool and New York.
+
+[Illustration: A PRIVATE RESIDENCE IN BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+And this trade is worth having. The Argentine Republic imports nearly
+one hundred million dollars’ worth of manufactured merchandise every
+year, of which about one-third is from England, one-fifth from France,
+one-fifth from Germany, while the United States comes in at the
+tail-end of the list, along with Sweden, Denmark, and Chili. While
+England sent $35,375,628 worth there in 1885, we sent $7,000,000 worth,
+mostly lumber, railway locomotives and cars, and agricultural
+implements. While she sent $7,000,000 worth of cotton goods, we sent
+$600,000 worth; while she sent nearly $7,000,000 worth of hardware and
+other manufactures of iron and steel, we sent about $500,000 worth; and
+so on, down through the list of manufactured articles in which we, with
+equal transportation facilities, can compete with any nation on the
+globe. Our goods are more popular there, as everywhere in South America,
+so popular that the manufacturers at Manchester and Birmingham imitate
+our trade-marks, and send cargoes of merchandise which appears to have
+been produced in the United States, but never got nearer to Yankeeland
+than Liverpool.
+
+There is not a country in all the world so deserving of attention as
+this, and particularly of our attention, for the time is drawing near
+when we must confront the results of its enterprise in the markets of
+the world. In its resources as well as in the character of its people it
+resembles the United States. Here are found pampas like our prairies,
+rich and fertile in the lowlands, and covered with fine ranges as they
+rise in mighty terraces from the Atlantic to the Andes; while in the
+foot-hills of the mountains are deposits of gold and silver similar to
+those of Colorado, whose wealth is yet untold. In the north is a soil
+that will produce cotton, rice, and sugar, like Louisiana and Texas;
+then come tobacco lands, like those of Virginia and Tennessee; then, as
+the temperature grows colder towards the south, are wheat and corn
+fields, as yet a tithe of them untilled, but suggesting Iowa, Nebraska,
+and Kansas. This vast area, as vast as that which lies between Indiana
+and the Rocky Mountains, is furnished with natural highways even more
+tempting to navigation than the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Missouri
+rivers, and which find their sources in forests as extensive as those
+that shelter our great lakes.
+
+Already the pampas produce wheat enough for domestic consumption and
+9,000,000 bushels for export, and the production is increasing with the
+greatest rapidity. Nearly 100,000,000 sheep--more than are owned in any
+country of the world--are grazing on the ranges, and producing
+200,000,000 pounds of wool for export; already beef and mutton are sent
+to England in refrigerator ships at prices cheaper than we can compete
+with, and few of our people know it.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLON THEATRE, BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+A mistaken notion prevails everywhere among the American people about
+the social and political condition of the Argentine Republic, as well as
+about its commerce. There are banks at Buenos Ayres with capital greater
+than any in the United States, and occupying buildings finer than any
+banking-house in New York, palaces of marble and glass and iron. The
+Provincial Bank has a capital of $33,000,000, and $67,000,000 of
+deposits. It does more business than any one of our banks, and more than
+the Imperial Bank of Germany, being exceeded by but two banks in the
+world. The National Bank has a capital of $40,000,000, another has
+$8,000,000, another has $7,000,000, and several have $5,000,000. If we
+compare the banking capital and deposits of the Argentine Republic with
+those of the United States we find that they amount to $64 per capita of
+population there, and only $49 per capita with us. They have a Board of
+Trade and a Stock Exchange, where business is conducted upon the same
+plan as in New York or Chicago, and with as great an amount of
+excitement.
+
+There are more daily papers in Buenos Ayres than in New York or
+London--twenty-three in all. Two of the dailies are published in the
+English language, one in French, one in German, and one in Italian; the
+rest are in Spanish. There are two illustrated weeklies, one of them
+comic, and three monthly literary magazines. The leading daily, _La
+Nacion_, is a great blanket-sheet larger than the New York _Evening
+Post_, and has a circulation of thirty thousand copies. The expression
+of opinion in the newspapers is as free as with us, and the editors are
+not under such restrictions as in other of the South American republics.
+There is a peculiar law of libel, and editors charged with this offence
+are tried by what is called a jury of honor, a sort of arbitrating
+committee, who decide upon the justice of the facts stated. Sometimes
+they compel the publisher to apologize, but more often console the
+complainant with advice “to grin and bear it.” The telephone and
+electric light are used extensively as in the United States, there being
+two telephone companies, and the manager of one told me that the number
+of instruments engaged is larger in proportion to population than any
+city in the world.
+
+There are nine prominent theatres in Buenos Ayres, giving performances
+every night in the week, including Sunday, a permanent Italian opera,
+and a permanent French opera bouffe. One of the theatres is English,
+with all the plays given in that language, another is French, and a
+third is Italian; the rest are Spanish. There is a curious innovation
+in theatre and opera management in Buenos Ayres, which might be imitated
+by managers in the United States. The first gallery, or what we call the
+“dress circle,” is reserved exclusively for ladies, and no gentlemen are
+admitted. There is a separate box-office and entrance, and ladies who
+desire to attend but have no escorts are thus given an opportunity
+without being subjected to the annoyances suffered if they go in the
+usual way. They can ride to the private entrance in street-car or cab,
+and be as safe from the impertinence of loafers as if they had a dozen
+brothers or husbands around them. These galleries are almost always
+filled, which is the best evidence of their popularity and the success
+of the system.
+
+Buenos Ayres has its parks, boulevards, and race-courses, like other
+modern cities; in fact, there is nothing in the line of civilized
+amusements that it is without. Everybody keeps a carriage and nearly
+everybody rides. Nowhere in the world are horses so cheap, and the stock
+as well as the equipages are very fine. A good pair of carriage-horses,
+the very best, can be had for one hundred and fifty dollars, and
+saddle-horses that are equal to any in the world can be purchased for
+thirty or forty dollars. The Argentine horseman invests his money in
+silver-mounted saddles and bridles, and a riding-gear with solid-silver
+stirrups, heavily mounted saddle, etc., is worth between four and five
+hundred dollars. All the swells have them, and the ladies who ride are
+similarly mounted, having a beautiful stirrup in the form of a slipper,
+often of solid silver. The parks and boulevards are crowded with haughty
+dons and ravishing señoritas during driving hours, and present a very
+brilliant and attractive scene.
+
+The two Argentine Universities, under the patronage of the Government,
+are among the best in America, and rank with Yale or Harvard in
+curriculum and standard of education. They have large and able
+faculties, many of them Germans, with four branches, namely, law,
+medicine, engineering, and scientific, and the ordinary classical
+course. The library has about sixty thousand volumes, representing the
+literature of all languages, and the museum is quite extensive. The
+public-school system is also under the patronage of the Government,
+under a compulsory education law, and includes all grades from the
+kindergarten to the normal school. The distinguished ex-President of the
+Republic, Dr. Sarmiento, who was formerly Minister to the United States,
+is the especial patron of education, and it is his ambition to make the
+school system of the Argentine Republic the finest in the world. He
+studied the educational systems of all our States, and finally adopted
+that of Michigan for his own country.
+
+Ex-President Sarmiento is the leading advocate of the higher education
+of women in South America, having gained his advanced ideas while
+Minister to the United States. He was an intimate friend and regular
+correspondent of Mrs. Horace Mann, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, Mrs. Elizabeth
+Cady Stanton, and other prominent women in the United States, and
+imbibed from them the theories of the equality of the sex which their
+lives have been spent in demonstrating. Through his instrumentality some
+forty American girls, graduates of Vassar, Wellesley, Mount Holyoke, and
+Western institutions, have been employed under liberal contracts by the
+Argentine Government in the normal schools and female seminaries of the
+country, and their success has been phenomenal. These teachers receive
+salaries varying from one hundred to one hundred and sixty dollars per
+month, and are placed in positions, social as well as professional,
+which they could not hope to acquire at home. In every instance they
+have conducted themselves with the most commendable dignity; and
+although some of the economists in Congress and in the newspapers are
+grumbling over the large salaries they receive, they are treated with
+the greatest distinction, and are entertained by the Government in a
+manner that our own educational authorities might well imitate.
+
+One of them had a misunderstanding with the Papal Nuncio not long ago,
+which caused an immense amount of excitement. He attempted to interfere
+with the management of her school, on the ground that she was
+proselyting the children to Protestantism. She gave the envoy of his
+Holiness the Pope to understand that she was running that institution,
+and when he brought the case to the attention of the Government she
+defended herself with such success that the President of the Argentine
+Republic sent him his passport and advised him to take the next steamer
+for Rome. The archbishop interfered, and he was summarily banished also.
+Since then the Pope has been without an ambassador in the republic, but
+the Yankee school-ma’am is solid with the Government and the people, and
+goes on teaching heresy.
+
+A Brazilian who went to Cornell University for an education married an
+Ithaca girl, and took her back to Brazil, where he is engaged as a civil
+engineer. There are a good many young Spanish-Americans with English
+wives. More of the men go to England than to the United States for
+collegiate training, for the reason that the English universities
+advertise down there, while the American colleges do not. There is no
+necessity for the Argentinians to send their sons away for learning, as
+their educational system is as good as our own, and the most expensive
+in the world, with the exception of Australia. The amount expended by
+the Government for educational purposes is $10.20 per pupil annually,
+while in the United States it averages only $8.70, in Germany $6.00, and
+in England $9.10. There are thirty colleges and normal schools for the
+higher education of men and women in the republic, with 430 teachers and
+6710 students, and 2726 public schools with 6214 teachers and 201,329
+pupils, in a total population of less than 4,000,000.
+
+The Government of Chili, which attempts a close competition with the
+Argentine Republic in matters of education as well as other modern
+improvements, has contracted with fifty young ladies from Germany to
+manage its female seminaries and normal schools at much lower salaries
+than the Yankee school-ma’ams receive.
+
+The Argentinians have made as rapid advancement in the way of charity
+and philanthropy as in education, and one finds throughout the country
+as many benevolent institutions as in New York or other cities of the
+United States in proportion to the population. There are hospitals,
+dispensaries, homes for the indigent aged, orphan asylums, blind, and
+deaf and dumb asylums, insane asylums, public libraries, free art
+schools, and all sorts of institutions founded by benevolence and
+liberally endowed. There is a Board of Health enforcing strict sanitary
+regulations, the streets are swept every night, the police are admirably
+organized, the public buildings and parks are lighted by electricity,
+and all the features of modern civilization have been introduced into
+the political and domestic economy. The plantation owners mostly reside
+in Buenos Ayres, and have telephonic wires between their offices and
+estancias. Instead of yelling “ Hello!” into a telephone, they say
+“Oyez, oyez!” as our bailiffs do when they open court.
+
+The post-office of Buenos Ayres handled 20,000,000 packages in 1885,
+which is pretty good for a city of 434,000 inhabitants, and its progress
+is no better illustrated than by the increase of mails. In 1865 only
+1,000,000 pieces were handled by this office, and in 1875 only
+7,000,000, while during the first six months of 1887 over 16,000,000
+pieces passed through the office. There is a mail leaving and arriving
+for and from Europe nearly every day, but all mail for the United States
+goes and comes by way of Great Britain, because of the lack of direct
+steamship communication.
+
+There are three gas companies with 240 miles of pipe, lighting 26,000
+houses or stores, with 3300 street-lamps. There are 32 miles of paved
+streets, 40 miles of sewers, some of which are large enough for a
+railway-train to pass through. There are 1100 licensed hacks, and 2715
+licensed express-wagons; five street-railway companies, with 93 miles of
+track, carrying 1,850,000 passengers monthly. Between tramways and
+public carriages the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres spent an average of
+$8.00 per capita for city locomotion in 1885.
+
+Throughout South America all the dentists and many of the photographers
+are immigrants from the United States, and if there is any one among
+them who is not getting rich he has nobody but himself to find fault
+with, because the natives give both professions plenty to do. Nowhere in
+the world is so large an amount of confectionery consumed in proportion
+to the population as in Spanish America, and as a natural consequence
+the teeth of the people require a great deal of attention. As a usual
+thing Spaniards have good teeth, as they always have beautiful eyes, and
+are very particular in keeping them in condition. Hence the dentists are
+kept busy, and as they charge twice as much as they do in the United
+States, the profits are very large. In these countries it is the custom
+to serve sweetmeats at every meal--dulces, as they are called--preserved
+fruits of the richest sort, jellies, and confections of every variety
+and description. Many of these are made by the nuns in the convents, and
+are sold to the public either through the confectionery stores or by
+private application. A South American housewife, instead of ordering
+jams and preserves and jellies from her grocer, or putting up a supply
+in her own kitchen during the fruit season, patronizes the nuns, and
+gets a better article at a lower price. The nuns are very ingenious in
+this work, and prepare forms of delicacies which are unknown to our
+table.
+
+At a dinner-party I attended dessert was brought in in a novel form. A
+tray which appeared to be filled with hard-boiled eggs was placed before
+the hostess, who gave each guest a couple, and poured over them some
+sort of a syrup or dressing. In a strange country the tourist is always
+on the lookout for odd things; but this seemed to cap the
+climax--hard-boiled eggs for dessert at a swell dinner-party. But it was
+soon discovered that the white of this bogus egg was _blanc-mange_, and
+the yolk was made of quince jelly, egg-shells being used for moulds.
+This was an idea of the nuns, and one of their ingenious fixings.
+
+The atmosphere is so clear as to be admirable for photography. The
+Spanish-American belle has her photograph taken every time she gets a
+new dress, and that is very often. The Paris styles reach here as soon
+as they do the North American cities, and where the national costumes
+are not still worn there is a great deal of elaborate dressing. The
+Argentine Republic is one of the few countries in which photographs of
+ladies are not sold in the shops. Elsewhere there is a craze for
+portraits of reigning beauties, and the young men have their rooms
+filled with photographs of the girls they admire taken in all sorts of
+costumes and attitudes.
+
+There are in South America a great many physicians and surgeons from the
+United States, and they usually, if worthy, have a more extensive
+practice than the natives. There is an excellent field for female
+physicians here, and it is at present unoccupied. In most of the
+countries of South America a physician is not permitted to see a lady
+patient except in the presence of her husband, and many women die for
+lack of attention. The social laws are inflexible in this respect, and
+many women will suffer torments rather than expose themselves to
+criticism by receiving treatment from male practitioners. No woman,
+except she be of the common laboring class, will visit the office of a
+physician, and as fees for attendance at their homes are very high, many
+suffer and die from neglect based upon motives of modesty and economy.
+There is only one lady physician that I know of in South America, and
+she is practising with great success in Guatemala. Others might secure
+equal advantages in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Chili, the Argentine
+Republic, Uruguay, and Brazil; but it would be necessary for them to
+acquire a thorough knowledge of the Spanish language, and secure
+favorable introductions before hanging out their shingles. These
+introductions might be obtained through the American consuls and
+legations, or from merchants of social and commercial standing. There is
+a strong prejudice against the professional employment of native women,
+but the American ladies who have come to South America as teachers have
+not only been cordially received but in many cases have been lionized.
+In many of the aristocratic families American girls are employed as
+governesses, and are treated with great deference. Mrs. Barrios, the
+widow of the late President of Guatemala, had three New York ladies in
+her family--one as a companion for herself, and the other two employed
+in the nursery. In Peru, Chili, the Argentine Republic, and other
+countries French and English governesses are common, and in fact there
+are few others employed, as the native girls who would accept such
+positions lack the necessary education.
+
+There are two notable Boston men in Buenos Ayres--notable, however, for
+different reasons. One is Samuel B. Hale, the most prominent merchant
+and capitalist in the country; and the other is D. Warren Lowe, _alias_
+Winslow, editor of the _Buenos Ayres Daily Herald_. There is no man in
+all South America more respected and beloved, or who possesses the
+confidence of the people to a greater degree than Samuel B. Hale. He
+came in 1829 from Boston to do a little trading, and has since remained,
+amassing an immense fortune, and now, at the age of eighty-two, looks
+back upon such a career as few men are permitted to contemplate.
+
+Although we of the United States have very little to do with the
+Argentine Republic nowadays, the pioneers of that country were
+Americans. In 1826 William Wheelwright, of Pennsylvania, was wrecked
+upon this coast, and found his way to a small town named Quilmes,
+barefooted, hatless, and starving. He remained in the country, and forty
+years later built the first railroad in the Argentine Republic--from
+Buenos Ayres to Quilmes. But in the mean time he had done still greater
+service in establishing the first steamship line between Europe and
+South America--the Pacific Steam Navigation Company--which now has a
+monopoly of the traffic on the west coast, and sails vessels from Panama
+through the Strait of Magellan to Liverpool. In 1839 Mr. Wheelwright
+foresaw the immense trade these countries were capable of developing,
+and went to New York to present his scheme to Aspinwall, Garrison,
+Astor, Vanderbilt, and other capitalists, but they rejected it. He then
+went to England, where he secured the necessary capital, established his
+line, and turned the whole course of South American commerce from its
+natural channel. Every one connected with the company has made a
+fortune, and dividends of fourteen and fifteen per cent. are still paid.
+In 1852 there were in the harbor of Buenos Ayres six hundred vessels
+from the United States--more than double the number from all other
+nations combined. Now only two per cent. of the shipping annually
+reaching that harbor belongs to the United States. Both Chili and the
+Argentine Republic have erected fine monuments to Mr. Wheelwright, the
+father of their foreign commerce and their internal improvements, for he
+built the first railway in Chili as he did in the Argentine Republic.
+
+Another citizen of the United States, Thomas Lloyd Halsey of New Jersey,
+introduced sheep and cattle. The Spaniards had a few domestic animals
+before the independence of the republic, but Mr. Halsey established the
+first ranch. Now there are over ninety million sheep and thirty million
+cattle in the country. Both Wheelwright and Halsey are dead; but Mr.
+Hale, who was contemporary with them, and was the pioneer commission
+merchant and importer, still lives. His immense business interests are
+now in the hands of Mr. Pierson, his son-in-law, also a Boston man, who
+went out as a clerk thirty years ago; and the husband of another
+daughter represents the London banking-house of Baring Brothers in
+Buenos Ayres.
+
+In the old days Mr. Hale bought wool and hides and furs in the Argentine
+Republic and in Uruguay, and shipped them to Boston. The vessels
+returned loaded with cotton goods and Yankee notions of all sorts, which
+were exchanged for the produce; and this system of barter went on until
+the War of the Rebellion, when most of the vessels were withdrawn, and
+the tariff on wool made it unprofitable to ship the chief product of the
+republic to the United States. Then Mr. Hale turned his attention to the
+European trade, and did a very large business in exporting and importing
+until about 1880, when he sold out to Mr. C. S. Bowers, also a Boston
+man, and retired from the market. He still purchases large quantities
+
+[Illustration: AN ARGENTINE RANCHMAN.]
+
+of wool and hides for shipment to Europe, but does not import any
+longer, and he devotes most of his attention to loaning money and
+dealing in standard securities. In addition to his commercial business,
+Mr. Hale owns and manages some of the largest estancias in the Argentine
+Republic, having several hundred thousand sheep and sixty thousand
+cattle. He is famous for his hospitality and generosity, and many of the
+philanthropic institutions of the country have enjoyed with him the
+financial results of his successful career. He has also been active in
+the promotion of public enterprises and in encouraging steamship lines,
+and is not only the oldest and most prominent merchant, but is regarded
+as the leading public benefactor.
+
+The social condition of the Argentine Republic is as much advanced as
+its commerce, and the old customs are rapidly dying out. The education
+of girls has become popular, and the young ladies are no longer
+restricted in their association with men, as in other Spanish-American
+countries. Formerly, if a young man fell in love with a girl, he told
+her father or grandmother about it, which was about as satisfactory as
+kissing through a telephone. Under the new regime etiquette gives him
+the privilege of telling the old, old story into the girl’s own ear, and
+it appears to work just as well for all concerned.
+
+It is the only country in South America in which girls can go out riding
+with their lovers, or receive them at home as they do in the United
+States. The supposition that it is unsafe to leave a woman alone with
+any man but her husband or father does not exist in the Argentine
+Republic, except among some of the families of the ancient Spanish
+aristocracy which still adhere to the old tradition.
+
+One finds a good deal of club life in Buenos Ayres, there being as many
+as seven fine club-houses, most of which have all the modern
+improvements, with reading-rooms attached, in which are found newspapers
+from all parts of the world.
+
+Their restaurants and cafés are as good as the average in New York and
+London, and the people being epicurean in their tastes, caterers import
+delicacies from all parts of the world. Lobsters and Spanish mackerel
+are brought in refrigerator ships, and Southdown mutton from England,
+with all sorts of delicacies from France. One day I saw a negro going
+through the streets with a large tray on his head, containing a leg of
+mutton, a haunch of venison, Spanish mackerel, lobsters, shrimps, and
+oysters, and a printed placard upon his back announcing that dishes of
+this sort were served daily at the Maison de Paris.
+
+The hotels are not good. They are up to the average in South American
+cities, but do not correspond with the other evidences of advancement in
+Buenos Ayres. They have no regular rates, but charge each guest as much
+as his appearance and manners suggest he can afford to pay. When they
+get hold of an American, as citizens of the United States are always
+called, they bleed him to the last drop. “I thought you Americans never
+disputed a hotel-bill,” a Boniface said to me one day, when I had
+expressed my indignation at his charges. “We always expect Englishmen
+to, but Americans never,” and he shrugged his shoulders as if my conduct
+was a disgrace to my country.
+
+The steamers which run from Buenos Ayres to Montevideo and up the river
+to Paraguay are, to the surprise of every traveller, as fine and
+gorgeous as those on Long Island Sound--great, splendid palaces with no
+end of gilt and gingerbreadwork, with stewards and cabin-boys in livery,
+wine-rooms, smoking-rooms, bands of music, and all that sort of thing.
+There are two lines in active rivalry, and they are trying to see which
+can set the finer table. The bill of fare is as good as that of a
+first-class hotel in New York, and two kinds of wine, claret and Rhine
+wine, are served without extra charge. On each steamer are three or four
+swell cabins, called bridal chambers, each being fitted up without
+regard to expense, and containing all the flub-dubs that can be crowded
+into them, including pianos and sideboards, with well-filled bottles of
+wine and brandy in the rack, all included in the price of passage, which
+is double that of the ordinary cabin. The swells always take these
+cabins when they start off on a bridal tour.
+
+The finest church in Buenos Ayres is called the “Church of the
+Recolletta” (remembrance). It is of pure Roman architecture, in Italian
+marble, beautifully carved, and cost about $250,000. It is the property
+of Señor Don Carlos Guerrero, a wealthy citizen, who erected it as a
+memorial to his daughter, who was murdered by a rejected lover about ten
+years ago. She is buried under the altar, and the magnificent stained
+glass window imported from Florence represents incidents from her life.
+
+The cathedral is a very large and costly building, but it looks more
+like a bank or Government palace than a church. Within the walls is the
+mausoleum of General Saint-Martin,
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BUENOS AYRES.]
+
+the George Washington of the Argentine Republic, who liberated the
+country from the Spanish yoke and was then turned out to die in exile
+and poverty. In 1880 the remains of the Liberator were brought with
+great pomp from France, where he had died in 1850, in banishment, and
+were entombed under a costly and imposing sepulchre, which, however,
+looks very little like a tomb, and is entirely without sacred emblems.
+Four statues in marble guard the grave; not Faith, Hope, and Charity,
+but “Agriculture,” “Industry,” “Justice,” and “Liberty.” It looks rather
+queer to see the emblem of Industry with hammer and saw over a tomb in a
+church, but the Argentines evidently have not noticed the incongruity.
+
+Besides the twenty-four churches belonging to the Catholics, the
+Protestant community is pretty well supplied with religious advantages.
+There are a Church of England society, a Scotch Presbyterian, an
+American Presbyterian, a German Evangelical, three Methodist churches,
+and a Jewish synagogue--the only one in all Spanish America. Jews are
+not allowed to live in some of the countries; but in the Argentine
+Republic, where religious as well as civil liberty is protected, they
+are numerous, and worship every Saturday. In 1884 the Methodists
+celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of their missionary work in the
+country, and it was emphasized by an incident which attracted a great
+deal of comment, and was significant as showing the religious toleration
+that exists. Formal invitations were sent as a mark of courtesy to the
+President and all the prominent officials, but there was no expectation
+that they would attend, as the great majority of the people are
+Catholics and the public men are naturally politic. Just as the services
+were about to commence, however, the managers of the affair were
+astonished to see the President, followed by his Cabinet, walk into the
+church. Conspicuous seats were given them, and they seemed to take great
+interest in the exercises. After the Rev. Dr. Wood, the Superintendent
+of Missions, had concluded his address, in which he reviewed the history
+of Protestantism in the Argentine Republic, he invited President Roca to
+speak. The latter promptly responded; and as every one knew he had been
+born and reared in the Catholic Church, the audience were amazed at the
+eulogy he pronounced upon the Protestant missionaries, and the
+enthusiasm with which he complimented the work they had done. To their
+influence he attributed much of the progress of the republic, and urged
+them to enlarge their fields and increase their zeal. The President’s
+speech was commented upon in the newspapers the next day with a great
+deal of vigor, the Liberal press approving it, but the Conservative
+editors censuring what they considered an attack upon the prevailing
+religion of the people.
+
+There is a peculiar order of monks in the Argentine Republic which is
+not found elsewhere. Its members are known as “Lazarists” (from
+Lazarus), and they live, as he is said to have done, on the crumbs that
+fall from the rich man’s table. They travel about the country like
+tramps, having no apparent aim or purpose, barefooted and bareheaded,
+eat what they beg from door to door, and sleep wherever night overtakes
+them. They are supposed to be members of the other orders of friars, who
+have sinned and are doing penance as Lazarists.
+
+There is a place called Washington and another called Lincoln in the
+Argentine Republic, but the newest thing in the way of towns is La
+Plata, the capital of the province of Buenos Ayres. Until within a few
+years that province, having more than half the population of the entire
+country, has considered itself entitled to rule the rest, as far as the
+Government was concerned, and the outlying provinces have had nothing to
+say about it, being regarded as insignificant dependencies of the city
+and State of Buenos Ayres. They tried to secede, but were whipped into
+the Union; but as immigration has come into the country the population
+of other provinces outnumbers Buenos Ayres, and often in Presidential
+campaigns the contest depends upon a geographical issue. Roca, the
+recent President, is an outside man, and the Buenos Ayrians determined
+to prevent his inauguration or overthrow his government; but to mollify
+them he announced a great scheme of building a new capital at Government
+expense. There was no time to lay out a town site and let it grow up in
+the ordinary way, so the President sent to the United States and had
+five hundred houses manufactured to order and shipped down here, like a
+box of toys, all ready to put up. A location was selected on the pampas,
+all the revolutionary leaders were let into the speculation, war was
+averted, and a brand-new city sprang up on the prairie, like a bed of
+mushrooms, almost in a single night. Two or three millions of dollars
+were spent by the Government, but the President considered that the cost
+of the town was much less than would have been the cost of the war that
+was averted; plenty of money was put into circulation, all the laboring
+men in the country got lucrative employment, and, as in the
+old-fashioned storybooks, everything came out happily in the end. These
+houses were made in Brooklyn and Chicago: a New York firm got the
+contract. There was so much haste and carelessness in their construction
+that they do not wear very well, and are no credit to their builders.
+
+[Illustration: THE GAUCHO.]
+
+The gaucho (_gowcho_) of South America is the most interesting character
+on the continent, and if the writers of tales of adventure could get at
+him, he would afford them as much material as the Crusader of the Middle
+Ages or the North American savage. The Spanish colonies have produced no
+Fenimore Cooper or Mayne Reid, and such a writer as Ned Buntline is
+unknown to South American literature. Buffalo Bill and Texas Jack would
+die of mortification if their horsemanship and endurance were placed in
+comparison with that of the genuine gaucho of the pampas, and even the
+centaur of mythology would blush with envy.
+
+The gauchos are the descendants of the aristocratic Spanish dons and
+Indian women; for the grandees and hidalgos who once ruled these
+colonies did not hesitate to seek the society of the Pocahontases of the
+Guarani race. They are at once the most indolent and the most active of
+human beings; for when they are not in the saddle, devouring space on
+the back of a tireless broncho, they are sleeping in apathetic indolence
+among their mistresses or gambling with their chums. Half savage and
+half courtier, the gaucho is as polite as he is cruel, and will make a
+bow like a dancing-master or thrum an air on the native mandolin with
+the same ease and nonchalance as he will murder a fellow-being or
+slaughter a steer. He recognizes no law but his own will and the
+unwritten code of the cattle-range, and all violations of this code are
+punished by banishment or death. Whoever offends him must fight or fly,
+and his vengeance is as enduring as it is vigilant. The statute of
+limitations is not recognized by him, and he will kill an enemy he has
+not seen for a quarter of a century. He never shoots or strikes with his
+fist, and his only weapons are the short knife, which is never absent
+from his hand or his belt and is used at short range, and the lasso,
+which is not only an implement of his trade but an instrument offensive
+and defensive.
+
+A fight between gauchos always means murder, and it is the duty of him
+who kills to see that his victim is decently buried and the widow and
+orphans cared for. The widow, if she pleases him, becomes his wife or
+his mistress, and the orphans grow up to be gauchos under his tutelage.
+He is as superstitious as a Hindoo, and an inveterate gambler. When he
+is not asleep or in the saddle he is always engaged at quaint games of
+chance that are his own invention, and are known to no other race in the
+world. He is peaceable when sober, but a reckless dare-devil, regardless
+of God and man. When he is drunk he is a fiend incarnate, for a howling
+savage is like a prattling child when compared to a drunken gaucho. As
+brave as a lion, as active as a panther, with an endurance equal to any
+test, faithful to his friends, as implacable as fate to any one who
+offends him, he has exercised a powerful influence upon the destiny of
+the Argentine Republic, and kept that nation back in civilization until
+his influence was overcome by an increased immigration of foreigners.
+The gaucho has never taken any part in politics except as a soldier, and
+as such, under a leader that he will obey, he is without an equal in
+either civilized or savage fighting.
+
+The Argentinians once had a gaucho President, Don Manuel Rosas, who
+ruled the country with a despotism of iron and blood for twenty-two
+years (from 1830 to 1852), and even now is seldom referred to without a
+shudder, for the marks of his cruel hand are still visible, and the
+ancient aristocracy still feel the sting of blows he inflicted upon
+them. He was the son of a wealthy Spaniard of the same name, who
+exercised a patriarchal sway over the peons that looked after his flocks
+and herds; and as the young Rosas grew up, the old man gradually yielded
+to the stronger will of the son, until the latter became a sort of
+gaucho leader, and commanded a regiment of them in the war of 1829
+against the Indians. So powerful did he become that it was an easy step
+from the chieftainship of the gauchos to the Presidency of the
+Republic--a self-appointed Dictator, the head of an absolute despotism
+which existed for nearly a quarter of a century, in defiance of the
+constitution and the laws.
+
+Rosas was a compound of the arrogance and stubborn superstition of the
+Spanish race and the cruelty and craft of the Guarani Indians, whose
+blood he inherited through his mother. He maintained his power by the
+loyalty of the gauchos, of whom the people of the towns lived in terror.
+With an inflexible will, with the cunning of a fox and the courage of a
+lion, with egregious vanity and arrogance, and a perpetual distrust of
+every living being except his daughter Mannileta--the only person to
+whose influence he ever
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ROSAS.]
+
+submitted or for whom he ever showed any affection--he ruled like a
+savage chieftain over the entire southern half of the continent, from
+Paraguay to the Strait of Magellan, relying solely upon the terror which
+his own cruelty and that of his gaucho lieutenants had inspired among
+the people. Blood flowed by his command as freely as water, and the
+extermination of those who opposed him was the policy under which he
+perpetuated his power. No citizen of the Argentine Republic or Uruguay
+felt himself safe. No man went to bed at night with any confidence that
+he would be alive in the morning; for neither friendship, relationship,
+nor even obscurity, was a shield from assassination. Rosas only ceased
+to murder when the great fear he had inspired paralyzed the people and
+rendered them absolutely prostrate to his will. He spared neither age
+nor sex. Even his oldest friend, a man who had been more than a father
+to him, and was supposed to be his confidential adviser, was murdered in
+cold blood by the _masorqueros_, the secret assassins or Danites on whom
+he relied to execute his atrocious designs. The official history of
+Buenos Ayres gives the following estimate of the numbers who died
+through the caprice or vengeance of the tyrant Rosas: poisoned, 4;
+executed by the sword, 3765; shot, 1393; assassinated, 722; total, 5884.
+Add to this the number slain in the constant struggle to overthrow his
+despotism, 16,520, and we have an aggregate of 22,404 victims to the
+ambition of a gaucho chief.
+
+An idea of the arrogance and conceit of the man can be formed from the
+fact that the money coined during his administration was stamped with
+his portrait and the inscription “Eternal Rosas.” But he was not
+eternal, and was overthrown in 1852 by General Urquiza, escaping from
+the country with his daughter at night, both in the disguise of English
+sailors, and finding refuge on board the _Centaur_, an English
+man-of-war.
+
+But the day of the gaucho is passing. Immigration and civilization have
+driven him to the extreme frontier, where nowadays he can only be found
+in his full glory. Like the North American Indian, he decays when
+domesticated, and a tame gaucho is always a drunkard, a loafer, and a
+thief. Civilization saps his vitality, quenches his spirit, and lowers
+his standard of morals. In his native element he will not steal nor do a
+mean act, but when he becomes a resident of a town he will rob a dog,
+and there is no end to his maliciousness. Few of the race have ever
+acquired land, and even at the present day he despises the _estanciaro_,
+who will not depend upon the public domain for pasturage. So the gaucho
+has to keep moving, faster and faster, to get out of the way of barbed
+wire fences and the restraints of civilization. A few years hence he
+will disappear or assume more of the character of the North American
+cow-boy. Even now, in the more settled portions of the country, the word
+gaucho has become a word of reproach, and is applied to worthless
+characters who live by cattle-stealing, and correspond to the rustlers
+of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: PALACE OF DON MANUEL ROSAS.]
+
+The language of the genuine gaucho is a mixture of Spanish and the
+Guarani Indian tongue, and his food is beef and _yerba mate_. At every
+_rodeo_, or “round up,” there is a great feast, at which many good
+things are set forth; but the ordinary diet of the race consists of ribs
+of beef roasted on a spit before the fire, and eaten without salt or
+bread, while the ordinary drink is the Paraguayan tea, which is sucked
+through a tube. The gaucho lives like the Indian--gorges himself when he
+has plenty of food, or goes for days without eating; but he always has
+his mate cup with him, and the yerba contains a great amount of
+nutrition. He usually has a habitation in a hut at the headquarters of
+the estancia upon which he is employed, and there he keeps his family
+and goes on feast-days, for he is enough of a Catholic to keep as close
+a reckoning of the ecclesiastical calendar as the archbishop himself. He
+has no regard for the Sabbath, but recognizes every religious
+anniversary of the Church by leaving his cattle on the range and going
+to headquarters, where he spends the day in drinking, dancing,
+gambling, confessing his sins to the padre, cock-fighting, and testing
+horsemanship with his companions. These feast-days never end without a
+murder, and often more than one.
+
+When dressed in his full regalia the gaucho’s appearance is picturesque;
+with his swarthy face, long hair, and long mustaches, he would create a
+sensation in any guise, for his physique is perfect, and his swagger as
+bold as that of a buccaneer or a bandit chief. The gaucho woman is said
+to be beautiful when young, but at twenty-five or thirty she is a dirty,
+unkempt slattern, with bleared eyes and tangled hair, and wears nothing
+but a soiled and faded gown, and perhaps a pair of brass or silver
+ear-rings. When she is a maiden the gauchos will kill each other out of
+jealousy, but when she becomes a wife or a mistress she is kicked about
+the camp, beaten, and abandoned at her master’s will.
+
+All the finery in the family goes on the husband’s back and saddle. In
+place of trousers he wears a chiropa and calconcillas. The former is a
+square piece of cloth, drawn about the thighs and fastened around the
+waist with a belt. It descends as far as the knee, from which the rest
+of the leg is covered with the calconcillas--a wide pair of cotton
+drawers, handsomely and gaudily embroidered, and ornamented with two or
+three wide frills. The feet are incased in a pair of _botas de potro_,
+made of the skin of the leg of a colt rubbed until it is as soft as
+buckskin. The heels are decorated with a pair of immense iron or silver
+spurs weighing a pound or so each.
+
+Instead of the sombrero and velvet jacket of the Mexican cavalier, the
+gaucho wears a hat of pita fibre--such as is commonly known as a Panama
+hat, and which may have cost him as much as would a dozen cattle--and a
+poncho. But in his saddle lies his wealth, for all his savings and
+gambling gains go to decorate that emblem of his trade. Silver ornaments
+for bridle and saddle are legal tender in exchange for anything salable
+wherever the gaucho goes, and what is his seat by day and his pillow by
+night he always uses as a sort of savings-bank. I have seen saddles
+worth a thousand dollars, with solid silver stirrups, pommels, and
+ornaments weighing as much as a man. A pair of silver spurs are worth
+anywhere from fifty to one hundred dollars, according to their size and
+the workmanship upon them. Stirrups of solid silver, made in the form of
+a heelless slipper, are very common, and the belles of the cities of the
+Argentine Republic consider them essential to a riding costume. Stirrups
+are often made of brass, and when highly polished add a unique feature
+to the accoutrements of an Argentine caballero. His belt is usually
+covered with a string of silver dollars, and all his buttons are of
+silver.
+
+The Argentine poncho is a great institution, and if some fashionable
+swell in New York would set the style by wearing one, it would add
+greatly to the comfort of our people, as well as to their convenience.
+There never was a garment better adapted for out-of-door use, and
+particularly for plainsmen or those who are much in the saddle. It is a
+blanket of ordinary size, with a slit in the centre through which the
+head goes. It rests upon the shoulders, and its folds hang down as far
+as the knee, allowing free use of the arms, but always furnishing them
+and the rest of the body with protection. In summer it shields the
+wearer from the heat of the sun, while in winter it is as warm as an
+ulster, and in rainy days takes the place of an umbrella. The native is
+never without it, summer or winter, afoot or on horseback, at home or
+abroad. It stays by him like his shadow, and serves him as an overcoat
+by day and as a blanket by night.
+
+Ponchos were formerly made of the hair of the vicuña, an animal which is
+a sort of cross between the camel and the antelope, and is found in the
+Bolivian Andes. Before the Conquest vicuña skin was the royal ermine of
+the Incas, and none but persons of princely blood were allowed to wear
+it. A vicuña poncho is as soft as velvet, and as durable as steel. You
+can find plenty of them in the Argentine Republic and in Chili that have
+been, like grandfather’s clock, in the old families for two centuries or
+more, and have been handed down with the family jewels as heirlooms.
+They never wear out, and, like lace, improve with age. But genuine
+vicuña ponchos are hard to get, and very expensive, costing often as
+much as a camel’s-hair shawl, as the animal is becoming scarce. The
+color is a delicate fawn, and will not change when wet, which is a sure
+test of its genuineness. Most of the fine ponchos worn nowadays are made
+of lamb’s-wool in Manchester, England, and cannot be distinguished from
+vicuña except by experts; but tons after tons of a common sort, made of
+cotton and wool, of gaudy colors, are now imported annually, and answer
+the purpose of the gaucho just as well, while the bright tints please
+his taste better.
+
+The gaucho always carries tobacco, cigarette paper, flint, and steel. He
+is an inveterate smoker, but confines himself to cigarettes, which he
+rolls at full gallop. He does everything on horseback, when he
+chooses--eats and sleeps, catches fish, carries water from the well in a
+pitcher or urn on his head, and even attends mass on horseback--at
+least, the nearest he ever gets to the altar is to ride up to the door
+of a church and sit in the saddle while the service is being celebrated.
+
+A gaucho child is put into the saddle at as early an age as an American
+child is put into breeches. When he is eight or ten years old he will
+ride anything less than a tornado; and after he reaches his growth, if
+he is thrown from a horse he is disgraced forever; nothing he can do
+will recover for him the respect of the community. He is an ostracized
+and despised creature, as hopelessly lost as a fallen star.
+
+The animals the gauchos ride are splendid native stallions, as swift as
+the wind and as enduring as time. Fifty or sixty miles a day is a gentle
+jaunt, for a well-bred pampa horse will gallop from sunrise to sunset
+without throwing a fleck of foam. During the recent war against the
+Patagonian Indians a gaucho courier made six hundred miles in
+forty-eight hours with only four changes of horses.
+
+One of the sports of the gauchos is “breaking horses,” cruel and
+dangerous, like all their amusements. Two gauchos mount, and taking
+positions forty or fifty yards apart, at a given signal start at a full
+run and come together breast to breast, like two battering-rams, with a
+shock that often kills the animals, and nearly always unseats one or
+both of the riders. Another is called “crowding horses.” Two mounted
+gauchos place their stallions side by side, and crowd them against each
+other to see which will yield. A third game is to place across the
+entrance to a corral or other enclosure a bar about as high as a horse’s
+head. The gaucho mounts, retires to a distance of forty rods or so,
+rushes to the entrance at full gallop, and, without checking the speed
+of his horse, leaps out of the saddle when the bar is reached, throws
+himself under it, and regains his seat, passing under the bar without
+touching the ground.
+
+The skill with which the gaucho handles the lasso is an everlasting
+source of wonder. While at full gallop he can throw a coil of raw-hide
+with as much accuracy as an expert rifleman can crack a glass ball, and
+will catch a running cow or sheep or hog, lassoing the horn or foot or
+head at will. Duels with the lasso are often fought, the contestants
+throwing nooses at the heads of each other, sparring and dodging like
+pugilists, until one or the other is caught and dragged out of the
+saddle. If the duel is an earnest one, as often occurs, and the gauchos
+are determined, the man who is caught is often dragged, with a noose
+around his neck, behind a galloping horse until the life is choked and
+pounded out of his body.
+
+The Argentine Republic will some day become a formidable rival of the
+United States. It has vast natural resources similar to ours, and is
+developing them rapidly. It has a magnificent fluvial system like that
+of the Mississippi, fertile plains like those of Illinois and Iowa,
+boundless pampas stretching for twelve hundred miles to the mountains,
+and affording pasturage for millions of cattle, horses, and sheep, like
+the prairies of Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska, and New Mexico. Towards the
+north, into Paraguay, which, although an
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.]
+
+independent State, is a tributary to the Argentine Republic, are lands
+that will produce sugar, cotton, rice, and other semi-tropical staples
+like those of our own sunny South. There is also an almost unlimited
+supply of timber, hard and soft woods, easy of access, within reach of
+mighty streams; and the forests are greater than man knows, for they
+have never been measured. The latitude of the Argentine Republic
+corresponds with that of the United States; its climate is similar to
+that of our great West, and the people have an activity, an enterprise,
+and a patriotism that remind the North American of home.
+
+Where rivers do not run the people are pushing railroads, and in a few
+years they will have a railway system second only to that of the United
+States. They are offering tempting inducements to settlers, and
+immigration is very large. The increase in population during the last
+fifteen years was one hundred and fifty-four per cent., while that of
+the United States was seventy-nine per cent. From Germany, Norway, and
+Switzerland, but especially from Italy, come ship-loads of hardy,
+thrifty, industrious men every week, and the passenger mole at Buenos
+Ayres resembles Castle Garden. The Government aids and encourages
+immigration more than does ours. The immigrant vessel that arrives at
+New York is required to pay “head-money” on every passenger it brings.
+At Buenos Ayres the vessel receives “head-money” from the Government as
+an inducement to bring passengers. The fare from Europe to the river
+Plate, or the Rio Plata, that great stream which divides the continent,
+is about the same as to the United States; and although I do not believe
+that the class of immigrants which arrives there is equal in
+intelligence and the other qualities that constitute good citizens to
+that which comes to the United States, every family arriving means so
+many more acres developed and an increase of population. They do not at
+once become citizens, as in this country. This is particularly the case
+with the Italians, who seldom take out naturalization papers. Foreigners
+are allowed to vote at municipal elections, and therefore the temptation
+to citizenship is not so strong; but nevertheless they go to make up the
+body politic, and as they are exempt from military service, the country
+is always sure of having its fields tilled and its crops gathered,
+whether there is a war or not.
+
+In 1882, 51,503 immigrants arrived at Buenos Ayres from Europe; in 1883
+the number increased to 63,242; in 1884, to 92,700; in 1887, to
+138,000. In 1888 it was estimated that over 600,000 foreigners had
+settled in the country during the preceding ten years, and it is known
+that the population of the city of Buenos Ayres has doubled since 1872.
+
+The greater portion of these immigrants are Italians, who go directly
+into the agricultural regions, take up land, and cultivate small but
+increasing farms. Some are Germans and Scandinavians, but more are
+French. The latter usually settle in the cities, and become small
+tradesmen or servants. Large numbers of English, Scotch, and Irish
+capitalists are securing estancias, and raising sheep and cattle upon a
+large scale. It is estimated that ten million dollars have been invested
+in this way within the last three years, and one Englishman alone has
+expended a million. The usual plan, as in the United States, is to
+organize companies, with headquarters in London, Glasgow, and other
+large cities, and send out capable superintendents. The cattle interests
+of the Argentine Republic, like those in our country, will ultimately be
+controlled by a few large corporations.
+
+The colonization plan is popular there, and so far quite successful.
+Within the last five years 1,126,000 acres of land have been taken up by
+colonies, representing a population of 82,000 souls, mostly Italians and
+Swiss. The English and German immigrants will not colonize. The railroad
+development of the country is very rapid, and lines are now being
+constructed in various directions from Buenos Ayres and other commercial
+centres.
+
+The result of the internal improvements made under this policy is plain
+to be seen. Within the last five years the cattle have been driven back
+gradually upon the pampas, towns have sprung up, and farms have been
+opened in territory that was inaccessible before the railroad
+improvements began. There is a natural tendency to overbuild, as has
+been the case in this country; but so far only the needs of the present
+have been met, and the roads have become at once self-sustaining. The
+prospective roads, however, are very numerous, and concessions for
+thousands of miles have already been granted on the most liberal terms.
+Two of these concessions are held by citizens of the United States.
+
+Five years ago the Argentine Republic was importing wheat and flour from
+Chili and the United States, and Uruguay only raised enough for her own
+consumption. The wheat crop of Uruguay in 1878 was 2,000,000 bushels; in
+1880, 2,600,000 bushels; in 1882, 3,000,000 bushels; in 1884, 4,000,000
+bushels; and the increase in the corn product was equally rapid. In 1854
+only 375,000 acres were under cultivation in the Argentine Republic; in
+1864 the cultivated area was 506,000 acres; in 1874 it was 825,000
+acres. In 1879 the boom commenced, and in 1884 there were 4,260,000
+acres under cultivation--an increase of 3,435,000 acres in ten years. In
+1874 there were 271,000 acres in wheat; in 1884, 1,717,000 acres--an
+increase of 533 per cent. In 1874 there were 554,000 acres in other
+crops; in 1884 the area jumped to 2,543,000 acres--an increase of 360
+per cent. The average yield of wheat throughout the republic in 1884 was
+eight and one-half bushels to the acre, and the total crop was nearly
+eleven million bushels. It was in 1880 that the importation of wheat
+ceased, the amount purchased of Chili that year being 11,330 bushels. It
+is estimated that the area in wheat the present year is as large as
+5,000,000 acres, but no official returns have been received.
+
+Wheat and flour are not the only agricultural products exported by the
+Argentine Republic. In 1884 the exports of corn were 1,160,000 bushels;
+of barley, 70,000 bushels; of baled hay, 11,460,000 kilograms; of
+linseed, 23,061,000 kilograms; of peanuts, 2,617,292 kilograms; of
+potatoes, 100,000 bushels. The production of sugar is becoming a very
+important industry, and is now almost sufficient to supply the domestic
+demand, the yield last year amounting to nearly 50,000,000 pounds. The
+increased area under cultivation and the improved methods of reducing
+the cane will soon make sugar an article of export. There are a number
+of Cuban exiles in the northern provinces and in Paraguay cultivating
+sugar and tobacco on the Cuban system with marked success.
+
+[Illustration: COUNTRY SCENE IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.]
+
+It is estimated that the extent of agricultural land in the Argentine
+Republic equals six hundred thousand square miles--an area equal to
+Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky,
+Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and capable of
+producing every crop in those States; and if the increase of population
+continues at its present rate they will hold a population of seven
+millions by the close of the century. The market which we shall first
+lose by Argentine competition in breadstuffs will be Brazil, where we
+now sell about $5,000,000 worth of flour annually. The Argentine
+Republic will also become our rival in the West India trade, which now
+absorbs most of its meat product; and we will soon feel the effect of
+the cheapness of Argentine products in the European market, where
+considerable beef, mutton, and grain, is now sent in exchange for
+manufactured merchandise. But in pork, lard, and dairy products the
+Argentinians cannot compete with us. The country does not seem to be
+adapted to hog-raising, and while there is always fresh pork to be had,
+the supply of bacon, hams, and lard is included in the imports. Nearly
+all the cured pork comes from the United States, but most of the hams
+and bacons are disguised under English trade-marks. The merchants here
+say that American packers do not prepare their meats in a proper way to
+get this market, and that our cured pork first goes to England, and
+there receives some treatment and a particular style of wrapping which
+make it salable in the River Plate country. There is some native butter
+made, but none is exported, the climate not being suitable to the dairy
+business. Most of the imported butter, as well as the cheese, comes from
+Holland and Copenhagen. The butter is packed in one-pound tins,
+hermetically sealed, and will keep any length of time if properly
+handled. There is no American butter or cheese to be had there, not even
+oleomargarine, an article that is unknown to the people. A comparatively
+small amount of lard and butter is consumed, however, as oil is commonly
+used for cooking. Most of the cooks are French and Italian, in both
+private and public houses, and use the same methods they were accustomed
+to in their respective countries.
+
+The wool product of the Argentine Republic is not so valuable as that of
+Australia, although larger, because it is coarser, and contains a much
+greater percentage of dirt and grease. The people complain that our duty
+on wool, being levied by weight, is an unjust discrimination against
+their product, and in favor of the product of Australia, which is true.
+The only shipments to this country are of the coarser varieties, to be
+used in the manufacture of carpets, and we take annually about a million
+dollars’ worth. The great bulk of the product goes to Belgium, and is
+consumed in the Brussels carpet mills, the export to that country in
+1883 amounting to $12,148,000. Some attempt is being made to improve the
+quality of the wool by grading up the flocks with imported bucks, but
+the judgment of the sheep-growers is generally against it, as the
+present quality is in demand for carpet manufacture.
+
+The sheepskins go to Germany and France, but many of the hides come to
+the United States, being our largest item of import from the Argentine
+Republic. The same objection that is made to improving the sheep is made
+against the improvement of the breeds of cattle, as the native hides are
+heavier, and command a better price than the Durhams, Herefords, and
+Jerseys that have been introduced. The imported breeds yield a better
+quality of beef, but a less valuable hide, leaving the profit from the
+animal about the same. The number of hides exported in 1885 was less
+than usual, because of the demand for stock for new ranches; and the
+amount of jerked beef was smaller.
+
+This jerked beef is the flesh of the animal cut into thin strips and
+dried in the sun, a weak brine being commonly used to hasten evaporation
+and arrest decay. It is packed in large bales, and sent to Brazil and
+the West Indies, where it is the staple food of the slaves and the
+laboring classes. We have nothing to compare with it in the United
+States except the jerked buffalo meat of the Indians, which is prepared
+in a similar manner. Of this product $1,710,000 worth was sent to Brazil
+last year, and $1,143,000 worth to Cuba.
+
+No attempt has ever been made by our beef-producers to compete with the
+Argentine Republic and Uruguay--the only exporters of jerked beef--and
+it would undoubtedly be difficult for them to do so, as the cost of the
+cattle is so much greater in this country. Their transportation
+facilities to the West Indies are better than ours, notwithstanding the
+difference in distance, and a steamer leaves Buenos Ayres for the
+Brazilian ports every day. Various endeavors to introduce jerked beef
+into Europe have proved unsuccessful, but the attempt has not been
+abandoned. Samples are prepared with more than ordinary care, and the
+article is sold for five cents a pound, but it does not seem to be
+popular.
+
+The Argentinians are beginning to ship large quantities of fresh beef to
+Europe in refrigerator ships, one or more leaving
+
+[Illustration: JUAREZ CELMAN--PRESIDENT OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.]
+
+Buenos Ayres every week, and the new steamers of the English and French
+lines contain compartments built especially for this purpose. They do
+not use ice, but have a cooling process similar to that adopted on
+transatlantic steamers. Companies are already formed to slaughter and
+ship beef in this way, and the business is growing so rapidly that it
+will soon be felt by our exporters. The whole carcass is shipped, and
+only choice beef is selected. They cannot now compete with us in
+quality, but their cattle are so much cheaper, and are being graded up
+by the introduction of improved stock from England. Their cattle are not
+sold by weight, but by the head, being graded according to size and
+condition, prime steers bringing only fourteen or fifteen dollars, the
+next quality twelve dollars, and the poorest ones ten dollars per head.
+Within a radius of fifty miles from Buenos Ayres are ranches larger than
+any in Texas, and cattle can be driven almost on the steamers in the
+harbor, so that the cost of transportation and shrinkage is merely
+nominal, while our ranches are from two to four thousand miles from the
+sea.
+
+Fat steers can be set down at the slaughter-houses, not fifty miles from
+the harbor of Buenos Ayres, at a maximum price of fifteen dollars a
+head, and they are high now because of the demand for cattle to stock
+new ranches. The cost of transportation from the ranches in the
+Argentine Republic to Covent Garden market in London is never greater,
+and often less, than from Kansas City to New York; so that our
+producers, in addition to the difference in the price of beef, will have
+the freight from New York to Liverpool against them.
+
+Sheep are also killed and frozen for exportation to Europe, a single
+_saldero_ or slaughter-house, at Campana, fifty miles from Buenos Ayres,
+shipping five hundred carcasses daily. They are hung for an hour after
+killing, and then removed to a chilling-room, where the temperature is
+slightly above the freezing-point; from this they are taken to a still
+colder chamber, where they are left until as hard as stone. Then they
+are packed in canvas bags, and sent to the steamer in refrigerator cans.
+Live sheep in condition for killing are worth only three or four dollars
+for the best quality, and ordinary mutton is sold in the city market for
+seven cents a pound. In 1879 we exported ninety million pounds of
+dressed beef. In 1884 this total had been nearly doubled, with a fair
+prospect of continued increase. In 1884 the Argentine Republic exported
+sixty-five million pounds of dressed beef, with an increase quite as
+rapid as ours. In 1884 there were 49,000,000 head of cattle in the
+United States, and 30,000,000 in the Argentine Republic. The single
+province of Buenos Ayres has just twice as many cattle as Texas, and as
+many as Texas and all the territories of the United States combined.
+Then across the River Plata is the little republic of Uruguay, about as
+large as Iowa, with 500,000 people and 8,000,000 cattle, and presenting
+about the same ratio of increase.
+
+The cattlemen of the Argentine Republic and Uruguay are going into the
+business of canning meats, and will soon compete with us in that line.
+It is not generally known that Liebig’s extract of beef, so largely used
+in hospitals as a tonic, is made in Uruguay, for the jars in which the
+tonic reaches the market bear trademarks to make it appear to come from
+England. The extract was invented by Dr. Liebig, the celebrated chemist,
+nearly half a century ago, but its process passed into the hands of an
+English company in 1866, which then removed the establishment from
+Antwerp to Fray Bentos, Uruguay. This company is now erecting buildings
+for the purpose of canning meats, and have Chicago men in charge of the
+work.
+
+Although horses are very cheap, there is a good deal of profit in
+raising them, and the stock is being improved very rapidly by the
+introduction of thorough-bred English stallions. The native Argentine
+horse is almost the counterpart of the North American broncho, tough,
+swift, and enduring, and when crossed with better blood loses none of
+his good qualities, but improves in size and appearance. They are
+usually kept in droves of five hundred, and run wild the year round, the
+stallions being turned loose among them at the proper season--about one
+to twenty mares. When the colts are two years old they are taken from
+the drove and kept separate until three or four years old, when the
+fillies are turned back with the mares, and the stallions broken for
+service. Mares are never broken, but run wild on the range from the time
+they are foaled until they are driven to the saldero at the age of
+twelve or fifteen years. A three-year-old mare is worth seven or eight
+dollars for breeding purposes--not as much as a heifer--while a
+fifteen-year-old brings three or four dollars at the saldero. Her hide
+is shipped to Europe, her bones turned into bone ash, and her hoofs sent
+to the glue factory.
+
+The best kind of an improved saddle-horse, such as would bring two
+hundred and fifty or three hundred dollars in the States, can be bought
+in the Argentine Republic for seventy-five dollars, fine carriage-horses
+for fifty dollars each, and work-horses for twenty or twenty-five
+dollars. The street-car companies pay about ten dollars a head for their
+stock. Everybody rides; even the old adage about a beggar on horseback
+is realized there.
+
+There is a curious story about an island in the River Plata which was a
+horse ranch in early Spanish times. The animals became so numerous that
+there was not grass enough to feed them, and no demand for their export.
+The owners decided to reduce their stock in a barbarous way, and when
+the grass was dry they set fire to it. Every horse on the island was
+burned to death except those that ran into the river and were drowned.
+The stench was so great that navigation was almost entirely suspended on
+the river. The result of this method of reducing stock was a little more
+complete than the owners anticipated, so when the grass grew up again
+they had to buy stallions and mares and start anew. Singularly enough,
+every animal placed on the island since that fire has died of a
+mysterious disease, and no colt has been foaled there for one hundred
+and fifty years. Various breeds of stock have been tried, but never a
+hoof has left the island alive. Three months there finishes them. The
+island was unoccupied for fifty or sixty years, but is now used as a
+cattle ranch, and horned stock do not appear to be subject to the
+mysterious malady.
+
+
+
+
+MONTEVIDEO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF URUGUAY.
+
+
+Soon after General Garfield became President, an ex-member of Congress,
+since the governor of a western State, came into a correspondent’s
+office in Washington, and sitting down with a discouraged and disgusted
+air, asked, “Where in Tophet is Uruguay? I have been offered the honor
+of representing the United States in that country, and before I accept I
+would like to find out where it is.”
+
+[Illustration: THE CITY OF MONTEVIDEO, LOOKING TOWARDS THE HARBOR.]
+
+Not three out of four men in the Congress of the United States could
+have answered the question correctly; and if the embryonic diplomatist
+had entered into an inquiry about the resources of the country, and the
+number and character of the people, he could not have found a man in our
+National Legislature, on the Supreme Bench, or in the Cabinet, who could
+have given him the information correctly, and he might have sought in
+vain for it in our modern school geographies. Yet Uruguay is one of the
+most enterprising, progressive, and prosperous nations on this
+hemisphere, growing faster in proportion to its area and population than
+the United States, and is beginning to be a formidable competitor of
+ours in the provision markets of Europe.
+
+The country which appears on the map as Uruguay is known in South
+America as “the Banda Oriental,” with a strong accent upon the last
+syllable, which, being interpreted, means “the Eastern Strip,” as it was
+once a part of the Argentine Republic, which in those days was known as
+“the Banda Occidental.” Uruguay is the old Indian name, and the legal
+one, being recognized by the Constitution. The inhabitants are known as
+“Orientals,” with a strong accent on the “tals.” Uruguay is the smallest
+independent State in South America, and in its agricultural and pastoral
+resources the richest, with undiscovered possibilities in the mineral
+way. In the good old colony times the Viceroy of Spain and the Jesuits
+used to get a great deal of gold and silver--placer washings--from the
+interior of Uruguay, but during the long struggle for independence, and
+the sixty years of revolution that followed, the operation of the mines
+was suspended, and their localities forgotten or obliterated by the
+people, who were mercilessly robbed of the wealth they gathered in that
+way. They found it economical to do nothing, for as fast as they
+accumulated a few dollars they were robbed of it, and those who were
+suspected of knowing where the gold and silver came from were persecuted
+until they disclosed the secret, or else died with it concealed in their
+breasts.
+
+No country ever suffered more from war than Uruguay, as for almost a
+hundred years a struggle of arms, under one excuse or another, has been
+going on within her borders, and until the present despotism--which
+makes only a mask of the nominal democracy it pretends--came into power,
+there was a change of government, or an attempt to secure one, under
+almost every new moon. Although Uruguay is as much of an absolute
+monarchy to-day as exists on the face of the earth, her people have
+peace and prosperity, her development is being hastened by large works
+of internal improvement, her population is increasing rapidly, her
+commerce is assuming immense proportions, and she is making more rapid
+strides towards greatness than any other country in South America,
+except her neighbor across the River Plate. With a republican form of
+government guaranteed by the constitution, with civil and religious
+freedom as the foundation-stone of the nation, the will of the President
+has been usually as absolute as was that of the ex-King Thebaw.
+
+[Illustration: HARBOR OF MONTEVIDEO.]
+
+Maximo Santos, who was for many years to Uruguay what Guzman Blanco has
+been to Venezuela, and Rufino Barrios to Guatemala--its nominal
+President, but its _de facto_ dictator--was a man of immense energy,
+broad views, and an ambition to lift his nation to the standard of
+modern civilization. Although an autocrat, to a certain degree he was a
+wise one, and as long as a citizen did not interfere with his management
+of the Government, nor criticise with too great freedom his disbursement
+of the public revenues, Santos gave him every encouragement and all
+reasonable concessions. His methods were rude, cruel, and arbitrary; his
+ministers were the instruments of his will, the Congress simply one of
+the fingers of his right hand, and the army his weapon of offence and
+defence, without regard to the Constitution, the laws, or the rights of
+the people, while the courts were puppets to perform at his pleasure.
+Occasionally he went through the form of holding an election, but the
+soldiers always had charge of the polls and counted the votes. No
+candidates but those favored of the President were ever elected in
+Uruguay, and whenever any public expression was called for by him the
+leaders of public opinion were always careful to discover his
+preferences and anticipate them. If a true and complete history of his
+administration, and his military career preceding his assumption of the
+Presidency, could be written, it would be as remarkable a document as
+the events of the nineteenth century in any land could justify.
+
+Santos was what they call “a barrack dog.” That is, his father was a
+soldier, his mother a rabona--one of that class of homeless women who
+are encouraged by the Government to follow the army--and he was born in
+a barracks. From birth until he was able to bear arms he was kicked
+about without care or education, generally housed and fed in a military
+garrison or camp. He entered the army as a private when not more than
+fourteen or fifteen years of age, and within twenty years, by reason of
+his brains and force of character, became its commander-in-chief. It was
+a short step to a dictatorship, during one of the revolutions that were
+epidemic in Uruguay, and then after a form of an election
+
+[Illustration: MAXIMO SANTOS.
+
+(President of Uruguay from March 1, 1882, to November, 1886.)]
+
+he was declared “constitutional” President. When he came into power
+Uruguay was going backward, and had been for several years; the country
+was gradually becoming depopulated, property was greatly depreciated in
+value, everybody was living from hand to mouth, and there was no
+commerce of consequence. Although Santos was a brutal tyrant, the
+magnificent results of his progressive policy are to be seen on every
+hand, and he should be judged accordingly. The results he accomplished
+should be permitted to obscure his methods. It was in 1887 that Santos
+was finally overthrown, and to “let him down easy,” as the saying is,
+his successor in the Presidency gave him credentials as an Envoy
+Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to all the courts of Europe,
+where he has since remained. Twice he has attempted to return to
+Montevideo, and once got as far as the harbor, but was not permitted to
+land. After spending a few months in Buenos Ayres, he became convinced
+that his power was broken, and he returned to Europe to remain the rest
+of his days and draw a salary or pension that is paid him by the
+Government as the price of his absence.
+
+The President of Uruguay in 1889 is Gen. Maximo Tajes, a man of
+education, culture, and liberal tendencies, but not so much of an
+autocrat as Santos.
+
+The country is enjoying great prosperity and much-needed peace.
+Immigration is very large and increasing, the newcomers being mostly
+from Italy and the Basque provinces of Spain--a frugal, industrious, and
+law-abiding people. They bring a good deal of property with them; in
+fact, according to the statistics during the last ten years, only 1335
+people were lodged and fed at the expense of the Government even for a
+day. There are some German, Swedish, and Swiss colonies which are small
+but immensely prosperous; but the Government has not encouraged the
+formation of colonies, preferring individual immigrants.
+
+It is said that there is not an acre of unproductive land in all
+Uruguay, and that its area of seven thousand square leagues--a little
+more than that of England--is capable of sustaining as large a
+population as England, Scotland, and Wales together. The soil and
+climate are of such a character that any grain or fruit known in the
+list of the world’s product can be produced in abundance. Coffee will
+grow beside corn, and bananas and pineapples beside wheat; sugar and
+potatoes, apples and oranges, in fact all things that man requires for
+food or clothing, are capable of being raised within the boundaries of
+the republic at the minimum of
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE OLD STREETS.]
+
+labor. There are medicinal plants, and forests of useful timber, plenty
+of grass of the most nutritious quality for cattle, and so abundant that
+ten times more can be fed upon the same area than in the Argentine
+Republic. There is plenty of water for mechanical purposes, and the
+geologists say that much of the surface of the northern provinces is
+underlaid by coal-beds. Nearly all sections of the republic may be
+reached by navigable rivers, and natural harbors are frequent along the
+coast. Besides coal and silver and gold, there are said to be many other
+rich mineral deposits, and the report of a Geological Commission,
+recently intrusted with an examination of these resources, reads like a
+fable of Eldorado. Even if these glowing recitals are exaggerated, there
+is no doubt of the agricultural and pastoral possibilities of the
+country, and all Uruguay needs is permanent peace to become a rich and
+powerful nation. Her population has doubled within the last few years,
+not only by immigration, but from natural causes, and her statistics
+show a larger birth-rate and a smaller mortality than any country on the
+globe. The vital tables show a net increase of births over deaths of
+eighteen in a thousand of population, the birth-rate averaging
+forty-five and the death-rate twenty-seven per thousand during the last
+five years.
+
+It is quite remarkable, and the facts deserve the study of scientists,
+that the excess of males born in Uruguay is so great, the statistics
+showing that of every 1000 births 561 are males and only 439 are
+females. In the United States the ratio is 506 males to 494 females; in
+England, 485 to 515; and on the Continent of Europe, 402 to 508. Another
+remarkable fact, which is attributed to the climate, is that there is
+less insanity in Uruguay than in any other country, the ratio of insane
+being only 95 per 100,000 of population, while in the United States it
+is 329, in Great Britain 322, in France 248, and in other countries
+equally large in comparison.
+
+It is said, too, that living is cheaper in Uruguay than anywhere else.
+Beef is three to five cents a pound, mutton and other meats about the
+same price, fish five cents a pound, partridges and similar birds ten
+cents each, chickens and ducks fifteen cents each, and vegetables are
+sold at proportionate prices. Labor is scarce and wages are high,
+consequently the public wealth is increasing very rapidly, being
+estimated in 1884 at $580 per capita of population. Taking the foreign
+commerce of Montevideo alone, the statistics show a ratio of $240 for
+each citizen, and the increase is very rapid. But a still greater
+increase is shown in the agricultural and pastoral development of the
+country. With a population of 500,000 Uruguay produces 5,000,000 bushels
+of grain annually, or an average of ten bushels per inhabitant, and this
+with only 540,000 acres of ground under cultivation, including vegetable
+gardens as well as wheat and corn fields. It is claimed there that no
+other country can show so high an average.
+
+The increase in cattle, sheep, and horses is astonishing, there being
+now 7,000,000 cattle, 700,000 horses, and 11,000,000 sheep in Uruguay,
+valued at $86,000,000. This valuation is very small when considered by
+the side of the estimate placed upon such stock in the United States,
+being less than five dollars per head for sheep, horses, and cattle, all
+taken together. The horses alone, if estimated at the average value of
+$100, would be worth $70,000,000, and if the cattle were valued at only
+twelve dollars each, which is a low estimate in the United States, the
+7,000,000 head owned in Uruguay would be worth alone the amount at which
+the whole livestock interest of the country is valued.
+
+A large proportion of the wealth of Uruguay is in the hands of
+foreigners. The aborigines are totally exterminated. It is the only
+country in South America where “civilization” has been thorough and
+complete in this respect, and it might be searched from end to end
+without discovering a single representative of the Indian race which
+originally occupied the land. The descendants of the Spanish
+Conquistadors are called natives, or Orientals, while foreigners are
+those who were not born in the country. Of the 500,000 population,
+166,000 are said to be of foreign nativity, and most of them have come
+in within the last ten years. This class holds about $237,000,000 of
+property, or $1440 per capita.
+
+The interior of Uruguay is being rapidly developed by the construction
+of railways under the control of the Government, and representing an
+investment of about $12,000,000. Besides the lines already in operation,
+extensions are in progress which, when completed, will give the country
+a system of about 1500 miles of road, at a cost of something like
+$50,000,000! Railroad building is cheap in Uruguay, as grades are light
+and easy, and ties are plenty and accessible. The commerce of the
+country now amounts to $58,000,000 annually, with $29,500,000 of imports
+and $28,500,000 of exports. The imports are unusually large of late
+years, because of the vast amount of railway supplies and other
+merchandise used by the Government. The bulk of the trade is with
+England and France, the United States having but a very small share,
+which consists chiefly of lumber, kerosene-oil, and agricultural
+implements. Uruguay ships to Europe annually about $4,300,000 worth of
+hides, $7,000,000 in wool, and $6,000,000 in beef. There are twenty-one
+lines of steamers connecting Uruguay with Europe, and sending from forty
+to sixty vessels each way every month, while there is no direct
+communication with the United States except by occasional
+sailing-vessels.
+
+The foreign commerce of the country is increasing with great rapidity.
+In 1875 it was $25,000,000; in 1878, $33,000,000; in 1880, $39,000,000;
+in 1881, $38,000,000; in 1882, $40,000,000; in 1883, $45,000,000; in
+1884, $51,000,000; in 1885, $52,000,000; in 1886, $55,000,000; and in
+1887, $58,000,000, having increased $33,000,000 in thirteen years,
+during which time the exports have run up from $12,000,000 to
+$28,500,000, and the imports from $12,000,000 to 29,500,000.
+
+The great wealth of Uruguay is at present in cattle and sheep, and its
+chief exports are wool and beef, but the agricultural resources of the
+country will be the basis of its future greatness, and it will enter
+into competition with the United States in supplying the world with
+breadstuffs and provisions. When a total population of only five hundred
+thousand, including men, women, and children, carries on a foreign
+commerce of nearly sixty million dollars annually, it can be inferred
+that there is energy and industry at work, and a productive field for it
+to engage in. It is claimed that Uruguay has greater natural resources
+than any other South American country, and it is probably true. It is
+also claimed that the profits on labor and capital are greater there
+than elsewhere on the continent, which the statistics demonstrate.
+
+The largest export of Uruguay is wool, 20,000,000 sheep making a clip
+worth over $10,000,000 for exportation. The increase in sheep has been
+310 per cent. in ten years. The next article of export is beef, valued
+at about $6,000,000, being the product of about 8,000,000 cattle, which
+are also rapidly increasing. The third export in value is hides, of
+which $5,000,000 worth are annually shipped. Then come about $4,500,000
+worth of wheat, $1,000,000 worth of corn, and $2,500,000 worth of other
+agricultural products. All of these have more than doubled within the
+last ten years, and are now increasing like compound interest.
+
+We are accustomed to regard Uruguay as an obscure and insignificant
+country, worth not even a thought, but the commercial strides she is
+making show that she means competition with the United States in the
+near future. Chili has taken the flour market of the west coast of South
+America away from California, and Uruguay and the Argentine Republic are
+soon to meet our Dakota, Illinois, and Kansas wheat in the markets of
+Europe, while they threaten an even greater danger to our cattle
+interests. With 100,000,000 sheep in the Argentine Republic, and
+20,000,000 sheep in Uruguay; with 30,000,000 cattle in one country and
+8,000,000 in the other, and only about 4,000,000 people to furnish
+domestic consumers between them, it is easy to see what the supply of
+beef and wool and mutton will soon be for exportation. There is more
+cause for alarm in the ranches of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic
+than in the manufactures of England and Germany. We can compete with
+foreign industries in the quality and price of mechanical products, but
+we cannot compete with ranchmen who can put beef cattle into the market
+at ten and twelve dollars per head.
+
+One of the greatest advantages the cattle producers of Uruguay and the
+Argentine Republic will always have over those of the United States is
+the nearness of their ranges to the sea. The present supply of beef in
+both these countries for the export market comes from within a radius of
+one hundred miles from an ocean harbor in which can be found the
+steamers of every maritime nation on earth except our own. Ocean vessels
+can go two thousand miles up the River Plate and five hundred miles up
+the Uruguay River into the heart of the cattle country, and almost tie
+up to the trees on the ranches, while our cattle have to be carried
+fifteen hundred to four thousand miles on the cars. The geographical and
+navigable conditions of these countries are such that ours would only
+equal them if ocean steamers could visit Denver and Fort Dodge. Any man
+of business can calculate the difference in the value of the product and
+the difference in profits. It is claimed that the cattle companies of
+the countries of which I have been speaking can sell marketable steers
+at ten and twelve dollars a head, and declare thirty per cent.
+dividends. We will not have the native Spanish population to compete
+with, but Englishmen, Irishmen, and Scotchmen, who are going in large
+numbers and with an immense amount of capital into the River Plate
+countries to establish ranches and raise beef for the European market.
+
+Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, lies upon a tongue of land which
+stretches out into the River Plate, nearly the shape of Manhattan
+Island, on which New York City stands, except that it has the Atlantic
+Ocean on one side and a river sixty-five miles wide on the other. This
+strip is of limestone formation, with very little soil on the surface,
+and rises in the centre to an apex like a whale’s back or the roof of a
+house, so that the streets running northward and southward are like a
+series of terraces rising one above the other, not only affording
+perfect natural drainage, but giving almost every house in town a vista
+of the river or the sea from the upper windows. As you approach
+Montevideo the city seems much larger than it really is, and Yankee
+Doodle could not complain of it as he did of Boston when he said he
+could not see the town because there were so many houses.
+
+[Illustration: MONTEVIDEO--THE OCEAN SIDE.]
+
+There is no city more delightfully situated than the capital of Uruguay,
+and viewed from any direction the prospect of Montevideo is a lovely
+one. Were it not for those dreadful pamperos, which during the winter
+season sweep the whole southern half of the continent from the Andes to
+the sea, searching every nook and crevice for dust to cast into the
+faces of the people, and parching the skin, this place might be made an
+earthly type of Paradise. But nothing can afford shelter from these
+searching winds, and even strawberries the year round are no
+compensation.
+
+The old Spaniards had a queer way of naming places. When the catalogue
+of saints was exhausted and duplicated and triplicated, and all the holy
+fasts and feasts had served to christen colonies and towns, they
+“dropped into poetry,” as it were, and gave their imaginations a chance
+at nomenclature. For example, the Rio de la Plata means the “silver
+river,” so called, I suppose, because its waters have not the slightest
+resemblance to silver, but are of the color of weak chocolate, like our
+own Missouri. Then, again, the Argentine Republic means the “land of
+silver,” and was so called, not because mines were found there, but to
+attract colonists in the expectation of finding wealth.
+
+The real name of Montevideo is San Felipe de Montevideo, which does not
+sound quite so poetical when translated into English, for it means “I
+see the hill of St. Philip.” The name of the saint has been dropped, and
+now the place is known as “I see the Hill.” The hill which the
+discoverer saw used to be called after the Apostle, but now is called
+the “Cerro.” It has a picturesque old fortress on its crest, which is
+innocently supposed to afford protection to the capital and the harbor.
+If the place were ever attacked, the guns of the fort would furnish no
+more protection than so many pop-guns, as it stands back so far behind
+the city that half of the balls would fall on the roofs of the houses,
+and an assaulting force be landed under the shelter they would give. As
+the location of a light-house the Cerro does very well, and the fortress
+is useful now only as an arsenal and prison. The old city formerly
+surrounded the fortress, and it was closely besieged for nine years,
+from 1842 to 1851. In those hard years a new city sprung up around the
+besieging encampments, with shops and stores and churches and factories.
+After the coming of peace the intermediate space was laid out by French
+engineers, and the two cities rapidly grew into one, on the best ground
+and after the most approved models of modern times. This space is now
+the most beautiful and desirable part of the consolidated city.
+
+It is claimed that Montevideo is the most healthy city in the world, and
+there is no reason why it should not be, as the natural drainage is
+perfect, and the climate is about like that of Tennessee, the cold
+weather of winter being moderated by the Gulf Stream from the ocean,
+and the heat of summer by the sea-breeze that seldom fails to perform
+its grateful service. When it is not June in Uruguay, it is
+October--never too hot and never too cold. There is not such a thing as
+a stove in the whole country, but some of the foreigners have fireplaces
+in their houses, to temper the winds for the tender feet. What
+Montevideo most needs, like Buenos Ayres, is a harbor, for during a
+pampero the ships at anchor in the river are without protection, and at
+all times the landing and the shipping of merchandise are conducted with
+great difficulty in lighters, as at the latter place. A contract has
+been made with a French company to construct two breakwaters or piers in
+triangular form, and the work, already commenced, is expected to be
+completed in 1890.
+
+Around the curve of the bay, fronting the water, are a series of
+beautiful villas, or “quintas,” as they are called (pronounced
+_kintas_), the suburban residences of wealthy men, built in the ancient
+Italian style, with all the luxury and lavish display of modern
+extravagance, and reminding one of the Pompeian palaces, or the Roman
+villas in the golden age which Horace pictured in his Odes. These
+residences are of the most picturesque architecture, and would be
+attractive anywhere, but here they are surrounded by a perpetual garden,
+and by thousands of flowers which preserve their color and their
+fragrance winter and summer, and give the place an appearance of
+everlasting spring.
+
+One of these beautiful retreats belongs to a Philadelphian, Mr. W. D.
+Evans, who has a romantic history, and is the friend of every naval
+officer and every skipper that enters the port. Thirty years ago Mr.
+Evans shipped as mate on a sailing-vessel bound for Uruguay. She was
+wrecked off the coast by one of the ill winds which seamen meet, and he
+was cast ashore, penniless and friendless. All the property he had in
+the world were an ordinary ship’s boat, which he had saved from the
+wreck, and the clothing which he wore. But he had a strong reserve in
+the form of muscle, courage, and manliness, and with his boat he
+commenced life as a _cargador_--that is, a longshoreman--and offered
+his services to the public to convey passengers and baggage to and from
+the ships in the harbor. About a week after he had entered his new
+employment he was caught in a gale outside the harbor. His boat was
+capsized, and he floated around for four hours clinging to her keel,
+until rescued by the crew of a steamer which happened to be coming in.
+He thanked his saviors graciously, but declined their invitation to go
+on board the steamer, only asking assistance to right his boat, in order
+that he might sail back to town. He was jeered at, and advised to let
+the old tub drift, as it was worthless; but he told the sailors that
+while it was not much of a boat, it was all the property he owned in the
+world, and he intended to make a fortune out of it yet. They liked the
+spirit of the man, and helped him put his boat in sailing trim, wishing
+him goodluck as he started back to Montevideo.
+
+In the centre of the finest private park in the River Plate country is a
+handsome bronze fountain which must have cost several thousand dollars.
+In its basin, casting a shadow over myriads of gold-fish and speckled
+trout, floats Mr. Evans’s old boat, the most precious piece of property
+he owns, and he is said to be worth millions. He never allows a day to
+pass without visiting the fountain, and no guest ever comes to the Evans
+_quinta_ who is not brought to bow to the idol. There is something
+pathetic in the affection and reverence which the millionaire shows for
+the rotten old tub. “She has saved my life twice,” says Mr. Evans to
+everybody, “and when I was flat broke she was my only friend. You
+gentlemen may not notice anything pretty about her, but she is the most
+beautiful thing I ever saw.”
+
+There never comes to Montevideo a distressed seaman of any race, worthy
+or unworthy, who does not find a snug harbor through Mr. Evans’s
+bountiful generosity, and there is not a man in all the valley of the
+River Plate who does not feel a pleasure in grasping his hand.
+
+There are many beautiful residences and fine stores in Montevideo, and
+everything that can be bought in Paris can be found there. There are
+three theatres and an Italian opera, a race-course and any number of
+clubs, a university, a public library, a museum, and all the etceteras
+of modern civilization. The ladies dress in the most stylish of Paris
+fashions, and among the aristocracy the social life is very gay. The
+people are highly educated, are making money quickly, and spend it like
+princes. The Hotel Oriental is the best in South America, being built of
+Italian marble, and luxuriously furnished. There are hospitals, asylums,
+and other benevolent institutions supported by public and private
+charity; two Protestant churches, Protestant schools, fifty-five miles
+of street railways, carrying nine million passengers a year--which is a
+remarkably high average for a city of one hundred and twenty thousand
+population--boulevards and parks, gas and electric lights, telephones
+without number, and only now and then does something occur to remind a
+tourist that he is not in one of the most modern cities of Europe.
+
+The vestibules of the tenement-houses, and the _patios_, or courts, in
+the centre of each, which invariably furnish a cool loafing-place, are
+commonly paved with the knuckle-bones of sheep, arranged in fantastic
+designs like mosaic-work. They always attract the attention of
+strangers, and it is a standing joke to tell the gullible that they are
+the knuckle-bones of human beings who were killed during the many
+revolutions which occurred in that country.
+
+The ladies of Uruguay are considered to rank next to their sisters of
+Peru in beauty, and there is something about the atmosphere which gives
+their complexion a purity and clearness that is not found among ladies
+of any other country. But, like all Spanish ladies, when they reach
+maturity they lose their grace and symmetry of form, and usually become
+very stout. This is undoubtedly owing in a great degree to their lack of
+exercise; for they never walk, but spend their entire lives in a
+carriage or a rocking-chair. Native ladies who have married foreigners,
+and gone abroad to France or England, and there adopted the custom of
+those countries, preserve their beauty much longer than their sisters
+who live indolent lives at home.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN MONTEVIDEO.]
+
+The Government offices occupy a rather plain and insignificant
+structure, which does not compare in architectural beauty with the
+private residences and business blocks. Most of the merchants reside in
+the upper floors of their business houses, so that there are but few
+exclusively residence streets. The best houses are three and four
+stories high, and are quite ornamental in their exterior decorations,
+resembling those of Italy, and naturally, as most of the architects and
+builders are Italians.
+
+In the centre of the city are two large public squares. One, the Plaza
+Constitution, is a military parade-ground, and upon it fronts the
+Government building and military barracks. The other is the Plaza
+Washington, named in honor of the Father of American Liberty. Crossing
+Calle de Washington, and going north a block, one comes to “Calle Veinte
+y Cinco de Mayo” (the Twenty-fifth of May Street). This seems odd at
+first, but it is sanctified in the minds of the Uruguayans by the story
+of their valor and patriotism. It commemorates the national
+independence. Turning west on this street towards the point of the
+promontory on which the city is built, the traveller stands before one
+of the best buildings in the city--the Hospital de Caridad (Charity
+Hospital). It is three stories high and three hundred feet long. It
+covers an acre of ground, and has accommodations, or beds, for three
+hundred patients. Of course the Sisters of Charity are supreme in these
+wards, and large numbers of patients are treated here every year.
+
+The Hospital de Caridad has become popular by the manner in which the
+money is raised for its maintenance. It is supported by a public
+lottery. This finds favor everywhere. One meets many men, women, and
+boys on the streets of South American cities selling lottery tickets, as
+he would see newsboys selling papers in North American cities. Not far
+from Charity Hospital is the British Hospital. It is a fine, substantial
+building, and worthy of the people who built it. It cost nearly forty
+thousand dollars, and can accommodate sixty patients.
+
+The cemetery is a long way off, around on the south side of the city,
+and is a place of beauty. The entrance is tasteful, and much more
+elaborate and expensive than any cemetery entrance in the United States.
+The chapel down the walk in front of the entrance, with its ornamental
+dome and marble floors and ornaments, is worth seeing. The ground is
+occupied with private or family vaults much more elaborate and expensive
+than those one sees in North America. There are individual tombs in
+North American cemeteries far more elegant than any in Uruguay; but,
+taken as a whole, this city of the dead is of a higher order. The
+streets are too narrow, and the surface is nearly all utilized. It is
+common to have glass doors back of the iron gates, so one can look into
+the little rooms above the vaults. The walls of these are covered with
+pictures and curious wire and bead work ornaments. There are crucifixes
+and candles everywhere. In one tomb is to be seen a picture of Mary
+seated on an island or floating raft, pulling souls out of the flames of
+purgatory. The poor things are stretching up their hands pleading for
+help, and Mary is watching the prayers on earth and choosing
+accordingly. Back of these tombs, and forming a high wall twenty or
+twenty-five feet high, is a long series of vaults one above another,
+each with an opening large enough to receive a casket shoved in endwise.
+These vaults are either owned, or rented for a term of years, or as long
+as the friends pay the rent. In case of default, the remains are taken
+out and dropped into deep pits, and the vaults rented to the next comer.
+
+The standing army of Uruguay consists of five thousand men, mostly
+concentrated at the capital. Their uniform, with the exception of that
+of the President’s bodyguard--a battalion of three or four hundred men,
+dressed in a novel and striking costume of leopard-skins--is of the
+zouave pattern. There are connected with the army several fine bands,
+which on alternate evenings give concerts in the plazas. These concerts
+are attended by all classes of people, and furnish good opportunities
+for flirtation.
+
+Everybody rides; no one thinks of walking. Each family has its carriage,
+saddle, and other horses, and even the beggars go about the streets on
+horseback. It is a common thing for a person to be stopped on the street
+by a horseman and asked for a centavo, which is worth two and a half
+cents of our money. These incidents are somewhat alarming at first, and
+suggest highway robbery; but the appeal is made in such a humble,
+pitiful tone that the feeling of alarm soon vanishes. “For the love of
+Jesus, señor, give a poor sick man a centavo. I’ve had no bread or
+coffee to-day;” and receiving the pittance, the beggar will gallop off
+like a cow-boy to the nearest drinking-place.
+
+The national drink is called _caña_, and is made of the fermented juice
+of the sugar-cane. It contains about ninety per cent. of alcohol, and is
+sold at two cents a goblet; so that a spree in Uruguay is within the
+reach of the poorest man. But there is very little intemperance in
+comparison with that in our own country. On ordinary days drunken men
+are seldom seen on the streets, but on the evening of a religious
+feast-day the common people usually engage in a glorious carousal.
+
+The policemen in Montevideo are detailed from the army, and carry sabres
+instead of clubs, which they use with telling effect upon offenders who
+resist arrest. A few years ago there was no safety for people who were
+out late at night either in the city or country; robberies and murders
+were of frequent occurrence, and yet the prisons were empty. But
+President Santos rules with an iron hand, and after a few highwaymen and
+murderers were hanged, there was a noticeable change in the condition of
+affairs, and now a woman or a child is as safe upon the streets or
+highways of the country as in their own homes.
+
+One of the curious customs of Uruguay is the method of making butter.
+The dairy-man pours the milk, warm from the cow, into an inflated pig or
+goat skin, hitches it to his saddle by a long lasso, and gallops five or
+six miles into town with the milk-sack pounding along on the road behind
+him. When he reaches the city his churning is over, the butter is made,
+and he peddles it from door to door, dipping out with a long wooden
+spoon the quantity desired by each family. Though all sorts of modern
+agricultural machinery are used on the farms of Uruguay, the natives
+cannot be induced to adopt the wooden churn. Some of the foreigners use
+it, but the butter is said to be not so good as that made in the curious
+primitive fashion. Fresh milk is sold by driving cows from door to door
+along the principal streets, and milking them into the jars of the
+customers.
+
+During the last year religious and political circles have been in a
+state of the greatest agitation, owing to the resistance of the priests
+to the arbitrary policy of the Government. For several years the Church
+has seen itself stripped of its ancient prerogatives, and its occupation
+and income gradually restricted by the enactment of laws conferring upon
+the civil magistrates duties which were formerly within the jurisdiction
+of the priests alone. Under the constitution, the established religion
+of the country is the Roman Catholic, and the archbishop was formerly a
+greater man than the President, being the final authority in matters
+political as well as spiritual.
+
+The Romish Church, like the Spanish kings, ruled very unwisely in the
+South American dominions, and instead of keeping pace with the progress
+of the people, endeavored to enforce fifteenth century dogmas and
+practices in the nineteenth. The result is the same everywhere. The
+Liberal element, representing the progressive and educated, have denied
+the authority of the Church, and defied its mandates. The Liberals have
+been growing stronger and the Church growing weaker each year, until the
+former are in power everywhere except in Ecuador, and have given the
+priests repeated and bitter doses of their own medicine. Santos, the
+President of Uruguay, cares no more for the curse of Rome than for the
+bleating of the sheep upon his estancia, and has been arbitrary and
+merciless, carrying on a war in which the Clerical party has been driven
+to the wall, the parish schools closed, the monks and nuns expelled, and
+the pulpits silenced. The first step was to take the education of the
+children out of the hands of the Church by establishing free schools and
+a compulsory education law, under which the parish schools were not
+recognized in the national system of education. The money which formerly
+had been given to the Church is devoted to the school fund. Then the
+registration of births and deaths was taken from the parish clergy and
+placed in the hands of the civil officials. Formerly the legitimacy of a
+child could not be established without a certificate from the priest in
+whose parish it was born; and the cemeteries were closed to heretics.
+The next thing was the passage of the civil marriage law, similar to
+that of France, which required every couple to be married by a
+magistrate, in order that the legitimacy of their offspring might be
+established. This was a serious blow at the revenues of the Church, as
+its income from marriage fees was very large. It formerly cost
+twenty-five dollars to get married, and very few of the peons, or
+laboring classes, could afford the luxury. Now it costs but one dollar.
+The Church submitted to all assaults upon it until the marriage law was
+passed, and then it openly defied the civil authorities, and threatened
+to excommunicate all members who obeyed the statute.
+
+President Santos is not a man to quietly endure defiance of his
+authority. He ordered the police to arrest and imprison every priest who
+preached such doctrine. Three or four arrests were made, when the
+archbishop addressed a letter to the President declaring that the Church
+could not and would not recognize marriages formed without its
+benediction, and that the police authorities had no right to determine
+what subjects should be discussed in the pulpit. The President took no
+notice of the protest, further than to direct the police to carry out
+their previous orders. The Papal Nuncio, legate from the Holy See,
+interfered and entered his remonstrance, whereupon he was given
+forty-eight hours to leave the country. The archbishop then instructed
+the priests not to preach any sermons whatever, but to confine their
+spiritual offices to the celebration of the mass. Then a law was passed
+abolishing all houses of religious seclusion, and forbidding secret
+religious orders within the territory of Uruguay. The excuse for this
+was that the monasteries were the hot-beds of political conspiracy,
+which was probably true. An edict was issued expelling all monks and
+nuns from Uruguay, and many of them at once left the monasteries, some
+taking refuge in private families, others going into hospitals and
+almshouses, but more left the country.
+
+On the first of August, 1885, all the convents, except one, were
+closed. This one had for its Mother Superior a sister of President Santa
+Maria, of Chili. She was a woman of pluck, and determined to defy the
+law. When the first of August arrived, the inspectors of police went to
+her place, called “The House of the Good Shepherd,” and being denied
+admittance, burst in the doors. The Mother Superior was found alone, and
+when asked what had become of the Sisters, refused to answer the
+question. A search was made, and forty-five terror-stricken women were
+discovered concealed in the loft of the chapel and under the altar. They
+cried pitifully, and falling before the cross of Christ, begged for His
+protection; but the police dragged them out and gave them orders to
+leave the country at once. Some of them took refuge in private houses,
+and the Mother Superior, who, it was supposed, would be imprisoned,
+found an asylum in the house of an Irish Roman Catholic named Jackson,
+who raised the English flag over his roof. They soon after disappeared,
+however, and quietly left the country.
+
+This ended the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church in Uruguay. The
+next movement of Santos towards its extermination will undoubtedly be
+the confiscation of its property; but as yet no steps have been taken in
+that direction. Except among the women, there is very little sympathy
+for the priests. Men are seldom seen in a church except on notable
+feast-days, but the women go to mass every morning, and perform the
+duties of their religion with ardent devotion. Protestantism is making
+considerable progress in Uruguay under the direction of the Rev. Thomas
+Wood, formerly of Indiana, who has been superintendent of Methodist
+missions in the River Plate valley for many years. There are in
+Montevideo two Protestant churches, and several schools for ordinary as
+well as religious instruction. One of the churches is under the care of
+the Established Church of England, and is the fashionable place of
+worship for foreigners. No mission work is done by it, but it has a
+Sabbath-school, and there is regular preaching on Sundays. The success
+of Mr. Wood’s labors is very marked, particularly among the natives. He
+receives encouragement, but no financial aid, from the Government. His
+work is supported by the Missionary Board of the Methodist Church of New
+York, and all he asks of the Government is its non-interference. This it
+agrees to, and gives him full protection besides. Mr. Wood is an active,
+energetic, and enthusiastic man, and the Methodists could not have
+placed their work under a better superintendent.
+
+Standing on the Plaza Constitution, one sees towering up, one hundred
+and thirty-three feet above, the great cathedral, a large, plain, and
+somewhat imposing structure. It was dedicated eighty-two years ago, but
+time and the fortunes of war have dealt kindly with it. On entering this
+building, at first the visitor wonders at its tawdriness; next he feels
+its coldness, and then he is impressed by the dominating importance
+given to the Virgin Mother, and the inferior position assigned to the
+Son. This is so in all the Catholic churches of South America. Over the
+great altars always may be seen some huge and coarse representation of
+Mary. She is dressed after the modern style, in some rich material and
+an abundance of lace. The stiff wax form and awkward wax hands would
+make a sad appearance in a collection of wax-figures like the moral show
+of Artemus Ward. The form of the Saviour is pushed away off to one side
+in some obscure alcove. The supremacy of Mary in these papal lands is
+wrought into all the life of the people. She has every sort of name.
+Every conceivable relation in the Virgin’s life is named, and that name
+bestowed upon men and women alike. There is “Maria Remedia”--that is,
+Mary of Remedies; “Maria Dolores,” Mary of Griefs; “Maria Angustos,”
+Mary of Anguish; “Maria Concepcion,” Mary of the Conception; “Maria
+Mercedes,” Mary of Mercy; “Maria Anunciacion,” Mary of Annunciation;
+“Maria Presentacion,” Mary of the Presentation; “Maria Carmen,” Mary of
+Blood; “Maria Purificacion,” Mary of Purification; “Maria Trinidad,”
+Mary of the Trinity; “Maria Asuncion,” Mary taken from earth; “Maria
+Transitu,” Mary going into heaven--and so on indefinitely. In the
+Montevideo cathedral, and in many others, stands a statue of a black
+saint--St. Baltazar--among many classes of people, one of the important
+saints of the catalogue.
+
+Montevideo, with a population of one hundred and twenty-five thousand,
+has twenty-three daily papers--more, in proportion to its population,
+than any other city in the world; three times as many as London, and
+nearly twice as many as New York. Buenos Ayres has twenty-one daily
+papers for a population of four hundred thousand. Other cities in South
+America are equally blessed; but in those of the republics of Ecuador,
+Bolivia, and Paraguay no daily papers are issued. The South American
+papers are not published so much for the dissemination of news as for
+the propagation of ideas. They give about six columns of editorial to
+one of intelligence, and publish all sorts of communications on
+political subjects, furnish a story in each issue, and often run
+histories and biographies as serials. One frequently takes up a daily
+paper and finds in it everything but the news, so that last week’s issue
+is just as good reading as yesterday’s.
+
+The principal reason and necessity for having so many newspapers is that
+every public man requires an organ in order to get his views before the
+people. The editors are ordinarily politicians or publicists, who devote
+their entire time to the discussion of political questions, and expect
+the party or faction to which they belong to furnish them with the means
+of living while they are so employed. Each of the papers has a director,
+who holds the relation of editor-in-chief, and a sub-editor, who is a
+man-of-all-work, edits copy, looks after the news, reads proof, and
+stays around the place to see that the printers are kept busy. There is
+never a staff of editors or reporters as in the United States, and
+seldom more than two men in an office. The director usually has some
+other occupation. He may be a lawyer, or a judge, or a member of
+Congress, and he expects his political sympathizers to assist him in
+furnishing editorials.
+
+At the capital of each of the republics in Central and South America
+there are usually one or more publications supported by the Government
+for the promulgation of decrees, decisions of the courts, laws of
+Congress, and official reports; and usually the paper which sustains the
+Administration that happens to be in power expects and receives
+financial assistance, or a “subvention,” as it is called, from the
+Government. This comes in the form of sinecures to the editors, who
+receive generous salaries from the public treasury for their political
+and professional services. Every president or cabinet minister, every
+political leader, every governor of a province, every _jefe politico_
+(mayor of a city), and often a collector of customs, has his organ, and,
+if he is not the editor himself, sees that whoever acts in that capacity
+is paid by the tax-payers.
+
+Except in Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, Santiago, Valparaiso, Rio de
+Janeiro, and other of the larger and more enterprising cities, there are
+no regular hours of publication; but papers are issued at any time, from
+eight o’clock in the morning until ten at night, whenever they happen to
+be ready to go to press. It seems odd to have yesterday’s paper
+delivered to you in the afternoon of to-day, but it often occurs. As
+soon as enough matter to fill the forms is in type, the edition goes to
+press. In the cities mentioned and some others there is a good deal of
+journalistic enterprise and ability; news is gathered by the
+editors--there is no reporter in all Spanish America. Telegraphic
+despatches are received and published, including cablegrams from Europe
+furnished by the Havas News Agency; news correspondence regarding
+current events comes from the interior towns and cities; meetings are
+reported, fights and frolics are written up in graphic style, and even
+interviews have been introduced to a limited extent. The newspapers of
+Valparaiso and Buenos Ayres are the most enterprising and ably
+conducted, _El Comercio_, of the former city, and _La Nacion_, of the
+latter, ranking well beside the provincial papers of Europe.
+
+The editors of papers in the tropics are seldom called upon to report
+fires, as they are of rare occurrence. The houses are practically
+fire-proof, being built of adobe, and roofed with tiles. No stoves are
+used, and as there are no chimneys such a thing as a defective flue is
+unknown. All the cooking is done upon an arrangement like a
+blacksmith’s forge, and charcoal is the only fuel used. The delight of
+the South American editor is a street fight, and although an account of
+it may not appear for several days after the occurrence, the writer
+gives his whole soul to its description. It is always recorded in the
+most elaborate and flamboyant manner. The following is a literal
+translation of the opening of one of these articles:
+
+“A personal encounter of the most transcendent and painful interest
+occurred day before yesterday in the street of the Twenty-fifth of May,
+near the palatial residence of the most excellent and illustrious Señor
+Don Comana, member of the Chamber of Deputies, and was witnessed by a
+grand concourse of people, whose excitement and demonstrations it is
+impossible to adequately describe.”
+
+A dog-fight or any other event of interest would be treated in the same
+manner. Everything is “transcendent,” everything is “surpassing.” The
+grandiloquent style of writing, which appears everywhere, is not
+confined to newspapers, nor to orations, but you find it in the most
+unsuspected places. For example, in a bath-room at a hotel I once found
+an _aviso_ which, literally translated, read as follows:
+
+“In consequence of the grand concourse of distinguished guests who
+entreat a bath in the morning, and with the profound consideration for
+the convenience of all, it is humbly and respectfully requested by the
+management that the gentlemen will be so courteous and urbane as to
+occupy the shortest possible time for their ablutions, and that they
+will be so condescending as to pull out the plug while they are resuming
+their garments.”
+
+Papers often quote from one another. They select their news as
+ship-builders select their timber--when it is old and tough. Compositors
+are not paid by the thousand ems, as in the United States, but receive
+weekly wages, which are seldom more than eight or ten dollars. Six or
+seven compositors are a sufficient force for the largest office, as the
+type used is seldom smaller than brevier, and more often long primer.
+The printers are mostly natives, although a few Germans are to be found.
+There are no typographical unions or trade organizations in South
+America. The laborers and mechanics are called peons, and are in a state
+of bondage, although not so recognized by law. In the larger cities the
+papers are delivered by carriers, and sold by newsboys on the streets;
+but in the smaller towns they are sent to the _correo_, or post-office,
+to be called for, like other mail, by the subscribers. The price of
+subscription is inordinately large, being seldom less than twelve
+dollars per year, and often double that amount; and single copies cost
+ten cents in native money, which will average about seven and a half
+cents in American gold. The paper which has the largest circulation in
+South America is _La Nacion_, of Buenos Ayres, which is said to
+circulate thirty thousand copies; but twelve or fifteen hundred copies
+is considered a fair circulation for the ordinary daily.
+
+Most of the offices are very cheaply fitted up. A dress of type lasts
+many years, and stereotyping is almost unknown. The presses used are the
+old-fashioned elbow-joint kind, such as were in vogue in the United
+States forty years ago. In Chili and the Argentine Republic there are
+some cylinder presses run by steam; but the people generally through the
+continent are very far behind the times in the typographic art. Modern
+equipments might be introduced very easily, but the printers down there
+know nothing about them, and when a perfecting press that cuts and folds
+is described to them, they are apt to accept the story as a North
+American exaggeration.
+
+The advertising patronage is very good nearly everywhere, particularly
+that of the Government organs; but small rates are paid, and the rural
+system of “trading out” is practised to a considerable extent. The same
+patent medicine “ads.” that are familiar to the readers of the
+newspapers in the United States appear in the South American journals,
+and are eagerly scanned by homesick travellers, although they look very
+odd in Spanish, and usually can only be recognized by trademarks and
+other well-known signs. Most of the advertising in South America is
+done through the newspapers. Very few posters or dodgers or almanacs are
+used, and the patent medicine fiend has not used his brush so
+extensively upon the fences and dead walls as in the United States. Not
+long ago the manufacturers of a popular specific sent their agent in
+Peru a box of handsomely illuminated advertising cards. The custom
+officers seized them, and the druggist to whom they were consigned was
+obliged to pay a heavy penalty for trying to smuggle in works of art.
+
+The South American editor is not allowed the same liberty to criticise
+public men that is enjoyed by his contemporary in the United States. He
+speaks with moderation during political excitement, and uses great
+precaution in his comments upon public affairs. Last winter the
+Secretary of the Treasury of one of the Spanish-American republics
+absconded with every dollar in the vaults at the expiration of his term
+of office. The Administration organs contained no allusion to the event,
+while the Opposition paper announced it in this innocent language: “The
+Treasury on Saturday last was the scene of a violent raid on the part of
+Minister Pena, of the Treasury Department. He entered the cashier’s
+office late in the afternoon, and demanded all the money that was in the
+vaults. In spite of the protest of the cashier, he carried away what is
+said to have amounted to nine thousand dollars. It was the last act of
+the retiring Minister of Finance. The motives that prompted the
+procedure are unknown, and the disposition of the money has not been
+explained.”
+
+In some of the republics there is a censor of the press, to whom a copy
+of each edition is submitted before it is published. This causes some
+inconvenience and delay at times, for if the censor happens to be out of
+town, or at a dinner-party, or otherwise engaged, the issue is withheld
+until his august signature and rubric are placed upon each page of the
+copy submitted to him. This copy is filed away for the protection of the
+editor, in case any article creates trouble. In 1885 the editor of _El
+Campeon_, of Lima, Peru, published an attack upon the Congress of that
+republic, which was very mild compared with articles that are frequently
+directed at our law-makers; but it was considered a sufficient reason
+for his imprisonment for six months, and the confiscation of his
+machinery, type, etc., which were sold for the benefit of the
+Government.
+
+The most popular names for the newspapers in South America are _La
+Revista_ (The Review), _La Nacion_ (The Nation), _La Republica_ (The
+Republic), _La Tribuna_ (The Tribune), _La Libertad_ (The Liberty), _La
+Voce_ (The Voice), _La Union_ (The Union), _El Tempo_ (The Times), _El
+Diario_ (The Diary), _El Eco_ (The Echo), _El Correo_ (The Post), _El
+Puebla_ (The People), _La Verdad_ (The Truth). There is a habit of
+naming streets and parks and towns in honor of great events, and this
+sometimes includes newspapers. For example, there is a daily in
+Montevideo called _The Twenty-fifth of May_, which corresponds to our
+Fourth of July--the Independence-day of that republic. There are only
+three dailies printed in the English language in all Central and South
+America. Two of them are published in Buenos Ayres--_The Herald_ and
+_The Standard_--the other at Panama--_The Star and Herald_. There is a
+weekly printed in English at Valparaiso, and there was formerly one at
+Callao, Peru, but it was suspended during the war and its publication
+has not been resumed.
+
+It is not generally known that “Liebig’s Extract of Beef,” which, like
+quinine, is a standard tonic throughout the world, and is used by every
+physician, in every hospital, on every ship, and in every army, is a
+product of Uruguay. The cans in which it comes are labelled as if their
+contents were manufactured at Antwerp, where the original extract was
+invented by Professor Liebig, the famous German chemist, and the
+preparation was formerly made there; but in 1866, the patent having
+passed into the control of an English company, the works were removed to
+Uruguay, where cattle are cheaper than elsewhere, and the entire supply
+is now produced at a place called Fray Bentos, about one hundred and
+seventy miles above Montevideo, on the Uruguay River, whence it is
+shipped in bulk to London and Antwerp, where it is packed in small tins
+for the market. An attempt was made to do the packing in Uruguay, but
+the Government of that republic imposed so high a tariff upon the tins
+that the scheme was abandoned. The chemical process by which the juice
+of the beef is extracted and mixed with the blood of the animal is
+supposed to be a secret, but as the patent has long since expired, it
+could be easily discovered, and thus the manufacture of an almost
+necessary article would become general.
+
+
+
+
+ASUNCION.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF PARAGUAY.
+
+
+The population of Paraguay and its products to-day are less than they
+were one hundred years ago, when the present half-ruined city was the
+capital of the southern half of the continent, and from it had been
+issued the ecclesiastical and vice-regal edicts for over two centuries.
+Then Asuncion was a gay and busy capital, and Buenos Ayres, with the
+rest of the continent, paid tribute to the viceroy there. After the war
+of independence, a Jesuit by the name of Francia secured control of the
+Government, and nothing but death was ever able to loosen his grip.
+Although the constitution was republican, Francia established himself as
+“Perpetual President,” maintained a despotism as absolute and cruel as
+any that ever existed, and erected around the country a wall that
+prevented immigration and kept the people in ignorance. Foreign commerce
+was monopolized by the President, and he exacted in the shape of tribute
+from the people the products he shipped away. The revenues of the
+Government went into his pocket, and public expenditures were made at
+his will. His policy seemed to be to isolate Paraguay from the rest of
+the world, for the good of its people; and being a religious fanatic, he
+taught them nothing but obedience to the will of the Church. For
+thirty-two years he ruled peacefully, and when he died, in 1840, he was
+sincerely mourned.
+
+His successor was Lopez I., a man who had all the bad qualities of
+Francia, but none of his good ones. Selfish, lustful, brutal, his only
+motive was to perpetuate his power, and enjoy the opportunities it gave
+for the gratification of his passions. He continued the policy of
+exclusion which Francia inaugurated, but for entirely different
+reasons, considering it necessary for his own safety that the people
+should be kept ignorant and isolated, lest they might learn that there
+were justice and liberty elsewhere in the world. He ruled twenty-two
+years, until death took the sceptre from him and gave it to his son.
+
+[Illustration: GASPAR FRANCIA,
+
+First President of Paraguay.]
+
+If the father was bad, the son was worse, and Lopez II. seemed to be
+inspired with an ambition to excel his sire in every crime the latter
+had been guilty of. Filled with passion and lust, there was no form of
+cruelty he did not practise, and no act of brutality that he did not
+commit. He murdered his mother and brother, like King Thebaw, lest they
+might conspire against his authority. He had men pulled to pieces by
+horses, and invented a form of capital punishment before unknown to the
+catalogue of horrors. People who offended him were sewed up in green
+hides, which were hung up before a fire to dry. As the hides dried they
+shrunk, and the victim was slowly crushed to death by a pressure that
+human bones and flesh could not resist. The wives and daughters of his
+subjects were his playthings, and his agents were busy in all parts of
+the country collecting beautiful maidens to sacrifice to his lust. He
+resisted immigration, and, like his two predecessors, kept the foreign
+commerce of the country in his own hands. When steamers began to ascend
+the Parana River, he chained logs together and obstructed navigation,
+and when foreigners entered the country he drove them out.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN ASUNCION.]
+
+The only outlet for the interior provinces of Southern Brazil is through
+Paraguay, and the people of Brazil resented the obstruction to their
+commerce. The Argentine Republic and Uruguay also had grievances, and in
+1868 the three great nations, representing about half the population of
+South America, called the tyrant Lopez to account. Then began a war
+which has no parallel in history. For six long years the little State of
+Paraguay held at bay the three combined nations whose territory
+surrounded it. The war did not end until the population of Paraguay was
+wellnigh exterminated, the country laid waste, and the tyrant Lopez
+driven to the mountains, where he was finally killed in a cave in which
+he sought refuge. The war cost Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and
+Uruguay two hundred and fifty million dollars and twenty thousand lives,
+while it cost Paraguay everything. There were scarcely enough survivors
+to bury the dead. The entire country was practically destroyed and
+depopulated.
+
+[Illustration: LOPEZ, THE TYRANT.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER THE WAR.]
+
+During the reign of the two Lopezes, father and son, the most
+intelligent and the best men in the country were banished. Exile was the
+penalty of all whose views differed from those of the tyrant, and who
+would not submit to his exactions. More were murdered than banished, and
+their families fled from the country. On the downfall of the despot the
+exiles returned with enlarged intelligence, broader views, and an
+education received in foreign lands which fitted them to restore their
+almost ruined country, and to establish something like a liberal and
+wise government. After the death of Lopez and the occupation of the
+country by the allied armies, a junta was formed, consisting of three
+citizens of Paraguay, two of whom had returned from banishment, and had
+taken part in the war against the tyrant. Their powers were provisional,
+and similar to those of the consuls of old Rome. These men called a
+constitutional convention, which organized a permanent government, based
+upon the plan of that of the United States. The constitution guarantees
+religious and civil liberty, security of person and property, prohibits
+the re-election of Presidents, endows the Congress with authority much
+more extended than that of ours, and in every possible manner provides
+against the repetition of the old dictatorships.
+
+[Illustration: ASUNCION, FROM THE WEST.]
+
+One of the first steps taken by Congress was to encourage immigration,
+and agents were sent to Europe to organize colonies and offer
+inducements to settlers. There was a strong effort made to secure German
+colonies, but it was difficult to divert them from the United States. In
+Italy and the Basque provinces of Spain the emigrant agents were more
+successful, and about twenty thousand people from these countries have
+settled in Paraguay during the last four years. Their prosperity and the
+treatment they have received have been so encouraging that a steady
+stream of immigration is now flowing from all the European States
+towards
+
+[Illustration: ASUNCION--THE PALACE AND CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Paraguay; and the German Government has lately sent a commission to
+explore the territory and report upon its advantages for the
+establishment of colonies. Liberal inducements are offered to all
+immigrants. The lands of the republic have been resurveyed and divided
+into three classes--timber, pastoral, agricultural. At the end of five
+years’ residence, each adult immigrant is entitled to a deed of eighty
+acres of the latter class as a gift from the Government, and is
+reimbursed from the public revenues to an amount equal to the cost of
+his passage to Asuncion, the necessary farming implements, and a yoke of
+cattle. In addition to these he has also the right to purchase not more
+than four extra lots of agricultural lands of forty acres each. The
+grazing lands are not given away, but are sold by the Government at the
+price of eight, twelve, and fifteen hundred dollars per square league,
+according to location, or are leased for a term of years at a nominal
+rental. The timber lands are sold at higher rates, but as yet there is
+little demand for them. The emigrants from Continental Europe usually
+settle upon the agricultural lands, but large areas of the pampas are
+being taken up by English, Irish, and Scotch, some of whom purchase upon
+their own account, while others represent companies of considerable
+capital. The British will soon monopolize the pastoral industries of the
+La Plata countries, and Paraguay will be full of their cattle.
+
+An enumeration made of his subjects by Lopez in 1857 showed the
+population of Paraguay to be 1,337,439; at the close of the war in 1873,
+a census demonstrated that this number had been reduced to 221,079
+souls, of whom only 28,746 were men, 106,254 were women over fifteen
+years of age, and 86,079 were children, the enormous disproportion
+between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of population, telling
+the results of the war. In 1876 there were 293,844 inhabitants, showing
+an increase of 72,765 in three years; and in 1879 the total was
+increased to 318,018, two-thirds of the adults being women. It is said
+that there are but three citizens of the United States in Paraguay--one
+white man who keeps a drug store, and two negroes, both of whom are
+reported to be fugitives from justice.
+
+The Rio de la Plata, or the River Plate, as it is better known, is the
+widest stream in the world, and, with the exception of the Amazon,
+empties more water into the ocean than any other, draining a region of
+1,560,000 square miles. With its tributaries, it affords more miles of
+navigation than all the rivers of Europe combined, and more than the
+Mississippi and its branches. The tide from the Atlantic reaches up a
+distance of two hundred and fifty-eight miles, and there is a depth of
+water sufficient to carry vessels of twenty-four feet draught one
+thousand miles into the interior.
+
+Above the mouth of the Uruguay River, which forms the
+
+[Illustration: WRECK OF THE OLD CATHEDRAL.]
+
+boundary line between the republic of that name and the Argentine
+Republic, the River Plate is known as the Parana, and is so called as
+far as its source, which lies not far from that of the Amazon in the
+interior of Brazil, and is fed through a thousand channels by the rains
+of the tropics and the melting snows of the Cordilleras. The Parana
+flows for one thousand two hundred miles through a country--the interior
+of Brazil--that has never been explored, and is inhabited by a race of
+savages who have so far resisted all attempts to invade their domain. As
+far as the river has been explored it is deep enough for navigation,
+although at present the steamers only run to Cuyabá, a distance of 2500
+miles. At Corrientes the Paraguay River enters the Parana, and the two
+great streams form the western and eastern boundaries of the republic.
+At Asuncion the Paraguay divides again, the main stream flowing through
+the centre of the State, and the Pilcomayo continuing as its western
+boundary. The Paraguay River is navigable for 1200 miles, and the
+Pilcomayo for nearly as great a distance, almost to the mountains of
+Bolivia. The chief affluents of the Pilcomayo are the Pilaya and
+Paspaya; and the only city on its banks is Chuquisaca. With the removal
+of obstructions which offer no obstacles to engineering skill, it is
+said that the Pilcomayo might be put in such shape as to afford an easy
+and convenient outlet for the products of Bolivia to the Atlantic ports,
+and investigations are already in progress looking to that end.
+
+Whoever obtains control of these natural lines of communication, and
+supplements them by railways, will hold the key to the treasures of the
+heart of South America, whose value has furnished food for three
+centuries of fable. A section of country as large as that which lies
+between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains lies there
+practically unexplored. On its borders are rich agricultural lands, fine
+ranges, unmeasured resources of timber, the diamond-fields of Brazil,
+and the gold and silver mines of Bolivia and Peru. What exists in the
+unknown region is a matter of speculation, but the farther man has gone
+the greater has been his wonder. The tales of explorers who have
+attempted to penetrate it sound like a recital of the old romances of
+Golconda and El Dorado; but the swamps and the mountains, the rivers
+that cannot be forded, and the jungles which forbid its search, the
+absence of food, and the difficulty of carrying supplies, with the
+other obstacles which now prevent exploration, will be overcome
+eventually, and the secret which has tantalized the world for three
+centuries will be disclosed by scientists. Almost every year expeditions
+are sent into the wilderness by the Government of the Argentine
+Republic, and each one goes farther than the last, so that the prospect
+of a thorough exploration is encouraging.
+
+[Illustration: STATION ON THE ASUNCION RAILWAY.]
+
+The commerce of Paraguay is small, although rapidly increasing, and at
+present is absorbed in that of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic. There
+is one railroad in the country, which was built by Lopez II. for the
+transportation of troops, and runs a distance of forty-five miles, from
+Asuncion to Paraguay, an interior town of some importance. In 1877 the
+railroad was sold to an English corporation for a million dollars, but
+has not been well maintained. A street-car line connects the
+railway-station with the steamboat landing at Asuncion. There are two
+lines of steamers to Asuncion, one from Buenos Ayres and one from
+Montevideo. It is a journey of 1700 miles, and usually requires about
+fifteen days, as the stops along the route are numerous, and a great
+deal of time is taken up in loading and unloading. The steamers on this
+route are as good as any that ever floated upon the Mississippi River,
+and are fitted up in the most elegant style. They compete actively for
+passengers and furnish excellent meals and accommodations. One line
+sails under the French flag, and the other belongs to an Argentine
+company.
+
+[Illustration: A VISIT TO THE SPRING.]
+
+The Government is making an honest and patient effort to educate and
+enlighten the people, and in comparison with its poverty and scanty
+revenues, is expending a large amount of money in maintaining a system
+of free schools; but until teachers are imported from abroad little
+progress will be made, as the native instructors are incompetent.
+
+The change from the tyranny of Lopez to the present liberal,
+enlightened, and progressive administration was as sudden and radical as
+a change from darkness to light. The people have accepted the blessings
+with a genuine appreciation of their value, and have devoted themselves
+assiduously to the restoration of their country, and are happy in the
+enjoyment of peace.
+
+The President of the republic is Dr. Caballaro, a man of education and
+broad intellect. He has travelled in Europe, and during the reign of
+Lopez II. was an exile, spending most of his time in the Argentine
+Republic. He has a Cabinet of three ministers, and his Secretary of
+State was educated in the Methodist Mission at Buenos Ayres. The latter
+gentleman is a Protestant, understands English well, and is a man of the
+most progressive ideas. It is largely owing to his efforts that Paraguay
+is making such rapid progress; and as he is the ruling spirit of the
+Government, he will probably be the next President.
+
+[Illustration: THE PARAGUAYANS AT HOME.]
+
+The people are quiet, submissive, and industrious, having a mixture of
+Spanish blood and that of the Guarani Indians, who were the aboriginal
+settlers of the country. Their kinsmen across the Paraguay River, in the
+Argentine Republic, were a nomadic, savage tribe; but the tyranny of
+Lopez, father and son, took the spirit out of the Paraguay Indians, and
+they are now domesticated, and live in bamboo huts, cultivate the soil,
+and raise cattle. There is said to be less crime in Paraguay than in any
+other of the South American countries, and in 1883 there were but one
+hundred and twenty-five criminal trials in the entire republic,
+twenty-one of the defendants being foreigners. But for the tyranny of
+its rulers in past years Paraguay might have been an Arcadia, for the
+simple habits, the few wants, and the peaceable disposition of the
+people made them contented and well disposed towards each other. As
+nature has provided for all their wants, they have no great incentive to
+labor, and the enterprise and thrift of the country is generally found
+among the foreigners, from whom the people are, however, rapidly
+learning the ways of the world and the value of money. The men and women
+are of small stature, and the latter are usually very pretty when young,
+but lose their beauty of feature and figure after maternity. They are
+innocent, and childish in their amusements, are fond of dancing and
+singing, and have native dances that are as graceful, and native songs
+that are as melodious, as are the dances and music of the negroes of the
+United States.
+
+[Illustration: PARAGUAY FLOWER-GIRL.]
+
+Asuncion, the capital of the republic, is the oldest settlement in what
+is known as the valley of the River Plate. There were a considerable
+number of people there, and it was the seat of civil and religious
+authority, before the city of Buenos Ayres or the city of Rio de Janeiro
+was founded. There was a time when Asuncion was the greatest city in
+that part of the world, being the seat of the viceroys of Spain and the
+centre of a great commercial business. But after the independence of the
+republic, and during the reign of the despots Francia and Lopez, father
+and son, who for sixty years exercised despotic sway over the country,
+all immigration was shut out, and the people of the country were not
+permitted to leave it lest they should learn ideas of civilization and
+liberty that would excite them to revolution. At that time Asuncion was
+a city of seventy-five thousand inhabitants, but during the war it was
+almost depopulated, and three-fourths of the buildings are now in ruins.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE PALACE OF LOPEZ.]
+
+In all tropical countries nature soon repairs or conceals the traces of
+man’s wanton devastation. Fields corpse-strewn and blood-bathed,
+blackened with fire and trampled by the hoofs of cavalry horses, within
+six months’ time wave in the golden luxuriance of a harvest; and the
+villages of the peasants, built of bamboo and palm-leaves, are quite as
+soon restored. Paraguay’s rural territory shows no signs of the nine
+years’ war and devastation; but in Asuncion and other cities the case is
+different. Its spacious edifices, costly churches, and public buildings
+are in ruins. Some which still stand are disused and deserted, more are
+only partially occupied, and are in a state of half neglect, too large
+for the shrunken populace; others, sad monuments of the vanity of the
+Dictators, are shattered and shamefully defaced. Whole streets are lined
+by empty shells of what were once costly dwellings, with here and there
+open gaps that tell of the pillage and devastation that follow war.
+
+The most conspicuous object in Asuncion is the immense palace of Lopez,
+which covered four acres, and was completed at an enormous cost of money
+and labor, wrung from an unwilling people shortly before the fall of the
+tyrant. It is now an empty, roofless shell, towering, like one of the
+ruined castles in Europe, over the river. With its long rows of
+dismantled windows and black, ragged holes, it is as ghastly as the
+eye-sockets in a decaying skull. Its shattered towers, shivering
+cornices, and broken parapets disclose the results of a three weeks’
+bombardment, and the destruction that followed its capture. The
+Brazilian plunderers carried off all that was portable; what they could
+not take away was burned, and what fire would not consume was defaced.
+The palace is said to have cost two million dollars, and was built
+exclusively by native workmen. The men are very skilful in the use of
+tools, and in the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments, and the
+women make a very fine lace which is called _nanduty_. The lace-making
+art was taught the women by the Spanish nuns. They do not use cotton
+thread, but the very fine fibres of a native tree, which are as soft and
+lustrous as silk. Some of their designs are very beautiful, and the
+fabric is indestructible. Lopez had his chamber walls hung with this
+lace, on a background of crimson satin, and the pattern was an imitation
+of the finest cobweb. It is said to have required the work of two
+hundred women for several years to cover the walls, and that every one
+of those women was a discarded mistress of the despot. The lace is
+fastened to the wall by clamps of solid gold of the most unique
+workmanship. There are four hundred of these clamps, each worth from
+twelve to fifteen dollars.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE LOPEZ PALACE.]
+
+Near by the palace are the roofless walls of a spacious unfinished
+theatre, an example of Lopez’s extravagance. The cathedral, and the
+Church of the Incarnacion, where Francia sought, but did not find, a
+final resting-place, are heavy, ungraceful constructions of Spanish
+times. Nor have the Government buildings--many of which sheltered the
+terrible Dictator, for he continually shifted from one to another, for
+fear, it is said, of assassination--any pretension to beauty. Neither
+are the remains of the old Jesuit college, now converted into a
+barrack, anyway remarkable. The streets, wide and regular, are ill paved
+and deep in sand, while the public squares are undecorated and bare. On
+the other hand, the dwelling-houses--at least such of them as are
+constructed on the old Spanish plan, so admirably adapted to the
+requirements of the climate--are solidly built and not devoid of beauty.
+They have cool courts, thick walls, deeply recessed doors and windows,
+projecting eaves, and heavy, protected roofs.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, ASUNCION.]
+
+The furniture of the dwelling-houses is of native wood-work, solid, and
+tastefully carved. The pavement is generally of marble local or
+imported. The hard woods of the native forests are susceptible of high
+polish and delicate work, and the marbles, of various kinds and colors,
+are not inferior in beauty to any that Italy herself can boast of; and
+these will, when Paraguay is herself once more, take a high place on the
+list of her productions and merchandise.
+
+[Illustration: MARKET-PLACE AT ASUNCION.]
+
+The majority of the houses are one-storied; but in some localities,
+where a mania for European imitation, encouraged by Lopez, prevailed,
+some uncomfortable and ill-seeming dwellings of two or three stories,
+flimsy, pretentious, and at variance alike with the climate and the
+habits of the people of Paraguay, have been erected.
+
+The most cheerful, and almost the only active part of
+
+[Illustration: A PARAGUAY HORSEMAN.]
+
+Asuncion is the market-place, which is situated near the centre of the
+town. It is a large square block of open arcades and pillared roofs, to
+which the natives from the suburbs daily bring their produce, intermixed
+with other wares of cheap price and of every-day consumption, the
+vendors being almost exclusively women. Maize, watermelons, gourds,
+pumpkins, oranges, mandioca flour, sweet potatoes, half-baked bread,
+cakes, biscuits, and sweets--the chief articles of food--are here
+offered for sale, together with tobacco of dark color and strong flavor,
+and yerba, the dried and pulverized leaf of the Paraguayan tea.
+Alongside of these are displayed a medley of cheap articles, for use or
+ornament, mostly of European manufacture; and here may be found matches,
+combs, cigarette paper, pots and pans, water-jars, rope, knives,
+hatchets, small looking-glasses, handkerchiefs, ponchos, and native
+saddles much resembling Turkish ones, which are very comfortable for
+riding, and are loaded with coarse silver ornaments. But the chief
+interest of the scene is the study of the buyers and sellers themselves.
+The men, who mostly belong to the former class, are from the villages
+round about, and come mounted on small, rough-coated horses, which are
+unclipped of mane or tail. The rider’s dress consists of a pair of loose
+cotton drawers, coarsely embroidered or fringed with lace, and over
+them and around the waist are many-folded loin-cloths, generally of
+white; or it may consist of a pair of loose, baggy trousers, much like
+those worn by the Turkish peasants, and girt by a leather belt of
+generous width. These, with a white shirt often loaded with lace, and
+over all a striped or flowered poncho, complete the dress. Boots are
+rarely worn, and the bare feet are sometimes equipped with immense
+silver-plated spurs. The features and build of the riders present every
+variety of type, from the light-complexioned, brown-haired, red-bearded,
+honest manliness of the ancestral Basque, to the copper-hued, straight
+black-haired, narrow dark eyed, beardless chinned, flattened nosed, and
+small wiry framed aboriginal Guarani.
+
+[Illustration: PARAGUAY BELLES.]
+
+The women are scantily, and in more civilized countries would be
+considered immodestly, clad, wearing nothing but a white tunic of native
+cotton, tied around the waist with a girdle of some gay color, often
+handsomely embroidered. These tunics are usually fringed at the top and
+bottom with native lace, and are always scrupulously clean. Cleanliness
+is the rule in Paraguay, and it extends to everything--dwellings,
+furniture, clothes, and person. Each house in the country has behind it
+a garden, small or large, as the case may be, in which flowers are
+sedulously cultivated. Flowers are a decoration that a Paraguayan girl
+or woman is rarely without. The women are pretty and often handsome.
+Dark eyes, long, wavy, dark hair, and a brunette complexion most
+prevail; but the blond
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE INTERIOR.]
+
+type, with blue eyes and golden curls, indicative of Basque descent, is
+by no means rare. Their hands and feet are almost universally delicate
+and small, and their forms, at least till frequent maternity has
+sacrificed beauty to usefulness, are simply perfect. The people seem to
+be always good-natured, the women particularly, who laugh, chat, and
+joke among themselves and with their customers, and are courteous and
+generous. Unlike many of their South American neighbors, they are as
+honest as they are gentle. A brighter, kinder, truer, more affectionate,
+and more devotedly faithful person than the Paraguayan girl exists
+nowhere. The women are more regardful of their beauty than in other
+countries, and the Paraguayan girl is never without a bit of decoration,
+ear-rings, a necklace, a bunch of flowers, or something of that sort;
+but they all smoke, young and old.
+
+[Illustration: AN INTERIOR TOWN.]
+
+Some of the native ceremonies are peculiar and beautiful. When a couple
+are married, the bridal bed is always covered with flowers, and each
+neighbor contributes something towards giving them an outfit, even if it
+is nothing but a wooden spoon or a gourd cup. Their funerals are
+conducted after the ordinary formula of the Roman Catholic Church, but
+it is customary to hold a sort of wake over the dead, as in Ireland.
+Their market-days occur twice a week, and on Sunday there is the largest
+gathering and the greatest display, the people coming together after
+mass in the morning, and remaining about the plaza all day, enjoying a
+sort of festival which invariably closes in the evening with a dance.
+The dances are usually of the European kind--quadrilles, waltzes,
+polkas, mazourkas, and lanciers, interspersed with Paraguayan
+figures--the _cielo_, the _media caña_ (a great favorite, and very
+lively), the _Montenero_, and some variations which were inherited from
+the aboriginal races. Cigars, cigarettes, sweets, refreshments,
+drinks--among which last _caña_, the rum of the country, comes
+foremost--are freely distributed in the intervals of the dances, and the
+ball is kept up till morning light. The women, seated around the room,
+each waiting her turn to dance, while the men gossip in groups outside
+the door, are dressed in Paraguayan fashion, with the long white
+_tupoi_, or tunic, which is deeply embroidered around the borders, and
+is often fringed with the beautiful home-made lace of the country;
+sometimes with silk skirts or brightly colored petticoats, and a broad
+colored sash; some of them wearing slippers, others barefooted.
+
+[Illustration: HOME, SWEET HOME.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MANDIOCA.]
+
+The country about Asuncion is the very perfection of quiet rural beauty.
+The scenery resembles the prettiest parts of New England, enhanced by
+the richness of the verdure of the palm-trees with which the whole
+country is studded. The cultivated land is divided into fenced fields,
+wherein grow maize, mandioca, and sugar-cane, and the cottages dotted
+about complete the pleasantness of the picture. There are roads in every
+direction--not kept in first-rate condition, but still good; the
+cross-roads, which are not so much worked, are beautiful green lanes of
+considerable width, and for the most part perfectly straight. In some
+places the country presents the appearance of a splendid park.
+
+The attractions of Paraguay are its agricultural and pastoral resources;
+and the timber-lands are said to be the finest in the world, the forests
+being situated in the northern part of the republic, and reaching an
+unmeasured distance into the heart of Brazil--as far as the Amazon River
+to the northward, and far into the mountain regions of Bolivia to the
+eastward.
+
+Between Paraguay and the Andes stretches a vast country known as “El
+Gran Chaco,” a region almost unexplored, and which offers fine grazing
+land and excellent pasture for cattle, besides the timber along the
+streams which water it profusely. Several enterprising colonists,
+English and German, have gone in there and opened sugar plantations,
+producing enormous crops; and the time will soon come when a large
+portion of the sugar supply of South America will be derived from this
+source. The land of Paraguay is said to be unusually good for sugar, but
+the chief products nowadays are mandioca, mate, and fruit. During the
+war with Uruguay, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic, nearly all the
+cattle were slaughtered; but new stock has been introduced, and very
+large droves are now being pastured upon the ranges. The fruits comprise
+nearly everything that is grown in the tropical or semi-tropical zones.
+The oranges are said to be the finest in the world, and the pineapples
+compare with those of Ecuador, which surpass anything raised upon the
+western coast of South America. There are other very rich and wholesome
+fruits, but the country is so far inland that they will never be
+exported.
+
+The mandioca is a root resembling the yam, from which is produced the
+tapioca of commerce. Life and death are blended in the plant, but every
+part of it is useful if properly treated, and is as essential to the
+domestic economy of Brazil and Paraguay as rice is to China, or as
+potatoes are to Ireland. It is served at every meal, from that taken
+from the dinner-pail of the laborer to the banquet of the grandees, just
+as bread is with us, and is made into as many forms of food as our
+flour. There are four species of mandioca, but they differ
+
+[Illustration: OX CART ON THE PAMPAS.]
+
+only as one kind of apple differs from another, all serving the same
+general purpose. The plant grows about four feet in height, and
+resembles the tomato in its foliage. The stalk and leaves are excellent
+fodder for cattle, and are often dried and used for their medicinal
+properties by the old women of Paraguay. When eaten raw the root is a
+deadly poison. Thirty-five drops of the juice were once administered as
+an experiment to a negro who was under sentence of death, causing speedy
+dissolution after five minutes of horrible convulsions. This poison is
+mysteriously removed or neutralized by the application of heat, and the
+root can be boiled or baked like a yam or sweet-potato. When cooked it
+is almost pure starch, and contains ninety-five per cent. of nutritious
+properties, being in fact as well as in fancy the staff of life of the
+people. The roots are boiled, and are then ground in rude mills,
+producing a powder about the color of buckwheat flour. Tapioca is a
+refined mandioca, and is produced by a modern process, the flour being
+reduced to a paste by boiling, and then allowed to crystallize. Very
+little tapioca is manufactured in the country, but the raw product is
+shipped to other parts of the world where the tapioca of commerce is
+manufactured.
+
+[Illustration: CURING YERBA MATE.]
+
+A drink called _chicha_ is also made of mandioca by soaking the flour in
+water and letting it ferment. It has a taste very much like malt or
+yeast, and one glassful of it will last a lifetime for an American,
+although the native will drink it by the quart without injury. It is a
+rapid intoxicant, but leaves no deleterious effect, and the man who goes
+upon a chicha spree will not wake up with a headache the next morning.
+The chicha of Peru is made of the juice of the sugar-cane, and the
+chicha of Chili of the juice of the grape. All these drinks have a
+similar taste and a similar effect.
+
+[Illustration: A SIESTA.]
+
+Although the Paraguayans use considerable chicha, they are not an
+intemperate people. This is largely due to their excessive fondness for
+their native tea, the yerba mate, which they prefer to any alcoholic
+drink, usually taking from ten to fifteen cups of it daily. It is a mild
+stimulant, but is not intoxicating. The yerba mate is drunk all over the
+southern half of South America, and is well adapted to the climate and
+the requirements of the people, having a cool effect in the warm
+weather, and a warm effect in the cold. The taste is very much like that
+of catnip tea, as it has a bitter herbal flavor that is disagreeable at
+first, but one comes to like it very soon. The South American would no
+more refuse a cup of yerba mate than a German would a glass of beer.
+Whenever he travels in foreign countries he always takes a supply along,
+for it cannot be obtained in the United States or in Europe. In the
+markets, by the road-side, in the gardens, and in the door-ways of their
+homes, as commonly as the Cuban with his cigarette or the Irishman with
+his dudeen, men and women can be seen at all hours of the day and night
+with a mate cup in their hands. Instead of having beer-gardens or
+wine-rooms, the people sit around the public places in Paraguay
+drinking mate; and it is one of the few cases in existence where a
+national habit of drinking improves the mental and physical condition of
+the people.
+
+Yerba mate grows wild in Paraguay in great copses, like hazel or
+cranberries, but its quality improves under cultivation. Its uses were
+originally discovered by the Jesuits, those inquisitive fellows who were
+always prying into the secrets of nature as well as the secrets of State
+and the souls of men. They were the best mining prospectors in South
+America, and were constantly exercising their botanical and chemical
+knowledge for the advantage of the people. The sappy twigs are picked
+from the bushes, and are hung on frames over a fire to dry. When they
+become crisp they are reduced to powder by being rubbed between the
+hands. This powder is packed for export in green hides, which shrink
+when exposed to the sun, and press the mate into a compact, solid mass.
+Everybody carries a mate-cup and a tube called a _bombilla_. The cups
+are usually ordinary gourds, but they are often made of cocoa-nut shells
+and the shells of other nuts, and are sometimes beautifully carved. The
+bombillas of the common people are bamboo stems with the pith punched
+out; but the wealthy people have them made of silver, and often of gold.
+The bamboo tubes are the most agreeable to use, as they do not conduct
+the heat so rapidly, and never scald the lips, as the silver ones do.
+The cups are half filled with powdered yerba mate, then boiling water is
+poured in. Delicate drinkers always throw away this water, and fill the
+cup again, as it is too bitter for their taste; but the habitual users
+of the weed consider the first water as the best, and keep pouring in
+water and sucking it through the tube until the strength of the powder
+is exhausted, when the refuse is thrown out and the cup is refilled.
+
+The _yerbales_, or mate fields, of Paraguay are said to cover three
+million acres in their present state, and to produce an annual crop of
+thirty thousand tons. During the reign of the tyrants Francia and Lopez
+the exportation of mate was monopolized by the Government, and every
+citizen was
+
+[Illustration: A PARAGUAY HOTEL.]
+
+compelled to pay as tribute-money a certain amount each year for the
+benefit of the despots, being driven to it by taskmasters, as were the
+children of Israel to the making of bricks in Egypt. But under the new
+regime the tea-forests have been leased to an Argentine firm, which pays
+a royalty of one dollar a ton to the Government. This concession was
+given when the Treasury was empty and the Government was greatly in need
+of money, so that what might have been a very productive source of
+income was sacrificed for a little cash in hand.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE PAPPOOSE AND CRADLE.]
+
+The export goes to the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and Chili. Several
+attempts have been made to send it to Europe, but they were not
+successful. During early times the Queen of Spain prohibited the
+importation of yerba mate by her subjects, on the ground that it was
+productive of barrenness in women, but the rapidly increasing population
+of the River Plate countries, where it is used to the greatest extent,
+seems to prove the fallacy of her Majesty’s theory. In Uruguay, where
+the women are scarcely ever seen without a mate-cup in their hands, the
+vital statistics show a larger percentage of births than in any other
+country in the world; and there is something curious in the fact
+before-mentioned, that the number of males born in that country is so
+much greater than the number of females. No attempt has ever been made
+to introduce mate into this country, and the consumption of the article
+will probably always be confined to South America.
+
+Paraguay tobacco is used all over South America. It is rank, black, and
+full of nicotine, but it makes a very good cigarette, being about as
+strong as the blackest Turkish tobacco, or “perique.” Everybody in
+Paraguay smokes--men, women, and children--and their cigarettes are
+made of the native tobacco and corn-husks. During the last few years
+several political refugees from Cuba have found a resting-place in
+Paraguay, and have experimented with native tobacco on the Cuban plan.
+These experiments have shown that, where properly cultivated and
+properly cured, this tobacco is as good as any raised in the West
+Indies; but the natives let it grow wild, and take no pains either in
+its cultivation or in the treatment of the leaves.
+
+[Illustration: A HACIENDA.]
+
+The timber of Paraguay is very fine, and includes almost every variety
+known to arboriculture, from the finest light woods that may replace
+those of China and Japan to the heavy and tough varieties that sink in
+water like iron, and are indestructible. For lack of energy and
+saw-mills, the forests, so far, are almost untouched. The dwellings and
+other buildings of the country are made of adobe, and the small quantity
+of dressed lumber used there comes from Canada or from the United
+States. Two American saw-mills have recently been introduced, and the
+water-power is sufficient to operate them at a small expense. The timber
+regions are full of streams, which can be utilized for floating logs and
+rafts, and nature seems to have provided every facility for the
+development of their extensive resources.
+
+[Illustration: PEOPLE OF “EL GRAN CHACO.”]
+
+Along the western border of Paraguay lies an immense territory, in some
+parts reported to be arid and waste for want of water, but in others
+filled with a succession of rivers, and destined in time to be one of
+the most valuable portions of the Argentine Republic. It is called “El
+Gran
+
+[Illustration: AN ARMADILLO.]
+
+Chaco.” It extends from the Parana River to Bolivia, and is separated on
+the east from Paraguay by the river of the same name. It is divided by
+the river Vermijo into two almost equal parts, one called the “Chaco
+Austral” and the other “Chaco Boreal,” the latter extending to latitude
+20° south, and bounded on the north by the Bolivian province of
+Chiquitos. The “Chaco Boreal” is an uninterrupted plain, elevated about
+four thousand feet above the level of the sea, and divided into the most
+beautiful forests, with intervening meadows, as if made purposely for
+the raising of cattle. The Austral or Southern Chaco lies between the
+Vermijo on the north, the Parana on the east, and the province of Santa
+Fé on the south. It is completely level, and is richly endowed by
+nature, not only with a deep soil, but with most magnificent forests. As
+yet these vast regions are almost exclusively occupied by wild Indians.
+A large portion has never been explored, and hence but little is yet
+known of the interior, or of its treasures of vegetable wealth. Only
+where it skirts along the Parana and Paraguay rivers, with here and
+there a small clearing and settlement, the nucleus of a number of
+agricultural colonies, has anything been scientifically determined in
+reference to its timber resources. The region possesses an immense
+advantage in great water-courses flowing along its eastern borders, and
+the smaller streams which penetrate its interior, and are navigable for
+many hundreds of miles. Thus all its vast wealth of precious woods and
+valuable timber is rendered accessible not only to Buenos Ayres, but as
+ocean ships can load along its banks, it is also accessible to the
+markets of the world, without the necessity of transshipment. The
+wood-choppers are at work, and the quantities of all kinds of precious
+woods shipped down the rivers are becoming greater and greater every
+year.
+
+[Illustration: A RANCH ON EL GRAN CHACO.]
+
+The number of horned cattle in Paraguay is now estimated at six hundred
+thousand, and there is said to be pasturage for several million within
+the limits of the republic, and an unlimited area in El Gran Chaco
+beyond the timber regions on a plain similar to New Mexico, rising in
+great terraces or steppes to the foot-hills of the Andes. The elevation
+of this area above the sea is from four to eight thousand feet, and
+although it borders upon the tropics, it is said to be an excellent
+range, and the ranchmen of the Argentine Republic are contemplating it
+with covetous eyes. No industry pays so well in Paraguay as
+cattle-raising. The severe frosts and droughts which at times annoy the
+ranchmen of the Argentine Republic are unknown there; the streams are
+numerous and perennial, the cattle fatten quicker, attain greater
+weight, and afford a better quality of beef, owing to the nutritious
+grass and abundance of water. Young cattle, as before stated, may be
+bought in the Argentine Republic and transported by river steamer to
+Paraguay for twelve or thirteen dollars per head, and land can be
+purchased at about twenty cents an acre from the Government.
+
+
+
+
+RIO DE JANEIRO.
+
+THE CAPITAL OF BRAZIL.
+
+
+The name of the capital of Brazil means “River of January,” and in the
+native tongue is pronounced _Reeo-day-Hay-nay-ray-oh_. When the ancient
+mariners who discovered the Brazilian coast passed through the narrow
+gate-way to the harbor, and saw the beautiful bay in the amphitheatre of
+mountains surrounded by eternal verdure, they supposed they were
+entering the mouth of a river that would lead them to the Enchanted
+Land; and when they found out their mistake they despised the place so
+much that they did not even have the good-nature to christen it after a
+saint, but marked it on their charts simply the river discovered in
+January.
+
+The bay around which the city lies is famous for its beauty, and rivals
+that of Naples or the Golden Horn. The panorama is ever changing with
+the shifting clouds, and in this country everything is intense. Nowhere
+is the contrast between sunshine and shadow so strong, and the outlines
+of the clouds lie distinctly upon the landscape where their shadows
+fall, changing the tint of the foliage and flowers. The mountains, which
+furnish a noble background for the picture, are so steep, so rugged, and
+so high as to exaggerate the peace of the water, and furnish another
+striking contrast in their dark and frowning lines to the white
+buildings of the city and its countless towers. These mountains seem to
+enclose the town and the bay like a wall, and leave no passage in or out
+except at the entrance to the harbor, which is scarcely wide enough for
+two vessels to pass. Along their base lies the city, like a lazy white
+monster, sleeping under the shade of imperial palms in a garden of
+never-failing colors and eternal loveliness.
+
+[Illustration: BAY OF RIO DE JANEIRO.]
+
+Viewed from the deck of a ship in the harbor, the city of Rio looks like
+a fragment of fairy-land--a cluster of alabaster castles decorated with
+vines; but the illusion is instantly dispelled upon landing, for the
+streets are narrow, damp, dirty, reeking with repulsive odors, and
+filled with vermin-covered beggars and wolfish-looking dogs. The whole
+town seems to be in a continual perspiration, and the atmosphere is so
+enervating that the stranger feels an almost irresistible tendency to
+lie down. There is now and then a lovely little spot where Nature has
+displayed her beauties unhindered, and the environs of the city are
+filled with the luxury of tropical vegetation; but there are only a few
+fine residences, a few pleasant promenades, and a few clusters of regal
+palms, which look down upon the filth and squalor of the town with
+dainty indifference. The palm is the peacock of trees. Nothing can
+degrade it, and the filth in which it often grows only serves to
+heighten its beauty. Behind some of the residences of the better classes
+are gardens in which grow flowers that baffle the painter’s skill, and
+foliage that is the ideal of luxuriance and gracefulness. They are
+little glimpses of green and gold in a desert of misery and dirt. A few
+years ago there was not even a sewer in Rio, and all the garbage and
+offal of the city was carried through the streets on the heads of men,
+and dumped into the sea. Now there are drains under the principal
+streets, but they seem to be of little use, as the main thoroughfares
+are abominable, and one wonders what the less pretentious ones may be.
+The pavements are of the roughest cobble-stone, the streets are so
+narrow that scarcely a breath of air can enter them, and the sunshine
+cannot reach the pools of filth that steam and fester in the gutters,
+breeding plagues.
+
+[Illustration: A STREET IN RIO.]
+
+The city is in the shape of a narrow crescent, lying between the
+mountains and the bay, nowhere more than half a mile wide, and
+stretching for a distance of nine or ten miles. It can never be any
+wider, but grows at either end. The chief residence street lies along
+the edge of the water, but the business houses are crowded into the
+lower portion of the town, damp, gloomy, and dismal, the streets being
+so narrow that carriages are forbidden to enter them during the busy
+hours of the day. A fire that would burn out the older portion of the
+city would be a blessing, and might redeem Rio from some of its filth
+and ugliness.
+
+[Illustration: THE CITY OF RIO FROM THE BAY.]
+
+The public buildings are quite as ugly and unpretentious as the
+commercial houses. The city palace of the Emperor fronts the
+market-place, in which donkeys and carts are unloaded daily, and where
+the fish-boats land. It is impregnated by the stench of decaying
+vegetation, and has an ancient and fish-like smell. The structure looks
+more like a warehouse than the shelter of imperial power, and Dom Pedro
+will not live in it. He has two beautiful palaces in the country, in
+which he resides, and only comes to the city palace on occasions of
+public importance. The only presentable Government buildings are the
+post-office and printing-house, and many of the private residences are
+superior in every respect to anything the Government owns. The building
+in which Congress sits is a gloomy old pile, without a single redeeming
+feature, and a great empire like Brazil ought to be ashamed to house its
+Parliament in such a place.
+
+The Rue Dineta is the Wall Street of Rio de Janeiro, and during the
+morning hours, while the Coffee Exchange is open, presents quite an
+animated appearance. Brokers and commission men, merchants, planters,
+agents of transportation lines, speculators, men of all ages and
+nationalities, assemble there to trade and gamble; and one can hear a
+dozen different languages in half as many groups. Most of the
+speculation is done in coffee, and in the buying and selling of exchange
+on London.
+
+Nothing in Rio strikes an American as more singular than the
+nomenclature of the streets. Many of them, such as the “Seventh of
+September” and the “First of March,” are named after days on which
+something (no one seems to know exactly what) has taken place. There is
+one thoroughfare called the “Street of Good Jesus,” and the names of the
+saints are freely used. It seems a trifle queer to be directed to “No.
+20 First of March Street,” or for a man to live at the corner of “St.
+John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist Streets,” but the
+Brazilians do not mind it.
+
+The principal street in Rio is the celebrated Rua do Ouvidor. It is a
+narrow little alley-way, in which two carriages could not pass each
+other. In fact I never saw a carriage in
+
+[Illustration: AQUEDUCT AT RIO.]
+
+the street, and doubt if a driver would be bold enough to venture there.
+Here are the shops of the principal merchants, and the gorgeous stores
+of the artificers of feather flowers, and the dealers in gold and silver
+and precious stones. The street, from one end to the other, is filled at
+night with people, not on the narrow sidewalks only, but completely
+filling the thoroughfare from wall to wall. Officers of the army and
+navy, and soldiers and sailors, all in uniform, mingle with the crowd,
+and flash their gold lace in the bright light that floods the street.
+Everywhere, too, are the elaborate mulatto gendarmes, the police of the
+city. From the _cafés chantants_ come the sounds of music and the
+clinking of glasses. At little tables in the cafés the Brazilians sit,
+drinking strong coffee or other beverages, talking, gesticulating, and
+never for a moment completely at rest. Catching a weasel asleep is easy
+compared with that of catching a Brazilian when some portion of his body
+is not in motion. This is owing to the amount of strong black coffee
+they drink. A Brazilian proverb says that coffee, to be good, must be
+“black as night, as bitter as death, and hot as sheol.”
+
+[Illustration: THE AVENUE OF ROYAL PALMS--RIO.]
+
+The total abstinence cause has few if any supporters in Brazil.
+Everybody drinks--men, women, and children. The police records show that
+men do get drunk here, but they are very seldom seen. The laboring
+classes drink a vile beverage called _casasch_, which is made of the
+juice of the sugar-cane in the regular distillery fashion. But moderate
+as the Brazilians are in the use of liquors, they are decidedly
+immoderate in the use of coffee. It is coffee the first thing in the
+morning and the last thing at night, coffee at meals and coffee between
+meals, and all of it made according to the proverb.
+
+Rio is a succession of disappointments. The only really pretty place is
+the Botanical Garden, which serves to illustrate what the whole city
+might be with the exercise of a little taste and the expenditure of a
+trifling sum of money. Here are colonnades of palms which surpass
+anything on the globe, and which are worth a journey to Brazil to see.
+Here are all the plants and trees that the country produces, and no land
+is so rich in vegetation as Brazil. Flowers of the most gorgeous hues,
+orchids that are wonders of color, and a representation of the virgin
+forests of the Amazon, a tangled mass of wild, luxuriant vegetation,
+full of birds of the most brilliant plumage, bugs that look like
+animated gems, and flowers of scarlet, purple, and yellow, that make the
+forest appear as if it were ablaze. Every color is intense.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRETTIEST THINGS IN BRAZIL.]
+
+There are no delicate tints and no gentle hues. The flowers have no
+perfume, and the birds no songs. The whole country seems to be painted
+yellow and red.
+
+Strangers always visit the fish-market, where all sorts of shiny
+creatures are to be found, most of them peculiar to the waters of
+Brazil. The whole business is conducted by auction, and the fish are
+sold by the basket to the highest-bidder men, who have retail places
+throughout the city, or who peddle them in the streets. All varieties
+of food are peddled about the town, and the venders attract attention by
+clapping pieces of wood together and uttering peculiar cries. There are
+drinking-booths along the street at which all sorts of beverages can be
+obtained, from goats’ milk to brandy, and casasch is sold by the
+bucketful. There are plenty of street-car lines, and all the population
+ride. The cars are always crowded, and everybody reads a morning paper
+as he goes down-town, and an evening paper on his way home.
+
+Foreigners are generally puzzled to know why the horse-cars in Rio are
+called “bonds.” It happened in this way: When the first horse railroad
+was built in Rio bonds were issued to pay for it. There was a great talk
+about these bonds, and the uneducated were at a loss to know what the
+English word meant. When they saw the first car they thought they had
+found a solution of the question, and all exclaimed, “There is one of
+those much-talked-of bonds.” So all over Brazil a horse-car is a “bond”
+to this day.
+
+It is noticed that every ox-cart in Brazil creaks with the most
+soul-reaching sounds. I asked a cartman why he did not grease its
+wheels. He replied that the creaking stimulated the animals, and they
+would not work without it.
+
+Humming-birds are plenty as flies about Rio, and the natives call them
+_be aflores_ (kiss flowers). At night the air is full of myriads of
+fire-flies that look like a shower of stars. To one who makes a tour of
+South America before going to Brazil, it seems as if all of the homely
+women on the continent had emigrated there, for pretty ones are
+extremely scarce. Their complexions are sallow, and they all have a
+bilious look. Another oddity is that the women are invariably fat and
+the men are invariably lean. Their complexions are ruined by the
+climate, and the lives of indolence they lead give them a tendency to
+obesity, which is augmented by the excessive use of sweetmeats. The
+women are munching confectionery from morning till night, and scarcely
+eat anything else, and their time is divided between dozing in a
+
+[Illustration: A BRAZILIAN HACIENDA.]
+
+rocking-chair or peeking through the blinds to see the people on the
+streets. One can ride about Rio all day without seeing a Brazilian lady,
+and the only glimpse a man ever gets of them is during the evenings at
+the cafés or at the playhouses, unless he gets out early in the morning
+and sees them on the way to mass.
+
+At six o’clock every morning the streets are full of women on their way
+to church, at seven o’clock they are on their way to their homes, and at
+half-past seven there is not one to be seen. In the evening, when the
+gas is lighted, they pour from the houses into the streets, the parks,
+the ice-cream booths, and the theatres. There they appear in their Paris
+finery, overloaded with jewellery, munching candy, nibbling ices, and
+gossiping.
+
+Next to her complexion, the ugliest thing about a Brazilian woman is her
+voice. It sounds as if the parrots had taught her to speak, and when you
+hear it behind the blinds, as one often does, it is always a matter of
+doubt whether “Polly” or her mistress is talking. But the Brazilians do
+not call their parrots Polly, as we do. The common name is “Loreta.”
+
+A Brazilian woman never goes shopping. Servants are sent for samples;
+and if it is a bonnet the señorita wants to buy, a box or basket
+containing all the latest Parisian styles is sent up for her inspection.
+Most of the purchasing is done in this way, and a woman is seldom seen
+in a shop. But in all of these remarks the negroes are excepted. The
+streets swarm day and night with gorgeously dressed Dinahs, wearing
+turbans that would shame a passion-flower for color, and usually yellow
+or red gowns. They chatter like magpies, and seldom seem to be going
+anywhere or to have any object in life beyond gossiping with the friends
+they meet.
+
+More attention is now paid to female education in Brazil than formerly.
+At one time it was only necessary for a señorita to know how to read her
+prayer-book and to embroider, but of late seminaries for females have
+been established, and the nuns compelled to enlarge the curriculum of
+convent study. The Brazilian woman is now beginning to receive the
+respect that modern civilization demands for her, and is no longer kept
+as a plaything for man. She is intelligent, learns readily, and has
+considerable wit, but never reads anything except the fashion papers and
+translations of French novels. A bookseller told me that the demand for
+the last named was increasing largely, and that where he sold only one
+ten years ago he sells a hundred nowadays. Education in music and the
+lighter arts is also becoming popular, as the increased sales in music
+and painting and drawing materials show. The Brazilian woman has always
+been famous for her embroidery, and her house is full of the most
+beautiful work, the doing of which she has learned from the nuns.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD CITY PALACE.]
+
+In Rio social restrictions are being removed, the two sexes are allowed
+to mingle with greater freedom than formerly, and society is beginning
+to assume a new phase. Occasionally grand balls are given, and within
+the last few years the natives have acquired the habit of occasionally
+visiting one another’s houses socially with their wives--something that
+was unknown a few years ago. The etiquette of modern society was
+reversed in Brazil not many years ago. If a man bowed to a female
+acquaintance, or addressed her, except in the presence of her husband,
+father, or brother, it was considered an insult, to be punished with a
+blow, but now it is considered entirely proper for ladies and gentlemen
+to converse together. There remains, however, the old system of formal
+calling or exchanging visits. Ladies never go out alone to call on their
+friends, and no gentleman will be received at a house when the husband
+or father is absent.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE SUBURBS.]
+
+The theatres of Rio are numerous and well attended, but are neither
+handsome nor well arranged. There are French, Spanish, and Portuguese
+performances, and during the winter season an Italian opera two or three
+times a week, which is liberally patronized by the upper classes. The
+performances at the opera as well as at the theatres are considered only
+an adjunct to social conversation, however, and because of the talking
+going on around him during the play, one can scarcely hear what is said
+by the performers. Connected with every theatre is a garden and café,
+and between the acts the people repair to these places. Ice-cream and
+all sorts of beverages are served, and confectionery of course. They
+have recently built the great Theatre Dom Pedro Segundo, larger than La
+Scala or San Carlo, and said to have a seating capacity of eleven
+thousand. In building this theatre the matter of size has rather been
+overdone, for a large portion of the audience is unable to hear the
+opera. The Emperor has two boxes in the opera-house--one a small private
+box, and one a great and gorgeous box of state. When the venerable
+gentleman is out spending the evening somewhere, and wishes to visit the
+opera quietly for a moment, he goes into his private box, and sits there
+without causing unusual attention; but when he goes in state he occupies
+the large box. Then he dashes up to the theatre with his guards,
+equerries, and gentlemen-in-waiting. As he enters the box the orchestra
+strikes up the stirring imperial hymn, the people rise, and shout, “Viva
+Dom Pedro Segundo!” the Emperor bows, smiles, takes his seat, and the
+opera proceeds.
+
+[Illustration: COTTAGES IN THE INTERIOR.]
+
+The hotels in Brazil are very bad. There are two or three small ones,
+which furnish tolerably good rooms and good living, but they are usually
+crowded, and a stranger coming to the city finds it difficult to procure
+rooms. The city might support a very fine hotel, such as is found in
+Montevideo and Santiago, but at present there is nothing to compare with
+the accommodations found in those cities. Rio is about as badly off for
+hotels as any city in the world. The meats and fish served are usually
+of a poor quality, but the fruits are excellent. There is no such fruit
+to be found anywhere, either for variety or for deliciousness of flavor,
+and the wines are usually good. Good wine can always be procured
+throughout Spanish America. If a Spaniard were limited to a crumb of
+bread and a drop of water per day, he would always expect a bottle of
+wine to go with it. The strawberries and grapes of Brazil are unusually
+fine, and are grown the whole year round. The peaches are also very
+good; but the principal fruits are bananas, oranges, pineapples,
+chirimoyas, sapotes, and some other things that we do not find in
+temperate climates.
+
+So far it has been found impossible to raise good cattle in Brazil,
+although the province of Rio Grande de Sul, being the most southerly,
+has a cooler temperature, and ranchmen have been utilizing the ranches
+to be found in the interior on the border of Uruguay. Cattle-breeding is
+chiefly in the hands of the natives, and the horses come over the
+Uruguay border. The stock cattle sell for from five to six dollars a
+head, while fat cattle are worth about twelve dollars. The larger amount
+of the beef and mutton supply of Rio de Janeiro comes by steamer from
+the Argentine Republic.
+
+The native dishes are peculiar, and are not palatable to those who do
+not care for an unlimited amount of garlic. In fact, a stranger going
+into the interior cannot find anything to eat but boiled eggs, for these
+are the only articles the native Brazilian cook cannot spoil. Grease and
+garlic do not penetrate the shells; but even eggs are unreliable, for
+the natives seem to have no idea of any difference in them, and use them
+in all conditions of age, and often in the transition stage of being.
+
+Among the important articles used for the table is jerked beef. Immense
+quantities of it are imported from the Argentine Republic and Uruguay,
+and it is shipped here by the ton. It is said that thirty thousand tons
+of it are annually imported into Brazil, and it furnishes the staple
+food for the slaves on the plantations and the common people in the
+cities. Jerked beef and beans are always to be found on the table, and
+both mixed in a stew with plenty of garlic compose the omnipresent
+national dish. _Bacalao_, or codfish, is considered a great delicacy,
+and about seventy-five thousand tubs are annually imported from Nova
+Scotia and the United States. The people in Brazil are so fond of it
+that they will use it at any time in preference to the fresh fish of
+their own waters; but the Yankee would not recognize either the codfish
+or the beans in this country, mixed up as they usually are in an _olla
+podrida_ of yam, cabbage, and garlic.
+
+[Illustration: THE IGUANA.]
+
+The foreign commerce of Brazil is in the hands of the English, and the
+retail commerce in the hands of the French and German. In fact, nearly
+nine-tenths of the commercial community of Rio de Janeiro is composed of
+foreigners. There are very few Americans there, however, and that is one
+reason why our trade with that country is so small. The native
+Portuguese are usually the land-owners, the planters, and professional
+men; and there is a very large body of officials, composed to a great
+extent of the decayed aristocracy.
+
+At all the public gatherings in Rio these people appear in uniforms or
+court dresses, decorated with stars and crosses so numerously and
+inappropriately bestowed as to border on the ridiculous. Many boys,
+apparently not more than fourteen or fifteen years of age, can be seen
+at these gatherings, wearing tawdry silk and velvet dresses, and stars
+which have been obtained by inheritance or by purchase. There used to be
+a custom under which patents of nobility, with stars and crosses, and
+“the insignia of the order of Christ,” which was the highest decoration,
+could be obtained by purchase, and the rage for these decorations
+attained a greater height in Brazil probably than in any other country.
+At one time almost every petty shopkeeper in the empire might be seen on
+the streets on holidays with a “habito de Christo” on his breast. These
+purchased honors were worn by the dignitaries of the Church as well as
+by civilians of all degrees, and being handed down from the generation
+that lived when such
+
+[Illustration: A BRAZILIAN LAUNDRY.]
+
+things could be procured by purchase, still exist in great numbers among
+the people of the country. In the present generation the decorations of
+the empire are given to those only who have performed some service for
+the State, and cannot be secured by purchase.
+
+[Illustration: A COUNTRY SCHOOL.]
+
+The prevailing costume of the people in the country is just as it was a
+hundred years ago. They wear broad-brimmed hats with low crowns, tied
+with a ribbon under the chin; velveteen jackets, and waistcoats of gay
+colors, with metal buttons; linen or cotton drawers; high black gaiters
+buttoning up to the knee, and a sort of mantle similar to that used in
+Portugal, generally lined with red, thrown negligently over the
+shoulders; but on the sea-coast people dress in the European style. In
+Rio there is a great deal of rivalry in toilets among the ladies. As in
+other cities of South America, the gentlemen usually dress in broadcloth
+suits, patent-leather boots, and black silk hats, or in white duck or
+linen.
+
+The school system is very meagre, but is improving. There are in the
+empire 2000 public schools for a population of 12,000,000 people, and
+the State expends annually $8,000,000 for public instruction. During the
+last few years, at nearly every session of Parliament, the Government
+introduced a compulsory education bill; but the bill has never become a
+law. The upper classes have an inclination for education; but nothing is
+ever done by the Government towards educating the slaves. The little
+learning which they acquire is received from the priests.
+
+There are several institutions for higher education, several schools of
+medicine, of law, civil engineering, and mining; a normal school for the
+education of teachers, a conservatory of music, a school of fine arts,
+an institute for the blind, and another for the deaf and dumb, several
+reformatory schools, and an Imperial Industrial School founded by Dom
+Pedro upon the plan of the Cooper Institute of New York, the suggestion
+for it having been derived from his visit to that place while in the
+United States. There is also a bureau of colonization and immigration in
+the Department of Agriculture, and as an inducement to settlers, the
+Government offers them free subsistence and shelter at the
+boarding-house in Rio de Janeiro during the time that it is necessary
+for them to wait, as well as free transportation for themselves and
+baggage from Rio to any part of the country. They can purchase land on
+credit, the first payment to be made at the end of the second year, and
+four payments during the succeeding four years, and for cash they
+receive a discount of twenty per cent. For the first season the
+Agricultural Department gives them a donation of necessary implements
+and seeds, and an allowance of twenty-five cents a day for each adult,
+and ten cents for each child, during the first six months after
+settlement, until the land they occupy can be made to produce. The cost
+of the land is now from eight to sixteen dollars an acre. There are
+under the care of the Department of Agriculture twelve colonies,
+comprising a population of sixty-two thousand people, mostly German. The
+number of immigrants arriving in the country amounts to from forty to
+fifty thousand a year.
+
+[Illustration: BRAZILIAN COUNTRY-HOUSE.]
+
+The immense area of Brazil, stretching as it does from 4° 30´ north to
+33° south latitude, and from the thirty-fifth to the seventy-third
+degree of west longitude, affords almost as great a variety of climate
+and soil as can be found in the United States, and the two countries are
+of very nearly the same area. A glance at the map will show the
+extensive fluvial system of Brazil. The many large rivers that traverse
+the interior in all directions are navigable, and afford unequalled
+facilities for commerce.
+
+Independent of the agricultural resources which the climate, situation,
+and productiveness of the soil afford, the mineral treasures which
+nature has stored in the interior are very abundant. Gold, together with
+diamonds and various other precious stones, is found in many localities,
+and the resources of the interior of the country, which has never been
+explored, are only a subject of speculation. The population now consists
+of about twelve million people; and it has not increased any during the
+last twenty-five years. Of this population there are about two million
+slaves and five hundred thousand Indians; but neither the moral
+character, social habits, nor intellectual attainments of this class
+afford material of value wherewith to build up an enlightened and
+progressive government. The natives are neither enterprising, thrifty,
+nor industrious. The system of slavery has taught them idleness, and the
+fact that they have gained their living without work has taught them
+habits of extravagance. There are a few men of wealth among them who
+have earned by their own efforts the money which they have, but nearly
+all have either inherited it or secured it as the result of slave labor.
+Brazil will never be a great or prosperous country until its population
+is increased by immigration.
+
+Considerable progress has been made, and great interest taken, in
+railroad development. There are now about 2500 miles in operation, 800
+of which are owned and operated by the Government, and 1700 by private
+corporations. In addition to this, about 1400 miles are under
+construction, and there are many prospective enterprises. The Government
+guarantees an annual income of seven per cent. upon the construction
+bonds of all railroads, and has so far paid this guarantee promptly.
+Recently a loan of thirty-four million dollars has been made in London
+for the construction of additional railways, and this is also secured by
+the Government. The rails are all imported from England, but a part of
+the rolling stock is brought from the United States. The roads are
+surveyed
+
+[Illustration: UP THE RIVER.]
+
+and built by Brazilian engineers, but the principal machinists and
+locomotive drivers are Scotchmen. The principal railroad in Brazil is
+the one named in honor of the present Emperor, Dom Pedro II., and it is
+familiarly known as the “Pedro Segundo” road. This line runs from Rio
+Janeiro to the most important towns, and through a country which
+produces coffee, corn, and cattle. There are now about 500 miles of
+track in operation. It is a favorite route for tourists, and affords a
+view of the finest mountain scenery in the empire.
+
+[Illustration: DOM PEDRO II.]
+
+The prevailing opinion among the practical men of Brazil is that Dom
+Pedro II. is a lovable old humbug. Everybody regards the Emperor with a
+feeling of reverence, and his character and motives are universally
+respected; but he leaves the cares of State entirely to the direction of
+his ministers and his half-brother, the Baron de Capanema, who has more
+influence with the Cabinet than the Emperor himself. The old man is
+wrapped up in philanthropic movements, and is
+
+[Illustration: ON THE WAY TO PETROPOLIS.]
+
+constantly engaged in doing something for the amelioration of his
+fellow-men; but he is so easily imposed upon, and his ideas are so
+impracticable, that not only are his efforts wasted, but a large amount
+of money with which a great deal of good might be accomplished is
+expended upon chimerical projects; and the only result is the
+gratification that the Emperor enjoys in performing what he considers to
+be a duty. He is credulous, ingenuous, and trustful, and no matter what
+the reputation of the men who come to him with schemes is, he never
+fails to be interested in anything that will tend to the improvement or
+welfare of his people. He devotes almost his entire time to entertaining
+impostors and developing schemes that are suggested to him by the people
+who take advantage of his philanthropic disposition to accomplish their
+own ends.
+
+A little beyond the city of Petropolis is the imperial hacienda, which
+is known as Santa Cruz. Here Dom Pedro II. used to live, but his
+first-born and only son died in the palace, and since that time, which
+was many years ago, neither he nor the Empress has ever entered its
+walls. Some twenty years ago he devoted this hacienda, as he does almost
+everything else, to philanthropy, and attempted a grand philanthropic
+experiment which has demonstrated nothing but the Emperor’s own lack of
+ability as a manager.
+
+The Princess of Brazil has three children, two sons and a daughter; and
+besides these the Emperor has three other grandchildren, orphans of a
+deceased daughter, who live with their grandparents and are a great
+source of comfort to the Emperor, who is very fond of children.
+
+The Empress is a woman of rare traits, being noted for her womanliness,
+her charity, and her lovely character; and those who became acquainted
+with her while she was in the United States will remember her with the
+greatest affection. There is nowhere in the world a couple more devoted
+to each other, or with a kindlier disposition towards their
+fellow-creatures, or having a more earnest desire to accomplish
+something for the good of mankind, than Dom Pedro and the Empress. She
+is much more practical in her charity than he, and it is said that she
+frequently chides the Emperor for being so easily humbugged. The Empress
+is a fine-looking old lady, with white hair and a kindly face. She has
+not the force
+
+[Illustration: THE EMPRESS OF BRAZIL.]
+
+and energy of her daughter, but is of a more retiring disposition, and
+prefers to interest herself in the affairs of the household rather than
+in matters of State. Every week or so the Emperor gives a reception,
+which is attended by all the nobility and by such strangers of
+sufficient dignity to receive royal attention as happen to be in the
+country. The Emperor is particularly fond of Americans, and he
+considers the United States the model country of the world. He has
+introduced into Brazil a great many ideas that he received during his
+visit to this country, and has organized an Agricultural Department and
+a Geological Survey, and several other branches of the Government, in
+imitation of what he found in the United States.
+
+The Emperor had a great friend in Dr. Gunning, who left a high place in
+the medical college in Edinburgh about twenty years ago, and came to
+Brazil for his health. He had an ample fortune, and determined to devote
+his time and money to the abolition of slavery. With this object in view
+he bought thirty-five or forty slaves and a tract of land. The negroes
+for miles around him were earning large wages for their owners, but the
+doctor had a theory that they would pay for themselves, and buy their
+own emancipation, if they had an opportunity. So he commenced a system
+of bookkeeping, charging each slave with his original cost and the
+expense of his maintenance, and crediting him with the amount of labor
+he performed. When the accounts balanced, the slave was to be set free.
+But they never balanced.
+
+Dr. Gunning impressed the Emperor with the great benefits of this
+system, and succeeded in inducing him to adopt it on his plantation. But
+the negroes are not fools. They understand very well that they are
+better off with such masters as Dr. Gunning and the Emperor than they
+would be in the condition of freedom, and they work so unprofitably, and
+make the expenses of their maintenance so great, that they never yet
+made enough in any one year to pay for their keeping.
+
+The Emperor spends most of his time at Petropolis, and the only thing
+that can induce him to visit the city of Rio is a debate in Congress on
+the slavery question. It is nearly four centuries since Brazil was
+discovered, and it has always been governed by the same family. This
+part of the continent was given to the Portuguese by the Pope. When they
+began to quarrel with the Spaniards over the possession of the
+discoveries in America, the Pope drew a line along the sixty-fifth
+parallel of longitude and decided that the Portuguese should have all
+that part of the world lying east, and the Spaniards all that part lying
+west of it. Therefore Brazil became a viceroyalty of Portugal, and
+remained so until 1807, when the two countries changed relations, Brazil
+becoming the seat of government and Portugal becoming a colony. Portugal
+temporized with Napoleon, and when he made a raid upon that nation the
+royal family of Briganza took a step which astonished all Europe. In
+order to save the nation from the bloodshed and devastation that
+followed Napoleon’s avarice, Dom Joao fled from Lisbon to Rio, and left
+Napoleon in peaceable possession of Portugal.
+
+[Illustration: DOM PEDRO’S PALACE AT PETROPOLIS.]
+
+For many years Joao preferred to remain in Rio de Janeiro, and govern
+his subjects with delegated power. Finally, Napoleon having vanished
+from the face of Europe, the Emperor returned to Lisbon, leaving his
+son, Dom Pedro I., upon the throne of Brazil; but the people were ill
+satisfied with this, and a bloodless revolution soon after occurred, in
+which Dom Pedro I. was compelled to abdicate, and in 1831 he fled to
+Portugal, leaving his son, Dom Pedro II., then a boy of fifteen, as
+Emperor, who governed through a regency until he became of age. His
+authority has been recognized in Brazil ever since, and he is loved by
+the people as few monarchs have ever been.
+
+The Emperor’s power is limited, and is infinitely less than that of any
+of the Presidents of the South American republics. He has the right to
+veto acts of the national legislature, but it requires only a majority
+vote to override it, so that it practically amounts to nothing. The
+senators are elected for life, are endowed with titles, and their duties
+are similar to those of the peers of Great Britain. The Emperor receives
+from the State an income of four hundred thousand dollars per annum, but
+he is a poor economist, and spends it all, the greater part in mistaken
+charity.
+
+There is a small party called Republican, which proposes to unseat the
+Emperor, do away with all the titles and all insignia of royalty and
+nobility, and to take, as the rest of the South Americans have done,
+“the great republic of the north” for its example. In theory they are
+for upsetting the throne and tumbling the Emperor off, but they
+recognize his goodness and benevolence, and have the wisdom to see that
+they are a great deal better off under the administration of such a man
+than under a President who would be an autocrat. When the Emperor dies
+Brazil will become a republic. The Liberal party believe in republican
+principles; and the ideas of civil and religious liberty have so
+permeated the people, from the nobles to the slaves, that it will be
+impossible to continue the empire under the daughter of Dom Pedro when
+she comes to inherit the throne.
+
+The Emperor had but one son, and his only living child is the Princess
+Isabella, wife of the Count D’Eu, a grandson of Louis Philippe, a cousin
+of the Count of Paris, and a Prince of the House of Orleans. This French
+husband of the Brazilian princess is said to be an uncommonly good
+fellow, and a man of considerable ability. He holds the rank of
+major-general in the army, and is an aide-de-camp, or grand marshall,
+under the Emperor. The princess and her husband live in the city of Rio
+de Janeiro in a very ordinary way, the palace they occupy and their
+style of living being a great deal inferior to that of many merchants
+and foreign residents of the country. They have a plantation near
+Petropolis, and spend the unhealthy seasons of the year at that place.
+
+The princess is now about thirty-five or forty years of age, and takes a
+great deal more interest in the affairs of State than her distinguished
+father. She is far from being good-looking, and is rather masculine in
+disposition. She has intelligence and firmness, and is often compared to
+Queen Elizabeth. During the absence of the Emperor in the United States
+and Europe in 1876 and 1877, she assumed his authority, and upset
+matters so generally that she brought on a revolution that would have
+overturned the empire entirely had it not been suppressed in time.
+
+In dealing with this outbreak she showed an ability and determination
+that gave her a great reputation among political leaders; but the
+condition of Brazil is changing so rapidly that by the time the princess
+comes to the throne by the death of her father, the Liberal element will
+be so large and powerful that they will prevent her from assuming
+authority. If her character and disposition were other than they are she
+might be tolerated on the throne; but their experience with her during
+her father’s absence has taught the people that she is not such a ruler
+as they want, and the contrast between her rigorous rule and the
+political indifference of the Emperor is so great as to aggravate the
+dislike of the people for her. In addition to this, the princess is a
+great Church-woman, and attends mass every morning in her house, spends
+a great deal of time in religious devotion, supports a large retinue of
+priests and friars, who are said to be the only people who have any
+influence with her, and does a great deal to strengthen the Catholic
+Church in Brazil.
+
+The Emperor does not seem to know of the unpopularity of his daughter.
+He does not seem to be aware that she possesses traits and a disposition
+in striking contrast with his own. With that generous charity with which
+he regards all human beings, he believes that she is as liberal-minded
+and as philanthropic as himself, and his dreams are never disturbed by
+any thought of what may occur after his death.
+
+As everywhere else in South America, the Liberal element in Brazil has
+been making an active war against the Roman Catholic Church, and as long
+ago as 1870 a law was passed abolishing monastic institutions in the
+empire; but that legislation was more liberal than that passed and
+carried out in other South American countries, for it gave the religious
+orders ten years in which to dispose of their property and close up
+their affairs. This period expired in 1880, and very little has been
+done by the monks and nuns towards complying with the law. In 1881 an
+attempt was made to forcibly close their institutions, but an appeal was
+made to the courts, and it was only recently that a decision was
+rendered sustaining the constitutionality of the act of Congress and
+imposing a tax upon all real estate owned by the religious orders, and
+proceedings were commenced to confiscate and sell their property for the
+non-payment of taxes.
+
+The religious orders refused to recognize the right of the civil power
+to dispose of their property. They claim that the Pope alone has
+authority over it; and their writers fill the papers with thrilling
+accounts of what terrible visitations have fallen upon all those who
+have taken the property of the Church, or in any way acquired real
+estate which once belonged to it, in other lands.
+
+It may be said, however, that the general public takes very little
+interest in the dispute. There is no affection or respect felt for the
+monastic orders, which are in a condition of
+
+[Illustration: THE COLORED SAINT.]
+
+decay, and their approaching extinction by the death of the few monks
+and nuns remaining is viewed with indifference; but the clergy take a
+different view of the case. They expect to inherit the revenues derived
+from the Church property, and they do not want to see it pass into the
+hands of private parties. Until ten or twelve years ago the political
+leaders encouraged the superstitious observances of the Church in order
+to secure the loyalty of the priesthood, but the growth of Liberal
+sentiment has been so great that the Church has been robbed of the
+terror it formerly inspired and of the influence which it possessed, and
+there has been much encouragement given to Protestants who have come
+into the country and engaged in missionary work.
+
+One of the great holidays in Brazil is the feast of St. George, the
+patron of the empire. Each city and province has a sort of deputy
+patron, whose worship is duly celebrated on a particular day. Saint
+Sebastian has charge of the city of Rio de Janeiro, and in his honor a
+celebration is held once a year; but when the annual feast of St. George
+returns, every town and village from the northern to the southern
+boundary of the country has the grandest procession and demonstration of
+the season. This is not the same St. George who is supposed to have
+formerly had England under his protection, but an entirely different
+individual. Formerly this saint held the rank of colonel in the army,
+and was entitled to a yearly pay of thirty-five thousand dollars, which
+the priests drew for him and pretended to invest in jewels and dresses.
+A few years ago he used to be taken through the streets on horseback on
+his anniversary day, surrounded by a bodyguard--a regiment composed of
+the greatest swells of Rio de Janeiro, who acknowledged him as their
+commander, and were known as the “Imperial Order of St. George.” An old
+resident told me about an instance that occurred some years ago, when
+the attendant who had charge of the image buckled Colonel St. George’s
+sword on so carelessly that it dropped from his belt and wounded a
+priest. The aide-de-camp and the saint were both tried for the offence,
+and both found guilty. The officer was punished with imprisonment, and
+the saint fined a large portion of his salary.
+
+The anniversary of Corpus Christi is always celebrated with great pomp
+in Rio, and with a procession which marches through the principal
+streets. At its head is usually carried an effigy of the Saviour,
+preceded by bands of singing priests and bearers of incense, and covered
+with a canopy carried by the Emperor and the Count D’Eu, his son-in-law,
+and the principal ministers of state. The participation of the
+
+[Illustration: STATUE OF DOM PEDRO I.]
+
+Emperor in this ceremony has existed from time immemorial, and is
+supposed to illustrate the obedience of the civil to the ecclesiastical
+power; but Dom Pedro hates the nonsense, and last year he declined to
+participate.
+
+The money used in Brazil is liable to give a stranger the nightmare.
+Imagine yourself presented with a bill for thirty thousand reis after
+eating a dinner and drinking a bottle of wine at a café. One is apt to
+indulge in some expressions of astonishment, even if he is too honest to
+attempt an escape by the back door. But composure is restored when it is
+discovered that a “reis” is worth only the twentieth part of a cent, and
+at the present discount of Brazilian money such a bill amounts only to
+about seven dollars.
+
+The book-keepers of Brazil have a hard time of it, however, as the reis
+is the standard value, and the long lines of figures which represent the
+commercial transactions of the ordinary mercantile or banking house each
+day are a severe tax upon the mathematical accuracy and ability of the
+people. For example, $1,000,000 equals about 4,000,000,000 reis, and the
+paper currency of Brazil represents 488,000,000,000 reis. The commercial
+statistics of Brazil look very formidable; but the people simplify
+matters somewhat by using the term millreis, which means a thousand
+reis.
+
+The currency of the country consists of irredeemable paper shinplasters,
+the smallest denomination being five hundred reis, which is equal to
+about thirteen cents in gold. Nickel and copper coins are used for
+change below that sum, the reis being a very minute disk of copper.
+There is no gold or silver in circulation; and as the balance of trade
+has been largely against Brazil of recent years, there is not coin
+enough in the country to pay the interest on the public debt, and the
+bondholders are given bills on London.
+
+There is no wharfage at any of the Brazilian ports; vessels are
+compelled to anchor out in the harbors, which are usually good, and be
+loaded and unloaded by means of lighters. Passengers are carried to and
+fro in _bongoes_, managed by a noisy and naked boatman, who inspires
+alarm in the breast of the nervous passenger, who imagines this gang of
+savage-looking maniacs are cannibals howling for his blood. The wardrobe
+of a bongo usually consists of a dilapidated straw hat and a pair of
+cotton drawers amputated at the thighs. These drawers are a degree
+farther from decency than the bathing-trunks small boys wear at the
+sea-side. The bongoes are shrewd fellows, and make bargains easily, but
+are hard to settle with when the work is done. They agree to take you
+and your trunk ashore for a dollar, but when you reach the custom-house
+they demand twice as much, with an additional dollar for Pippo, who
+helped carry the trunk down the gangway. People who remain on the vessel
+amuse themselves by throwing small coins into the water for the boatmen
+to dive after. If you toss a silver quarter overboard, a dozen or more
+will plunge after it, and one of them will have it in his mouth before
+it reaches the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: CARRYING COFFEE TO THE STEAMER.]
+
+[Illustration: MARKET-PLACE IN COUNTRY TOWN.]
+
+The most noticeable thing that strikes one when he lands at one of the
+Brazilian ports is the extraordinary economy observed in the matter of
+wearing apparel. The children in the streets up to eight or ten years
+are usually entirely naked, playing in groups around the door-ways, and
+in the corners sheltered from the sun. Nearly every woman you meet has a
+big basket of something or other on her head, or a naked baby in her
+arms; the number of babies to be seen at the windows or in the streets
+is astonishing. The yellow-fever and other epidemics carry off a large
+percentage of the population every summer, but the increase from natural
+causes more than keeps pace with the mortality. When the girls get to be
+eight or ten years of age they put on a white cotton tunic, which hangs
+loosely from the shoulders, and the women wear a plain white chemise,
+with the arms and shoulders bare. The boys and men have cotton trousers
+or drawers, and, if they are prosperous, add a speckled shirt to their
+wardrobe, which hangs loosely over the pantaloons, and flaps in the
+breeze with cheerful _négligé_. A society for the encouragement of
+modesty among the men, women, and children of Brazil would find a
+fruitful field for missionary work. They act and live like animals; but
+the younger women show some sense of shame, and gather their scanty
+drapery around them as the stranger passes. Among their own kind they
+are as regardless of the proprieties of civilization as the mangy dogs
+which stretch out in the sun at their feet. The priests, under whose
+control they yield an absolute submission, and whose authority here is
+even greater than in Rome, are said to teach no lessons of chastity or
+modesty, but to practise a licentiousness which makes one shudder when
+he hears common anecdotes told.
+
+The sun always rises and sets very suddenly in the tropics. There is no
+“rosy blush of morn to herald the coming of a newborn day,” and so on,
+nor is there a gorgeous glow in the west when the twilight comes; but
+old Sol gets up in the morning and goes to bed at night without any
+ceremony, and with a startling suddenness. You awaken at the noise of
+carts in the street, find it dark as midnight, with the stars more
+brilliant than you ever saw them at home, turn over, doze a little, and
+in a few moments jump up, supposing it to be noonday. The sun jumps into
+the air out of the darkness and drops below the horizon as if he had
+been shot. There are only two periods in the twenty-four hours--midnight
+and high noon. There is gas in most of the large towns, but it is seldom
+used in any except the finest modern residences. Candles or kerosene
+lamps throw light upon domestic circles, but there are always plenty of
+gas-lamps in the streets, and they light them in an odd way. One fellow
+goes ahead with a long stick and turns on the gas; another follows him
+with a torch and gives it light. Sometimes the latter stops to gossip on
+the corner, and the consequence is a strong odor of gas all over the
+town.
+
+On every block is a policeman or watchman, whose business
+
+[Illustration: “SERENO-O-O-O-O-O! SERENO-O-O-O-O-O!”]
+
+is to sing out at certain intervals to inform the inhabitants what
+o’clock it is, and that all is well. Like the fakirs in the streets
+during the day, they have a most melancholy tone in their voices, and to
+the stranger their announcements sound like the cry of a lost
+soul--“Sereno-o-o-o-o-o; Sereno-o-o-o-o-o; Las diez y media y
+Sereno-o-o-o-o-o!”
+
+The text-books on oratory that were used in old times gave the statement
+that Demosthenes could make an audience weep or laugh at will by simply
+uttering “Mesopotamia,” but he could not have put more pathos, more
+lingering agony, than the tropical policemen in these simple
+words--“All’s serene; all’s serene! It is a day and a half-midnight, and
+all’s serene!”
+
+The stranger never fails to hear these announcements, for two very good
+reasons; first, because his bed is as hard as the racks upon which the
+Roman tyrants used to torture early Christians; and, second, it is
+always occupied by a colony of the most vigorous pests that ever drank
+human blood. At the hotels all the servants are men. They do the work of
+chamber-maids, cooks, porters, and dining-room waiters, wash the dishes,
+and everything but washing and ironing.
+
+The Brazilian rises early in the morning, to do the greater part of his
+work in the cool of the day. He drinks a cup of strong coffee, eats a
+roll, and perhaps an egg, and then goes to his store or office, from
+which he returns at twelve to his breakfast--the most elaborate meal of
+the day. It begins with soup and ends with cheese, dulces, and coffee,
+like the dinner of the temperate zone. He has a fish, a chop or steak,
+an omelette, and a salad, but no vegetables. Then he lies down for a
+nap, after which, about four o’clock, he returns to business, and
+remains often as late as eight or nine o’clock. His dinner is a
+repetition of his breakfast, except that he has vegetables and a roast
+or fowl. He takes a walk in the plaza with his family after dinner and
+retires early, if he does not go to the club or gaming-table. The people
+are inveterate gamblers. There is no more disgrace attached to
+attendance upon the faro-table or the roulette-board than attends stock
+gambling in New York. He calls upon the Holy Mother when he tosses his
+chips upon the cards, and says an “Ave Maria” when he wins a stake. At
+every religious festival the cathedrals and churches are surrounded by
+gambling-booths, and the priests always go to the cock-fights after high
+mass on Sunday. Some of them breed game chickens, and carry them to the
+pit under their priestly robes.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVE QUARTERS IN THE COUNTRY.]
+
+The great problem for Brazil to solve in the future is that of labor.
+With the gradual emancipation of the slave the labor system of the
+country is becoming disorganized and demoralized. It has been
+demonstrated beyond a doubt, even in the minds of the most radical
+abolitionists, that the emancipated negroes are neither disposed nor
+competent to take care of themselves. They are different in this respect
+from the freedmen of the United States because their ignorance is much
+greater. Their dependence is much more absolute, and they never received
+the kind treatment and instruction that was enjoyed by so many of the
+slaves in the United States. From one end of Brazil to the other there
+is scarcely a negro slave, or one who has ever been enslaved, that can
+read and write. Their ignorance is so dense that they scarcely know
+anything of the work outside of the cabin in which they live; and the
+policy of the slave-holders, aided by the priests, has been to keep them
+in this condition as far as possible. As long as they have attended
+mass, and said so many prayers a day, the priests have been satisfied
+with their condition, and their owners and masters have never thought of
+anything but to get as much work out of them as was consistent with
+their strength.
+
+[Illustration: THE POLITICAL ISSUE IN BRAZIL.]
+
+The political issue in Brazil to-day, as has been the case for many
+years, is the abolition of slavery. Ten years ago the two political
+parties were as wide apart on this question as the Abolitionists and
+Democrats were in the United States in 1860; but the emancipation policy
+has been rapidly growing in favor, the necessity and justness of the
+movement have become almost universally recognized, and the two
+political parties differ only upon the measures by which the result
+shall be accomplished. There are very few people in Brazil to-day who,
+when asked the direct question, will advocate the perpetuation of human
+slavery; but those who have property in slaves naturally resist any
+movement that will deprive them of its value without some compensation.
+
+A law was passed in 1881 which declared free all negroes and their
+children who should be imported into the empire after that date; but it
+was never executed, and in spite of it the slave-trade increased,
+reaching prior to 1851 enormous proportions. Fifty thousand negro slaves
+were imported in a single year when the trade was at its height. The
+effective intervention of the British Government in 1851 broke up the
+foreign trade, and from that time the friends of the slave in Brazil
+were able to make some headway against their opponents.
+
+The first legislation enforced towards the abolition of slavery was
+enacted in 1871, in what was known as the “Free Birth Law,” which was
+framed by the Emperor himself, and adopted by Congress largely through
+his own personal efforts. This laid the axe at the root of the tree, and
+provided that human bondage in Brazil should end with the present
+generation. Every child born since the passage of the act is free, but
+the owner of its mother is required to educate and support it until
+twenty-one years old, being entitled to the results of its labor during
+the same time. The law also provided that slaves should be credited with
+their labor, and all service performed over and above a given maximum
+should be considered as a surplus and credited against the value of the
+slave, in order that those who had energy and ambition might in this
+manner earn or purchase their own freedom; and by a further provision
+all slaves reaching the age of sixty-five were free, but could look to
+their old masters for support in case they were in a condition of
+disability.
+
+This law, however well intended, proved impracticable, and could not be
+generally enforced. Forgeries were committed upon the records of birth,
+both by the slaves and their masters. The latter refused, or fixed so
+high a valuation that very few were able to earn their freedom; they
+neglected to educate the children as required by law, so that even if a
+young man gained his freedom he was not fitted to enjoy it or exercise
+the right of citizenship. The old men and women were turned off the
+plantations to beg or find refuge in the public almshouses; and the
+planters, feeling no longer any interest in the health and welfare of
+their slaves, neglected their sanitary condition and ill-treated them.
+The result of the law was to demoralize the laboring element. It proved
+a disaster to the slaves as well as to their masters, and disturbed the
+political condition of the country.
+
+There is no slave-market in Rio Janeiro, nor has there been one for
+several years, all the transactions in human flesh being conducted
+privately; but there are agents who buy and sell on commission, like the
+real estate or cattle dealers of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: MILITARY MEN.]
+
+There is a small number of negroes in Brazil from Minas, a territory on
+the west coast of Africa, who differ from all other blacks. They are of
+immense frame, capable of great endurance, display a remarkable degree
+of intelligence, are very clannish, speaking a language among themselves
+unintelligible to others, and practising religious rites similar to
+those of Mohammedanism, from which they have never been allured by the
+tempting ceremonies of the Catholic Church.
+
+As slaves the Minas natives are valued at more than double the price of
+ordinary negroes, and as freedmen they are useful, industrious, and
+excellent citizens, and will work of their own accord. No other blacks
+exercise the regular Yankee thrift in saving their earnings and in
+economizing their resources. They are ingenious as well as intelligent,
+and make first-class mechanics as well as laborers. These Minas have
+frequently purchased their freedom and returned to Africa, but those
+that go invariably come back to Brazil. Several instances are reported
+in which they have chartered vessels for this purpose, and have even
+brought over friends and kinsmen of their own across the Atlantic to
+settle in Brazil. The wisest thinkers of the country advocate the
+organization of immigration companies for the purpose of bringing
+cargoes of these people from Africa, not as slaves, but as freemen, to
+supply the demand for labor in the country. They are much preferable to
+the Chinese or the coolies as laborers, and are particularly adapted to
+the Brazilian climate.
+
+There are a great many Germans going into the country, forming colonies
+in the interior, opening up sugar plantations, planting coffee,
+gathering rubber, and engaging in all sorts of agricultural employment;
+but the climate is so enervating that after an experience of two years
+the German colonist will be found by his Portuguese predecessor sitting
+in the shade of the fig-tree and hiring a negro to do his work.
+Everywhere in hot climates the people become enervated, and Brazil will
+scarcely form an exception to other countries in the same latitude. In
+the more southern provinces and on the higher levels white colonists may
+succeed if there is nothing but climatic differences to oppose them.
+There has been a small number of immigrants from the United States to
+the southern provinces of Brazil; and after the war a great many
+Confederates flooded in there for the purpose of establishing
+plantations and raising sugar and coffee, but their success has not been
+great. Most of the colonies have broken up, and the members have been
+scattered over different parts of the country. Some engage in one
+undertaking, some in another, but many have succumbed to the influences
+of the climate and died of fever.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Aconcagua Mountain, Chili, 509.
+
+Agua Volcano, Guatemala, 67.
+
+Alpaca, the, 427.
+
+Alvarado, Conqueror of Guatemala, 64.
+
+Alvarado, George, founder of the city of San Salvador, 179.
+
+Andes, bridges in the, 441;
+  explorations in the, 438;
+  over the, 506, 510, 513;
+  scenery in the, 409.
+
+Antigua, 63, 72.
+
+Arequipa, 420.
+
+Argentine Republic, agricultural area of, 584;
+  Americans in, 562;
+  beef exports of, 586, 587;
+  Catholic Church in, 558, 568;
+  cattle in, 579, 582;
+  cattle ranges in, 534;
+  commerce of, 552, 583, 586;
+  decay of Romanism in, 558;
+  discovery of, 543;
+  educational system of, 557;
+  England’s trade with, 553;
+  foreigners in, 581;
+  France’s trade with, 552;
+  geographies incorrect concerning, 551;
+  growth of, 550;
+  horsemen of, 556, 570, 574;
+  horses in, 589;
+  immigration to, 581;
+  Italian population of, 582;
+  land leasing in, 534;
+  libel laws of, 555;
+  map of, 580;
+  pamperos in, 544, 548;
+  peculiar customs of, 544, 547, 548, 555, 556, 559, 560, 565, 569-571, 576, 578, 590;
+  Protestant work in, 558, 568;
+  railroad system of, 581, 582;
+  ranches in, 579, 582, 588;
+  resources of, 553, 579, 583;
+  Roca, President of, 568, 569;
+  Rosas, the tyrant, President of, 549, 572;
+  Sarmiento, ex-President of, 557;
+  social conditions in, 565;
+  steamers to Paraguay from, 566;
+  steamship facilities of, 551, 566;
+  suffrage in, 581;
+  United States’ trade with, 553;
+  universities of, 556;
+  wheat product of, 554, 583;
+  women physicians of, 561;
+  wool product of the, 585;
+  Yankee school-teachers in, 557.
+
+Arica, battle of, 353.
+
+Aristocracy, Mexican, 3, 5, 17, 32.
+
+Army, Costa Rican, 206.
+
+Asuncion, architecture in, 640;
+  market-place of, 642;
+  palace of Lopez in, 638;
+  ruins in, 637.
+
+Aztecs, religion of, 32.
+
+
+B.
+
+Bahia Blanca, 547.
+
+Balmaceda, President of Chili, 495.
+
+Bananas, shipment of from Costa Rica, 198.
+
+Banda Occidental, 592;
+  Oriental, _ibid._
+
+Banner, Pizarro’s, 276.
+
+Barillas, President of Guatemala, 113.
+
+Barranquilla, port of, 231.
+
+Barrios, appeals for approval to foreign nations, 107;
+  becomes President of Guatemala, 81;
+  _coup-d’état_ of, 103;
+  death and will, his, 112;
+  personal character of, 100;
+  progressive policy of, 82;
+  Protestant work in Guatemala, his, 86;
+  tragedy at theatre through banner bearing name of, 111;
+  visits the United States, 107.
+
+Barrios, Mrs., residence in New York, 87.
+
+Blanco, Guzman, 269, 286, 291;
+  statues of, 258, 272, 287.
+
+Bogota, altitude of, 244;
+  journalism in, 249;
+  journey to, 238;
+  merchants of, 250;
+  miraculous image of, 254;
+  policemen in, 247;
+  population of, 245;
+  society in, 248.
+
+Bogran, President of Honduras, 117.
+
+Bolivar, Simon, Venezuela, 266.
+
+Bolivia, mineral wealth of, 445;
+  railroad to, 419, 438.
+
+Boulevard, Mexican, 39.
+
+Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, steamers of to Venezuela, 257.
+
+Brazil, commerce of, 675;
+  customs peculiar to, 664, 668, 670, 672, 674, 676, 692, 696, 701;
+  discovery of, 687;
+  emancipation in, 704;
+  Empress of, 684;
+  ex-Confederates in, 706;
+  fight against the Catholic Church in, 690;
+  German immigration to, 706;
+  habits of the people of, 701;
+  history of, 687;
+  holidays in, 692;
+  hotels of, 673;
+  humming-birds of, 668;
+  imperial family of, 689;
+  intemperance in, 666;
+  Isabella, Princess of, 689;
+  natives of Minas in, 705;
+  negroes in, _ibid._;
+  nobility of, 676;
+  policemen of, 698;
+  politics in, 688, 703;
+  railroad system of, 680;
+  school system of, 678;
+  slavery problem in, 702;
+  sunrise in, 698;
+  sunset in, _ibid._
+
+Buenos Ayres, American dentists in, 560;
+  banks of, 554;
+  cathedral of, 566;
+  commercial disadvantages of, 549;
+  enterprise in, 549, 559;
+  Hale, Samuel B., merchant of, 562;
+  Halsey, Thomas Lloyd, introducer of sheep and cattle into, 563;
+  harbor of, 548;
+  hotels of, 566;
+  landing at, 548;
+  municipal statistics of, 559;
+  newspapers of, 555;
+  origin of, 543;
+  photographers in, 560;
+  post-office of, 559;
+  theatres of, 555;
+  tomb of Saint-Martin in, 566;
+  voyage to, 543;
+  Wheelwright, Wm., builder of first railroad in, 562;
+  Winslow, the forger, in, 562.
+
+
+C.
+
+Caceres, General, 392, 395.
+
+Callao, city of, 417;
+  painter, the, 416;
+  port of, 353.
+
+Camino Real (Royal Highway), Colombia, 240.
+
+Caracas, Americans in, 282;
+  earthquakes in, 265;
+  railroad to, 261;
+  situation of, 265.
+
+Carera, Dictator of Guatemala, 80.
+
+Carriages, Mexican, 39.
+
+Cartago, Costa Rica, destruction of, 200.
+
+Carthagena, city of, 226;
+  cathedral of, 228;
+  fortifications of, 231;
+  Inquisition in, 227;
+  Kingsley’s (Charles) description of, 226;
+  miraculous pulpit of, 228;
+  preserved saint of, 229.
+
+Carts, peculiar, Nicaragua, 142.
+
+Castro, Don Jesus Maria, 222.
+
+Central America, cable telegraph in, 107.
+
+Cerro del Pasco, mines of, 404.
+
+Chamber of Deputies, Mexican, 21.
+
+Chapultepec, castle of, 5, 43.
+
+Charity, Mexican, 56.
+
+Chasquis, vocation of, 440.
+
+Chili, army of Peru in, 392;
+  Balmaceda, President of, 495;
+  character of the people of, 458, 472, 475, 480;
+  coal-mines in, 488;
+  commerce of, 455, 457;
+  climate of, 464;
+  coca-chewing in, 479;
+  customs peculiar to, 458, 461-464, 469, 472, 475, 480, 483, 484, 498;
+  earthquakes in, 483, 499;
+  English colony, an, 542;
+  farming in, 489, 502;
+  female street-car conductors of, 458, 461;
+  horseback-riding in, 503;
+  hotels of, 472;
+  intemperance in, 458;
+  Irish characteristics of the people of, 474;
+  journey from, to Argentine Republic, 506, 510;
+  Liberal party in, 493;
+  marriage in, 494;
+  Meiggs, Henry, in, 463, 467;
+  nomenclature peculiar to, 483;
+  penitentas of, 462;
+  peonage in, 489, 502;
+  plunder from Peru in, 471;
+  political struggle in, 493;
+  Presidential election in, 495;
+  Protestantism in, 496;
+  railway facilities of, 464, 480;
+  Romanism in, 493;
+  rotos of, 479;
+  saddle of, 504;
+  scenery in, 509;
+  “Señor May” in, 499;
+  shoes of natives of, 484;
+  shops of, 465;
+  soldiers of, 352, 479;
+  Stars and Stripes in, 454;
+  steamship communication with, 456, 480, 488;
+  superstition in, 499;
+  vanity of people of, 476;
+  women of, 458, 461, 472, 484, 487, 498.
+
+Chimborazo, Mount, Ecuador, 309, 320.
+
+Coca-leaves, use of among rabonas of Peru, 349.
+
+Colombia, aborigines of, 244;
+  Congress of, 255;
+  government of, 248;
+  mines of, 230;
+  Nuñez, President of, 256;
+  orchids in, 252;
+  peculiar customs of, 243, 245, 247, 252;
+  Romish superstitions in, 228, 254;
+  steamship line to, 225;
+  transportation in, 246.
+
+Comayagua, city of, Honduras, 115, 119.
+
+Congress, Mexican, 21.
+
+“Cordillera,” steamship, wreck of, 524.
+
+Corinto, port of, 138.
+
+Cortez, descendants of, 6.
+
+“Costa del Balsimo,” forest of, 192.
+
+Costa Rica, archbishop expelled from, 219;
+  banana-trade of, 198;
+  Congress of, 221;
+  cruising along, 196;
+  death processions in, 220;
+  educational system of, 218;
+  ex-Confederates in, 200;
+  Fernandez, President of, 221;
+  flowers peculiar to, 198;
+  funeral customs in, 220;
+  Government of, 221;
+  Guardia, President of, 205;
+  intelligence of the people of, 218;
+  morals of the people of, 220;
+  national musical instruments of, 214;
+  ox-carts in, 212;
+  peculiar customs of, 198, 200, 207, 212-214, 216, 220;
+  politeness of the people of, 218;
+  Protestant work in, 219;
+  railroads in, 199, 208;
+  railroad building in, 205;
+  religious condition of, 219;
+  resources of, 223;
+  revolution in, 207;
+  Soto, De, Don Bernardo, President of, 222;
+  transportation facilities in, 212;
+  women of, 214.
+
+Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador, 320.
+
+Cousino, Donna Isadora, Crœsus of Chili, 487.
+
+Crosses by the way-side, Nicaragua, 141.
+
+Cuaca dance, the, 469.
+
+Curaçoa, Island of, 295.
+
+
+D.
+
+Dahlgren, Mrs., anecdote of, 372.
+
+“Deck trading” in Peru, 347.
+
+Delgrado, General, leader of revolution in Honduras, 120.
+
+Dentists, American, in Buenos Ayres, 560.
+
+Deputies, Chamber of, Mexican, 21.
+
+Desert of Peru, 417.
+
+Destruction of Cartago, Costa Rica, 200.
+
+Devastation of Lima, 365, 391.
+
+Diaz, career of, 30;
+  inauguration of as President of Mexico, 21;
+  religious tolerance in Mexico, his, 59.
+
+Diplomatic complication in Guatemala, 103.
+
+Discovery of Argentine Republic, 543;
+  of Brazil, 687.
+
+Dom Pedro II., love of the people for, 682.
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, sacks Caracas, Venezuela, 262.
+
+
+E.
+
+Earthquakes in Chili, 483, 499;
+  in Ecuador, 324;
+  in Guatemala, 73;
+  in Nicaragua, 164;
+  in San Salvador, 187, 192.
+
+Easter Sunday in Mexico, 50.
+
+Ecuador, army of, 319;
+  Caamaño, President of, 309, 341;
+  chandny (wind) in, 309;
+  earthquakes in, 324;
+  peculiarities of people of, 301, 305, 313, 317, 319, 326, 328, 330, 334, 336, 346, 350;
+  peddlers in, 317;
+  postal facilities in, 316;
+  railroads in, 307;
+  revolutions in, 341;
+  Romish Church in, 306, 313, 319, 332, 334, 348;
+  social condition of, 377;
+  telegraph in, 308;
+  transportation in, 315.
+
+Educational system of Costa Rica, 218.
+
+El Gran Chaco, description of, 657.
+
+Emancipation in Brazil, 704.
+
+Empress of Brazil, charity of, 684.
+
+Enterprise in Buenos Ayres, 549, 559.
+
+Evans, W. D., Montevideo, story of, 605.
+
+Exposition buildings in Santiago, 470.
+
+Eyes of Inca mummies, 415.
+
+
+F.
+
+Falkland Islands, chief use of land in the, 522.
+
+Farming in Chili, 489, 502.
+
+Fenton, Doctor, in Patagonia, 537.
+
+Fernandez, President of Costa Rica, 221.
+
+Filth of Rio de Janeiro, 662.
+
+First capital of Guatemala, 64.
+
+Fleas in the tropics, 260.
+
+Flowers, peculiar, in Costa Rica, 198.
+
+Foreigners in Argentine Republic, 581.
+
+Fortifications of Carthagena, Colombia, condition of, 231.
+
+Founding of Guayaquil, 304.
+
+France, her trade with Argentine Republic, 552.
+
+Francia, “Perpetual President” of Paraguay, 623.
+
+Fuego Volcano, Guatemala, 71.
+
+Funeral customs in Costa Rica, 220;
+  in Mexico, 34.
+
+Fur-bearing animals in Patagonia, 539.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gaucho, the, 570, 574.
+
+Gonzalez, Gil, Conqueror of Nicaragua, 154.
+
+Gonzalez, President of Mexico, 22, 26.
+
+Good Friday, celebration of in Mexico, 49.
+
+Government of Nicaragua, 169.
+
+Grace, M. P., his Peruvian contracts, 401, 403.
+
+Grau, Admiral, in Peru, 437.
+
+Grenada, city of, 165.
+
+Guadalupe, cathedral of, 18;
+  legend of, _ibid._;
+  treaty at, 21.
+
+Guanaco, the, 427, 540.
+
+Guatemala, assassination plots in, 88;
+  Barrios, President of, 75, 81;
+  Carera, Dictator of, 80;
+  Church domination in, 79;
+  Church overthrown in, 81;
+  cochineal cultivation in, 75;
+  commercial condition of, 98;
+  costumes of natives of, 89;
+  couriers in, 92;
+  customs peculiar to, 88, 97-99;
+  diplomatic complication in, 103;
+  earthquakes in, 73;
+  first capital of, 64;
+  Hill, Rev. John C., missionary in, 85;
+  hotels in, 96;
+  military law in, 95;
+  monasteries in, 74;
+  Morazan, Dictator of, 80;
+  Old, 63;
+  peasants’ costumes in, 88, 90;
+  photographers in, 98;
+  policemen in, 95;
+  Protestant work in, 84;
+  railroad system of, 99;
+  ruins in, 67;
+  schools in, 82;
+  second city of, 70;
+  view of the city of, 61;
+  volcanic eruption in, 67.
+
+Guayaquil, appearance of, 300;
+  commerce of, 330;
+  foreigners in, 305, 311;
+  founding of, 304;
+  journey to Quito from, 309, 318;
+  latitude and longitude of, 299;
+  street-cars in, 300, 302;
+  tropical vegetation near, 302, 313.
+
+Gunning, Doctor, in Brazil, 686.
+
+
+H.
+
+Hacks, Mexican, 40.
+
+Hale, Samuel B., Buenos Ayres, 562.
+
+Hall, Henry C., U. S. Minister to Guatemala, 107.
+
+Halsey, Thomas Lloyd, Buenos Ayres, 563.
+
+Harbor of Buenos Ayres, 548;
+  of Valparaiso, 454.
+
+Hats, Panama, 345.
+
+Highest town in the world, 423.
+
+Hill, Rev. John C., missionary in Guatemala, 85.
+
+Honda, port of, 234, 238.
+
+Honduras, agriculture in, 122;
+  Bogran, President of, 117;
+  climate of, 114;
+  commercial condition of, 115;
+  conquest of, 114;
+  how to reach, 117;
+  Interoceanic Railway in, 118;
+  manufacture of chocolate in, 132;
+  medicinal plants in, 123;
+  mineral wealth of, 127;
+  Morazan, President of, 135;
+  rivers of, 124;
+  schools in, 134;
+  shopping in, 133;
+  Soto’s (Marco A.) flight from, 117;
+  telegraph in, 125;
+  transportation facilities in, 124, 127, 131.
+
+Horseback-riding in Chili, 503;
+  in Mexico, 37.
+
+Horsemen of Argentine Republic, 556, 570.
+
+“Huascar,” Peruvian gun-boat, 437.
+
+Humboldt in Venezuela, 262.
+
+Hurlbut, General, and the Peruvian-Chilian war, 388.
+
+
+I.
+
+Ice in Mexico, 42.
+
+Iglesias, Don Miguel, 396.
+
+Illiniani Volcano, Bolivia, 443.
+
+Immigration resisted in Nicaragua, 149.
+
+Inca Empire, origin of the, 429.
+
+Incas, ancient highways of the, 439;
+  cemeteries of the, 413;
+  devotion of to their king, 328;
+  gold buried by the, 326;
+  mummies of the, 414;
+  peculiarities of the, 329, 336;
+  relics of the, 411;
+  riches of the, 325, 431;
+  women of the, 374.
+
+“Inca’s Head,” the, 323.
+
+Indians of Patagonia, 518, 530.
+
+Iodine, how made in Peru, 434.
+
+Isabella, Princess of Brazil, 689.
+
+
+J.
+
+Journalism in Bogata, 249.
+
+Journey from Santiago to Buenos Ayres, 506, 510.
+
+Juan Fernandez, Island of, 451.
+
+Juarez, birthplace of, 30;
+  family in Mexico, 17;
+  President of Mexico, 31.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kingsley, Charles, on Carthagena, Colombia, 226;
+  on South American scenery, 264;
+  on effect of coca-leaves, 479.
+
+
+L.
+
+Ladies, Mexican, 38.
+
+La Guayra, city of, 257.
+
+La Libertad, port of, 171.
+
+La Paz, Alameda of, 444;
+  cathedral of, 443;
+  city of, 442.
+
+La Plata, city of, 569.
+
+La Silla Mountain, Venezuela, 261.
+
+Leon, city of, 152, 157.
+
+Lerdo, President of Mexico, 26, 31.
+
+Liberal party, success of, in Mexico, 3, 17.
+
+Liebig, Doctor, 589.
+
+Lima, architecture of, 386;
+  benevolent institutions of, 385;
+  bull-fighting in, 382;
+  churches and monasteries in, 356, 361;
+  city of, founded, 355;
+  devastation of by the Chilians, 365;
+  Inca women of, 374;
+  manta of the women of, 370;
+  milk peddlers in, 382;
+  newspapers of, 386;
+  pawnshops of, 377;
+  population of, 355, 361;
+  Protestantism in, 361;
+  residence of Henry Meiggs in, 368;
+  Santa Rosa of, 357;
+  shops in, 385;
+  social condition of, 377;
+  women of, 368, 380.
+
+Limon, port of, 197.
+
+Lincoln, town of, 569.
+
+Lopez I., II., Presidents of Paraguay, 623, 624.
+
+Lota, town of, 488, 490.
+
+Love-making, Mexican, 34.
+
+Lynch, Admiral, of Chili, 392.
+
+Lynch, Patrick, of Chili, 475.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macuto, the Newport of Venezuela, 291.
+
+Magdalena River, the, 232, 234, 237.
+
+Magellan, Strait of, glaciers in the, 517;
+  post-office of, 522;
+  wreck of steamship “Cordillera” in, 524.
+
+Managua, city of, 166;
+  Lake, 168.
+
+Mandioca root, the, 648.
+
+Manta of Peru, romance of the, 372.
+
+Marimba, the, 214.
+
+Marriages, civil, in Mexico, 53.
+
+Maximilian in Mexico, 10.
+
+Meiggs, Henry, career of in Chili, 463, 467;
+   in Peru, 402.
+
+Mexico, aristocracy of, 3, 5, 9, 17, 32;
+  Aztec civilization in, 5;
+  bull-fighting in, 43;
+  Catholic prejudices in 58;
+  Church restrictions in, 4, 17;
+  Congress of, 22;
+  curious customs in, 1, 18, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 49, 53;
+  decay of Catholicism in, 3;
+  Easter Sunday in, 50;
+  former rulers of, 6, 17;
+  funeral customs in, 34;
+  Gonzales, President of, 22, 26;
+  horseback riding in, 37;
+  ice in, 42;
+  intemperance in, 40;
+  marriage in, 34, 53;
+  missionary work in, 56, 58;
+  names of streets in, 36;
+  pawn-shops in, 54;
+  police system of, 42;
+  political struggles in, 3, 17, 21, 26;
+  post-offices of, 2;
+  priests of, 4;
+  Protestant work in, 57;
+  pulque-drinking in, 40;
+  religious festivities in, 49;
+  religious struggles in, 3, 17, 21, 26;
+  religious superstitions in, 18;
+  revolution of students in, 26;
+  Senate of, 21;
+  shopping in, 39;
+  smoking in, 37;
+  social customs in, 37;
+  steamship subsidies in, 3;
+  street-cars in, 37;
+  wedding in, 54.
+
+Middleton, British Minister to Venezuela, 265.
+
+Miraculous candlestick, the, 418.
+
+Misery of Peru, Blaine responsible for, 388.
+
+Misti Volcano, Bolivia, 420.
+
+Molino del Rey, battle-field of, 43.
+
+Mollendo, town of, 419.
+
+Monte de Piedad of Mexico, the, 54.
+
+Montevideo, bay of, 605;
+  city of, 548, 602, 609.
+
+Montezuma, descendants of, 6.
+
+Morazan, Dictator of Guatemala, 80, 135, 136.
+
+Moreno, President of Ecuador, 318, 319.
+
+Mummies, eyes of, 415.
+
+
+N.
+
+National Palace of Nicaragua, 167.
+
+Navigation Company, The Pacific, 298.
+
+Negroes in Brazil, 705.
+
+Newspapers of Buenos Ayres, 555;
+  of Lima, 386;
+  of Montevideo, 616;
+  South American, _ibid._
+
+Nicaragua, agriculture in, 151;
+  baptism of volcanoes in, 161;
+  capitals of, 138, 152, 166;
+  cities of, 138;
+  commercial condition of, 151;
+  Congress of, 169;
+  earthquakes in, 164;
+  Government of, 169;
+  holidays in, 160;
+  immigration resisted in, 149;
+  National Palace of, 167;
+  origin of name of, 154;
+  peculiar customs in, 141, 161;
+  people of, 137;
+  principal seaport of, 140;
+  railroads in, 141;
+  rubber, how it is gathered in, 146;
+  social restrictions in, 159;
+  subjugation of, 154;
+  suffrage restricted in, 169;
+  timber resources of, 145;
+  transportation facilities in, 141;
+  Walker, the filibuster, in, 152, 165.
+
+Nitrate deposits of Peru, 430.
+
+Nobility of Brazil, 676.
+
+Nomenclature, peculiar, in Chili, 483.
+
+Nuñez, President of Colombia, 256.
+
+
+O.
+
+Officials, Peruvian, 346.
+
+O’Higgins, Bernard, Liberator of Chili, 475.
+
+Old Guatemala, its wealth and influence, 63.
+
+Opera-house of Caracas, 271;
+  of Santiago, 470.
+
+Orchids in Colombia, 252.
+
+Oroya Railroad, Peru, 403.
+
+Ostrich-hunting in Patagonia, 538, 540.
+
+Ox-carts in Costa Rica, employment of, 212.
+
+
+P.
+
+Palaces, Mexican, 30, 32.
+
+Paraguay, capital of, 636;
+  cattle-raising in, 658;
+  commerce of, 633;
+  customs peculiar to, 636, 638, 642, 645, 649, 651, 652;
+  Francia, “Perpetual President” of, 623;
+  fruits of, 648;
+  funeral customs in, 645;
+  Government’s effort to educate the people of, 634;
+  immigration to, 628;
+  land laws of, 629;
+  Lopez I., II., Presidents of, 623, 624;
+  marriage customs in, 645;
+  native customs in, 642;
+  population of, 630;
+  Protestantism in, 635;
+  railroads in, 633;
+  reorganization of the Government of, 627;
+  steamships to, 566, 634;
+  tapioca, how made in, 650;
+  tea-drinking in, 651;
+  timber of, 656;
+  tobacco cultivated in, 655;
+  war of with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, 625;
+  women of, 643.
+
+Paraguay River, the, 632.
+
+Parana River, the, 631.
+
+Patagonia, capital of, 536;
+  Fenton, Doctor, in, 537;
+  fur-bearing animals in, 539;
+  Indians of, 530;
+  ostrich-hunting in, 538, 540;
+  partition of, 528;
+  ranchmen in, 534;
+  Roca’s (General) Indian campaign in, 533;
+  Sterling, Bishop, in, 521;
+  Taylor’s (Wm.) adventure with cannibals in, 525.
+
+Peonage, Nicaraguan, 150.
+
+Peru, Andes railway in, 407;
+  army of Chili in, 392;
+  capture of by Caceres, 395;
+  cause of the late war in, 434;
+  coca plant in, 448;
+  Congress of, 388;
+  “deck trading” in, 347;
+  desert of, 417;
+  iodine, how made in, 434;
+  mines of, 362;
+  nitrate of soda deposits in, 430;
+  petroleum in, 344;
+  Pizarro’s plunder in, 431;
+  railroads in, 346, 401;
+  rain never falls in, 387;
+  saltpetre, how made in, 433;
+  shoes of natives of, 484;
+  soldiers of, 352;
+  war with Chili, its, 388;
+  water in, 436.
+
+Peruvian bark, supply of, 446;
+  deserts, water in, 436.
+
+Petropolis, palace of, Brazil, 684.
+
+Pichincha Volcano, Ecuador, 323.
+
+Pierola, Don Nicolas, 396.
+
+Pizarro, 304, 325, 326, 344, 362.
+
+Plate River, the, 543, 581, 630.
+
+Poncho, the, 505, 577.
+
+Popocatepetl Mountain, Mexico, 42.
+
+Potosi, silver-mines of, 445.
+
+Prado, President of Peru, 398.
+
+Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, 295.
+
+Pulpit, a miraculous, 228.
+
+Puna, island of, 344.
+
+Puno, town of, 438.
+
+Punta Arenas, railroad to, 211;
+  Taylor’s journey to, 527.
+
+
+Q.
+
+Quinine, discovery of in Peru, 446.
+
+Quito, age of, 325;
+  architecture of, 332;
+  business perfidy in, 335;
+  climate of, 333;
+  earthquakes in, 324;
+  journey to, 309, 318;
+  manufacturing in, 337;
+  monks of, 332;
+  no newspapers in, 340;
+  schools in, 340;
+  volcanoes near, 323.
+
+
+R.
+
+Rabonas of Peru, 348.
+
+Railway, Interoceanic, in Honduras, 118.
+
+Rain never falls in Peru, 387.
+
+Religion and politics in Mexico, 3, 17.
+
+Rio de Janeiro, bay of, 660;
+  filth of, 662;
+  horse-cars of, 668;
+  hotels of, 673;
+  social customs in, 670;
+  streets of, 664;
+  theatres of, 672;
+  women of, 670.
+
+Rio de la Plata, the, 630.
+
+Robinson Crusoe’s Island, 451.
+
+Roca, General, Indian campaign of in Patagonia, 533;
+  President of Argentine Republic, 568.
+
+Rosas, the tyrant, 549, 572.
+
+Rubber-gathering in Nicaragua, 146.
+
+Rubio, Romero, 32.
+
+Ruins in Guatemala, 67;
+  of old Spanish forts in Venezuela, 259.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sabanilla, port of, 232.
+
+Sailors, superstitious, 544.
+
+Saint, a preserved, 229;
+  Martin, tomb of, 566;
+  the only American, 358.
+
+San José, city of, 203;
+  merchants of, 204;
+  transportation of freight to, 199;
+  volcanoes around, 200.
+
+San Salvador, area of, 175;
+  attempt to join the United States, its, 176;
+  balsam coast of, 192;
+  capital of, 178;
+  Christmas in, 184;
+  conscription in, 110;
+  destruction of, 192;
+  earthquakes in, 187, 192;
+  Government of, 178;
+  homes of the people of, 180;
+  landing in, 171;
+  patriotism of the people of, 183;
+  peculiar customs of, 181-183, 193;
+  political history of, 176;
+  political organization of, 178;
+  Romanism in, 177, 183;
+  social condition in, 181;
+  suffrage in, 178;
+  volcanoes of, 179;
+  women of, 181, 187.
+
+Santa Anna, widow of, 13.
+
+Santiago, Alameda of, 466;
+  Catholicism in, 493;
+  church catastrophe in, 496;
+  Church struggles in, 493;
+  climate of, 464;
+  coal-mines at, 488;
+  Cousino, Donna Isadora, Crœsus of, 487;
+  cuaca dance in, 469;
+  earthquakes in, 483, 499;
+  Exposition buildings in, 470;
+  farming in, 489, 502;
+  home for foundlings in, 463;
+  horseback riding in, 503;
+  hotels of, 472;
+  journey from Buenos Ayres to, 506, 510;
+  Liberal party in, 493;
+  marriage in, 494;
+  men of Irish descent in, 475;
+  nomenclature peculiar to, 483;
+  opera-house in, 470;
+  peonage in, 503;
+  plunder from Peru in, 471;
+  political struggle in, 493;
+  Presidential election in, 495;
+  Protestantism in, 496;
+  railroad facilities of, 464, 481;
+  railroad from to Buenos Ayres, 510;
+  Santa Lucia Park in, 467;
+  “Señor May” in, 499;
+  shops of, 465;
+  superstition in, 499;
+  women of, 458, 461, 472, 484, 498.
+
+Santos, President of Uruguay, 593, 613.
+
+Sarmiento, ex-President of Argentine Republic, 557.
+
+Selkirk, Alexander, on Island of Juan Fernandez, 452.
+
+Sinibaldi, Vice-President of Guatemala, 113.
+
+Sirroche disease, the, 423
+
+Smyth’s Channel, beauty of, 516.
+
+Soldiers, Peruvian, 348.
+
+Soto, De, President of Costa Rica, 222.
+
+Soto, Marco A., President of Honduras, 117.
+
+South America, desert on west coast of, 342;
+  freight charges on west coast of, 298;
+  Yankees of, 542.
+
+Sterling, Bishop, missionary work of, 521.
+
+
+T.
+
+Tapioca, how made in Paraguay, 650.
+
+Taylor, William, his adventure with cannibals in Patagonia, 525.
+
+Tegucigalpa, city of, 128.
+
+Terra del Fuego, cannibalism in, 524;
+  Indians of, 518;
+  missionary work in, 521.
+
+Theatre Yturbide, Mexico, 22.
+
+Timber regions of Paraguay, streams in, 656.
+
+Titicaca, Lake, 428.
+
+Tobacco, cultivation of in Paraguay, 655.
+
+Tropical vegetation, beauty of near Guayaquil, 302.
+
+Tropics, fleas in the, 260.
+
+Tumbez, petroleum deposits near, 344.
+
+Tunguragua Volcano, Ecuador, 324.
+
+
+U.
+
+Union of Central America, plan, etc., 104, 106-108.
+
+United States, trade with Argentine Republic, 553.
+
+University of Argentine Republic, 556;
+  of Costa Rica, 218;
+  of Venezuela, 272.
+
+Uruguay, architecture of, 607;
+  army of, 610;
+  beggars of, 610;
+  birth statistics of, 598;
+  Catholic Church in, 612, 615;
+  cattle in, 600, 602;
+  censorship of the press in, 620;
+  commerce of, 600;
+  customs peculiar to, 603, 607, 609-611, 615, 618, 620;
+  decay of Romanism in, 612, 615;
+  growth of, 596;
+  ignorance concerning, 591;
+  living cheap in, 598;
+  Methodist Church in, 615;
+  mining in, 592;
+  newspapers in, 616;
+  population of, 599;
+  Protestantism in, 612;
+  railroad system of, 599;
+  resources of, 596, 598;
+  revolution in, 592;
+  Santos, President of, 593, 613;
+  Vidal, President of, 596;
+  wealth of, 599, 600;
+  women of, 607;
+  Wood, Rev. Thomas, in, 614;
+  wool product of, 601.
+
+
+V.
+
+Valparaiso, character of people of, 458, 472, 475, 480;
+  city of, 456;
+  commerce of, 455, 457;
+  customs peculiar to, 458, 461-464, 469, 472, 475, 480, 483, 487, 498;
+  female street-car conductors in, 458, 461;
+  harbor of, 454;
+  intemperance in, 458;
+  the prejudice against United States in, 454;
+  steamship communication with, 456, 480, 488;
+  women of, 461.
+
+Venezuela, architecture of, 273, 284;
+  Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of, 269, 286, 291;
+  Bolivar, Simon, exiled from, 266;
+  Boulton, Bliss & Dallett’s steamers to, 257;
+  burial customs in, 280;
+  chocolate production in, 294;
+  coffee plantations in, 293;
+  Congress of, 274;
+  customs peculiar to, 270, 271, 273, 276, 277, 280, 281, 284, 292;
+  downfall of Romish Church in, 277, 290;
+  Federal Palace of, 272;
+  Humboldt in, 262;
+  Middleton, British Minister to, 265;
+  political progress in, 266;
+  population of, 266;
+  ruins of old Spanish forts in, 259;
+  schools of, 270;
+  social customs of, 281, 284;
+  telephones in, 271;
+  University of, 272;
+  voyage from New York to, 257;
+  women of, 281;
+  Yellow House, official residence of the President of, 275.
+
+Venezuelan independence, relics of, 276.
+
+Vicuña, the, 423.
+
+Vidal, President of Uruguay, 596.
+
+
+W.
+
+Walker, filibuster, in Nicaragua, 152, 165.
+
+War with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, Paraguay’s, 625;
+  with Chili, Peru’s, 388, 434.
+
+Washington, town of, 569.
+
+Watering-place, the Venezuelan, 291.
+
+Wheelwright, Wm., in Buenos Ayres, 562.
+
+Winslow, the forger, in Buenos Ayres, 562.
+
+Wood, Rev. Thomas, missionary in, Uruguay, 614.
+
+World, highest town in the, 423.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yellow House, Venezuela, 275.
+
+Yerba mate of Paraguay, 651.
+
+Yturbide, family of, 9;
+  romance of, 13;
+  Theatre, 22.
+
+Yzalco Volcano, San Salvador, 179, 188.
+
+THE END.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VALUABLE WORKS
+
+OF
+
+EXPLORATION AND ADVENTURE.
+
+
+Charnay’s Ancient Cities of the New World.
+
+     The Ancient Cities of the New World: being Voyages and Explorations
+     in Mexico and Central America, from 1857 to 1882. By DÉSIRÉ
+     CHARNAY. Translated from the French by J. GONINO and HELEN S.
+     CONANT. Introduction by ALLEN THORNDIKE RICE. 209 Illustrations and
+     a Map. Royal 8vo, Ornamental Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top, $6 00.
+
+Squier’s Nicaragua.
+
+     Nicaragua: its People, Scenery, Monuments, Resources, Condition,
+     and Proposed Canal. With One Hundred Maps and Illustrations. By E.
+     G. SQUIER, M.A., F.S.A. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.
+
+Squier’s Peru.
+
+     Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas.
+     By E. G. SQUIER, M.A., F.S.A. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.
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+Cesnola’s Cyprus.
+
+     Cyprus: Its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narrative of
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+Bishop’s Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces.
+
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+     Cuba. By WILLIAM HENRY BISHOP. With numerous Illustrations, chiefly
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+     The Malay Archipelago: the Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of
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+     Nature. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. With Maps and numerous
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+Wallace’s Geographical Distribution of Animals.
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+
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+
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+Stanley’s Through the Dark Continent.
+
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+
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+
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+     50.
+
+Cameron’s Across Africa.
+
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+     Royal Navy, Gold Medalist Royal Geographical Society, &c. With a
+     Map and numerous Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.
+
+Livingstone’s Last Journals.
+
+     The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from
+     1865 to his Death. Continued by a Narrative of his Last Moments and
+     Sufferings, obtained from his Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi. By
+     HORACE WALLER, F.R.G.S. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5
+     00; Sheep, $6 00; Half Calf, $7 25. _Popular Edition_, 8vo, Cloth,
+     $2 50.
+
+Livingstone’s Expedition to the Zambesi.
+
+     Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries; and
+     of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. 1858-1864. By
+     DAVID and CHARLES LIVINGSTONE. With Map and Illustrations. 8vo,
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+Long’s Central Africa.
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+
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+
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+
+Du Chaillu’s Land of the Midnight Sun.
+
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+
+Thomson’s Voyage of the “Challenger.”
+
+     The Voyage of the “Challenger.” _The Atlantic:_ An Account of the
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+
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+Speke’s Africa.
+
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+
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+
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+     EGYPT. By Sir SAMUEL WHITE BAKER, PASHA, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
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+
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+     Sixty Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.
+
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+
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+     Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
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+
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+     12mo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
+Vámbéry’s Central Asia.
+
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+     Teheran across the Turkoman Desert, on the Eastern Shore of the
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+     1863. By ARMINIUS VÁMBÉRY, Member of the Hungarian Academy of
+     Pesth, by whom he was sent on this Scientific Mission. With Map and
+     Wood-cuts. 8vo, Cloth, $4 50; Half Calf, $6 75.
+
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+
+     Campaigning on the Oxus and the Fall of Khiva. By J. A. MACGAHAN.
+     With Map and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $3 50.
+
+Forbes’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago.
+
+     A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago. A Narrative
+     of Travel and Exploration from 1878 to 1883. By HENRY O. FORBES,
+     F.R.G.S., &c. With many Illustrations and Colored Maps. 8vo,
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+
+
+PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
+
+☛ HARPER & BROTHERS _will send any of the above works by mail, postage
+prepaid, to any part of the United States or Canada, on receipt of the
+price_.
+
+
+Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:
+
+the temperaature of Guayaquil=> the temperature of Guayaquil {pg 309}
+
+This is the ofcial paper=> This is the oficial paper {pg 340}
+
+from Alahualpa’s army=> from Atahualpa’s army {pg 344}
+
+finds it way to the sea=> finds its way to the sea {pg 436}
+
+“Calle Viente y Cinco de Mayo”=> “Calle Veinte y Cinco de Mayo” {pg 609}
+
+jefe polico=> jefe politico {pg 617}
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Capitals of Spanish America, by 
+William Eleroy Curtis
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 50298-0.txt or 50298-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Capitals of Spanish America, by William Eleroy Curtis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Capitals of Spanish America
+
+Author: William Eleroy Curtis
+
+Release Date: October 24, 2015 [EBook #50298]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Chuck Greif and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="319" height="500" alt="cover" /></a>
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%;
+padding:1%;">
+<tr><td>
+<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents.</a><br />
+<a href="#INDEX">Index:</a><small>
+<a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#Q">Q</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>,
+<a href="#Y">Y</a>.</small></p>
+<p class="c">Some typographical errors have been corrected;
+<a href="#transcrib">a list follows the text</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers]
+clicking on this symbol <img class="enlargeimage" src="images/enlarge-image.jpg" alt="" title="" height="14" width="18" />,
+or directly on the image,
+will bring up a larger version of the illustration.)</span></p>
+
+<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i"></a>{i}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii"></a>{ii}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-a002_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" /></a>
+<a href="images/illus-a002_huge.jpg">
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="28"
+height="24" /></a>
+<br />
+<a href="images/illus-a002_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/illus-a002_sml.jpg" width="392" height="500" alt="MAP OF
+
+SOUTH AMERICA
+
+TO ILLUSTRATE “THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA.” BY WM ELEROY CURTIS" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii"></a>{iii}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<h1>
+THE CAPITALS<br />
+<br />
+OF<br />
+<br />
+SPANISH AMERICA</h1>
+
+<p class="c">&nbsp; <br />&nbsp; <br />BY<br />
+WILLIAM ELEROY CURTIS<br />
+<small>LATE COMMISSIONER FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE GOVERNMENTS OF<br />
+CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA</small><br />
+<br /><br />
+<span class="sans">ILLUSTRATED</span><br />
+<br /><br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv"></a>{iv}</span>&nbsp; <br />
+<br />
+Copyright, 1888, by <span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers</span>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>All rights reserved.</i><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a>{v}</span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="blockmem">
+<p class="c">TO<br />
+<br />
+THE MEMORY OF<br />
+<br />
+CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR<br />
+<br />
+TWENTY-FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES<br />
+<br />
+THIS BOOK IS<br />
+<br />
+<span class="eng">Dedicated</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="poetry"><div class="poem"><p class="nind">HIS KINDNESS MADE ITS PUBLICATION POSSIBLE; AND HIS<br />
+AFFECTIONATE
+INTEREST ADDED PLEASURE TO ITS PREPARATION</p>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a>{vi}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii"></a>{vii}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<div class="blockmem"><p class="c"><i>Mr. Arthur’s Acceptance of the Dedication.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="r">
+New York, April 7, 1887.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+<i>William E. Curtis, Esquire, Washington</i>:<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;In compliance with your request, I enclose an unsigned
+draft of a letter dictated by Mr. Arthur last November. It was
+submitted to him a few days before he died, and as he desired to
+make no further changes in the text, I was to have a clean copy
+made for his signature; but he was fatally stricken before that was
+done.</p>
+
+<p class="r"><span style="margin-right: 5em;">
+Very respectfully yours,</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">James C. Reed</span>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="r">
+November 13, 1886.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">My dear Curtis</span>,&mdash;The graceful terms in which you propose to
+dedicate your book to me add still another obligation that I may
+not be able to repay.</p>
+
+<p>I appointed you Secretary of the South American Commission without
+your solicitation, because I knew your ability, energy, and
+industry would be felt as they have been in the effort to bring our
+Spanish-American neighbors into closer commercial and political
+relations with us.</p>
+
+<p>I had given much consideration to the subject, and realized what is
+made so clear in the Reports of the South American Commission, that
+the future commercial prosperity of the United States required
+something to be done to extend our trade with the continent
+southward. The Commission, of which you were Secretary and
+subsequently became a member, was intended as an initiatory step in
+that direction.</p>
+
+<p>In my judgment, it is not only the duty of the United States to
+encourage and assist our merchants and manufacturers in the
+expansion of their foreign trade, by seeking new markets and
+furnishing facilities for reaching them, but there is a higher
+achievement in promoting the welfare of our sister republics
+through the consistent exercise of every friendly office tending to
+secure their peaceable development and national prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>I am sure your “The Capitals of Spanish America” will furnish our
+own people with trustworthy and late news about our neighbors to
+the southward, and that your graphic pen will make the book as
+interesting as it is instructive. I shall await its publication
+with very deep interest.</p>
+
+<p>If my strength permits, it will give me great pleasure to act upon
+your suggestion,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> but just now I am hardly equal to the demands
+of my private correspondence. With cordial regard,</p>
+
+<p class="r">
+I am faithfully yours,<br />
+
+<b>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</b><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="hang">
+<i>To</i> <span class="smcap">William E. Curtis</span>,<br />
+Washington, D. C.<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> To write an Introduction to this volume.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii"></a>{viii}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix"></a>{ix}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#MEXICO">MEXICO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Mexico</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#GUATEMALA_CITY">GUATEMALA CITY.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Guatemala</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#COMAYAGUA">COMAYAGUA.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Honduras</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#MANAGUA">MANAGUA.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Nicaragua</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SAN_SALVADOR">SAN SALVADOR.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of San Salvador</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SAN_JOSE">SAN JOSÉ.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Costa Rica</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#BOGOTA">BOGOTA.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Colombia</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#CARACAS">CARACAS.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Venezuela</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#QUITO">QUITO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Ecuador</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#LIMA">LIMA.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Peru</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x"></a>{x}</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#LA_PAZ_DE_AYACUCHO">LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Bolivia</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_416">416</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#SANTIAGO">SANTIAGO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Chili</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_454">454</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="1" valign="top"><a href="#PATAGONIA">PATAGONIA</a></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_516">516</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#BUENOS_AYRES">BUENOS AYRES.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of the Argentine Republic</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_542">542</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#MONTEVIDEO">MONTEVIDEO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Uruguay</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_591">591</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="#ASUNCION">ASUNCION.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Paraguay</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_623">623</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#RIO_DE_JANEIRO">RIO DE JANEIRO.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top" class="lft"><span class="smcap">The Capital of Brazil</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_660">660</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>:<small>
+<a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#Q">Q</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>,
+<a href="#Y">Y</a>.</small></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_707">707</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xi" id="page_xi"></a>{xi}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Map of South America</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i>.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">It was used in the Days of Moses</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_002">2</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Water-carrier</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ruins of the Covered Way to the Inquisition</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_004">4</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Mexican Muleteer</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_005">5</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Shops</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_006">6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Castle of Chapultepec</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_007">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Tile Front</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_009">9</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Tree of Montezuma</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_010">10</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Prince Yturbide</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_011">11</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">General Grant on a Banana Plantation</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_015">15</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Church of Guadalupe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Iztaccihuatl</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ex-President Gonzales</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_022">22</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">President Porfirio Diaz</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Dome</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">San Cosme Aqueduct, City of Mexico</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Palace of Mexico</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Cathedral, City of Mexico</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Styles of Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Mexican Caballero</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Noche Triste Tree</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Picadors</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Teasing the Bull</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Encore</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Mexican Beggar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On Market-day</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_051">51</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Sunday at Santa Anita</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_053">53</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Mexican Belle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cactus, and Woman kneading Tortillas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_055">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">First Protestant Church in Mexico</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_057">57</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The first Christian Pulpit in America&mdash;Tlaxcala</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Font in old Church of San Francisco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_059">59</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">View of Guatemala City</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_061">61</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ruins of the old Palace at Antigua Guatemala</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Alvarado’s Tree</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ancient Arches</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Old and the New</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">How the Old Town looks now</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_073">73</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Fragment of a Ruined Monastery</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_074">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">José Rufino Barrios</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_075">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Francisco Morazan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Church of San Francesca, Guatemala la Antigua</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">One of fifty-seven Ruined Monasteries</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Façade of an old Church</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_083">83</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Remnant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Fort of San José, Guatemala</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Yniensi Gate, Guatemala</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Volcanic Lake</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On the Road to the Capital</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_093">93</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Tiled House-tops</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Market-place, Guatemala</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In the Rainy Season</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Maguey Plant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Native Sandal</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ornamental, but noisy</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Conspicuous Landmark</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Trail to the Capital</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Glimpse of the Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">View of the Capital</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Popular Thoroughfare</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Church of Merced and Independence Monument, Comayagua<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xii" id="page_xii"></a>{xii}</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Rubber Hunters</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Pita Plant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Harvesting one of the Staples</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Floating Population</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Branch of the Rubber-tree</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Modern Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Up the River</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Mining Settlement</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">View in Nicaragua</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Interior Plain</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">One of the Back Streets</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Plaza of Tegucigalpa</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Making Tortillas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Indigo Works</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Tlachiguero</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">View of Lake from Beach at Managua</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Corinto</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Hide-covered Cart</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Interior Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Indigo Plant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The King of the Mosquitoes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Mahogany Swamp</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Internal Commerce</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">How the Peons live</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Familiar Scene</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Country Chapel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The United States Consulate</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cathedral of St. Peter, Leon</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Pacific Coast of Nicaragua</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Antics on the Bridge</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In the Upper Zone</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Volcanoes of Axusco and Momotombo, from the Cathedral</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Volcano of Cosequina, from the Sea</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">La Union and Volcano of Conchagna</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Fate of Filibusters</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Farming Settlement</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Quesal</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Landing at La Libertad</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">En Route to the Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Peak of San Salvador</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Plaza</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Spanish-American Courtship</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Hacienda</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Interior of a San Salvador House</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Typical Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">What alarms the Citizens</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Yzalco from a Distance</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Yzalco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In the Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Hauling Sugar-cane</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Crater of a Volcano</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Rubber-trees</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Road from Port Limon to San José</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peon</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Banana Plantation</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Picking Coffee</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Marimba</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Coffee-drying</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Don Bernardo de Soto, President of Costa Rica</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Barranquilla</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Carthagena</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Entrance to the Old Fortress, Carthagena</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Colombian Military Men</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On the Magdalena</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Colombian ’Gators</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Vegetable Ivory Plant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">En Route to Bogota</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Sabana of Bogota</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Santa Fé de Bogota</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Monument in the Plaza of Los Martirs</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Plaza, and Statue of Bolivar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Going to the Market</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Caballero</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Orchid</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Over the Mountains in a “Silla”</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_253">253</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Natural Bridge of Pandi, Colombia</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Don Rafael Nuñez, President</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_256">256</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Waiting for the New York Steamer</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In the Suburbs of La Guayra</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Still more Suburban</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On a Coffee Plantation</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On a Back Street</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Interior Court of a Caracas House</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_273">273</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Spanish Missionary Work</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Woman’s chief Occupation</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Bodega</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Glass of Aguardiente</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Venezuela Belle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_283">283</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Lower Floor of the House<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiii" id="page_xiii"></a>{xiii}</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Old Patio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_289">289</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Chocolate in the Rough</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Separating the Cocoa-beans</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Puerto Cabello</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_296">296</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Along the Coast</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The River at Guayaquil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_301">301</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The River above Guayaquil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_303">303</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An average Dwelling</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_304">304</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Guayaquil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Person of Influence</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Family Circle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cathedral at Guayaquil, built of Bamboo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Commercial Thoroughfare</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The President’s Palace</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Outskirts of Guayaquil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_311">311</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Business of Importance</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Pineapple Farm</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Water Merchant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_314">314</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Freight Train on the Way</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Passenger Train</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Common Carrier</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_317">317</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Hotel on the Route to Quito</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Waiting for the Mules to Feed</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_319">319</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">En Route to the Sea</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Somewhere near the Summit</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Altar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Street in Quito</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_324">324</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Where Pizarro first Landed</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_325">325</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Equipped for the Andes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Old Inca Trail</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Typical Country Mansion</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Wayside Shrine</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Charcoal Peddler</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_333">333</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Government Building at Quito</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Court of a Quito Dwelling</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_336">336</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">What the Earthquakes left</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_338">338</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Professional Beggar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_339">339</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Ecuador Belle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Hotel on the Coast</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_343">343</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Customs Officers</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Home on the Coast</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_347">347</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Peruvian Soldier and Rabona</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Looking Seaward</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Boatman on the Coast</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_354">354</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Lima and its Environs</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_356">356</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Grand Plaza, Lima</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Chamber</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_366">366</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Interior of a Lima Dwelling</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_368">368</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Palace</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Belle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_370">370</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Watching the Procession</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_371">371</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Daughter of the Incas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_373">373</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ruins of the War</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_375">375</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Interior of the ordinary Sort of House</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_378">378</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A very Common Spectacle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Milk-peddler</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_381">381</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Mindless of Care</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_383">383</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">View of Cuzco and the Nevado<br />
+of Asungata from the Brow of the Sacsahuaman</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_389">389</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Between Battles, Balls</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_393">393</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Warrior at Rest</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_397">397</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Gate-way to the Andes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_399">399</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Henry Meiggs</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_402">402</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Heart of the Andes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_404">404</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Inca Reminiscence</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_405">405</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cowhide Bridge over the Rimac</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_407">407</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Inca Ruins of Unknown Age</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_408">408</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Settlement of this Century</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_409">409</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A City of Four Centuries Ago</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_410">410</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Bit of Inca Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_411">411</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Relic of a Past Civilization</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_412">412</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ruins of the Temple of the Sun</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_413">413</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Old Settler</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_414">414</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Fresh from the Tomb</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_414">414</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Where Peru’s Wealth came from</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_417">417</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Peruvian Port</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_419">419</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Old Trail</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_420">420</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Arequipa</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_421">421</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Vicuña</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_424">424</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Lake Titicaca</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_425">425</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Street in Cuzco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_428">428</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ruins of an Inca Temple</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_429">429</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Convent of Santa Domingo, Cuzco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_430">430</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">What the Spaniards left</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_431">431</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Where the Guano Lies</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_432">432</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Nitrate Mining Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_433">433</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Guano Islands</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_435">435</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Across the Continent</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_437">437</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Station on the Road</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_438">438</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Chasquis at Rest</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_440">440</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Chasquis Asleep in the Mountains</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_441">441</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Bit of La Paz</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_442">442</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Cathedral at La Paz</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_443">443</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Ancient Bridge in La Paz<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiv" id="page_xiv"></a>{xiv}</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_445">445</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Bolivian Elevator</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_446">446</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Bolivian Cavalryman</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_447">447</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Home in the Andes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_448">448</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Juan Fernandez</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_450">450</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cumberland Bay</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_451">451</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Tablet to Alexander Selkirk</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_453">453</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Harbor of Valparaiso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_455">455</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Victoria Street, Valparaiso</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_459">459</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Santa Lucia</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_467">467</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Zama-cuaca</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_469">469</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Exposition Building, Santiago</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_471">471</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Statue of Bernard O’Higgins, Santiago</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_474">474</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Patrick Lynch</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_475">475</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Peons of Chili</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_477">477</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The “Esmeralda”</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_481">481</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Inca Queen and Princess</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_485">485</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Señora Cousino</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_491">491</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Belle of Chili dressed for Morning Mass</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_497">497</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Solid Silver Spur</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_505">505</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Over the Andes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_506">506</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Mount Aconcagua</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_507">507</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Uspallata Pass</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_509">509</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Caught in the Snow</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_511">511</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Road Cut in the Rocks</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_512">512</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Station in the Mountains</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_513">513</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Condor</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_515">515</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cape Froward (Patagonia), Strait of Magellan</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_517">517</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Fuegians Visiting a Man-of-war</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_519">519</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Fuegian Feast</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_521">521</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Signs of Civilization</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_523">523</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Port Famine</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_526">526</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Starvation Beach</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_529">529</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Use of Lasso and Bolas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_531">531</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In their Ostrich Robes</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_532">532</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Patagonian Belle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_533">533</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Guanaco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_539">539</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Patagonian Indians</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_541">541</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Harbor, Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_542">542</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The City of Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_545">545</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Loading Cargo at Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_548">548</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Going Ashore at Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_549">549</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Private Residence in Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_552">552</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Colon Theatre, Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_554">554</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Argentine Ranchman</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_564">564</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Cathedral of Buenos Ayres</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_567">567</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Gaucho</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_570">570</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">General Rosas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_573">573</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Palace of Don Manuel Rosas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_575">575</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Map of the Argentine Republic</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_580">580</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Country Scene in the Argentine Republic</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_584">584</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Juarez Celman, President of the Argentine Republic</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_587">587</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The City of Montevideo, looking towards the Harbor</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_591">591</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Harbor of Montevideo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_593">593</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Maximo Santos, of Uruguay</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_595">595</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">One of the Old Streets</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_597">597</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Montevideo&mdash;the Ocean Side</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_603">603</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Scene in Montevideo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_608">608</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Gaspar Francia, First President of Paraguay</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_624">624</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Street in Asuncion</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_625">625</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Lopez, the Tyrant</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_626">626</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">After the War</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_627">627</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Asuncion, from the West</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_628">628</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Asuncion&mdash;the Palace and Cathedral</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_629">629</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Wreck of the Old Cathedral</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_631">631</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Station on the Asuncion Railway</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_633">633</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Visit to the Spring</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_634">634</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Paraguayans at Home</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_635">635</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Paraguay Flower-girl</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_636">636</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Remains of the Palace of Lopez</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_637">637</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Interior of the Lopez Palace</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_639">639</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Cathedral, Asuncion</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_640">640</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Market-place at Asuncion</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_641">641</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Paraguay Horseman</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_642">642</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Paraguay Belles</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_643">643</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Costumes of the Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_644">644</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Interior Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_645">645</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Home, Sweet Home</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_646">646</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Mandioca</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_647">647</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Ox-cart on the Pampas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_649">649</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Curing Yerba Mate</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_650">650</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Siesta</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_651">651</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Paraguay Hotel</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_653">653</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Native Pappoose and Cradle</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_654">654</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Hacienda</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_655">655</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">People of “El Gran Chaco”</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_656">656</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">An Armadillo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_657">657</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Ranch on El Gran Chaco</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_658">658</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Bay of Rio de Janeiro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_661">661</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Street in Rio<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xv" id="page_xv"></a>{xv}</span></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_662">662</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The City of Rio from the Bay</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_663">663</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Aqueduct at Rio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_665">665</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Avenue of Royal Palms&mdash;Rio</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_666">666</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Prettiest Things in Brazil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_667">667</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Brazilian Hacienda</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_669">669</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Old City Palace</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_671">671</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">In the Suburbs</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_672">672</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Cottages in the Interior</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_673">673</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Iguana</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_675">675</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Brazilian Laundry</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_676">676</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">A Country School</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_677">677</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Brazilian Country-house</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_679">679</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Up the River</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_681">681</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Dom Pedro II.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_682">682</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">On the Way to Petropolis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_683">683</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Empress of Brazil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_685">685</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Dom Pedro’s Palace at Petropolis</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_687">687</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Colored Saint</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_691">691</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Statue of Dom Pedro I.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_693">693</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Carrying Coffee to the Steamer</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_696">696</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Market-place in Country Town</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_697">697</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">“Sereno-o-o-o-o-o! Sereno-o-o-o-o-o!”</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_699">699</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Slave Quarters in the Country</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_702">702</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">The Political Issue in Brazil</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_703">703</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">Military Men</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_705">705</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xvi" id="page_xvi"></a>{xvi}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<h1>THE CAPITALS OF SPANISH AMERICA.</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="MEXICO" id="MEXICO"></a>MEXICO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.</span></h2>
+
+<p>W<small>ITH</small> the exception of Buenos Ayres and Santiago, Chili, the city of
+Mexico is the largest and the finest capital in Spanish America; but
+unfortunately the shadow of the sixteenth century still rests upon it.
+It wounds the pride of the Yankee tourist to discover that so little of
+our boasted influence has lapped over the border, and that the historic
+halls of the Montezumas are only spattered with the modern ideas we
+exemplify. The native traveller still prefers his donkey to the railroad
+train, and carries a burden upon his back instead of using a wagon.
+Water is still peddled about the capital of Mexico in jars, and the
+native farmer uses a plough whose pattern was old in the days of Moses.
+Nowhere do ancient and modern customs come into such intimate contrast
+as in the city of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The people are highly civilized in spots. Besides the most novel and
+recent product of modern science, one finds in use the crudest, rudest
+implement of antiquity. Types of four centuries can be seen in a single
+group in any of the plazas. Under the finest palaces, whose ceilings are
+frescoed by Italian artists, whose walls are covered with the rarest
+paintings, and shelter libraries selected with the choicest taste, one
+finds a common <i>bodega</i>, where the native drink is dealt out in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span> gourds,
+and the <i>peon</i> stops to eat his <i>tortilla</i>. Women and men are seen
+carrying upon their heads enormous burdens through streets lighted by
+electricity, and stop to ask through a telephone where their load shall
+be delivered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b002_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b002_sml.jpg" width="364" height="202" alt="IT WAS USED IN THE DAYS OF MOSES." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">IT WAS USED IN THE DAYS OF MOSES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The correspondence of the Government is dictated to stenographers and
+transcribed upon type-writers; and every form of modern improvement for
+the purpose of economizing time and saving labor is given the
+opportunity of a test, even if it is not permanently adopted. There is
+no Government that gives greater encouragement to inventive genius than
+the administration of President Diaz, and it has been one of the highest
+aims of his official career to modernize Mexico. The twelve years from
+1876, when he came into power, until 1889, when his third term
+commenced, may be reckoned the progressive age of our neighborly
+republic; but the common people are still prejudiced against
+innovations, and resist them. In all the public places, and at the
+entrance of the post-office, are men squatting upon the pavement, with
+an inkhorn and a pad of paper, whose business is to conduct the
+correspondence of those whose literary attainments are unequal to the
+task. Such odd things are still to be seen at the capital of a nation
+that subsidizes steamship lines and railways, and supports schools where
+all the modern languages and sciences are taught, and has a compulsory
+education law upon its statute-books. In the old Inquisition Building,
+where the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span> bodies of Jews and heretics have been racked and roasted, is
+a medical college, sustained by the Government for the free education of
+all students whose attainments reach the standard of matriculation; and
+bones are now sawn asunder in the name of science instead of religion.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b003_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b003_sml.jpg" width="170" height="265" alt="A WATER-CARRIER." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">A WATER-CARRIER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The country within whose limits can be produced every plant that grows
+between the equator and the arctics, and whose mines have yielded
+one-half of the existing silver in the world, is habitually bankrupt,
+and wooden effigies of saints stolen from the churches are sold as fuel
+for locomotives purchased with the proceeds of public taxation. What
+Mexico needs most is peace, industry, and education. The Government now
+pays a bounty to steamships upon every immigrant they bring, and is
+importing coolie labor to develop the coffee and sugar lands. Since 1876
+there has not been a political revolution of any importance, and the
+prospect of permanent peace is hopeful.</p>
+
+<p>The political struggle in Mexico, since the independence of the
+Republic, has been, and will continue to be, between antiquated,
+bigoted, and despotic Romanism, allied with the ancient aristocracy,
+under whose encouragement Maximilian came, on the one hand, and the
+spirit of intellectual, industrial, commercial, and social progress on
+the other. The pendulum has swung backward and forward with irregularity
+for sixty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> years; every vibration has been registered in blood. All of
+the weight of Romish influence, intellectual, financial, and spiritual,
+has been employed to destroy the Republic and restore the Monarchy,
+while the Liberal party has strangled the Church and stripped it of
+every possession. Both factions have fought under a black flag, and the
+war has been as cruel and vindictive on one side as upon the other; but
+the result is apparent and permanent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b004_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b004_sml.jpg" width="280" height="315" alt="RUINS OF THE COVERED WAY TO THE INQUISITION." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF THE COVERED WAY TO THE INQUISITION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No priest dare wear a cassock in the streets of Mexico; the confessional
+is public, parish schools are prohibited, and although the clergy still
+exercise a powerful influence among the common people, whose
+superstitious ignorance has not yet been reached by the free schools and
+compulsory education law, in politics they are powerless. The old
+clerical party, the Spanish aristocracy, whose forefathers came over
+after the Conquest, and reluctantly surrendered to Indian domination<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span>
+when the Viceroys were driven out and the Republic established, have
+given up the struggle, and will probably never attempt to renew it. They
+were responsible for the tragic episode of Maximilian, and still regret
+the failure to restore the Monarchy. The Aztecs sit again upon the
+throne of Mexico, after an interval of three hundred and fifty years,
+and the men whose minds direct the affairs of the Republic have tawny
+skins and straight black hair.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b005_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b005_sml.jpg" width="174" height="222" alt="MEXICAN MULETEER." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">MEXICAN MULETEER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several of the aristocrats have left the country and reside in Paris,
+receiving enormous revenues from their Mexican estates, which they visit
+biennially, but will not live upon. Others are friends of Diaz,
+sympathize with the progressive element, and will turn out full-fledged
+Republicans when the issue is raised again. The finest houses in Mexico
+are unoccupied, and the palatial villas of Tacubaya, the aristocratic
+suburb, are in a state of decay. They are too large and too costly for
+rental, and the owners are too obstinate and indifferent to sell them.
+Perhaps these haughty dons still have a hope of coming back some time to
+rule again as they did years ago, but they will die as they have lived
+since Maximilian’s failure, impotent but unreconciled.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful castle of Chapultepec, which was dismantled during the
+last revolution, but has been restored and fitted up as a beautiful
+suburban retreat for the Presidents of Mexico, was occupied by
+Maximilian and Carlotta in imitation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span> Montezumas, whose palace
+stood upon the rocky eminence. Around the place is a grove of monstrous
+cypress-trees, whose age is numbered by the centuries, and whose girth
+measures from thirty to fifty feet. It is the finest assemblage of
+arborial monarchs on the continent, and sheltered imperial power
+hundreds of years before Columbus set his westward sails. Before the
+Hemisphere was known or thought of, here stood a gorgeous palace, and
+its foundations still endure. Here the rigid ceremonial etiquette of
+Aztec imperialism was enforced, and human sacrifice was made to invoke
+the favor of the Sun.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b006_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b006_sml.jpg" width="168" height="231" alt="SHOPS." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">SHOPS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Mexican society one meets many notable people; some are remarkable
+for talent, or their birth, etc., and others for the strange
+vicissitudes of their lives. For example, in an obscure little house
+lives a well-educated gentleman who is, by lineal descent from Montezuma
+II., the legal heir to the Aztec throne, and should be Emperor of
+Anahuac. This Señor Montezuma, however, indulges in no idle dream of the
+restoration of the ancient Empire, and quietly accepts the meagre
+pension paid him by the Government. In contradistinction to this scion
+of the house of Montezuma, the heirs of Cortez receive immense revenues
+from the estates of the “Marquis del Valle” (Cortez), live in grand
+style, and are haughty and influential. There is also a lineal
+descendant of the Indian emperor Chimalpopoca. This young man is a civil
+engineer, industrious, and quite independent.</p>
+
+<p>The acknowledged heir to the throne of Mexico is young<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b007_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b007_sml.jpg" width="542" height="283" alt="CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b009_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b009_sml.jpg" width="191" height="362" alt="TILE FRONT." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">TILE FRONT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Augustin Yturbide, according to the feelings of the few and feeble
+remnants of the Monarchical party; but it may be said to the young man’s
+credit that he entirely repudiates their homage, although he is the heir
+to two brief and ill-starred dynasties. He is the grandson of the
+Emperor Augustin Yturbide, and the adopted heir of Maximilian and
+Carlotta. The Yturbide they call “Emperor” was an officer in the Spanish
+army when Mexico was a colony, and during the revolution headed by the
+priest Hidalgo, in 1810, he fought on the side of the King. But, being
+dismissed from the army in 1816, he retired to seclusion, to remain
+until the movement of 1820, when he placed himself at the head of an
+irregular force, and captured a large sum of money that was being
+conveyed to the sea-coast. With these resources he promulgated what is
+known in history as “the plan of Iguala,” which proposed the
+organization of Mexico into an independent empire, and the election of a
+ruler by the people. The revolution was bloodless, and in May, 1822,
+Yturbide proclaimed himself Emperor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span> declared the crown hereditary, and
+established a court. He was formally crowned in the July following, but
+in December Santa Anna proclaimed the Republic, and after a brief and
+ignominious reign Yturbide left Mexico on May 11, 1822, just a year,
+lacking a week, from the date he assumed power. The Congress gave him a
+pension of $25,000 yearly, and required that he should live in Italy;
+but impelled by an insane desire to regain his crown, in May, 1824, he
+returned to Mexico, and was shot in the following July.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b010_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b010_sml.jpg" width="284" height="287" alt="THE TREE OF MONTEZUMA." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">THE TREE OF MONTEZUMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He left a son, Angel de Yturbide, who came to the United States with his
+mother, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Georgetown, District
+of Columbia, the Government having given them a liberal pension. There
+he fell in love<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b011_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b011_sml.jpg" width="291" height="522" alt="PRINCE YTURBIDE." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">PRINCE YTURBIDE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">with Miss Alice Green, the daughter of a modest but prosperous merchant
+of the town, and married her. They had one child, the so-called Prince
+Augustin, who, when three years old, with the consent of his ambitious
+mother, was adopted by the childless Maximilian and Carlotta, in the
+vain hope that the act might in a measure increase their popularity
+among the Mexicans.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Maximilian’s fate was fast overtaking him. When he saw the
+catastrophe was at hand, he determined to save the young Yturbide, and
+with the assistance of the Archbishop of Mexico notified Madame Yturbide
+that her child would be placed on a certain steamer reaching Havana at
+such a date; and it was there the mother was united to him after a
+separation of two years. Maximilian and Carlotta had surrounded the
+young prince with all the elegancies of royalty, and he retained many of
+their royal gifts. His father was then dead, and his mother had sole
+charge of his education. He was educated at Washington, where Madame
+Yturbide lived in a fine house on the corner of Nineteenth and N
+streets. When her son came of age she sold her house and returned with
+him to Mexico. His intention was to enter the army at once, but by the
+advice of his Mexican friends he entered the national military college
+for a course of study before taking his commission. He is a handsome
+young man, very quiet and prepossessing. His abilities can scarcely be
+judged so far, but he has always conducted himself with great
+good-sense. Madame Yturbide is now with him in Mexico. One of the most
+promising signs of the permanency of the Republic is the presence in the
+party of progress of this young man, whose name represents all the
+ancient aristocracy desires to restore. He has inherited two worthless
+crests; but, whether from policy or principle, has added his youthful
+strength and the traditions that surround his name to the support of the
+Diaz administration.</p>
+
+<p>The widow of General Santa Anna is a woman who played a prominent part
+in the political tragedies that have succeeded one another with such
+great rapidity upon the Mexican stage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> Until her death in the autumn of
+1886, she was an object of interest to all visitors to the capital, and
+always welcomed cordially strangers who called upon her, provided they
+would permit her to smoke her cigarettes, and talk about her beauty and
+the attentions she had received in the past.</p>
+
+<p>Santa Anna is not so highly estimated in Mexico as in some other parts
+of the world where people are not so familiar with his eccentric and
+adventurous career. He was a man of remarkable natural abilities, force
+of character, energy, and personal courage, but devoid of principle,
+education, culture, and mindful only of his own interests. He served all
+political parties in turn. She was his second wife, and was only
+thirteen years old when he married her, in the fifth term of his
+presidency, and when he was trying to set himself up as an absolute
+monarch. For twenty years her life was spent in a camp, surrounded by
+the whirl of warfare. Her husband was five times President of Mexico,
+and four times Military Dictator in absolute power. He was banished,
+recalled, banished again, and finally died, denounced by all as a
+traitor. She had seen much “glory,” and had received unlimited
+adulation, but she hardly ever enjoyed one thoroughly peaceful month in
+her life.</p>
+
+<p>It created a sensation in Mexico when the pretty peon girl, Dolores
+Testa, was suddenly raised from abject poverty to affluence. The
+Dictator ordered all to address his bride as “Your Highness,”
+ladies-in-waiting were appointed in order to teach the bewildered little
+Dolores how to play her rôle in the great world, and then the President
+organized for her a body-guard of twenty-five military men, who were
+uniformed in white and gold, and were styled “los Guardias de la Alteza”
+(her Highness’s Body-guard). When the President’s wife attended the
+theatre these guards rode in advance of and at the sides of the coach,
+each bearing a lighted torch. During the performance they remained in
+the <i>patio</i> or <i>foyer</i> of the theatre, and then escorted her Highness
+back to the palace in the same order. Such was the power of General
+Santa Anna in those days that even the clergy bent before him; and when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b015_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b015_sml.jpg" width="368" height="521" alt="GENERAL GRANT ON A BANANA PLANTATION." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">GENERAL GRANT ON A BANANA PLANTATION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">his young wife went to mass, the priests, attended by their acolytes,
+actually used to leave the cathedral to meet her on the pavement, and
+with cross and lighted tapers escort her from her carriage to her seat
+within the church, and at the conclusion of the mass accompanied her to
+her coach.</p>
+
+<p>Her last days were quite in contrast with the glory of her youth. She
+owned a residence in the city and a lovely country-seat in Tacubaya, the
+aristocratic suburb; her wardrobes and chests were filled with rich
+robes of velvet, satin, and silk, costly laces, and magnificent jewels;
+but she was too listless to interest herself in anything. No stranger
+who by chance might see her ex-highness at home, with her pretty feet
+thrust into down-trodden old leather shoes, and her unkempt hair covered
+by a common cotton <i>rebosa</i>, could ever, by the greatest effort of
+imagination, possibly fancy her to be the same person who once dazzled
+Mexico by a display of pomp that exceeded even that of the Empress
+Carlotta. Mrs. Santa Anna was an estimable woman, but was almost
+forgotten by the generation that once bent before her. Her family plate,
+and the diamond snuffbox which was presented her husband when he was
+Dictator, and cost twenty-five thousand dollars, were, during the latter
+years of her life, and still are, in the National pawn-shops of Mexico,
+and his wooden leg, captured in battle during our war with Mexico, is in
+the Smithsonian Institute.</p>
+
+<p>The family of the great Juarez, the Washington of Mexico, an Aztec peon,
+who overthrew the empire of Maximilian as Cortez had overthrown the
+ancient dynasty of his ancestors, live in good style in the city of
+Mexico, the daughters being well married, and the son the secretary of
+the Mexican legation at Berlin. They all talk English well, and are very
+highly educated. Every American who visits their city is handsomely
+entertained by them.</p>
+
+<p>But time spent in conjecturing the future of the aristocratic or
+clerical party is wholly wasted. No priest, no bishop, is allowed by law
+to hold real estate; titles vested in religious orders are worthless;
+the Church is forbidden to acquire<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> wealth, and has been stripped of the
+accumulated treasures of three centuries. The candlesticks and altar
+ornaments are gilt instead of gold, and the heavy embroideries in gold
+and silver have been replaced by tinsel. A solid silver balustrade which
+has stood in one of the churches since the time of Cortez was torn down
+not long ago and taken to the mint, and a chandelier in the cathedral of
+Puebla, when it was melted, made sixty thousand silver dollars.</p>
+
+<p>There still stands in the cathedral at Guadalupe, on the spot where the
+Mother of Christ appeared to a poor shepherd and stamped her image in
+beautiful colors upon his cotton <i>serape</i>, a double railing from the
+altar to the choir, perhaps sixty feet long and three feet high, which
+is said to be of solid silver, with considerable gold. This is the only
+one of the remnants of pontifical magnificence which remains
+undespoiled, for the superstition which pervades all classes of society
+has protected it; but the altars have been stripped of the jewels which
+were bestowed by grateful people who had received the protection of the
+Virgin, who watches over those in distress, and the veneering of gold
+which once covered the altar carvings has all been ripped off. It is
+said that an enterprising American offered to replace the solid silver
+railing with a plated one, and give a bonus of three hundred thousand
+dollars to the Church, but the proposition was rejected.</p>
+
+<p>This Guadalupe shrine is the most sacred spot in Mexico, and to it come,
+on the 12th of each December, the anniversary of the appearance of the
+Virgin, thousands upon thousands of pilgrims, bringing their sick and
+lame and blind to drink of the miraculous waters of a spring which the
+Virgin opened on the mountain-side to convince the sceptical shepherd of
+her divine power. The waters have a very strong taste of sulphur, and
+are said to be a potent remedy for diseases of the blood. In testimony
+of this the walls of the chapel, which is built over the spring, are
+covered with quaint, rudely written certificates of people who claim to
+have been miraculously cured by its use. In the cathedral are multitudes
+of other testimonials from people who have been preserved from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span> death in
+danger by having appealed for protection to the Virgin of Guadalupe; but
+nowadays, instead of sending jewels and other articles of value as they
+did when the Church was able to protect its property, they hang up
+gaudily painted inscriptions reciting specifically the blessings they
+have received. On the crest of the hill is a massive shaft of stone,
+representing the main-mast of a ship with the yards out and sails
+spread. This was erected many years ago by a sea-captain who was caught
+in a storm at sea, and who made a vow to the Virgin that if she would
+bring him safe to land he would carry his main-mast and sails to
+Guadalupe, and raise them there as an evidence of his gratitude for her
+mercy. He fulfilled his vow, and within the double tiers of stone are
+the masts and canvas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b019_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b019_sml.jpg" width="320" height="258" alt="CHURCH OF GUADALUPE." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH OF GUADALUPE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the cathedral is the original blanket, or <i>serape</i>, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b020_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b020_sml.jpg" width="326" height="496" alt="ISTACCIHUATL." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">ISTACCIHUATL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the shepherd wore when the Virgin appeared to him, and upon which she
+stamped her portrait. It is preserved in a glass case over the altar,
+and may be seen by paying a small fee to the priest. Copies of the
+Guadalupe Virgin are common and familiar; one can scarcely look<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span> in any
+direction in Mexico without seeing the representation upon the walls of
+a house, or pendent from the watch-chain of a passer-by; but the average
+reproduction is a great improvement upon the original, which is a dull
+and heavy daub, without any evidences of skill in its execution, or even
+the average degree of accuracy in drawing. According to the story, the
+portrait was stamped upon the <i>serape</i> or blanket of the shepherd, and
+this all Catholics in Mexico devoutly believe; but a close examination
+reveals the fact that it is done in ordinary oil colors, upon a piece of
+ordinary canvas, and that the pigments peel off like those of any poorly
+executed piece of work.</p>
+
+<p>In the ancient town of Guadalupe, in a house near the cathedral, was
+signed the famous treaty determining the boundary line between Mexico
+and the United States, while in a cemetery on the hill General Santa
+Anna lies buried.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexican people, like all the Spanish race, are fond of ceremony, but
+the inauguration of their President is not attended with so much display
+or interest as is shown on similar occasions on this side of the Rio
+Grande. Perhaps it is because the event occurs so often. During the two
+hundred and eighty-six years between the fall of the Empire and the
+establishment of the Republic, there were but sixty-four Viceroys; but
+during the sixty-three years that followed there have been thirty-two
+Presidents, seven Dictators, and two Emperors. Although the
+constitutional term of the presidency is four years, but two in the long
+list were permitted to serve out their time, and they were the last,
+which at least shows improvement in the political condition of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>I witnessed the inauguration of President Diaz on the 1st of December,
+1884. The ceremonies, which were simple enough to satisfy the most
+critical of Democrats, took place in the handsome theatre erected in
+1854, and named in honor of the Emperor Yturbide. It is now called the
+Chamber of Deputies, and is occupied by the lower branch of the National
+Legislature, a body of some two hundred and twenty-seven men. The
+Senate, composed of fifty-six members, meets in a long, narrow<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span> room in
+the old National Palace which was formerly used as a chapel by the
+Viceroys. The viceregal throne, a massive chair of carved and gilded
+rosewood, still stands upon a platform opposite the entrance, under a
+canopy of crimson velvet, but upon its crest is carved the American
+eagle, with a snake in its mouth, the emblem of Republican Mexico.
+Maximilian hung a golden crown over the eagle; Juarez tore it down and
+placed the broken sword of the Emperor in the talons of the bird. The
+Aztecs say that the founders of their empire, whose origin is lost in
+the mists of fable, were told to march on until they found an eagle
+sitting upon a cactus with a snake in its mouth, and there they should
+rest and build a great city. The bird and the bush were discovered in
+the valley that is shadowed by the twin volcanoes, and there the
+imperishable walls were laid which are now bidding farewell to their
+seventh century.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b022_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b022_sml.jpg" width="186" height="237" alt="EX-PRESIDENT GONZALES." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">EX-PRESIDENT GONZALES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old Theatre Yturbide has not been remodelled since it became the
+shelter of legislative power, and all the natural light it gets is
+filtered through the opaque panels of the dome, so that during the day
+sessions the Deputies are always in a state of partial eclipse. It is
+about as badly off for light as our own Congress. The members occupy
+comfortable arm-chairs in the parquet, arranged in semicircular rows.
+The presiding officer and the secretaries sit upon the stage,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> and at
+either side is a sort of pulpit from which formal addresses are made,
+although conversational debates are conducted from the floor. The
+orchestra circle and galleries are divided into boxes, and are reserved
+for spectators, but are seldom occupied, as the proceedings of the
+Congress are not regarded with much public interest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b023_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b023_sml.jpg" width="297" height="350" alt="PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The members of both Houses have no regular seats, but sit where they
+please. As they have few constituents to write to, they use no desks.
+There are some that might be used,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> but never are. The members vote
+themselves no stationery, postage-stamps, or incidentals, as our
+Congressmen do, but are paid two hundred and fifty dollars a month
+during the two years for which they are elected. Habit and the exercise
+of military power have reversed the constitutional relations of the
+executive and legislative branches of the Government, and the business
+of the Congress sometimes is not to pass bills for the approval or
+disapproval of the President, but to enact such legislation as he
+recommends. The members of the Cabinet have seats in both houses of the
+Congress, participate in the debates, and submit measures for
+consideration, but have no vote; and the President himself often
+exercises his constitutional right to meet and act with the Legislature.
+Very seldom is a law passed that does not come prepared and approved by
+the Executive Department, and to oppose the policy of the administration
+is usually fatal to the ambition of Mexican statesmen.</p>
+
+<p>In appearance the members will compare favorably with those of our
+Congress, and they are far in advance of the average State Legislature
+in ability and learning. The first features that strike a visitor
+familiar with legislative bodies in the United States is the decorum
+with which proceedings are conducted, and the scrupulous care with which
+every one is clothed. On certain formal occasions it is usual for all of
+the members to appear in evening dress, which gives the body the
+appearance of a social gathering rather than a legislative assembly.
+Nine-tenths of the members are white, and the other tenth show little
+trace of Aztec blood. There is never anything like confusion, and the
+laws of propriety are never transgressed. One hears no bad syntax or
+incorrect pronunciation in the speeches; no coarse language is used, and
+no wrangles ever occur like those which so often disgrace our own
+Congress. The statesmen never tilt their chairs back, nor lounge about
+the chamber; their feet are never raised upon the railings or desks;
+there is no letter-writing going on; the floor is never littered with
+scraps of paper; no spittoons are to be seen, and no conversation is
+permitted. Extreme dignity and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span> decorum mark the proceedings, which are
+always short and silent, and the solemnity which prevails gives a
+funereal aspect to the scene.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/illus-b025_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b025_sml.jpg" width="320" height="416" alt="THE DOME." /></a>
+<br />
+<span class="caption">THE DOME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But everybody smokes. The secretary lights a cigarette at the end of a
+roll-call, and the chairman blows a puff of smoke<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> from his lips before
+he announces a decision. The members are constantly rolling cigarettes
+with deft fingers, and the people in the galleries do the same, so that
+a cloud of gray vapor always hangs over the body, and in the dark
+corners of the chamber one can see the glow of burning tobacco like the
+flash of fire-flies. But cigars are never used, nor pipes, and no one
+chews tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Whole sessions pass away with nothing but formal business, such as
+receiving communications from the Executives of the States or petitions
+from the people, which are rarely acted on. Occasionally a bill is
+passed, but it passes almost as a matter of course, some of the members
+giving a delicate little wave of the hand to the secretary as he calls
+their names by sight, others merely smiling at him, some paying no
+attention whatever to him, but none of them taking the trouble to open
+their mouths or rise, as the rules require. Weeks and months pass away
+without a speech of any kind, or even a point of order.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of this body, and with a similar indifference, Profirio
+Diaz was inaugurated President of the United States of Mexico. He had
+been President once before, having seized the government by force of
+arms from Lerdo, but was so just and wise a ruler, and possessed the
+confidence of the people so thoroughly, that he was allowed to serve out
+a full term, being one of the few Mexican Presidents to enjoy that
+privilege. He would have been re-elected at the expiration of his
+administration but for a constitutional provision prohibiting it. Four
+years passed and he was restored to power by the votes of the people
+against a man whose administration was a saturnalia of corruption and
+extravagance, that ended with a bankrupt treasury and an impoverished
+people.</p>
+
+<p>The last days of the term of Gonzales were stormy. His attempt to secure
+certain unpopular financial legislation created great excitement, and
+the students of the universities, who numbered six or seven thousand,
+made a protest which would have ended in violence and assassination but
+for the overpowering military guard that surrounded the palace. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span>
+students would have resisted any attempt of Gonzales to prevent the
+inauguration of his successor, and kept up a demonstration against the
+existing Government until that event occurred.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b027_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b027_sml.jpg" width="287" height="334" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SAN COSME AQUEDUCT, CITY OF MEXICO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was nine o’clock on the morning that the ceremonies were to occur.
+Long lines of bayonets and sabres glittered in the streets around the
+theatre, regiments of cavalry and infantry were drawn up in the Alameda
+and Plaza, squads of police, on foot and mounted, were marching here and
+there. Bands of students yell “<i>Viva!</i>” and “<i>Mira!</i>” Some were fired
+into, and several students wounded. The shops were nearly all closed
+early in the day; huge iron padlocks and bolts that would resist a
+sledge-hammer for half a day hung on doors<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span> that but a few days ago were
+thronged with customers, and the few that remained open were merely
+ajar, ready to be slammed shut in a minute, and the ponderous bars swung
+into place.</p>
+
+<p>The attendance at the theatre was not large, and consisted almost
+entirely of officials, foreign ambassadors, and the personal friends of
+the President, who, like the members of the Congress, were nearly all in
+full dress, but carried revolvers in their pockets for use if the
+occasion demanded. In a gilded box over the stage was the wife of
+General Diaz, of girlish years and striking beauty, attended by a party
+of lady friends and two military officers resplendent in gold lace.
+There was no crush, no confusion, but a suppressed excitement and
+anxiety, made intense by the recollection that such incidents in the
+history of Mexico had been usually attended by war. The outgoing
+President was regarded as the enemy of his successor, and the Congress
+was about equally divided in its allegiance. The former was not present,
+and his movements and intentions were unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The members of the Senate sat in a double row of chairs which had been
+placed around the sides of the parquet for their accommodation, and all
+of them wore white kid gloves. The members of the Lower House, the
+Deputies, sat in their accustomed seats, and their chief officer
+presided. Promptly at nine o’clock General Diaz, in full evening dress,
+with white gloves, was escorted to the platform by a committee of
+Senators, took the oath of office with his back to the audience, and
+passed rapidly out of the building. The whole proceeding did not last
+more than five minutes, and when the clerk announced that the oath of
+office had been taken in accordance with the law, and declared Diaz
+“Constitutional President,” the audience quietly left the chamber as if
+nothing more than the ordinary routine had taken place.</p>
+
+<p>But the excitement was not abated. The oath had been taken, but the
+outgoing administration by its absence from the ceremonies had
+intensified the anxiety lest the admission of Diaz to the Palace might
+be denied. Accompanied by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> committee of Senators and an escort of
+cavalry. President Diaz drove half a mile to the Government building,
+and to his gratification the column of soldiers which was drawn up
+before the entrance opened to let him pass. The plaza which the building
+fronts was crowded with thousands of people, who announced the arrival
+of the new President by a deafening cheer, and the chimes of the old
+cathedral rang a melodious welcome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b029_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b029_sml.jpg" width="364" height="279" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PALACE OF MEXICO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span></p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the old palace, which stands upon the foundations of
+the heathen temple Cortez destroyed, is an enormous court, in which the
+President’s party alighted and ascended the marble stairs. The sentinels
+which lined the staircase saluted them respectfully, and this omen
+relieved their minds. At the entrance of the Executive chamber, where
+relics of the luxurious taste of Maximilian still remain, Diaz was
+received by an aide-de-camp of Gonzales, who ushered him into the
+presence of the retiring administration. Surrounded by his Cabinet,
+Gonzales stood, and as Diaz entered stepped forward to welcome him, and
+according to the ancient practice, handed him an enormous silver key,
+which is supposed to turn the bolts that protect authority. Short formal
+addresses were made upon either side, and after wishing the new
+administration a peaceful and prosperous term, Gonzales and his
+ministers retired.</p>
+
+<p>General Porfirio Diaz, the foremost man in Mexico to-day, and one whose
+public career will fill pages in the history of that Republic, is the
+representative of mixed Aztec and Spanish ancestry, like all of the
+famous native leaders of the last half century. He is tall and dark, his
+muscular figure impressing one as the very incarnation of health and
+endurance. He has a military, yet nonchalant air, his brown eyes meet
+you squarely with the glance of one born to command, and his voice is
+peculiarly pleasant as in deep tones he rolls off the musical dialect of
+his mother-tongue.</p>
+
+<p>His career, like that of all Mexican leaders, is full of romantic
+adventure. He was born in the rich State of Oaxaca, which was also the
+birthplace of Juarez, Mejia, Romero, Mariscal, and others famed in
+politics and literature. Don Porfirio’s parents designed him for the law
+and sent him to the Literary Institute, in Puebla, the City of the
+Angels, which celebrated institution has graduated many of Mexico’s most
+eminent men. But Diaz, at the age of twenty-four, enlisted as a private
+in the National Guard against the government of Santa Anna. Again, in
+the so-called war of reform&mdash;in 1858 and 1861&mdash;he won more substantial
+honors than the straps of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span> an officer, and when his country was
+convulsed by the French invasion of 1862, Diaz, then a general, took a
+prominent part in the struggle. Once during those wars, when a prisoner
+at Puebla, he escaped by letting himself down from the tower in which he
+was confined by means of a rope spliced out with his clothing. Another
+of his numerous hair-breadth escapes was during the bloody struggle by
+which he made himself President for the first time. Having captured
+Matamoras by daring strategy, he was seized on shipboard by the
+Lerdists, and saved himself only by leaping into the sea, assisted by
+the connivance of a French captain, whom he afterwards made consul at
+Saint Nazaire.</p>
+
+<p>In 1871 General Diaz was one of the three candidates for the Presidency,
+and being defeated by Juarez, issued his celebrated manifesto known as
+the “Plan of Noria,” repudiating all existing powers, and proposing to
+retain military command. Being thoroughly whipped by the Indian
+President, after more than a year’s hard fighting and the loss of
+thousands of lives, the general left Mexico for a time, along with a
+number of his fellow-partisans.</p>
+
+<p>After Juarez died in office, his successor, Don Sebastian Lerdo de
+Tejada, recalled all political exiles by issuing a general amnesty,
+which act Diaz hastened to repay by rushing again to arms and speedily
+deposing his rival. Although the Electoral College had declared Lerdo
+the legally elected ruler by a vote of 123 to 49, Diaz proceeded to
+issue a pronunciamento from Palo Blanco, State of Tamaulipas, denouncing
+the President, Congress, and all recognized authorities, and at the head
+of the Constitutional army took possession of the capital and usurped
+the Executive chair, driving the incumbent into exile, and holding his
+position by force of arms.</p>
+
+<p>When the term was over for which Diaz had thus elected himself, he
+retired temporarily to fulfil the law he had so strenuously advocated,
+Article 28 of the amended constitution. Next he set about paving the way
+to permanent success by placating all opposing factions. First, he
+forever laid any restless ghost of Lerdist sentiment that might arise
+and shake<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span> its gory locks in the future, by marrying in the very midst
+of the enemy’s camp. His young and beautiful wife is the daughter of
+Romero Rubio, who was President Lerdo’s most influential adviser, and
+his bosom friend and companion in exile. Señor Rubio has since been
+President of the Senate, and Minister of the Interior.</p>
+
+<p>No man since the Indian Juarez, who was the Abraham Lincoln of Mexican
+history, has achieved the popularity that Diaz enjoys, or has won the
+confidence of the people to so great a degree. The ballad-singers at
+Santa Anita, an Indian village in the suburbs of the capital, on the
+romantic canal that leads to the far-famed Floating Gardens, where the
+populace swarm on Sundays to drink <i>pulque</i> and dance fandangoes, carol
+many a long-drawn refrain to twanging guitars in praise of Porfirio
+D-i-i-iaz, while the dedications of their myriad <i>pulquerias</i> are about
+equally divided between Diaz, Montezuma, and the Mother of God.</p>
+
+<p>The old Capitol, or Palace, as it is called, which Cortez raised upon
+the ruins of the Aztec temple is still occupied as the seat of
+government, and shelters the Executive departments. Here, too, is the
+National Museum, with its collection of antiquities, and in its centre,
+near the Sacrificial Stone of the Aztecs, is the imperial coach in which
+the ill-fated Emperor rode. Public business is conducted very much as in
+the United States; the officials are usually accomplished linguists, and
+well read in political economy. The science of government is studied
+there more than with us, and public life is a profession, like law or
+engineering. There still exists, however, and many generations will come
+and go before it can be eradicated, a caste that divides the people into
+three classes&mdash;the peon, the aristocrat, and the middle class. The
+prejudice that separates them is usually overcome by military force. The
+peon, who like Diaz becomes a political and a social leader, must win
+the place by military skill, or wear a <i>sarepa</i> forever.</p>
+
+<p>Among the upper classes of Mexico will be found as high a degree of
+social and intellectual refinement as exists in Paris, as quick a
+reception and as cordial a response to all the sentiments<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span> that elevate
+society, and a knowledge of the arts and literature that few people of
+the busy cities of the United States have acquired.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b033_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b033_sml.jpg" width="388" height="309" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their wealth is lavishly displayed, their taste is exercised to a degree
+equal to that of any people in the world, and the interior of many of
+their dwellings furnishes a glimpse of happiness and cultured elegance
+that, with their less active<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span> temperament, they enjoy more than their
+northern neighbors. Yet the people who receive the latest Paris fashions
+and literature by every steamer, and who would rather wear a shroud than
+a garment out of style, still cling to some ancient customs as eagerly
+as they seize some modern ideas. Social laws restrict intercourse
+between the sexes, as in the Latin nations of Europe, and Pedro makes
+love to Mercedes through his father and hers. Marriage is often a
+commercial contract for pecuniary or social advantages, and a parent
+chooses his son-in-law as he selects his partners or the directors of a
+bank. It is an impropriety for men and women to be alone together, even
+if they are closely related, and no woman of the higher caste goes upon
+the streets without a duenna.</p>
+
+<p>The funeral customs of Mexico are a source of constant interest to
+strangers in that land, as the burial of the dead is a ceremony of great
+display. The poor rent handsome coffins which they have not the means to
+buy, and transfer the body from its temporary casket to a cheap box
+before it is laid in the grave. Invitations are issued by messenger, and
+advertisements of funerals are published in the newspapers or posted at
+the street corners like those of a bull-fight or a play. Announcements
+are sent to friends in big, black-bordered envelopes, and are usually
+decorated with a picture of a tomb. The information is conveyed in
+faultless Spanish, that Señor Don Jesus San a Maria Hidalgo died
+yesterday at noon, and that his bereaved wife, who mourns under the name
+of “Donna Maria José Concepcion de los Angelos Narro Henriandos y
+Hidalgo,” together with his family, desire you to honor them by
+participating in the ceremonies of burial, and in supplicating the
+Mother of God and the Redeemer of the world to grant the soul of the
+dead husband a speedy release from the pains of Purgatory, and eternal
+bliss in Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>The oddities of Mexican life and customs strike the tourist in a most
+forcible manner. The first thing he observes among the common people is
+that the men wear extremely large hats, and the women no hats at all.
+The ordinary sombrero costs fifteen dollars, while those bearing the
+handsome ornaments<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span> so universally popular run in price all the way from
+twenty-five to two hundred and fifty dollars. The Mexican invests all
+his surplus in his hat. Men whose wages are not more than twelve dollars
+a month often wear sombreros which represent a whole quarter’s income. A
+servant at the house of a friend was paid off one day for the three
+months his employer had been absent. He got forty-two dollars, of which
+he paid thirty-five dollars for a hat and gave seven dollars to his
+family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b035_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b035_sml.jpg" width="297" height="451" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next thing that you notice is that every block on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span> same street
+has a different name, and when you start out on foot to make a visit you
+become bewildered at once, and have to call a carriage. Take the chief
+street, for example, which begins at the Grand Plaza, where the Palace
+stands, and runs to the statue of Charles IV. of Spain. Each of the
+seventeen blocks has a name of its own, and the names that are used are
+quite as striking as this perplexing custom. Here is a list of some of
+the principal blocks or streets translated into English: “Crown of
+Thorns Street,” “Fifth of May Street,” “Holy Ghost Street,” “Blood of
+Christ Street,” “Body of Christ Street,” “Mother of Sorrows Street,”
+“Street of the Sacred Heart,” “The Heart of Jesus Street,” “Street of
+the Love of God,” “Jesus Street,” and “John the Baptist Street.” Nearly
+every saint in the calendar has a street named after him or her, and
+nine-tenths of the city has the religion of the people thus illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing that surprises you greatly is that nearly every man you
+meet makes you a present of a residence. He grasps your hand with ardent
+cordiality when he leaves you, and says, “My house is yours; it stands
+numero tres&mdash;Calle,” and so on, “and is at your service.” The next man
+tells you that your house is such and such a number, and he shall be
+angry if you do not occupy it. As neither of them has enjoyed the honor
+of your acquaintance for more than five minutes, and both are only
+casually introduced, this excessive generosity is quite embarrassing. An
+English lord told me he met fourteen men at the Jockey Club one evening,
+and was presented with thirteen houses. The other man lived in Cuba. But
+it is only the Mexican way of saying, “I’m pleased to meet you.” It
+often leads to comical adventures, however, for the gentleman who
+tenders such profuse hospitality seldom remembers you the next morning.
+People have accepted these ardent invitations and been met with a cold
+welcome. Another amusing and puzzling peculiarity is that everybody
+lives over a shop. Even the millionaires rent out the first floor of
+their residences for purposes of business, and live in the third story.
+The handsomest house in all Mexico has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span> railway ticket-office on one
+side of the entrance and a cigar shop on the other. Everybody smokes:
+women as well as men. They smoke in the street-cars, in the shops, at
+the opera, everywhere. I have often seen a man upon his knees in a
+chapel muttering his prayers with a lighted cigar in his hand.</p>
+
+<p>The street-cars run in groups. Instead of starting a car every ten
+minutes from the terminus, three are started together every half hour.
+One car is never seen alone, nor two together, but always three in a
+row, less than half a block apart. It requires two conductors to run a
+car. One approaches a passenger and sells him a ticket; the second one
+then comes in and takes it up. In some respects it is an improvement on
+the bell-punch system. There are first-class cars and second-class cars.
+The former are of New York manufacture, and similar to those used in
+that city; the latter are of domestic construction, have but few
+windows, and look like the cabooses used on railroad freight trains.
+First-class fares are sometimes as high as twenty-five cents, but are
+more often a <i>medio</i> (six and a quarter cents), being governed by the
+distance. Second-class fares are always one-half the amount of
+first-class fares. Street-car drivers carry horns, and blow them when
+they approach street crossings. The conductors usually carry revolvers.
+Nearly everybody, in truth, carries a revolver.</p>
+
+<p>Horseback riding is the national amusement, and the streets are full of
+horsemen, particularly in the cooler hours of the morning and evening.
+The proper thing to wear is a wide sombrero, very tight trousers of
+leather or cassimere, with rows of silver buttons up and down the outer
+seam, a handsomely embroidered velvet jacket, a scarlet sash, a sword,
+and two revolvers, not to mention spurs of marvellous size and design,
+and a saddle of surpassing magnificence. A Mexican caballero often
+spends one thousand dollars for an equestrian outfit. His saddle costs
+from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars, his sword fifty dollars, his
+silver-mounted bridle twenty-five dollars, his silver spurs as much
+more, the solid silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> buttons on his trousers one hundred dollars, his
+hat fifty dollars, and the rest of his rig in proportion. The Mexican
+small boy, if he has wealthy parents, is mounted after a similar
+fashion, even to the revolver and sword. An equestrian costume for a boy
+of ten years can be purchased for about fifty dollars, not including
+saddle and bridle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b038_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b038_sml.jpg" width="248" height="346" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A MEXICAN CABALLERO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Mexican ladies do not ride any more than their sisters in the United
+States. Social etiquette prohibits this recreation, unless they have
+brothers to go with them. The señoras<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span> and señoritas take their exercise
+in closed carriages. You never see a phaeton or wagon in Mexico. When
+they go shopping they sit in their carriages and have the goods brought
+out to them. It is a common thing to see a row of carriages before a
+fashionable store with a clerk at the door of each one exhibiting silks
+or gloves or ribbons. In some of the stores are parlors in which a
+señora can sit if she likes and have the goods brought to her. None but
+foreigners and the common people stand at the counters and buy. Mexican
+merchants never classify their goods. They have no system in arranging
+them. Silks and cottons are indiscriminately mixed on the shelves. There
+is no place for anything, and nothing is ever in place. Hence shopping
+requires the exercise of a vast deal of patience. I went to buy a pair
+of gloves one day. The clerk pulled open a drawer in which were shoes,
+corsets, and ribbons. He found some gloves, but there being none in the
+box to fit, he hunted around on the shelves and in the drawers until he
+discovered another lot. Nor are goods ever delivered at the residences
+of purchasers. If your package is too bulky to carry in your hands or in
+your carriage it is sent to your house by a licensed carrier, similar to
+the district messenger boy of New York, to whom you pay a fee. Each
+carrier has a brass badge like a policeman’s, bearing a number, and if
+he does not deliver the goods promptly and in good order you report him
+at police headquarters, where he is heavily fined. On the other hand, if
+he cannot find your residence, or there is a mistake in the directions,
+he takes the goods to police headquarters, and you can find them there,
+and discover the reasons why they were not delivered.</p>
+
+<p>On pleasant afternoons&mdash;and except in the rainy season all afternoons
+are pleasant here&mdash;everybody who owns a carriage, or is able to hire
+one, drives on the boulevard which Maximilian made from the city to the
+Castle of Chapultepec, a distance of two and a half miles. As most of
+the carriages are closed, the scene is not so interesting as it might
+be, but you can occasionally catch a glimpse of a beautiful face
+through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span> the carriage windows. The horses are indifferent. Some of the
+handsomest equipages are drawn by mules.</p>
+
+<p>There are more public hacks and carriages in Mexico than in any other
+city in the world in proportion to its population, and few cities have
+worse pavements. Most of the vehicles are coupés, but there are a few
+victorias. There are no hansoms. The public carriages are all under
+police regulation, and the rates are fixed by law, according to the
+condition of the vehicle and the horses. Each carriage has a small tin
+flag attached to the top. A green flag means that you have to pay a
+dollar and a half an hour, for the carriage is new, the horses are good,
+and the harness is handsomely trimmed. A blue flag means a dollar an
+hour, with a little less style; a white flag, seventy-five cents. The
+latter class are about the toughest-looking outfits that can be found
+anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the other sort of carriages has a footman as well as a coachman,
+without additional price, although generous people give him a tip to the
+extent of a <i>real</i> (twelve and a half cents). The footman is called a
+<i>mozo</i>, and acts as a sort of apprentice or private secretary to the
+<i>cochero</i>, or driver. When you hire a hack the <i>mozo</i> rushes off to the
+nearest store, looks at the clock, and brings you back a card upon which
+the hour is written. When you finish your ride he hands you the card
+again, and you pay from the time you started. On feast-days charges are
+doubled, and as feast-days are frequent, when all the stores are closed,
+the hackmen make a good thing of it. They drive in a most reckless
+manner, and as the pavements are rough the passengers are bounced about.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards drink cognac and sour wines. Whiskey is not a safe
+beverage for the climate. American mixed drinks are not popular, and the
+scarcity of ice makes juleps and that sort of thing expensive. The
+stranger in Mexico is always very thirsty; the rapid evaporation makes
+the mouth and throat dry, and water furnishes only temporary relief. The
+most refreshing drink is lime-juice in Apollinaris water.</p>
+
+<p>Pulque (pronounced <i>poolkee</i>) is the national drink, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b041_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b041_sml.jpg" width="287" height="280" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>NOCHE TRISTE TREE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the fermented milk of the cactus. Eighty thousand gallons are said to be
+sold in Mexico every day, and double that amount on Sundays and saints’
+days. It is a sort of combination of starch and alcohol, looks like
+well-watered skim-milk, and tastes like yeast. It costs but a penny a
+glass, or three cents a quart, so that it is within the reach of the
+humblest citizen, and he drinks vast quantities of it. Five cents’ worth
+will make a peon (as all the natives are called) as happy as a lord, and
+ten cents’ worth will send him reeling into the arms of a policeman, who
+secures him an engagement to work for the Government for ten days
+without compensation. But it leaves no headache in the morning, and is
+said to be very healthful. In the moist climates one might drink large
+quantities<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span> without injury, but all the usual intoxicants are harmful in
+this altitude.</p>
+
+<p>The police system of Mexico is admirable. At every street corner there
+is a patrolman night and day&mdash;not a patrolman either, for he never
+moves. He stands like a statue during the day, occasionally leaning
+against a lamp-post, and answers inquiries with the greatest urbanity.
+Whenever there is a row two or three policemen are instantly present,
+and if their clubs cannot suppress it they use revolvers. At night the
+policeman brings a lantern and a blanket. He sets the lantern in the
+middle of the street, and all carriages are compelled to keep to the
+right of the row of lanterns, which can be seen glimmering from one end
+of the street to the other. As long as people are passing he stands at
+the corner, but when things quiet down he leaves his lantern in the
+road, retires to a neighboring door-way, wraps his blanket around him,
+and lies down to pleasant dreams. As all the windows in the city of
+Mexico have heavy prison-like gratings before them, and all the doors
+are great oaken affairs that could not be knocked in without a catapult;
+as there are never any fires, and everybody goes to bed early, the
+policeman’s lot is usually a happy one. He is numerous because of
+revolutions, and because the Government always wants to know what is
+going on. There is a popular belief in Mexico that no stranger ever
+comes to town without having his past history and future plans recorded
+at police headquarters. One never reads of robberies or pocket-picking,
+or assault and battery cases, in the city of Mexico. Common thieves have
+no chance there. The only disturbances are political revolutions, and
+the Government alone is robbed.</p>
+
+<p>All the ice that is used in Mexico comes from the top of Popocatepetl.
+It is brought down the mountain on the backs of the natives, and then
+sixty miles on the cars to the city, where it is sold at wholesale for
+ten cents a pound. At the bar-rooms iced drinks are very expensive, and
+ice is seldom seen anywhere else. The people all use a jug of porous
+earthenware made by the Indians in which water is kept cool<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span> by rapid
+evaporation. The stranger should always squeeze a little lime-juice into
+his glass before he drinks water, to get a pleasant flavor, and escape
+evil effects from alkaline properties.</p>
+
+<p>From the top of the cathedral spire you can see the entire city, and the
+most striking feature of the view is the absence of chimneys. There is
+not a chimney in all Mexico; not a stove, nor a grate, nor a furnace.
+All the cooking is done with charcoal in Dutch ovens, and, while the gas
+is sometimes offensive, one soon becomes used to it. Coal costs sixteen
+dollars a ton, and wood sixteen dollars a cord. All the coal was
+formerly imported from England, but now comes from Cohahuila, and the
+wood is all brought from the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>As formerly, bull-fighting is at present the most popular amusement in
+Mexico, and a matador is more distinguished in the eyes of the common
+people than a prima donna or a president. The Mexican Government has of
+late years become humanized to the extent of prohibiting these brutal
+spectacles within the city limits, and they now take place at what is
+called the “Plaza de Toros,” or Bull Park, on the plains five or six
+miles from the city. Here the people gather on every Sunday and
+saint-day to witness the butchery of three or four bulls and twice as
+many horses, under the official patronage of the Governor of the State,
+who always is present with his family and official staff, and from a
+decorated platform directs the entertainment, giving his orders through
+a trumpeter.</p>
+
+<p>Back of the Castle of Chapultepec is the battle-field of Molino del Rey
+(The Mill of the King), where General Scott met stubborn resistance when
+he attempted to enter Mexico, but drove the Mexicans up the hill. The
+old earthworks erected by the latter still stand as they were at the
+time of the battle, and are usually visited by tourists. On the plain
+beyond the battle-field stands an amphitheatre enclosed within a massive
+wall of adobe&mdash;the mud bricks which are used for building material in
+all the rainless region of this continent. The amphitheatre is arranged
+in the usual form, except that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span> the shady side is divided up into boxes
+to be occupied by the grandees, while the sunny side has plain board
+benches for the barefooted Castilians whose mild eyes and pathetic
+deference give no key to the cruelty of which their race has been
+guilty. The centre of the amphitheatre is enclosed by a board wall,
+perhaps eight feet in height, surmounted at a point two feet higher by a
+heavy cable strung through stalwart iron rods. The top of this fence
+appeared to be the favorite eyrie from which to survey the field, and
+upon it for the entire length sat a row of urchins, with here and there
+a bearded man, all poised upon the edge, with their legs hanging over
+into the bull-ring, and their arms clinging to the rope.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor, a tall, swarthy man, with a wide sombrero, mustache and
+goatee, the very picture of the “haughty Don,” sat in a decorated box,
+with the flag of his country profusely draped around him. He had two
+aides-de-camp, his three children, and an orderly, who with a trumpet
+sounded a blast now and then to convey his excellency’s desires. We
+happened luckily to have the adjoining box, from which we could watch
+him closely and hear his comments upon the performances.</p>
+
+<p>The audience was very large, and composed of all classes, from the proud
+Castilian who came behind his four-in-hand, with a retinue of outriders,
+to the poor peon who had been saving his scanty earnings for a week, and
+walked five miles to witness the ghastly spectacle. There were perhaps
+ten thousand people, and one-fifth of them were women in silks and
+satins, in jewels and rare laces, who hid their eyes behind their fans
+when the spectacle was too repulsive, but encouraged the matadors with
+applause at the end of each act.</p>
+
+<p>A band of music played lively airs, and played them well, to entertain
+the people until the Governor came, whose presence being recognized, the
+people gave a cordial cheer by way of welcome. Then the herald in the
+Governor’s box blew a signal which sounded like the “water call” of the
+United<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b045-1_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b045-1_sml.jpg" width="170" height="92" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PICADORS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 173px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b045-2_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b045-2_sml.jpg" width="173" height="90" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TEASING THE BULL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>States Cavalry, the doors of the pit were opened, and in marched a dozen
+or so of matadors, in the same sort of jackets and breeches which they
+wear in the pictures of Spanish life so familiar to all. Each wore a
+plumed hat, a scarlet sash, a poniard, and the gold lace upon the black
+velvet showed their lithe and supple forms to advantage. They looked as
+Don Juan looks in the opera, while the leader, Bernardo Cavino, “del
+decano de los toreros,” I was a veritable Figaro, in appearance at
+least. Each carried a scarlet cloak upon his arm, and in the other hand
+a pikestaff. Behind them came a troop of eight horsemen upon gayly
+caparisoned steeds, with the usual amount of silver and leather
+trappings in which the Mexicans delight. The procession tailed up with a
+team of four mules hitched abreast, dragging a whiffletree and a long
+rope. These, we are told, were for the purpose of dragging out the dead.
+The cavalcade made a circuit of the amphitheatre, like the grand entrée
+at a circus, and upon reaching the Governor’s box stopped, saluted him,
+and received a short address in Spanish, which probably was simply one
+of approval and congratulation at their fine appearance. There was a
+rack in front of the Governor’s box upon which hung several rows of
+darts, gayly decorated with paper rosettes and paper fringes of gold and
+other brilliant tints. Upon these racks the matadors hung their plumed
+hats, and stood a while to give the ladies and gentlemen of the audience
+an opportunity to see and admire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b046_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b046_sml.jpg" width="174" height="81" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE ENCORE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gay horsemen then rode out, and were followed by the mules, but the
+horsemen soon returned upon an entirely different style of
+animals&mdash;poor, broken-down, lean, lame, and mangy hacks, which looked as
+if they had been turned out of some street-car stable as bait for
+vultures. They were covered with a sort of leathern armor, and this
+concealed their fleshless ribs; but nothing could disguise the shambling
+and uncertain gait with which they painfully ambled across the arena
+under the savage spurring of their riders. They managed to get across,
+and that was all. The first set of horses were intended for show, and
+the second for slaughter. Public opinion appears to demand that
+something besides a bull be sacrificed, and the matadors not being
+amiable enough to afford this gratification, a pair of animated
+clothes-racks are turned in to be gored. The poor beasts are
+blindfolded, which is about the only humane feature of the show.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor’s herald gave another blast, at which the entire audience,
+who were on the <i>qui vive</i>, arose and shouted. A door across the pit
+opened, and a large, clumsy, long-horned bull poked his head out into
+the arena. The crowd yelled, and matadors posed at different parts of
+the ring&mdash;ten of them&mdash;and the two horsemen pretended to get ready for
+the fray. The bull looked up, the only frightened being in the entire
+multitude. The posters described him as “a valiant and arrogant animal.”
+He was a fine piece of beef, but he didn’t want to fight. Somebody
+behind spurred him, and he ran into the ring. The doors were closed
+behind him, and there was no way of escape. He plunged one way, but was
+met by three matadors, who flapped their cloaks in his eyes; he turned
+in the other direction, but was met by three more; then he made a bolt
+between them, and darting towards the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span> other side of the ring, gave a
+great leap, as if he would go over the eight-foot wall. Of course he
+failed, but he struck the planks with tremendous force, tumbling forty
+or fifty fellows who were perched on the top into a heap on the other
+side. It was the only amusing feature of the whole show. There was a
+grand crash, a loud howl, forty or fifty pairs of legs were in the air,
+and the audience shouted with laughter. The bull turned around
+frightened at the noise, ran to the other side of the ring, and sought
+in vain for a place to get out. Then one of the horsemen rode up in
+front of the animal and jammed a spear into his face. The bull plunged
+at his assailant, bellowing with pain, lifted the poor horse upon his
+horns, raised him from the ground, and threw him with great force
+against the side of the arena.</p>
+
+<p>The rider, expecting the attack, was prepared for it, and leaped with
+great agility from the saddle just as the two animals came in contact.
+There was very little left of the horse. There was not much of him when
+he was dragged into the ring, but the long horns of the bull penetrated
+his bowels and tore them out. The bull jams the horse against the
+planks, two, three, four times, and then withdraws. The horse lies a
+bleeding, disembowelled mass, and the crowd cheers the dreadful
+spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>The bull having given up all idea of escape, plunges at everything he
+sees, and the second horse is ridden up before him. No attempt is made
+to get the animal out of the way. He was brought there to be
+slaughtered, and took his turn. Both horses having been disposed of, and
+the bull being completely exhausted, the bugle gives the signal, the
+matadors enter the arena, and tease him with their scarlet cloaks. At
+frequent intervals around the ring are placed heavy planks, behind which
+the matadors run for protection when they were pursued. The bull had no
+chance at all; he was there simply to be teased and killed by slow
+degrees. One matador more agile than the rest baits the animal with his
+lance, and when the bull turns upon him, vaults over the down-turned
+horns by resting his lance upon the ground. Then they bring out<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> the
+ornamented darts, and thrust them into the bull’s hide. The animal jumps
+and plunges with pain, and tries to shake them off, but the barbs cling
+to the hide, and the more he struggles the farther they penetrate the
+flesh. His shoulders are covered with them, and the crimson blood
+trickles down his sides. He stands panting with distress, his tongue
+hanging out, and is thoroughly exhausted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b048_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b048_sml.jpg" width="176" height="246" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MEXICAN BEGGAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Governor’s trumpet sounds the bull’s death-warrant. It means that
+the cruel sport has lasted long enough, and the chief matador comes
+forward with a red blanket and a sword. He approaches the bull, and
+flaps the blanket in his eyes; the animal plunges at him, and with great
+dexterity the matador whirls and thrusts the sword into the animal’s
+heart. The bull plunges with pain, and throws the sword out of his body
+into the air. He staggers and falls upon the ground, the chief matador
+runs up, pierces his brain with a poniard, and the mules are brought in
+to drag the dead animals out. The band plays, the crowd cheers, and the
+first act is over. The matadors bow to the Governor, bow to the crowd,
+and rest, while a clown dances in the ring to amuse the people in the
+interim. Pretty soon the trumpet blows again, two more old crow-baits
+are ridden in, and another bull is brought from the corral. The same
+scenes recur; the horses are always killed, but the men are seldom
+injured. Four bulls are usually disposed of each Sunday afternoon before
+the appetite for blood is satiated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span></p>
+
+<p>This cruel sport in Mexico is in its decadence. It grew out of the lack
+of other entertainment. Until two years ago there was no horse-racing in
+Mexico, and this class of sport is unknown outside of the capital. The
+young men are not allowed to visit the girls, are not permitted to walk
+with them in the parks, and have, in short, no amusements but billiards,
+cock-fighting, and bull-baiting. The exodus of foreigners into the
+Republic will break many of the barriers down. While the “Gringos,” as
+foreigners are called, generally conform to the customs of the country,
+they refuse to accept all of them, and the Mexican people are gradually
+tending towards a more modern civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient volcano, Popocatepetl, has got into the courts. Not that it
+has been bodily transported into the halls of litigation, but it is the
+subject of a novel suit at law. For many years General Ochoa has been
+the owner of the volcano, the highest point of land in North America,
+together with all its appurtenances. The crater contains a fine quality
+of sulphur, which the general has been extracting, giving employment to
+Indians who cared to stay down in the vaporous old crater. The property
+was at one time fairly profitable; the volcano was, some time ago,
+mortgaged to Mr. Carlos Recamier, who brings suit of foreclosure. The
+papers have been joking about the matter, some asking what Mr. Recamier
+intends to do with his volcano when he gets legal possession. He has
+been solemnly warned that the law forbids the carrying out of the
+country ancient monuments and objects of historical interest.</p>
+
+<p>Good-Friday is observed as a sort of May festival. The <i>Paseo de las
+Flores</i> (Flower Promenade) is held along the Viga, the picturesque canal
+which stretches away between willows and poplars to the far-famed
+Floating Gardens of the ancient Aztecs. The scene along the historic
+causeway is astonishing to foreigners, and as charmingly peculiar as it
+is typical of a poetic and pleasure-loving people. For miles along the
+tree-lined avenue a constant procession of vehicles, horsemen, and
+pedestrians pack the space between green booths on either side, while
+the canal is crowded with canoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span> and Venetian-like gondolas. Everything
+imaginable on wheels is seen&mdash;the stately closed carriage of the Mexican
+millionaire, open barouches, coupés, victorias, dog-carts, wagonettes,
+even velocipedes and tricycles, while thousands of horsemen gallop gayly
+between.</p>
+
+<p>The festivities are kept up, though in diminishing scale, until late
+Sunday night. During all these days the shrill, discordant rattle of ten
+thousand <i>matracas</i> rises above the babel of human voices. These little
+instruments of torture are made of tin, iron, ivory, wood, even of gold
+and silver, and in all imaginable shapes. Some are in the form of
+humming-birds, birds-of-paradise, chickens, parrots; others are like
+gridirons, frying-pans, musical instruments, fruits, flowers, or
+reptiles. Everybody must have one, from the dignified grandparent to the
+baby in arms, and by twirling them rapidly a most unearthly, rasping,
+grinding sound is produced by wooden springs inside. The noise is
+intended to typify and ridicule the cries of the Jews, “Crucify him!
+crucify him!” as they followed Christ to His death.</p>
+
+<p>On Easter-Sunday the strangest of all Mexican ceremonies takes place in
+the burning of the traitor. During all Holy-week men are continually
+perambulating the streets, holding high above the heads of the multitude
+long poles encircled by hoops, upon which are suspended the most
+grotesque figures, in every conceivable color, shape, and degree of
+deformity, and all with horns and crooked backs and twisted limbs. These
+are filled with fire-crackers, the mustache forming the fuse, and
+millions of them are annually exploded. Many are life-size, some having
+faces to represent politicians who are unpopular at the time. Some are
+hung by the neck to wires stretched across the streets, or to the
+balconies of houses. Every horse-car and railroad engine and donkey-cart
+is decked with one, and even every mule-driver has one or more tied on
+his breast. At ten o’clock on Easter-Sunday, when the cathedral bells
+peal forth in commemoration of Christ’s resurrection, they are all
+touched off at once, and the air is filled with flying traitors
+everywhere over the length and breadth of Mexico.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 534px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b051_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b051_sml.jpg" width="534" height="307" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON MARKET-DAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b053_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b053_sml.jpg" width="314" height="270" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SUNDAY AT SANTA ANITA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>An American who is married in Mexico finds that he must be three times
+married: twice in Spanish and once more in Spanish or English, as he
+prefers, besides having a public notice of his intention of marriage
+placed on a bulletin-board for twenty days before the ceremony. This is
+the law. The public notice can be avoided by the payment of a sum of
+money, but a residence of one month is necessary. The three ceremonies
+are the contract of marriage, the civil marriage&mdash;the only marriage
+recognized by law since 1858&mdash;and the usual, but not obligatory, Church
+service. The first two must take place before a judge, and in the
+presence of at least four witnesses and the American consul. The
+contract of marriage is a statement of names, ages, lineage, business,
+and residence of contracting parties. The civil marriage is the legal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span>
+form of marriage. These ceremonies are necessarily in Spanish. Most
+weddings are confirmed by a church-service.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b054_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b054_sml.jpg" width="182" height="244" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A MEXICAN BELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At a Mexican church wedding it is the custom for the groom to pass coins
+through the hand of the bride, as typical of the fact that she is to
+keep the money of the household. A very pretty feature, as the couple
+kneel at the altar with lighted candles in their hands&mdash;an emblem of the
+light of the Christian faith&mdash;is the placing of a silken scarf around
+the shoulders of the bridal couple, and then the binding them together
+with a yoke of silver cord placed around the necks of both. That “thy
+people shall be my people” is an accepted fact, for it is a common thing
+for members of the bride’s family to take up their permanent residence
+with the husband, and make it their home.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most singular, and, to the foreigner, most interesting of the
+institutions of Mexico is the <i>Monte de Piedad</i>. The phrase means “The
+Mountain of Mercy.” It is the name given to what is in reality a great
+national pawnshop, which has branches in all the cities of the country,
+is exclusively under Government control, and is not managed, as in the
+United States, by guileless Hebrew children. The central office of the
+Monte de Piedad occupies the building known as the Palace of Cortez,
+which stands on the site of the ancient Palace of Montezuma, on the
+Plaza Mayor. It was founded in 1775 by Conde de Regla, the owner of very
+rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b055_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b055_sml.jpg" width="318" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CACTUS, AND WOMAN KNEADING TORTILLAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">mines, who endowed it in the sum of three hundred thousand dollars. His
+charitable purpose was to enable the poor of the city of Mexico to
+obtain loans on pledges of all kinds of articles, and for very low rates
+of interest. He thus relieved the poorer classes from usurious rates of
+interest which had been previously charged them by rapacious private
+pawnbrokers. At first no interest was charged, the borrower only being
+asked, when he redeemed his pledge, to give something for the carrying
+on of the charitable work which the institution had in hand. But as this
+benevolence was greatly abused, it was found necessary to charge a rate
+of interest which was very low, and yet sufficient to yield a revenue
+equal to necessary expenses. The affairs of this institution have been
+wisely managed, and it has been kept true to the purpose of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span>
+benevolent founder. When pledges come to be sold, if they bring a price
+greater than the original valuation, the difference is given back to the
+original owners. The Monte de Piedad has survived all revolutions, and
+its ministry of relief to the sufferers by these revolutions and other
+misfortunes has been incalculably great and blessed. Its average general
+loans on pledges amount to nearly a million dollars, and the borrowers
+whom it yearly accommodates number from forty to fifty thousand. From
+the time when it was founded, in 1775, down to 1886&mdash;a little more than
+the first century of its existence&mdash;it made loans to 2,232,611 persons,
+amounting in the aggregate to nearly $32,000,000, and during the same
+period it gave away nearly $150,000 in charity.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing in which the Mexican character appears to better
+advantage than in the provisions made for the sick and unfortunate.
+There are in the city of Mexico alone ten or a dozen hospitals, some of
+which are large, well endowed and equipped, and managed in a way to
+compare favorably with the best appointed hospitals in any country. This
+for a city of three hundred thousand inhabitants is a more liberal
+provision than many larger cities in our own country have. A lying-in
+hospital was founded by the Empress Carlotta, who, after her return to
+Europe, sent the sum of six thousand dollars for its support. Besides
+the hospitals there is a foundling asylum capable of accommodating two
+hundred inmates: an asylum for the poor, which is a very large and
+important charity; a correctional school; an industrial school for
+orphans, having thirteen hundred scholars; an industrial school for
+women; another for men; schools for deaf-mutes and for the blind; and an
+asylum for beggars.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of England has been established in Mexico for twelve or
+fifteen years, having been induced to hold services there by the large
+number of English residents in the city; but no missionary work has been
+done by that denomination. The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions
+several years ago commenced to labor in the Republic under the patronage
+of Diaz, who was then President, and who gave them substantial<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b057_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b057_sml.jpg" width="248" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FIRST PROTESTANT CHURCH IN MEXICO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">encouragement. Among other things, he presented the American Board with
+an old Catholic church, where the school is now held daily, and a
+printing-office, for the purpose of the publication of a weekly
+newspaper and religious literature, is carried on. There are now at work
+in Mexico six Protestant clergymen and two lady missionaries from the
+United States, twenty-four regularly ordained Mexican ministers, six
+native licentiates, and three native helpers. Seventy-five congregations
+have been organized, and meet for worship every Sunday, and the number
+of native members is about three thousand. There is also a Theological
+Seminary, with two professors from the United States and one native
+instructor, having a total attendance of twenty-seven young men
+preparing for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span> the ministry. Fourteen of these are studying theology,
+and thirteen are in the preparatory department. There is also a school
+for girls, with two American and one native lady teacher, which has a
+large attendance. A missionary paper called <i>El Faro</i> (The Light-house)
+is conducted at the Theological Seminary. The work is rapidly
+increasing, seven churches having been organized in 1885 and as many
+more in 1886.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b058_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b058_sml.jpg" width="196" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE FIRST CHRISTIAN PULPIT IN AMERICA&mdash;TLAXCALA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The missionaries are very often interfered with by the country people,
+instigated by the priests, and several of the native preachers have been
+shot or injured. These attacks have usually been attributed to
+highwaymen, but after investigation have proven to be the work of
+assassins employed by the priests. One white missionary was murdered
+some two years ago while passing along the road at night, but his
+assassins were brought to speedy justice, and wholesome examples made of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1885, the Romanists of a small town in the interior entered a
+Protestant church, carried off all of the valuables, smashed the organ
+into fragments, emptied kerosene oil upon the benches, and set the place
+on fire. The furniture of the interior was destroyed, but the walls of
+the building, being of adobe, and the roof of tiles, the house was not
+destroyed. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span> some weeks afterwards several shots were fired at people
+who were on their way to evening service, and a missionary was attacked
+in the dark by armed assassins who would have been murdered but for the
+courageous use of his revolver. Subsequently all the other churches in
+the neighborhood were similarly treated, and when appeals were made to
+the local authorities for protection, and for the punishment of those
+who had committed the outrages, it was decided that it was the work of
+highwaymen, and a reward was offered for the arrest of the perpetrators.
+This opinion was thought to be a subterfuge, and it is believed that the
+authorities were in sympathy with the acts.</p>
+
+<p>The matter was carried to President Diaz, who ordered an investigation,
+and promised an effectual protection to the missionaries wherever there
+was need of it. Several days after he issued a proclamation which was
+addressed to the commandants of the several departments of the Republic,
+and ordered that it should be read before the troops on parade, and kept
+posted in conspicuous places for the information of the public. In this
+proclamation, among other things, President Diaz said: “These acts of
+intolerance, apart from their injustice, are the data by which people of
+other lands judge of the nature and degree of our civilization, and for
+this reason especially I command that you give especial attention to
+prevent such outrages, and to secure to all believers in any religion
+the liberty which the constitution and laws concede to them. Catholics
+shall be protected in the same way as Protestants, and those who attempt
+to interfere with the exercise of any religious ceremony shall be
+punished severely. If troops are needed to carry this order into effect,
+they will be supplied upon request.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b059_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b059_sml.jpg" width="121" height="136" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FONT IN OLD CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="GUATEMALA_CITY" id="GUATEMALA_CITY"></a>GUATEMALA CITY.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF GUATEMALA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>G<small>UATEMALA</small> has had three capitals, all called Guatemala City, since the
+Conquest. The first was founded by Alvarado in 1524, and buried under a
+flood of sand and water in 1541. The second capital was founded the same
+year, a few miles eastward of the old site, and was destroyed by an
+earthquake in 1773. The present capital is the largest and by far the
+finest city in Central America, and is more modern in its appearance
+than any other. It is situated in what is called the <i>tierra templada</i>,
+or temperate zone, about forty-five hundred feet above the level of the
+sea, at the northern extremity of an extensive and beautiful plain, and
+has a climate that is very attractive. The plain upon which it stands is
+by no means as fertile as many other portions of the country, and is
+deficient in water. The supply which is used by the people is brought
+for a distance of fifteen miles in an aqueduct, which has the honor of
+having been described by Charles Dickens in his sketch of “The Flying
+Dutchman.” These water-works were commenced as far back as 1832, and
+involved an expenditure of over two million dollars, but without them
+the city could not have prospered.</p>
+
+<p>Guatemala City is not favorably situated for commerce, as it is a
+considerable distance from both seas, and is shut out from the most
+productive portions of the country by walls of mountains. The city is
+laid out in quadrilateral form, and formerly was surrounded by a great
+wall through which it was entered by gates opening in various
+directions. It covers a vast area of territory for a place of its
+population, as the houses, like those of other Central American cities,
+are very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b061_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b061_sml.jpg" width="536" height="306" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VIEW OF GUATEMALA CITY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">large, and enclose attractive gardens. During the last twelve years,
+under the presidency of General Barrios, Guatemala has made rapid
+progress, and but for the low and commonplace appearance of the houses
+would resemble the more modern cities of Europe. All the streets are
+paved, with gutters in the centre, and have broad paths of flag-stones
+on each side for foot-passengers.</p>
+
+<p>Antigua Guatemala, the old capital, thirty miles to the westward of the
+new, is still a place of considerable importance, and in its time was
+far superior to the present capital in size and appearance. Previous to
+its destruction in 1773 there were but two cities on the American
+hemisphere which compared with it in population, wealth, and
+magnificence. These were the City of Mexico, and Lima, Peru. New York
+was then a commercial infant, Boston a mere village, and Chicago yet
+unknown. But here was a city in which were centred the ecclesiastical
+and political interests of the Central American colonies, where millions
+of dollars were spent in erecting churches, convents, and monasteries,
+which covered acres of ground, and beautiful residences whose shattered
+portals still bear the escutcheons of the noble families who ruled the
+city and cultivated the plantations of coffee, sugar, and cochineal.</p>
+
+<p>Antigua, as it is now called (properly old Guatemala), was not only the
+scene of wealth and influence, and the commercial metropolis of the
+country, but the home of the most learned men of all Spanish America,
+the seat of great schools of theology, science, and art, for two hundred
+years the Athens and Rome of the New World, the residence of the
+university, as well as the Inquisition, and the headquarters of those
+untiring apostles of evil, the Jesuits. The population is said to have
+been about one hundred and fifty thousand. It is not known that a census
+was ever taken, and this estimate is based upon the size of the city and
+number of inhabitants its ruined walls could have contained. It is
+situated in the centre of a great valley, between the twin volcanoes
+Agua and Fuego; and as the old Spanish chroniclers used to say, had
+Paradise<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span> on one side and the Inferno on the other. The beauty of its
+position and the richness of the adjacent country, the grandeur of the
+scenery that surrounds it, have called forth the most extravagant
+admiration from travellers, and have made it the theme of the native
+poets. Mr. Stephens, who wrote the most elaborate sketch of Central
+America we have, some forty years ago, says that Antigua Guatemala is
+surrounded by more natural beauty than any location he had ever seen
+during the whole course of his travels. The city is watered by a stream
+bearing the poetical name of El Rio Pensativo, which encircles the
+mountains and winds about through the plain in most graceful curves. It
+has for its tributaries many rivulets that water the plain, and finally
+falls over a cataract and flows through the valley below to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>This valley was formerly famous for the culture of cochineal, and much
+wealth was derived from this source before aniline dyes drove it out of
+the market. The cochineal is a little insect which clings to the leaves
+of a species of the cactus, known as the nopal, and in the natural state
+the white hair upon its body causes the leaves to look as if they were
+covered with hoar-frost. Before the rainy season sets in the leaves of
+the nopal are cut close to the ground and hung up under a shed for
+protection. Then they are scraped with a dull knife, and the insects are
+killed by being baked in a hot oven or dipped into boiling water. If the
+first process is used, the insects become a brownish color, and furnish
+a scarlet or crimson dye. Those killed by baking are black, and are used
+for blue and purple dyes. They are then packed up in little casks,
+covered with hides to keep out the moisture, and sent to market, being
+valued at several dollars a pound. The great part of the expense is due
+to the time and trouble required to detach the insects from the nopal,
+two ounces being considered a fair result of a day’s labor; and it is
+said that it requires seventy thousand to make a pound. When they are
+dried they look like coarse powder.</p>
+
+<p>The first capital was founded by Alvarado, the Conqueror. The exploits
+of Cortez in Mexico had become known among<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 532px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b065_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b065_sml.jpg" width="532" height="323" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUINS OF THE OLD PALACE AT ANTIGUA GUATEMALA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">the Indian tribes in the south, and the native kings sent an embassy to
+him offering their allegiance to the crown of Spain. Cortez received the
+embassy with distinction, and sent Alvarado back with them to take
+possession of the country. In 1523 Alvarado left the City of Mexico with
+three hundred Spanish soldiers and a large body of natives, and nearly a
+year later arrived at a place at the foot of the volcano Antigua, called
+by the Indians Almolonga, meaning in their language “a spring of water.”
+On the 25th of July, 1524, the festival of St. James, the patron saint
+of Spain, Alvarado, under a tree which is still standing, assembled his
+horsemen, the Mexican Indians who had accompanied him, and as many of
+the natives of the country as could crowd around, when the chaplain,
+Juan Godinez, said mass, invoking the protection of the apostle, and
+christening the city he intended to build there with the name of San
+Diego de los Cabeleleros&mdash;the City of St. James, the Gentleman. After
+these religious services, Alvarado assumed authority as governor, and
+appointed his subordinates.</p>
+
+<p>For fifteen years thousands of Indians were kept at work building the
+city. A church was the first structure raised; but in September, 1541,
+there came a calamity which entirely destroyed the place, and buried
+more than half the inhabitants under the ruins, among whom was the Donna
+Beatrice de la Queba, the wife of Alvarado. It had rained incessantly
+for three days, and on the fourth the fury of the wind, the incessant
+lightning and dreadful thunder, were indescribable. At two o’clock in
+the morning the earthquake shocks became so violent that the people were
+unable to stand. Shortly after an enormous body of water rushed down
+from the mountain, forcing with it large pieces of rock, trees, and
+entirely overwhelming the town with an avalanche of earth and ashes.</p>
+
+<p>It has generally been assumed, and is believed by the people, that this
+flow of water was a real eruption, and for that reason the volcano was
+named Agua. The theory of some scientists is, that the water flowed from
+an accumulation of rain and snow in the extinct crater, the walls of
+which were broken through by the pressure during the earthquake. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span> a
+thing is not only doubtful, but almost impossible; and unless the
+situation of the crater has changed, there is no evidence of it. Any
+torrent of water cast from the crater would have gone down on the other
+side of the mountain, and there are ashes upon the slope near the summit
+which must have lain there for hundreds of years. About three thousand
+feet from the summit there is evidence of a terrible struggle between a
+storm and the earth. Great trees were uprooted, rocks were hurled from
+their places, and a vast fissure is seen, fifteen or sixteen hundred
+feet deep, extending directly to the buried city, growing in depth and
+width until it reaches the valley. From this gorge came the mass of
+ashes and sand which buried the first Guatemala, like Sodom and Pompeii,
+and it must have been carried down by a water-spout or some agent of
+that sort.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral was buried to the roof; but years afterwards, when the
+sand was dug away, it was found uninjured, with all its contents
+preserved, because of the interposition of St. James. The palace, being
+in the immediate path of the torrent, was undermined and overthrown by
+its force. The ruins, half covered by sand, are the only remaining
+evidences of the massive grandeur of the building, one of whose angles
+points in the direction from which the water came. Many excavations have
+been made in search of treasure, as Alvarado had the reputation of
+keeping there stores of silver and gold. They have resulted in no
+remunerative discovery, but have disclosed some fine carvings, wonderful
+frescos, and other evidences of the beauty which the place is said to
+have possessed. Over its ruins to-day stands a low-browed house, with an
+inscription over its door reading, “<i>Complimetaria Escula Para
+Ninos</i>”&mdash;A Free School for Girls.</p>
+
+<p>The tree under which tradition says Alvarado and his soldiers first
+camped, and where Padre Godinez sanctified the city by religious
+services, is still standing. When I visited it, the most noticeable
+things about the place were a wagon made by the Studebaker Brothers, of
+South Bend, Indiana, and several empty beer bottles, bearing the brand
+of a Chicago brewer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b069_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b069_sml.jpg" width="280" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ALVARADO’S TREE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fountain of Almolonga, which first induced Alvarado to select this
+spot as the site of his capital, is a large natural basin of clear and
+beautiful water shaded by trees. It has been walled up and divided off
+into apartments for bathing purposes and laundry work; and here all the
+women of the town come to wash their clothing. The old church was dug
+out of the sand, and is still standing. In one corner is a chamber
+filled with the skulls and bones that were excavated from the ruins. The
+old priest who was responsible for the spiritual welfare of the people
+showed us over the ruins, and told us stories of Alvarado and his piety.
+He said that the pictures, hangings, and altar ornaments in the church
+were the same that were placed there in Alvarado’s time, and unlocking a
+great iron chest he showed us communion vessels, incense<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> urns, crosses,
+and banners of solid gold and silver. Among other things was a
+magnificent crown of gold, which was presented to the church by one of
+the Philips of Spain. It was originally studded with diamonds, emeralds,
+and other jewels, but they have been removed, and the settings are now
+empty. Yankee-like, we tried to buy some of these treasures, for they
+were the richest I had seen at any place, but the old priest refused all
+pecuniary temptations, and crossed himself reverently as he put the
+sacred vessels away. The only people who patronize this church are the
+Indians, who, to the number of two or three thousand, live in the
+neighborhood, and the ancient vessels are never used in these days, but
+are kept as curiosities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b070_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b070_sml.jpg" width="324" height="277" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ANCIENT ARCHES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second city of Guatemala was built about three miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b071_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b071_sml.jpg" width="332" height="437" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE OLD AND THE NEW.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">from the original one, a little farther down, and nearly at the foot of
+the volcano Fuego. Both of these ruined cities offer the greatest
+attractions to the antiquarian, but few have ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> visited them, and
+very little has been written of either place. In Antigua, as the second
+Guatemala is called, is the most extensive collection of ruins that can
+be found in this hemisphere. From a tower of the cathedral one can see
+on either side the ruins of many churches, monasteries, convents, and
+miles of public and private residences, large and costly; some with
+walls still standing, liberally ornamented with stucco or carved stone,
+but roofless, without doors or windows, and trees growing within them.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of forty-five churches can be counted, and nearly every one of
+them had a convent or monastery attached. Some cover several acres, and
+have cells for five or six hundred monks or nuns. Several of the
+churches are as large as the cathedral in New York. They are not so much
+ruined but that their outlines can be traced, showing the noble
+architecture and costly work by which they were built. The force of the
+earthquake can be seen by broken pillars of solid stone five or six feet
+in diameter; walls of ten or fifteen feet thickness were shaken into
+fragments, and buildings with foundations of stone as deep and solid as
+those of the Capitol at Washington were crumbled into dust. About ten
+per cent. of the houses have been rebuilt, but the remainder are still
+in ruins. The inhabitants occupy the old residences that have been
+restored, but appear to know little of the place as it was before the
+earthquake. They have forgotten what their fathers told them, and no
+attempt has ever been made to secure a permanent and accurate record of
+the antique conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the town is a great plaza, which, as usual in all of
+the Central American capitals, is surrounded by public buildings and the
+cathedral. In the centre stands a noble fountain, which is surrounded
+every morning by market-women selling the fruit and vegetables of the
+country. The old palace has been partially restored, and displays upon
+its front the armorial bearing granted by the Emperor Charles the Fifth
+to the loyal and noble capital in which the Viceroy of Central America
+lived. Upon the crest of the building is a statue of the Apostle St.
+James on horseback, clad in armor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> and brandishing a sword. The
+majestic cathedral, 300 feet long, 120 feet broad, 110 feet high, and
+lighted by fifty windows, has been restored, and within it services are
+held every morning, the faithful being called to mass by a peon pounding
+upon a large and resonant gong.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b073_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b073_sml.jpg" width="321" height="392" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HOW THE OLD TOWN LOOKS NOW.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Without warning, on a Sunday night in 1773, the disaster came, and the
+proudest city in the New World was forever<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span> humbled. The roof of the
+cathedral fell; all the other churches were shaken to pieces; the great
+monasteries, which had been standing for centuries, and were thought to
+be useful for many centuries more, crumbled in an instant. The dead were
+never counted, and the wounded died from lack of relief. Those who
+escaped fled to the mountains, and the earthquake continued so violent
+that few returned to the ruins for many days. The volcano, whose single
+shudder shook down the accumulated grandeur of two hundred and fifty
+years, has since been almost idle, but is smoking constantly, and
+emitting sulphurous vapors which tell of the furnace beneath. As if
+satisfied with its moment’s work, it stands at rest, tempting man to try
+again to build another magnificent city, as firm as he can make it, for
+another test of strength. The people, like the dwellers over the buried
+Herculaneum, seem to have no fear of ruin or disaster, because, as very
+respectable citizens will tell you, the volcano which did the damage has
+since been blessed by a priest.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 187px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b074_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b074_sml.jpg" width="187" height="338" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FRAGMENT OF A RUINED MONASTERY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In one of the old monasteries, established by the Franciscan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span> Friars, is
+a tree from which four different kinds of fruit may be plucked at one
+time&mdash;the orange, lemon, lime, and a sweet fruit called by the Spanish
+the limone. It was a horticultural experiment of the Friars many hundred
+years ago, and still stands as a monument of their experimental
+industry. It was they who first introduced the cultivation of coffee
+from Arabia into these countries, and who discovered the use of that
+curious insect the cochineal. The latter used to be an extensive article
+of commerce, but the cheapness of the aniline dyes has driven it out of
+the market. Now it is cultivated only for local consumption, and is
+extensively used by the natives, whose cotton and woollen fabrics are
+gayly dyed in colors that will endure any amount of water or sunshine.
+Thirty years ago two million tons were exported annually, but now very
+little goes out of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b075_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b075_sml.jpg" width="182" height="249" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>JOSÉ RUFINO BARRIOS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The progress of Guatemala during the last twelve years, and the
+advancement of the country towards a modern standard of civilization,
+has been very rapid, and it is due to the energy and determination of
+one man, José Rufino Barrios, who stands next, if not equal, to Morazan
+as a patriot and benefactor of his country. President Barrios studied
+the conditions of social and political economy in the United States and
+European nations, and used a remarkable amount of energy to introduce
+them among his own people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span> There has been no man in Central or South
+America with more progressive ideas or more ardent ambition for the
+advancement of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing opinion of President Barrios is that he was a brutal
+ruffian. He drove out of the country many political opponents who
+occupied themselves by telling stories of his cruelty, some of which
+were doubtless true. The methods which he habitually used to keep the
+people in order would not be tolerated in the more civilized lands. But
+in estimating his true character, the good he accomplished should be
+considered as well as the evil. Until the history of Central America
+shall be written years hence, when the mind can reflect calmly and
+impartially upon the scenes of this decade, when public benefits can be
+accurately measured with individual errors, and the strides of progress
+in material development can be justly estimated, the true character of
+General Barrios will not be understood or appreciated even by his own
+countrymen. Like all vigorous and progressive men, like all men of
+strong character and forcible measures, he had bitter, vindictive
+enemies, who would have assassinated him had they been able to do so,
+and repeatedly tried it. There was nothing too harsh for them to say of
+him, living or dead, no cruelties too barbarous for them to accuse him
+of, no revenge too severe for them to visit upon him or his memory. But,
+on the other hand, people who did not cherish a spirit of revenge, who
+had no political ambition, and no schemes to be disconcerted, who are
+interested in the development of Central America, and are enjoying the
+benefits of the progress Guatemala has made, regard Barrios as the best
+friend and ablest leader, the wisest ruler his country ever had, and
+would have been glad if his life could have been prolonged and his power
+extended over the entire continent. They are willing to concede to him
+not only honorable motives, but the worthy ambition of trying to lift
+his country to the level with the most advanced nations of the earth.
+Ten more years of the same progress that Guatemala made under Barrios
+would place her upon a par with any of the States of Europe, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span> those
+of the United States. While he did not furnish a government of the
+people, by the people, it was a government for the people, provided and
+administered by a man of remarkable ability, independence, ambition, and
+extraordinary pride. While his iron hand crushed all opposition, and
+held a power that yielded to nothing, he was, nevertheless, generous to
+the poor, lenient to those who would submit to him, and ready to do
+anything to improve the condition of the people or promote their
+welfare.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 236px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b077_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b077_sml.jpg" width="236" height="337" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FRANCISCO MORAZAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>That a man of his ancestry and early associations should<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> have brought
+this republic to the condition in which he left it when he died is
+remarkable. Without education himself, he enacted a law requiring the
+attendance at school of all children between the ages of eight and
+fourteen years, and rigorously enforced it. People who refused to obey
+this law, or sent their children to private schools, or educated them at
+home, were compelled to pay a heavy fine for the privilege. He
+established a university at Guatemala City and free schools in every
+city of the republic, to the support of which a larger proportion of the
+public revenues were appropriated than in any one of the United States
+or the nations of Europe. He founded hospitals, asylums, and other
+institutions of charity with his own means, or supported them by
+appropriations from the public treasury. He compelled physicians to be
+educated properly before they were allowed to practise; he punished
+crime so severely that it was almost unknown; he regulated the sale of
+liquors, so that a drunken man was never seen upon the streets; he
+enforced the observance of the Sabbath by closing the stores and
+market-places, which in other Spanish-American republics are always
+open, and was active for the material as for the moral welfare of the
+people. During the twelve years he was in power the country made greater
+progress, and the citizens enjoyed greater prosperity, than during any
+period of all the three centuries and a half of previous history.</p>
+
+<p>His ambition to reunite the five Central American republics in a
+confederacy was not successful; but it was inspired by a desire to do
+for the neighboring States what he had done for Guatemala. His ambition
+was for the advancement and development of Central America; and while
+the means he used cannot be entirely approved, his purpose should be
+applauded. His crusade was quite as important in the civilization of
+this continent as the bloody work England attempted to accomplish in
+Egypt and the Soudan. He was better than his race, was far in advance of
+his generation, and while he did not succeed in lifting his people
+entirely out of the ignorance and degradation in which they were kept by
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span> priests, what he did do cannot but result in the permanent good,
+not only of Guatemala, but of the nations which surround that republic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b079_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b079_sml.jpg" width="317" height="365" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHURCH OF SAN FRANCESCA, GUATEMALA LA ANTIGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the independence of the Central American colonies the priests
+ruled the country. Their excesses awakened a spirit of opposition, which
+finally culminated in a revolution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span> The famous Morazan became dictator,
+and might have been successful but for a decree he issued abolishing the
+convents and monasteries, and confiscating the entire property of the
+Church. This was in 1843. Led by the priests, the people rose in
+rebellion; but Morazan retained his power until an unknown man, tall,
+dark, and blood-thirsty, came out of the mountains&mdash;an Indian without a
+name, who could neither read nor write, whose occupation had been that
+of a swineherd, like Pizarro, who had graduated in the profession of a
+bandit, and led a gang of murderous outlaws in the mountains. Urged by a
+greed for plunder, this remarkable man, Rafael Carera, came out from his
+stronghold and joined the Church party in their war against the
+Government.</p>
+
+<p>His successes as a guerilla were so great that what was a small,
+independent band became the main army of the opposition, and he led a
+horde of disorganized plunderers towards the capital. The priests called
+him the Chosen of God, and attributed to him the divinely inspired
+mission of restoring the Church to power. The pious churchmen rushed to
+his standard, and fought by the side and under the command of the
+savage, whose only motive was plunder. He drove Morazan into Costa Rica,
+and proclaimed himself Dictator. The Church party were amazed at the
+arrogance of the bandit, but had to submit, and he soon developed into a
+full-fledged tyrant, ruling over Guatemala until his death for a period
+of thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>When Carera died there was no man to take his place, and the Church
+party began to decay. The Liberals gathered force and began a
+revolution. In their ranks was an obscure young man from the borders of
+Mexico, from a valley which produced Juarez, the liberator of Mexico,
+Diaz, the president of that republic, and other famous men. He began to
+show military skill and force of character, and when the Church party
+was overthrown and the Liberal leader was proclaimed President, Rufino
+Barrios became the general of the army. He soon resigned, however, and
+returned to his coffee plantation on the borders of Mexico. But the
+revival of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span> Church party shortly after caused him to return to
+military life, and when the Liberal president died, he was, in 1873,
+chosen his successor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b081_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b081_sml.jpg" width="289" height="348" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ONE OF FIFTY-SEVEN RUINED MONASTERIES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From that date until 1885 there was but one man in Guatemala, and he was
+Barrios. He began his career by adopting the policy that Morazan had
+failed to enforce. He expelled the monks and nuns from the country,
+confiscated the Church property, robbed the priests of their power, and,
+like Juarez in Mexico, liberated the people from a servitude under<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span>
+which they had suffered since the original settlement of the colonies.
+Then he visited the United States and Europe to study the science of
+government; sent men abroad to be educated, at Government expense, in
+the arts and sciences and political economy, and upon their return
+placed them in subordinate positions under him. He offered the most
+generous inducements to immigrants, and the country filled up with
+agricultural settlers, merchants, and mechanics. The population
+increased, and the country began to grow in prosperity with the
+development of its natural resources, and there was a “boom” in
+Guatemala the like of which was never before witnessed on that
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>Although he found Guatemala in a condition of moral degradation and
+commercial stagnation, he educated the people in a remarkable degree to
+an appreciation of his own ideas, and by introducing many modern
+improvements succeeded in inspiring them with his own ambition, so that
+they co-operated with him in any measure for the welfare of the country.
+He secured the enactment of laws which have been of great benefit, and
+compelled the natives to submit to what they first regarded as hardships
+but now accept as blessings. Roadways were constructed from the
+sea-coast to the interior, so that produce could get to market;
+diligence lines were established at Government expense; liberal railroad
+contracts were made, telegraph lines were erected, and all the modern
+facilities were introduced. The credit of the country was restored by a
+careful readjustment of its finances, and encouragement from the
+Government brought in a large amount of European capital. So that
+to-day, while the other Central American States are still in the
+condition that they were one hundred years ago, or have retrograded,
+Guatemala has stepped to the front, rich, powerful, progressive, and but
+for the peculiar appearance of the houses, the language of the people,
+and the customs they have inherited from their ancestors, Guatemala is
+not different from the new States of our great West.</p>
+
+<p>Under a compulsory education law free public-schools have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b083_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b083_sml.jpg" width="258" height="434" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FAÇADE OF AN OLD CHURCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">been established in every department of the republic, at an expense
+aggregating one-tenth of the entire revenues of the Government, an
+amount larger in proportion than is paid by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> any of the United States.
+Not only is tuition free, but textbooks are furnished by the Government.
+In 1884 the total number of schools in the republic was 934, with an
+attendance of 42,549 pupils, supported at a cost of $451,809, being an
+average cost to the public treasury of about ten dollars per pupil. Of
+this aggregate 850 were public graded schools with 39,642 pupils, 55
+were private schools with 1780 pupils, 20 were academies for the
+education of teachers and others desiring education in the higher
+branches. In addition to these the Government supports a university,
+with a faculty of high reputation, some of them imported from Germany
+and Spain, who are paid salaries of four thousand dollars a year each, a
+compensation greater than is received by instructors in the colleges of
+the United States, except in rare instances. Under this university are
+two law-schools with fifty-two pupils, one school of engineering with
+eleven pupils, a music-school with sixty-six pupils, a school of arts
+and drawing with one hundred and seventeen pupils, and a commercial
+college with fifty pupils, besides a deaf and dumb asylum with nine
+inmates. It is required that students in this university shall study the
+English language, and in a female college adjacent to it nothing but
+American textbooks are used. No language but English is spoken by the
+pupils residing in the institution, and the teachers as well as the
+principal are from the United States. This system of education was
+established about ten years ago, but has gradually improved until it has
+reached its present importance, and cannot but have a wholesome
+influence in the elevation of the people and the development of the
+State.</p>
+
+<p>Having overthrown the religion in which the people had been reared,
+Barrios recognized the necessity of providing some better substitute. He
+therefore, through the British minister, invited the Established Church
+of England to send missionaries to Guatemala; but owing to the disturbed
+condition of the country it was not considered advisable to commence
+work at that time, and the opportunity was neglected. In 1883 President
+Barrios visited New York, where he had conferences with the officers of
+the Presbyterian Board of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> Foreign Missions, which resulted in diverting
+the Rev. John C. Hill, of Chicago, who was <i>en route</i> to China, into
+this field of labor. Mr. Hill returned with the President to Guatemala,
+receiving a cordial welcome, and the President not only paid the
+travelling expenses of himself and family from his own pocket, but the
+freight charges upon his furniture, and purchased the equipment
+necessary for the establishment of a mission and school.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 262px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b085_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b085_sml.jpg" width="262" height="235" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A REMNANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reception of the President on his return to the country after an
+absence of nearly two years was a royal one, and the journey from San
+José, the Pacific seaport, to the capital of Guatemala was a triumphal
+march. Of all the honors, of all the attentions General Barrios
+received, he insisted that Mr. Hill should have a share, and the
+blushing young parson found himself again and again on public platforms,
+with the President of Guatemala leaning upon his shoulder and
+introducing him to the people as his friend. This demonstration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> had its
+purpose, and resulted precisely as General Barrios intended it should.
+He meant that the people should know that he had taken the missionary
+and the cause he represented under the patronage of the Government, and
+expected them to show the same respect and honor he bestowed himself. He
+went still further. He placed Mr. Hill in one of his own houses, and
+there the school and chapel were opened. He sent his own children to the
+new Sunday-school, and notified members of his Cabinet to follow his
+example. He issued a decree to the Collectors of Customs to admit free
+of duty all articles which Mr. Hill desired to import, and in every
+possible manner showed his interest in the success of the work. The
+Protestant Mission became fashionable, and was known as the President’s
+“pet.”</p>
+
+<p>The encouragement President Barrios gave to the Presbyterian Mission was
+an example the people were glad to follow, and the mission met with
+nothing but the most cordial and respectful treatment. The Catholics
+looked very sour at the rapidity with which the breach was widened in
+the walls they were nearly four hundred years in erecting, but they
+dared not utter even a remonstrance against those favored by the potent
+force behind the military guard. They saw the monks and nuns expelled,
+the churches sold at public auction for the benefit of the public
+treasury, and with a muttered curse against the power by which all these
+things were done, submitted servilely to his will for fear of losing
+what they had been able to retain.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Barrios was the loveliest woman in Guatemala; beautiful in
+character as well as person, socially brilliant and graceful, charitable
+beyond all precedent in a country where the poor are usually permitted
+to take care of themselves, generous and hospitable, a good mother to a
+fine family of children, and a devoted wife, loyal to all the
+President’s ambitions, and an enthusiastic supporter of all his schemes.
+Like a wise man who knows the perils which constantly surround him, and
+the uncertainty of the head which wears a crown in these countries, he
+had made ample provision for his family by purchasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span> for Mrs. Barrios
+a handsome residence in Fifth Avenue near Sixty-fifth Street, New York,
+and investing about a million dollars in her name in other New York real
+estate. His life was also insured for two hundred and fifty thousand
+dollars in New York companies, which, it must be said, carried a
+hazardous risk, as there were hundreds of men who lived only to see
+Barrios buried. Very few of them were in Guatemala, however, during his
+lifetime. They did not find the atmosphere agreeable there. They were
+exiles in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Mexico, California, or elsewhere,
+waiting for a chance to give him a dose of dynamite or prick him with a
+dagger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b087_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b087_sml.jpg" width="318" height="214" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FORT OF SAN JOSÉ, GUATEMALA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mrs. Barrios and her children talk English as well as if they had always
+lived in New York. While the President himself could not speak the
+language fluently, he could understand what was said to him, and
+apologized for what he called a misfortune, on the ground that he did
+not have the opportunity to learn it until he was too old to master its
+intricacies. But he required English to be taught in all the
+common-schools, and the children use nothing but American text-books.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span> I
+talked with him one day, with his little girl as an interpreter. She was
+a beautiful child, about ten years of age, and when she said she was an
+American (which means a citizen of the United States) the President
+patted her fondly upon the head and cried “bueno” (good).</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago there was a conspiracy to assassinate the President. A
+woman, who was the Mrs. Surratt of the plot, and at whose house the
+conspirators were in the habit of meeting, did not like the arrangement,
+and on the afternoon of the night on which the plan was to be carried
+into execution revealed the whole thing to the President. He had the
+conspirators arrested, and ordered the men shot who proposed to ravish
+his wife, but he pardoned his treacherous private secretary. The latter
+rewarded the President’s generosity by forging an order to the
+commandant of the prison to release the condemned men. He was arrested
+again, confessed his crime, even boasted of it, and was shot also.
+Several other attempts were made to assassinate Barrios. The last came
+very near being successful. He was on his way to the theatre, when three
+men, who had been employed by an ambitious politician for the purpose,
+threw a bomb at him. He coolly stepped on the fuse, extinguished it,
+picked up the dose of death that had been prepared for him, and remarked
+to his companion,</p>
+
+<p>“The rascals don’t know how to kill me!”</p>
+
+<p>The leader of the plot was sent into exile, but his tools were pardoned,
+and are walking the streets of the city of Guatemala to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The prettiest and most picturesque of the native costumes to be found in
+Spanish America is worn by the women of Guatemala, who are of a dark
+complexion, nearly that of the mulatto type, but are famous for their
+beauty of form. A Guatemala girl in her native costume makes as pretty a
+picture as one can find anywhere. Her face is bright and pretty, her
+figure as perfect as nature unaided by art can be, and her movements
+show a supple grace and elasticity that cannot be imitated by those of
+her sex who are encumbered by modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span> articles of feminine apparel. Her
+head is usually bare, in-doors and out, and her thick black tresses hang
+in braids often reaching to her heels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b089_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b089_sml.jpg" width="322" height="266" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>YNIENSI GATE, GUATEMALA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Her garments are only two&mdash;a <i>guipil</i> and a <i>sabana</i>. The first is a
+square piece of cotton of coarse texture, covered with embroidery of
+brilliant colors and simple but artistic designs. In the centre of the
+<i>guipil</i> is an aperture like that in the ordinary poncho, through which
+her head goes, and it is usually wide enough to constitute, when worn, a
+low-neck waist. The ends are tucked in her skirts at the belt. Her bare
+arms come through the open folds of her <i>guipil</i>, and when she raises
+them her side is exposed. Her skirt is a straight piece of plaid cotton
+of brilliant colors, like the Scotch plaids, and is wound tightly around
+her limbs. It is secured at the waist<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> by a sash, usually of scarlet,
+woven by her own hands of the fibres of the <i>pita</i> grass, and executed
+in the most skilful manner. These belts in their texture resemble the
+Persian camel’s-hair shawl, and often cost months of labor. Very often
+the name of the owner, and sometimes mottoes, are woven into the
+texture, and they are brought away from the country as curiosities by
+travellers.</p>
+
+<p>Every article the Guatemala girl wears she makes with her own hands, and
+the natives of that country are as ingenious, industrious, and
+intelligent as are found in Spanish America. Even her sandals are
+home-made, and her little stockingless feet look very pretty in them.
+The small size of the hands and feet of the men and women is always
+noticed by those who visit Guatemala, and they are usually very shapely
+and delicately formed.</p>
+
+<p>The costume which has been described is worn only by the peasants. The
+upper classes dress just as they would in New York, and the fashions are
+followed quite as closely. The women are very pretty, but have the habit
+of plastering their faces over with a paste or rouge that makes them
+look as if they had been poking their heads into a flour-barrel. This
+cosmetic is made of magnesia and the whites of eggs, stirred into a
+thick paste, and plastered on without regard to quantity. The natural
+beauty of complexion is thus concealed, and in time totally ruined.
+There is a Swiss lady at the head of a large seminary in Guatemala City
+to which the daughters of the aristocracy are sent. She has forbidden
+the use of this plaster by the young ladies under her charge to prevent
+the boarding pupils from destroying their fair skins, but over the
+day-scholars she has no control out of school-hours. Every morning she
+stands at the entrance with a basin of water, a sponge, and a towel, and
+puts the girls through a system of scrubbing that arouses their
+indignation.</p>
+
+<p>The natives are fond of bright colors, and have a remarkable deftness in
+their fingers, which hold the embroidery-needle as well as the hoe and
+machete. The <i>guipils</i> are embroidered in gay tints and artistic
+patterns, and a group of peons<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b091_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b091_sml.jpg" width="319" height="274" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A VOLCANIC LAKE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">returning from or going to market looks as quaint and picturesque as the
+peasants of Normandy or Switzerland. The women are short, squarely
+built, and very muscular, and carry as much load as a mule. Their cargo
+is always borne upon their heads in a large basket, and they seldom
+walk, but move in a jog-trot, with a swaying, graceful motion, swinging
+their arms and carrying their shoulders as erect as a West Point cadet.
+They travel up hill and down without changing this gait, and make about
+six miles an hour, being able to outstrip any ordinary horse or mule not
+only in speed but in endurance. It is a common thing to see a woman not
+more than twenty-five or twenty-eight years of age coming to town with a
+hundred pounds of meat or vegetables upon her head, a baby slung in a
+<i>reboso</i> or blanket fastened around her hips, and several<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span> children from
+six to twelve years of age, each heavily laden, trotting along by her
+side. Almost as soon as they are able to walk, the children receive
+loads to carry, and the little ones come seven, eight, and ten miles to
+market every day or so, thinking nothing of bearing on their heads a
+weight that would be a burden to the ordinary man of North America.</p>
+
+<p>The men do not carry their loads upon their heads, but upon their backs
+in a pannier, which is held by bands around the shoulders and across the
+forehead. They are wonderfully strong and fleet of foot. “If you are
+going to buy wood or hay,” said a friend who has lived long in the
+country, “always take the man’s load. You will get more than if you
+bought the load of a mule.” These men come into town driving ahead of
+them three or four pack-mules loaded with coffee, sugar, corn, hay, or
+wood, which they sell to the commission merchants or at the market. When
+they return at night to their homes in the country they never ride, but
+drive the unladen mules ahead of them, and many of them are so
+accustomed to a weight upon their backs that they place a great stone in
+the pannier to give them a proper balance.</p>
+
+<p>Some are very fleet of foot. Barrios had a runner attached to his
+retinue of whom some tall stories are told. He was sent as a courier
+into the country with messages, and his average speed was ten miles an
+hour. This runner was kept pretty busy in war times, and was constantly
+in motion. Once he carried a despatch thirty-five leagues into the
+interior and returned with the answer in thirty-six hours, making the
+two hundred and ten miles over the mountains at six miles an hour,
+including detentions and delays for food and sleep.</p>
+
+<p>These men wear short trousers, like bathing-trunks, and a white cotton
+shirt, with sandals made of cowhide. The shirt is kept for occasions of
+ceremony, and is worn only in town. While on the road they are naked
+except for the trunks.</p>
+
+<p>When Barrios issued his decree that the peasants should wear clothing
+the country narrowly escaped a revolution; but policemen were stationed
+on all the roads leading into the city, and confiscated all the cargoes
+borne by those who did<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b093_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b093_sml.jpg" width="332" height="533" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON THE ROAD TO THE CAPITAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">not comply with the regulations and put on a shirt or a <i>guipil</i>. The
+peons pleaded poverty, when Barrios, who was as generous as he was
+tyrannical, furnished the cloth to make the garments.</p>
+
+<p>It is a novel sight to see a native policeman wearing a uniform like
+that worn by the policemen of New York&mdash;helmet, club, badge, and all.
+Here extremes meet. Quite as significant and striking a contrast is
+often furnished in the picture of one of these peons, laden down with
+his pannier, leaning for a moment’s rest upon a letter-box like those
+used in the United States, attached to a telephone-pole; or one of the
+gayly dressed women, with a load of vegetables upon her head, dodging a
+still more gayly painted mail-wagon, the exact counterpart of those used
+in our postal service, except that the coat of arms of Guatemala appears
+in the place of the American eagle.</p>
+
+<p>Barrios imported a sergeant of the New York police force two years ago,
+bought a lot of uniforms, and organized a patrol system that is
+remarkably successful. He put letter-boxes on nearly every
+street-corner, and had the mail carried to and from the railroad-station
+in wagons made by the same man and after the same pattern as those in
+use in the United States. He introduced the letter-carrier system also.
+It is not successful, because the natives object to have their
+correspondence carried through the streets, preferring to send for it
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The military law of Guatemala requires the enrolment in the militia of
+every able-bodied man between the ages of eighteen and forty, and when
+Barrios issued his pronunciamento they were all called out for service.
+Even the hotels were stripped of servants, the business houses of
+porters, and all industries of laborers. Jesus Maria was the name of a
+male chamber-maid at the Grand Hotel, where all the work is done by men.
+Jesus was very patriotic, and made many vows, he said, for the success
+of Barrios, but he did not want to go to war, and appealed to all the
+boarders who had influence with the Government to secure him an
+exemption<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span>-paper. He could say a few words of English, and expressed his
+sentiments concerning the pending struggle in the words, “La union much
+grande; la guerra no good.” That exactly describes the attitude the
+United States took in the contest.</p>
+
+<p>When the conscripts come in from the country, rag-tag and bob-tail, in
+all kinds of costumes, and usually barefooted, they are sent to the
+garrison, where each receives a uniform made of white drilling from the
+United States. About every twelfth one bears across the seat of his
+trousers or between his shoulders the legend, “Best Massachusetts
+Drillings XXXX Mills.” This rather adds to the beauty of the uniform,
+and there is quite a strife among the volunteers to secure trousers or
+blouses so marked. Each is given a straw hat, a cartridge-box, a gun,
+and a blanket, with which they were marched to the front at the rate of
+five or six hundred a day, while the streets were lined with tearful
+women giving parting words to sons, husbands, and sweethearts. The
+Guatemalatacos, as the inhabitants are called, are said to be the best
+fighters in Central America, and were inspired with an intense
+admiration for Barrios, who had never shown anything but a fatherly
+solicitude for the welfare of the common people. He may have been cruel
+to his political enemies, and arbitrary in his treatment of aspiring
+rivals, but to the masses, the poor, he was always generous and kind.
+Much of his strength came from the fact that he always shared the
+shelter and food of the common soldier. He never took any camp equipage
+with him, but slept on the ground, and ate beans and tortillas
+(corn-cakes), which constitute the ordinary soldier’s rations.</p>
+
+<p>Although the hotels are clean, and have better beds and food than are
+found elsewhere in Spanish America, there is one peculiarity which is
+decidedly objectionable&mdash;the bill of fare is never changed. One gets the
+same dinner and the same breakfast every day. There is enough and a
+variety at both tables, but there is always the same amount and the same
+variety. First, at breakfast, there is always soup; there is an
+omelette, or eggs cooked as you want them; next comes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span> cold beef or
+mutton left from the previous day; then beefsteak, usually with onions;
+then beans and fritters. For dinner, soup is first served; second, rice
+with curry; next, boiled beef with cabbage; then turkey or chicken; then
+roast beef, salad, fruit, and cheese in order. All the native food
+(beef, fowls, fruit, and vegetables) is cheap, but flour and other
+imported products are very expensive. The hotel-keepers are usually
+Frenchmen or Germans. You seldom find a native keeping a hotel, but if
+you do, avoid it.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Guatemala have a peculiar way of preparing their coffee
+for the table. Every week or so a quantity of the berry is ground and
+roasted, and hot water is poured upon it. The black liquid is allowed to
+drip through a porous jar, and when cool is bottled up and set upon the
+table like vinegar or Worcestershire sauce. Pots of hot water or milk,
+with which the coffee-drinker can dilute the cold, black syrup to such a
+weakness as he likes, are set before him. This plan has its advantages,
+but it takes a long time to become accustomed to it.</p>
+
+<p>The laundry work of the city is never done at home, but always at the
+public fountains, which are scattered over the city, and have basins of
+stone for the purpose. The wet clothes are placed in a basket and
+carried home on the head of the laundress to be dried. Every morning and
+evening, Sundays included, there is a long procession of washer-women
+going to and from these fountains, with baskets of soiled or wet
+garments upon their heads.</p>
+
+<p>Sunday is observed in Guatemala more than in any other Spanish-American
+city. Usually, in all these nations, Sunday is the great market-day of
+the week, when all the denizens of the country dress in their best suits
+to come to town to trade and have a little recreation; but in Guatemala
+there is a law, which is respected and generally enforced, requiring the
+market and all other places of business to remain closed on the Sabbath.
+Sometimes a cigar shop or a saloon will be found open, and the hotel
+bar-rooms, or “canteens,” as they are called, do more business than on
+any other day but there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span> is no more general business done on Sunday than
+in the cities of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>All the city stores sell what is known in the slang of trade as “general
+merchandise;” that is, they keep all sorts of goods. You buy your canned
+fruit or sardines where you get your shoes or hat, and can fill an order
+for every variety of edible or apparel in the same establishment. An
+exception should be made of drugs, for the apothecary shops are usually
+kept by the physicians, who compound their own prescriptions, and the
+drug-stores in Guatemala, as in every other city of Central and South
+America, are usually fine establishments. But when you send for a
+“doctor” a lawyer comes. If you are sick, always ask for an apothecary
+or a physician. When you see a man alluded to as Dr. Don So-and-so, you
+may know that he is an attorney of distinction. The notaries draw all
+legal documents, as in Europe. Nobody ever asks a lawyer to draw a
+contract or a will.</p>
+
+<p>The photographers of Central and South America are almost invariably
+from the United States, and there is usually one in every town of
+importance. The people are vain of their personal appearance, hence
+photography is a lucrative business. But customs differ. In Venezuela,
+or Havana, or the Argentine Republic, if a gentleman possesses the
+photograph of a lady, he is either a near relative or is engaged to
+marry her. Otherwise her brother or father has good cause to thrash him,
+or challenge him to fight a duel. If the photographer sold the picture,
+or gave it away, he is liable to be punished by fine and imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>In Guatemala, on the other hand, as in Peru, the pictures of the belles
+of the city, whether married or maidens, can be purchased by any one who
+wants them at the photographers’, and often at the shops, and the rank
+and popularity of the subject is usually estimated by the number of her
+portraits so disposed of. Codfish is a luxury. It is served at
+fashionable dinners in the form of a stew or patties, or a salad, and is
+considered a rare and dainty dish. They call it <i>bacalao</i> (pronounced
+“backalowoh”), and the shop-windows contain handsomely<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span> illuminated
+signs announcing that it is for sale within. It costs about forty cents
+a pound, and is therefore used exclusively by the aristocracy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b099_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b099_sml.jpg" width="320" height="386" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TILED HOUSE-TOPS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The railroads in Guatemala are run on the credit system. Freight charges
+are seldom paid upon the delivery of the goods, but merchants and others
+expect three or four months’ time, and sometimes more. If a package
+arrives with your address<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> upon it, the railroad company is expected to
+deliver it at your residence, unless it happens to be very bulky, and a
+few weeks after a collector comes around for the freight money.</p>
+
+<p>The cars came into Guatemala for the first time in August, 1884, and
+have not yet ceased to be a novelty. There is always a large crowd of
+spectators at the station upon the arrival and departure of every train,
+and among these are the best people of the place. Twice a week, at train
+time, the National Band plays in the plaza fronting the station, to
+entertain the people who are waiting.</p>
+
+<p>The Government owns the telegraph line, and charges low tariffs, the
+cost being twenty-five cents for a message to any part of the republic.
+But the cable rates are very high&mdash;$1.15 per word to the United States,
+and $1.50 per word to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The literary people here always spell general with a “J.” Barrios was
+the “Jeneral Presidente,” but after his pronunciamento “Supremissimo
+Jefe Militar”&mdash;Most Supreme Military Chief.</p>
+
+<p>When a letter is addressed to a person of distinction the envelope
+reads, “Exmo y’ Illustra Señor Don John Smith”&mdash;The Most Excellent, or
+His Excellency, the Illustrious Señor Don, etc. One is apt to feel very
+highly complimented when he gets a letter bearing this inscription.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody is named after some saint, usually the one whose anniversary
+is nearest the hour of their birth, and the saint is expected to look
+after them. When a man comes here who doesn’t happen to be christened
+after a saint, the ignorant people express their surprise, and ask, “Who
+takes care of him? Who preserves him from evil?”</p>
+
+<p>General Barrios was always dramatic. He was dramatic in the simplicity
+and frugality of his private life, as he was in the displays he was
+constantly making for the diversion of the people. In striking contrast
+with the customs of the country where the garments and the manners of
+men are the objects of the most fastidious attention, he was careless in
+his clothing, brusque in his manner, and frank in his declarations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b101_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b101_sml.jpg" width="316" height="258" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MARKET-PLACE, GUATEMALA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is said that the Spanish language was framed to conceal thoughts, but
+Barrios used none of its honeyed phrases, and had the candor of an
+American frontiersman. He was incapable of duplicity, but naturally
+secretive. He had no confidants, made his own plans without consulting
+any one, and when he was ready to announce them he used language that
+could not be misunderstood. In disposition he was sympathetic and
+affectionate, and when he liked a man he showered favors upon him; when
+he distrusted, he was cold and repelling; and when he hated, his
+vengeance was swift and sure. To be detected in an intrigue against his
+life, or the stability of the Government, which was the same thing, was
+death or exile, and his natural powers of perception seemed almost
+miraculous. The last time his assassination was attempted he pardoned
+the men whose hands threw the bomb at him,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b102_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b102_sml.jpg" width="316" height="278" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THE RAINY SEASON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">but those who hired them saved their lives by flight from the country.
+If caught, they would have been shot without trial. He was the most
+industrious man in Central America; slept little, ate little, and never
+indulged in the siesta that is as much a part of the daily life of the
+people as breakfast and dinner. He did everything with a nervous
+impetuosity, thought rapidly, and acted instantly. The ambition of his
+life was to reunite the republics of Central America in a confederacy
+such as existed a few years after independence. The benefits of such a
+union are apparent to all who understand the political, geographical,
+and commercial conditions of the continent, and are acknowledged by the
+thinking men of the five States, but the consummation of the plan is
+prevented by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span> the selfish ambition of local leaders. Each is willing to
+join the union if he can be Dictator, but none will permit a union with
+any other man as chief.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b103_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b103_sml.jpg" width="264" height="239" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MAGUEY PLANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Diplomatic negotiations looking to a consolidation of the five Central
+American republics extended over a period of several years, but were
+fruitless because of local jealousies. The leading politicians in the
+several States feared they would lose their prominence and power, and
+distrusted Barrios, although he assured them that he was not ambitious
+to be Dictator. He thought he was the right man to carry out the plan,
+but as soon as it was consummated he proposed to retire and permit the
+people to frame their Constitution and elect their Executive, promising
+that he would not be a candidate. As he told me shortly after his
+<i>coup-d’état</i>, he desired to retire from public life and reside in the
+United States, which he considered the paradise of nations. He had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span>
+already purchased a residence in New York, and invested money there, and
+was educating his children with that intention.</p>
+
+<p>Sending emissaries into the several States to study public sentiment, he
+became assured that the time was ripe for the consummation of his plans.
+He believed that the masses of the people were ready to join in a
+reunion of the republics, and had the assurance of Zaldivar, the
+President of San Salvador, and Bogran, the President of Honduras, that
+they would consent to his temporary dictatorship. He determined upon a
+<i>coup-d’état</i>. Moral suasion had failed, so he decided to try force,
+with the co-operation of San Salvador and Honduras, which with Guatemala
+represented five-sixths of the population of Central America. He
+believed he could persuade Nicaragua and Costa Rica to accept a manifest
+destiny and voluntarily join the union.</p>
+
+<p>Realizing how impressionable the people he governed were, and knowing
+their love for excitement, he always introduced his reforms in some
+novel way, with a blast of trumpets and a gorgeous background.</p>
+
+<p>The union of Central America was announced in the same way, and came
+upon the people like a shock of earthquake. On the evening of Sunday,
+the 28th of February, 1885, the aristocracy of Guatemala were gathered
+as usual at the National Theatre to witness the performance of
+“Boccaccio” by a French opera company. In the midst of the play one of
+the most exciting situations was interrupted by the appearance of a
+uniformed officer upon the stage, who motioned the performers back from
+the foot-lights, and read the proclamation issued by Rufino Barrios, the
+President of Guatemala, who declared himself Dictator and Supreme
+Commander of all Central America, and called upon the citizens of the
+five republics to acknowledge his authority and take the oath of
+allegiance. The people were accustomed to earthquakes, but no
+terrestrial commotion ever created so much excitement as the eruption of
+this political volcano. The actresses and ballet-dancers fled in
+surprise to their dressing-rooms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> while the audience at once organized
+into an impromptu mass-meeting to ratify the audacity of their
+President.</p>
+
+<p>Few eyes were closed that night in Guatemala. Those who attempted to
+sleep were kept awake by the explosion of fireworks, the firing of
+cannon, the music of bands, and shouts of the populace, who, crazy with
+excitement, thronged the streets, and forming processions marched up and
+down the principal thoroughfares, rending the air with shouts of “Long
+live Dictator Barrios!” “Vive la Union!” A people naturally
+enthusiastic, and as inflammable as powder, to whom excitement was
+recreation and repose distress, suddenly and unexpectedly confronted
+with the greatest sensation of their lives, became almost insane, and
+turned the town into a bedlam. Although every one knew that Barrios
+aspired to restore the old Union of the Republic, no one seemed to be
+prepared for the <i>coup-d’état</i>, and the announcement fell with a force
+that made the whole country tremble. Next morning, as if by magic, the
+town seemed filled with soldiers. Where they came from or how they got
+there so suddenly the people did not seem to comprehend. And when the
+doors of great warehouses opened to disclose large supplies of
+ammunition and arms, the public eye was distended with amazement. All
+these preparations were made so silently and secretly that the surprise
+was complete. But for three or four years Barrios had been preparing for
+this day, and his plans were laid with a success that challenged even
+his own admiration. He ordered all the soldiers in the republic to be at
+Guatemala City on the 1st of March; the commands were given secretly,
+and the captain of one company was not aware that another was expected.
+It was not done by the wand of a magician, as the superstitious people
+are given to believing, but was the result of a long and carefully
+studied plan by one who was born a dictator, and knew how to perform the
+part.</p>
+
+<p>But the commotion was even greater in the other republics over which
+Barrios had assumed uninvited control. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> same night that the official
+announcement was made, telegrams were sent to the Presidents of
+Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, calling upon them to
+acknowledge the temporary supremacy of Dictator Barrios, and to sign
+articles of confederation which should form the constitution of the
+Central American Union. Messengers had been sent in advance bearing
+printed official copies of the proclamation, in which the reasons for
+the step were set forth, and they were told to withhold these documents
+from the Presidents of the neighboring republics until notified by
+telegram to present them.</p>
+
+<p>The President of Honduras accepted the dictatorship with great
+readiness, having been in close conference with Barrios on the subject
+previous to the announcement. The President of San Salvador, Dr.
+Zaldivar, who was also aware of the intentions of Barrios, and was
+expected to fall into the plan as readily as President Bogran, created
+some surprise by asking time to consider. As far as he was personally
+concerned, he said, there was nothing that would please him more than to
+comply with the wishes of the Dictator, but he must consult the people.
+He promised to call the Congress together at once, and after due
+consideration they would take such action as they thought proper.
+Nicaragua boldly and emphatically refused to recognize the authority of
+Barrios, and rejected the plan of the union. Costa Rica replied in the
+same manner. Her President telegraphed Barrios that she wanted no union
+with the other Central American States, was satisfied with her own
+independence, and recognized no dictator. Her people would protect their
+soil and defend their liberty, and would appeal to the civilized world
+for protection against any unwarranted attack upon her freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of Nicaragua was governed by the influence of a firm of
+British merchants in Leon with which President Cardenas has a pecuniary
+interest, and by whom his official acts are controlled. The policy of
+Costa Rica was governed by a conservative sentiment that has always
+prevailed in that country, while the influence of Mexico was felt
+throughout<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> the entire group of nations. As soon as the proclamation of
+Barrios was announced at the capital of the latter republic, President
+Diaz ordered an army into the field, and telegraphed offers of
+assistance to Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Costa Rica, with threats of
+violence to Honduras if she yielded submission to Barrios. Mexico was
+always jealous of Guatemala. The boundary-line between the two nations
+is unsettled, and a rich tract of country is in dispute. Feeling a
+natural distrust of the power below her, strengthened by consolidation
+with the other States, Mexico was prepared to resist the plans of
+Barrios to the last degree, and sent him a declaration of war.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b107_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b107_sml.jpg" width="135" height="113" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A NATIVE SANDAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the mean time Barrios appealed for the approval of the United States
+and the nations of Europe. During the brief administration of President
+Garfield he visited Washington, and there received assurances of
+encouragement from Mr. Blaine in his plan to reorganize the Central
+American Confederacy. Their personal interviews were followed by an
+extended correspondence, and no one was so fully informed of the plans
+of Barrios as Mr. Henry C. Hall, the United States minister at
+Guatemala.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the cable to Europe and the United States was under the
+control of San Salvador, landing at La Libertad, the principal port of
+that republic. Here was the greatest obstacle in the way of Barrios’s
+success. All his messages to foreign governments were sent by telegraph
+overland to La Libertad for transmission by cable from that place, but
+none of them reached their destination. The commandant of the port,
+under orders from Zaldivar, seized the office and suppressed the
+messages. Barrios took pains to inform the foreign powers fully of his
+plans, and the motives which prompted them, and to each he repeated the
+assurance<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> that he was not inspired by personal ambition, and would
+accept only a temporary dictatorship. As soon as a constitutional
+convention of delegates from the several republics could assemble he
+would retire, and permit the choice of a President of the consolidated
+republics by a popular election, he himself under no circumstances to be
+a candidate. But these messages were never sent. In place of them
+Zaldivar transmitted a series of despatches misrepresenting the
+situation, and appealing for protection against the tyranny of Barrios.
+Thus the Old World was not informed of the motives and intentions of the
+man and the situation of the republics.</p>
+
+<p>The replies of foreign nations and the comments of the press, based upon
+the falsehoods of Zaldivar, had a very depressing effect upon the
+people. They were more or less doctored before publication, and bogus
+bulletins were posted for the purpose of deceiving the people. The
+inhabitants of San Salvador were led to believe that naval fleets were
+on their way from the United States and Europe to forcibly prevent the
+consolidation of the republics, that an army was on its way from Mexico
+overland to attack Guatemala on the north, and that several transports
+loaded with troops had left New Orleans for the east coast of Nicaragua
+and Honduras.</p>
+
+<p>The United States Coast Survey ship <i>Ranger</i>, carrying four small guns,
+happening to enter at La Union, Nicaragua, engaged in its regular
+duties, was magnified into a fleet of hundreds of thousands of tons; and
+when the people of San Salvador and Nicaragua were convinced that
+submission to Barrios would require them to engage the combined forces
+of Europe and the United States, they rose in resistance and supported
+Zaldivar in his treachery.</p>
+
+<p>The effect in Guatemala was similar, although not so pronounced. There
+was a reversion of feeling against the Government. The moneyed men, who
+in their original enthusiasm tendered their funds to the President,
+withdrew their promises; the common people were nervous, and lost their
+confidence in their hero; while the Diplomatic Corps, representing every
+nation of importance on the globe, were in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span> state of panic because
+they received no instructions from home. The German and French
+ministers, like the minister from the United States, were favorable to
+the plans of Barrios; the Spanish minister was outspoken in opposition;
+the English and Italian ministers non-committal; but none of them knew
+what to say or how to act in the absence of instructions. They
+telegraphed to their home governments repeatedly, but could obtain no
+replies, and suspected that the troubles might be in San Salvador. Mr.
+Hall, the American minister, transmitted a full description of the
+situation every evening, and begged for instructions, but did not
+receive a word.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b109_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b109_sml.jpg" width="200" height="218" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ORNAMENTAL, BUT NOISY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Government at Washington had informed Mr. Hall by mail that its
+policy in relation to the plan to reunite the republics was one of
+non-interference, but advised that the spirit of the century was
+contrary to the use of force to accomplish such an end; and acting upon
+this information, Mr. Hall had frequent and cordial conferences with the
+President, and received from him a promise that he would not invade<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span>
+either of the neighboring republics with an army unless required to do
+so. If Guatemala was invaded he would retaliate, but otherwise would not
+cross the border. In the mean time the forces of Guatemala, forty
+thousand strong, were massed at the capital, the streets were full of
+marching soldiers, and the air was filled with martial music, while
+Zaldivar was raising an army by conscription in San Salvador, and money
+by forced loans. His Government daily announced the arrival of so many
+“volunteers” at the capital, but the volunteering was a very transparent
+myth. A current anecdote was of a conscript officer who wrote to the
+Secretary of War from the Interior: “I send you forty more volunteers.
+Please return me the ropes with which their hands and legs are tied, as
+I shall need to bind the quota from the next town.”</p>
+
+<p>In the city of San Salvador many of the merchants closed their stores,
+and concealed themselves to avoid the payment of forced loans. The
+Government called a “Junta,” or meeting of the wealthy residents, each
+one being personally notified by an officer that his attendance was
+required, and there the Secretary of War announced that a million
+dollars for the equipment of troops must be raised instantly. The
+Government, he said, was assured of the aid of foreign powers to defeat
+the plans of Barrios, but until the armies and navies of Europe and the
+United States could reach the coast the republic must protect itself.
+Each merchant and <i>estancianado</i> was assessed a certain amount, to make
+the total required, and was required to pay it into the Treasury within
+twenty-four hours. Some responded promptly, others procrastinated, and a
+few flatly refused. The latter were thrust into jail, and the
+confiscation of their property threatened unless they paid. In one or
+two cases the threat was executed; but, with cold sarcasm, the day after
+the meeting the <i>Official Gazette</i> announced that the patriotic citizens
+of San Salvador had voluntarily come to the assistance of the Government
+with their arms and means, and had tendered financial aid to the amount
+of one million dollars, the acceptance of which the President was now
+considering.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p>
+
+<p>Barrios, knowing that the army of Salvador would invade Guatemala and
+commence an offensive campaign, so as to occupy the attention of the
+people, ordered a detachment of troops to the frontier, and decided to
+accompany them. The evening before he started there was what is called
+“a grand <i>funcion</i>” at the National Theatre. All of the military bands
+assembled at the capital&mdash;a dozen or more&mdash;were consolidated for the
+occasion, and between the acts performed a march composed by a local
+musician in honor of the Union of Central America, and dedicated to
+General Barrios. A large screen of sheeting was elaborately painted with
+the inscription,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">“<i>All hail the Union of the Republic!</i>”<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">“<i>Long live the Dictator and the Generalissimo,</i>”<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">“<i>J. Rufino Barrios!</i>”<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was attached to heavy rollers, to be dropped in front of the stage
+instead of the regular curtain at the end of the second act of the play,
+for the purpose of creating a sensation; and a sensation it did
+create&mdash;an unexpected and frightful one.</p>
+
+<p>As the orchestra commenced to play the new march the curtain was lowered
+slowly, and the audience greeted it with tremendous applause, rising to
+their feet, shouting, and waving their hats and handkerchiefs. But
+through the blunder of the stage carpenter the weights were too heavy
+for the cotton sheeting; the banner split, and the heavy rollers at the
+bottom fell over into the orchestra, severely wounding several of the
+musicians. As fate would have it, the rent was directly through the name
+of Barrios. The people, naturally superstitious, were horrified, and
+stood aghast at this omen of disaster. The cheering ceased instantly,
+and a dead silence prevailed, broken only by the noise of the musicians
+under the wreck struggling to recover their feet. A few of the more
+courageous friends of the President attempted to revive the applause,
+but met with a miserable failure. Strong men<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span> shuddered, women fainted,
+and Mrs. Barrios left the theatre, unable to control her emotion. The
+play was suspended; the audience departed to discuss the omen, and
+everybody agreed that Barrios’s <i>coup-d’état</i> would fail.</p>
+
+<p>The President left the city at the head of his army for the frontier of
+San Salvador, his wife accompanying him a few miles on the way. A few
+days later a small detachment of the Guatemala army, commanded by a son
+of Barrios, started out on a scouting expedition, and were attacked by
+an overwhelming force of Salvadorians. The young captain was killed by
+the first volley, and his company were stampeded. Leaving his body on
+the field, they retreated in confusion to headquarters. When Barrios
+heard of the disaster he leaped upon his horse, called upon his men to
+follow him, and started in pursuit of the men who had killed his son.
+The Salvadorians, expecting to be pursued, lay in ambush, and the
+Dictator, while galloping down the road at the head of a squadron of
+cavalry, was picked off by a sharpshooter and died instantly. His men
+took his body and that of his son, which was found by the roadside, and
+carried them back to camp. A courier was despatched to the nearest
+telegraph station with a message to the capital conveying the sad news.
+It was not unexpected; since the omen at the theatre, no one supposed
+the Dictator would return alive. All but himself had lost confidence,
+and it transpired that even he went to the front with a presentiment of
+disaster, for among his papers was found this peculiar will, written by
+himself a few moments before his departure.</p>
+
+<div class="blockmem2"><p class="c">THE WILL OF BARRIOS.</p>
+
+<p>“I am in full campaign, and make my declaration as a soldier.</p>
+
+<p>“My legitimate wife is Donna Francisca Apaucio vel Vecusidario de
+Quezaltenanzo.</p>
+
+<p>“During our marriage we have had seven children, as follows:
+Elaine, Luz, José, Maria, Carlos, Rufino, and Francisca.</p>
+
+<p>“Donna Francisca is the sole owner of all my properties and
+interest whatsoever. She will know how much to give our children
+when they arrive at maturity, and I have full confidence in her.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p>
+
+<p>“She may give to my nephew, Luciano Barrios, in two or three
+instalments, $25,000, for the kindness which this nephew has
+rendered to me, and which I doubt not he will continue to render to
+my wife Donna Francisca.</p>
+
+<p>“She will continue to provide for the education of Antonio Barrios,
+who is now in the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>“She is empowered to demand and collect all debts due to me in this
+country and abroad. The overseers and administrators of my
+properties, wherever they may be, shall account only to Donna
+Francisca or the person whom she may name.</p>
+
+<p>“It is five o’clock in the morning. At this moment I start forth to
+Jutiapa, where the army is.</p>
+
+<p class="r">“J. RUFINO BARRIOS.</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Monday</span>, <i>March 23, 1885</i>.”</p></div>
+
+<p>The attempt to reunite the republic ended with the death of the
+Dictator, and the whole country was thrown into confusion. In Guatemala
+City anarchy prevailed. The enemies of Barrios did not fear a dead lion,
+and kicked his body. They came out in force, stoned his house, and his
+beautiful wife was forced to seek the protection of the United States
+minister, whose secretary escorted her to San José, where she took a
+steamer for San Francisco, and has since resided in New York.</p>
+
+<p>Señor Sinibaldi, the Vice-president of the republic, called the Congress
+together, and a new election was ordered, at which Señor Barrillas, a
+man of excellent ability and wise discretion, was chosen President of
+the republic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="COMAYAGUA" id="COMAYAGUA"></a>COMAYAGUA.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF HONDURAS.</span></h2>
+
+<p>I<small>N</small> 1540 Cortez, the Conqueror of Mexico, directed Alonzo Caceres, one of
+his lieutenants, to proceed with an army of one thousand men to the
+Province of Honduras, which had been subdued by Alvarado a few years
+before, and select a suitable site for a city midway between the two
+oceans. Caceres was a pioneer of most excellent discretion, and so good
+a judge of distance was he that if a straight line were drawn from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific, the centre would be just three miles north of
+the plaza of Comayagua. A modern engineer, with all the scientific
+appliances at his disposal, could not have obeyed instructions more
+accurately; and as for location, there are few finer sites in the world
+than the elevated plain upon which the little capital of Honduras
+stands. A semicircle of mountains enclose it, with a wall of peaks six
+and seven thousand feet high upon one side, while upon the other a great
+plain stretches away nearly forty miles, gradually sloping to the
+eastward. The altitude of the city is about twenty-three hundred feet
+above the sea, and the climate is a perpetual June, the thermometer
+seldom varying more than twenty degrees during the entire year, and
+averaging about 75° Fahrenheit. The soil is deep, rich, and fertile, and
+the productions of the plain are tropical; but beyond the city, in the
+foothills of the mountains and upon their slopes, corn, wheat, and other
+staples of the temperate zones can be raised in enormous quantities with
+a minimum of labor. The pineapple and the palm tree are growing within
+two hours’ ride of waving wheat-fields, while orange and apple orchards
+stand within sight of each other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b115_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b115_sml.jpg" width="319" height="270" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A CONSPICUOUS LANDMARK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Comayagua is said to have at one time contained nearly thirty thousand
+inhabitants, but at present it has no more than one-fifth of that
+number; for, like all of the Central American cities, its population has
+been reduced since the independence of the country, and, like the most
+of them, it is in a state of decay. Everything is dilapidated, and
+nothing is ever repaired. No sign of prosperity appears anywhere.
+Commercial stagnation has been its normal condition for sixty years, and
+the indolence and indifference of the people has not been disturbed for
+that period, except by political insurrections. No one seems to have
+anything to do. The aristocrats swing lazily in their hammocks, or
+discuss politics over the counters of the <i>tiendas</i>, or at the club,
+while the poor beg in the streets, and manage to sustain life upon the
+fruits which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span> Nature has so profligately showered upon them. Nowhere
+upon the earth’s surface exist greater inducements to labor, nowhere can
+so much be produced with so little effort; and the vast resources of the
+country present the most tempting opportunity for capital and
+enterprise, for nearly every acre of the land is susceptible to some
+sort of profitable development.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b116_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b116_sml.jpg" width="287" height="361" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE TRAIL TO THE CAPITAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span></p>
+
+<p>The area of Honduras is about the same as that of Ohio, and the
+inhabitants number from three to four hundred thousand, according to the
+guess of the well informed, but no census has been taken for a quarter
+of a century, and the last enumeration was so inaccurate as to discredit
+itself. In ancient times the population must have been very dense.</p>
+
+<p>It is as difficult and as long a journey to reach the capital of
+Honduras from New York as the capital of Siam or Siberia. One must go by
+steamer to Truxillo, the chief Atlantic port, or to Amapala, on the Bay
+of Fonseca, on the Pacific side&mdash;a voyage of from fifteen to twenty days
+by either route&mdash;and then ride for twelve days on mule-back over the
+mountains, without any of the accommodations or comforts known to modern
+travel, and not even one clean or comfortable inn. When the capital is
+reached there is no hotel to stop at, and one must trespass upon the
+hospitality of the citizens, or seek some boarding-place through the aid
+of a local merchant or priest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b117_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b117_sml.jpg" width="316" height="169" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A GLIMPSE OF THE INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The President is General Bogran, a man who came into power by a peaceful
+revolution in 1885, to succeed Marco A. Soto, who fled that year to San
+Francisco, and from there sent his resignation to Congress. Bogran is a
+man of brains and progressive ideas, possessing more of the modern
+spirit<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b118_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b118_sml.jpg" width="322" height="252" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VIEW OF THE CAPITAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and broader views than most of his contemporaries, and if he is
+permitted to carry out his plans Honduras will make rapid speed in the
+development of her great natural resources. He is offering tempting
+inducements to foreign capital and immigration, has given liberal
+concessions to Americans who desire to enter the country, and is wisely
+endeavoring to induce some one to construct the Interoceanic Railway,
+which was surveyed fifty years ago, and twenty-seven miles of which has
+already been built and at intervals operated. But the discontented
+element in the country, in league with his predecessor, who now lives in
+New York, are surrounding him with obstacles and harassing him with all
+sorts of embarrassments, so that his success is made doubtful. Bogran
+spends very little of his time at Comayagua, and the seat of government
+has been removed to Tegucigalpa, the largest town in the country, as
+well as its commercial metropolis. Here the Congress<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span> sits also, and the
+place is to all intents and purposes the capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b119_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b119_sml.jpg" width="315" height="320" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A POPULAR THOROUGHFARE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Comayagua is by far the finest building in the country,
+being an excellent specimen of the semimoresque style, which was so
+popular among the Spanish provinces. Its walls and roof are of the most
+solid masonry, but are considerably marred by the revolutions through
+which the country has passed, for in nearly all of them the cathedral
+has been used as a fortress and subjected to a shower of lead. Near the
+cathedral stands a monument originally intended to honor one of the
+Spanish kings, but after the independence of the country was established
+the royal symbols<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span> were erased by the order of one of the Presidents,
+the inscription was chiselled off, and the obelisk now stands to
+commemorate independence. This monument is the place of public
+execution, and criminals sentenced to death are made to sit blindfolded
+at its base, where they are shot by the soldiers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b120_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b120_sml.jpg" width="316" height="262" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHURCH OF MERCED AND INDEPENDENCE MONUMENT, COMAYAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In November, 1886, General Delgrado, the leader of a revolution, with
+four of his comrades, was executed here. It was the desire of President
+Bogran to spare Delgrado’s life, and any pretext would have been adopted
+to save him if the honor of the country could have been vindicated, but
+he was convicted of treason, and sentenced by the courts to die. The
+President offered to pardon him if he would take the oath of allegiance
+and swear never to engage in revolutionary proceedings again; but the
+old soldier would not even accept life on these terms, and much to the
+regret of the President,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b121_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b121_sml.jpg" width="278" height="385" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUBBER HUNTERS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">against whom he had conspired, and the better portion of the people, the
+sentence had to be executed. On the morning of the day fixed by the
+courts, the five men were led from the prison to the Church of La
+Merced, where the last rites were administered to them, and were then
+conducted to the Peace Monument, where a file of soldiers was drawn up
+with loaded rifles. The last word of Delgrado was a request that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span>
+might give the command to fire, and he did so as coolly as if he had
+been on dress parade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b122_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b122_sml.jpg" width="200" height="230" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PITA PLANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The residents of Comayagua are chiefly the owners of haciendas situated
+in the neighborhood, or small tradesmen, with four or five thousand lazy
+and worthless half-breeds, who live upon <i>tortillas</i>, or corn-cakes, and
+the fruits in which the country abounds. The most conspicuous feature of
+their life is the filth that surrounds them, and the freedom with which
+their pigs and chickens enjoy the shelter of the dwelling. A few stone
+jars of native make, a few rude calabashes, a couple of hammocks, and a
+few broken articles of furniture, constitute the equipment of a peon’s
+house. The man of the house swings in a hammock while his spouse brings
+water from the stream in a large stone jar upon her head, and the pigs
+and chickens and children lie upon the floor indiscriminately mixed. The
+pigs take the tortillas out of the mouths of the children, and the
+compliment is returned, while the chickens forage upon every article of
+food within their reach.</p>
+
+<p>Both cotton and silk grow upon trees, the vegetable silk being of very
+fine and soft fibre, and frequently used by the natives in the
+manufacture of robosas, serapas, and other articles of wear, while the
+product of the cotton-tree is utilized in a similar manner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b123_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b123_sml.jpg" width="316" height="226" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HARVESTING ONE OF THE STAPLES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is said to be a greater variety of medicinal plants in Honduras
+than in any country on the globe, and the botany of the country contains
+nearly every tree and shrub and flower that is known to man. They are
+all of spontaneous growth, and might be made a prolific source of
+wealth, but are entirely neglected. There is one famous weed, called by
+the natives <i>el agrio</i>, which is a certain cure for sunstroke, or for
+prostration from exposure to the sun or over-exertion, and is used for
+both men and animals. As it is excessively bitter, the leaf of the plant
+is wound about the bit of the bridle of a sunstruck horse, and the
+animal gradually sucks the juice from it. The leaves are dried in the
+shade, and a tea made of them by the natives to cure sunstroke and other
+diseases of the brain or blood.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the country is beyond the reach of markets, because of
+the absence of transportation facilities. In this respect the people are
+no further advanced than they were two hundred years ago. The only
+wagon-roads in the country are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span> one built by a party of Americans near
+San Pedro, in the west, and a few miles of a national highway that a
+century ago was begun for the purpose of connecting Amapala, the Pacific
+port, with Tegucigalpa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b124_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b124_sml.jpg" width="320" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE FLOATING POPULATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Honduras has the finest fluvial system in Central America. There are few
+countries with such available water facilities, both for transportation
+and manufacturing powers, and it has the finest harbors on both
+coasts&mdash;all wasted because of the indolence of the people. The
+Government has given several liberal concessions in timber and
+agricultural lands to secure the opening of its rivers to navigation,
+and for the construction of railways from the coast to the interior.
+Some of these grants are in the hands of responsible and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span> capable
+companies, and if the peace of the country is assured, and immigrants
+can be induced to settle there, a rapid development of its resources is
+promised.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years ago the telegraph was unknown, and there was no postal system
+in the interior. All communications were transmitted from place to place
+by messengers, who were famous for their endurance and swiftness of
+foot. The letter or package to be conveyed was first wrapped in cloth
+and then fastened around the loins of the carrier. This system is still
+in vogue for the transmission of letters, packages, and money. The
+couriers, or <i>cozeos</i>, are noted for being trusty and courageous; they
+travel long distances over the mountains and through the forest,
+generally by routes known only to themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 224px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b125_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b125_sml.jpg" width="224" height="232" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>BRANCH OF THE RUBBER-TREE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Within the last eight years every town of importance has been connected
+with the capital by lines of telegraph. Before its construction
+information of the utmost importance could not reach the capital from
+the remote points in less than ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span> or twelve days. The Government saw
+the necessity of some better and quicker method for transmitting
+information, and constructed these lines. They are owned and operated
+entirely by the Government, and from them a considerable revenue is
+realized. For the purpose of sending a message, you must first purchase
+of the proper Government officer a stamped telegraphic blank, which
+varies in price from one real (twelve and a half cents) to one or two
+dollars, in proportion to the number of words which it is to contain.
+The distance the message is to travel makes no difference in the price,
+provided its destination is within any of the republics of Central
+America. When the message is written on the blank it is taken to the
+telegraph-office, and if the charge for the number of words contained in
+the message corresponds with the stamped blank it is forwarded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b126_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b126_sml.jpg" width="320" height="245" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A MODERN TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every department of Honduras possesses more or less mineral wealth, and
+within the limits of the country almost every<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> metal known to man is
+found. The discoveries of gold and silver were made by the aborigines,
+who possessed much treasure when the Spaniards conquered them, and ever
+since the Conquest the mines have been worked with great profit; but
+their development was greater under the viceroys than since the
+independence of the republic, as this branch of industry has suffered
+more from civil wars than any other. As a consequence, mine after mine
+has been abandoned, and the districts where the best mineral deposits
+exist are marked with depopulated towns and villages.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b127_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b127_sml.jpg" width="318" height="280" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>UP THE RIVER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lack of roads renders it impossible to transport machinery to the
+mining districts. The mines are seldom worked to any depth, and the
+waste is enormous. But even under this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span> system, rude and primitive as it
+is, much wealth has been acquired, and millions of dollars in silver and
+gold have been taken out annually for hundreds of years. Of late a good
+deal of attention has been given to the Honduras mines by American
+experts, and much capital has been invested in purchasing and
+prospecting them, but the hope of realizing upon the investment lies in
+the improvement of transportation facilities, for nothing that cannot be
+carried on the back of a mule can either reach the mines or come from
+them. And imported labor is quite as necessary, as the native of
+Honduras cannot be induced to do anything in other than the way to which
+he has been accustomed, and looks upon labor-saving machinery as the
+invention of the evil one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b128_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b128_sml.jpg" width="304" height="232" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A MINING SETTLEMENT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city of Tegucigalpa, the commercial metropolis and the actual
+capital of the country, stands upon both banks of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span> the Rio Cholutica in
+an amphitheatre of mountains, and has twelve thousand inhabitants. The
+river is spanned and the two divisions of the town connected by an
+ancient bridge with some fine arches of stone. The suburb is called
+Comayaguaita (Little Comayagua). The streets are well paved, in the same
+manner as other Spanish American cities, with a gutter in the centre, to
+which they slope from both sides. This gutter is always full of weeds
+and dust and filth, but seldom of water; and although the hills which
+half surround the city are full of running streams, with a fall
+sufficient to force water to the tower of the cathedral, it has never
+occurred to the inhabitants to utilize them. Every drop of water used
+for any purpose in the city is carried, in an earthen jar on the top of
+some woman’s head, from the river at the bottom of a gorge a hundred
+feet deep.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b129_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b129_sml.jpg" width="316" height="193" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VIEW IN NICARAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The houses in Tegucigalpa show much more evidence of prosperity than
+those of Comayagua, and are kept more tidy and in better repair. They
+are usually painted either a dead white or pink, blue, yellow, green, or
+some other very pronounced color, while often a native amateur artist
+tries his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span> hand at exterior decoration, and endeavors to make the walls
+of adobe look as if they were made of marble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b130_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b130_sml.jpg" width="321" height="322" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN INTERIOR PLAIN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Somehow or another Tegucigalpa always looks new. The grass is growing in
+the streets, and there are many other indications of commercial
+stagnation, but the people do not let their houses show how poor and
+indolent they are. These two national characteristics, moreover, do not
+appear in any form in the city. It is not only the present headquarters
+of the Government and of commercial affairs, but it is the centre of
+fashionable life and the residence of the aristocracy of Honduras.
+Two-thirds of the white people in the republic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span> live here, and the other
+third come here to get their clothes, so that the city is by comparison
+gay.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous farms surrounding the city are capable of enormous
+production, and some of them are still profitably operated, while many
+have gone to waste. The staples are sugar, coffee, cocoa, and other
+tropical products, which require and receive little attention. The
+buildings upon these plantations are all very old, but are still in good
+condition. The chief dwelling is commonly large and comfortable, built
+of adobe and roofed with imported tiles, and located where it can secure
+a good natural water supply. There is usually but one floor, no ceiling,
+nor glass in the windows, for the climate does not require it, and glass
+is expensive. The windows are protected with iron bars and heavy
+mahogany shutters. As little timber as possible is used, because all dry
+wood is subject to destruction from a little insect called the
+<i>comojeu</i>, which honey-combs every rafter, joist, and beam in a building
+as soon as the sap is exhausted, and the interiors of the houses have to
+be restored at intervals of a few years.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the churches are in a dilapidated condition, and have been
+divested of their former ornaments and riches by the hands of vandals
+during revolutions. The cathedral was erected at the expense of a devout
+and wealthy padre, and was once a fine building, but is now in a sad
+state of decay.</p>
+
+<p>What will impress the traveller at once in Tegucigalpa is the entire
+absence of carriages. I do not believe there is one in the country, any
+more than there is a chimney or an overcoat, and for the same
+reason&mdash;the people do not need them. All roads, it was said, lead to
+Rome, but no roads lead to the capital of Honduras except a few short
+ones, narrow and stony, like the way of salvation, and hedged about with
+divers trials and pitfalls, from the neighboring plantations, and are
+used only by rude ox-carts. Everybody goes on horseback, and all the
+transportation is done on the backs of mules and men. Long caravans of
+pack animals are coming and going to and from the sea-coast daily over
+the mountain trails, and there is a class of Indians called Cargadors
+who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span> carry a cargo of a hundred pounds or so upon their backs, and run
+at a jog-trot for hours at a time, making the same journey twice as
+rapidly as a mule. Their loads are strapped to their backs on a wicker
+frame, and by a broad band passing around the forehead.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b132_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b132_sml.jpg" width="318" height="257" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ONE OF THE BACK STREETS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At breakfast chocolate often takes the place of coffee, and it is
+prepared from the cocoa-bean in a manner different from that in use in
+other countries. A handful or two of cocoa-beans, with a few
+vanilla-beans or sticks of cinnamon, and a much larger amount of raw
+sugar, are ground up together by the <i>matete</i>&mdash;that is, by being rubbed
+between two stones&mdash;and moistened until it is reduced to paste; then it
+is rolled out in little balls as large as a chocolate cream, and allowed
+to harden. A plate of these is placed upon the table, each member of the
+family takes as many as he or she chooses, drops<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> them in a cup, and
+pours boiling milk upon them. They soon dissolve, and are very
+palatable.</p>
+
+<p>The shops, or <i>tiendas</i>, of Tegucigalpa display very few goods that are
+pretty or costly, and are usually “general merchandise” stores, such as
+are found in the country villages of the United States&mdash;a few drugs and
+dry goods, a little hardware, patent-leather boots and elaborately
+stitched kid shoes for ladies&mdash;often white or pink or blue, for the
+ladies affect bright-colored foot-gear&mdash;some cutlery and crockery, and
+other household articles. Nearly all sales are on credit, even if the
+purchaser have the money in his pocket, for the custom of the country is
+not to do anything to-day that can be postponed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b133_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b133_sml.jpg" width="322" height="253" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAZA OF TEGUCIGALPA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ladies usually do their shopping in the morning before breakfast,
+which is served at eleven o’clock, for the afternoons are given up to
+siestas. Most of the business of the city is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> done before breakfast, and
+from eleven o’clock until four in the afternoon the streets are empty
+and most of the stores are closed. Activity is resumed at the latter
+hour, and continues until eight or nine o’clock in the evening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b134_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b134_sml.jpg" width="307" height="319" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MAKING TORTILLAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every woman goes to mass at seven in the morning, but a man is seldom
+seen to enter a church except on feast-day or to attend a funeral. All
+their religion is crammed into Holy-week, when they are very pious.</p>
+
+<p>The schools of the republic are nominally free, but there are few of
+them; education is compulsory, but the law is not enforced. The school
+funds have usually been stolen, or diverted to other purposes, and only
+in the cities, where public<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> sentiment demands it, are schools
+sustained. There is a university at Tegucigalpa which is said to have
+been once an institution of some importance, but is such no longer. It
+has a few students and a small faculty, but those who can afford it, and
+who are anxious to secure an education, go to Guatemala or to Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b135_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b135_sml.jpg" width="281" height="203" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INDIGO WORKS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tegucigalpa is famous for having been the birthplace of Morazan, the
+Washington of Central America, and his descendants still reside there.
+He was undoubtedly the greatest man any of these republics ever
+produced, and had the broadest vision as well as the broadest views as
+to the nature of a republic. The fires of liberty were enkindled by him,
+and he led the fight against Spain which resulted in the overthrow of
+the Viceroys and the establishment of the confederacy. He was born in
+1799; his father was a native of Porto Rico and his mother a lady of
+Tegucigalpa. He prided himself on the fact that his ancestors came from
+the birthplace of Napoleon, and his descendants, to whom strangers are
+usually introduced, seldom fail to forget that circumstance<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b136_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b136_sml.jpg" width="325" height="432" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE TLACHIGUERO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">in conversation. Before Morazan was of age he was prominent in Honduras,
+and became the governor of the city in 1824, when he was but
+twenty-five. For fourteen years thereafter his career was one of
+singular activity and success, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span> the people of the entire continent
+followed him with feelings akin to idolatry. He was so far ahead of them
+in ideas and enterprise that his counsels were not followed, and he was
+overthrown by a combination of priests, who took up a cruel Indian of
+Guatemala named Rafael Carera, and succeeded in overthrowing the power
+of Morazan, not only in Honduras, but throughout the entire confederacy.
+The patriot and liberator was afterwards assassinated at Cartago, Costa
+Rica, by men whom he trusted as his friends.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="MANAGUA" id="MANAGUA"></a>MANAGUA.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF NICARAGUA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>A <small>STRANGER</small> landing at the port of Corinto, Nicaragua, asked the men who
+were taking him ashore in a <i>bongoe</i> the name of the capital of the
+republic. There were three of them. The quickest of wit answered
+promptly, “Grenada;” both the others disputed it, one of them contending
+for the city of Managua, and the other for Leon. So animated did the
+controversy become that all three dropped their oars, and nearly upset
+the boat by their gesticulations. This question is, and always has been,
+a dangerous one, and thousands of lives and hundreds of thousands of
+money have been wasted in repeated attempts to determine it. If it were
+the only excuse for the blood that has been shed in the little republic
+during the last sixty-five years, its history would be a nobler and a
+prouder one; for bitter wars have been waged for less, and brother has
+fought brother to settle questions not only involving a preference for
+cities but for men. There is no spot of equal area upon the globe in
+which so much human blood has been wasted in civil war, or so much
+wanton destruction committed. Nature has blessed it with wonderful
+resources, and a few years of peace and industry would make the country
+prosperous beyond comparison; but so much attention has been paid to
+politics that little is left for anything else. Scarcely a year has
+passed without a revolution, and during its sixty-five years of
+independence the republic has known more than five times as many rulers
+as it had during the three centuries it was under the dominion of Spain.
+It was seldom a question of principle or policy that brought the
+inhabitants to war, but usually the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span> intrigue of some ambitious man. It
+is a land of volcanic disturbance, physical, moral, and political, and
+the mountains and men have between them contrived to almost compass its
+destruction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b139_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b139_sml.jpg" width="322" height="249" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VIEW OF LAKE FROM BEACH AT MANAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For sixty years the country has been going backward. Its population is
+less than when independence was declared, and its wealth has decreased
+even more rapidly. Its cities are heaps of ruins, and its commerce is
+not so great as it was at the beginning of the century. There is,
+however, a commercial elasticity, owing to the extreme productiveness of
+the fields and the ease with which wealth is acquired, that has kept the
+little republic from bankruptcy, and promises great prosperity if
+political order can be preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the people live in towns, and waste much time in going and
+coming between their homes and the plantations upon which they labor.
+This is owing to the frequency of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span> revolutions and the milder forms of
+destruction and murder that are practised by highwaymen and other
+robbers. None but the very poor live along the roadside, and they have
+nothing to tempt assault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b140_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b140_sml.jpg" width="311" height="225" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CORINTO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Everybody rides on horseback, and the animals are plenty and fine. The
+horses of Nicaragua resemble those of Arabia, being small but fleet,
+spirited, and capable of much endurance. Great care is taken in training
+them, and they are taught an easy gait, half trotting and half pacing,
+called the <i>paso-trote</i>. A well-broken animal will take this as soon as
+the reins are loosened, and continue it all day without fatigue to
+himself or his rider, making five or six miles an hour. The motion is so
+gentle that an experienced rider can carry a cup of water for miles in
+his hand without spilling a drop.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one road in the country suitable for carriages, and that
+is seldom used except by carts. It runs from Grenada, the easternmost
+city of importance on the shore of Lake Nicaragua, to Realjo, or
+Corinto, the principal seaport; and over this road, which was built
+three hundred years ago by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> the Spaniards, all the commerce of the
+country passes. There is now a railroad along this highway; the
+Government has several times made loans to construct it, but the money
+was wasted in revolutions, and the track was not completed till
+recently. The road belongs to the Government, and is managed by a
+citizen of the United States. The cart road passes through Managua, and
+thus unites the three principal cities of the land. Over it have passed
+hundreds of armies and no end of insurgent forces, and the whole
+distance has been washed with blood, shed in public and private
+quarrels. Wherever a man has been slain a rude cross is usually erected,
+and it is common to see wreaths of flowers hanging upon it, placed there
+by some interested or, mayhap, loving hand. At these places pious
+passengers breathe a prayer for the soul that has been released, and
+they are so numerous that it keeps them praying from one end of a
+journey to the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b141_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b141_sml.jpg" width="298" height="215" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HIDE-COVERED CART.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The carts which furnish transportation are rude contrivances<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span> of native
+manufacture, and the design has not been improved upon since the
+conquest. The body consists of a very heavy framework of wood, and the
+wheels are solid sections cut from some large tree, usually of mahogany.
+They are not sawed, but chopped into shape, and are generally about
+eight or ten inches thick and five feet in diameter, and weigh several
+hundred pounds. The oxen do not wear yokes, but the pole of the cart is
+fastened to a bar of tough wood, usually lignum vitæ, which is lashed by
+cowhide thongs to the horns. There are always two pair of oxen&mdash;one to
+haul the cart and the other to haul the load, for the vehicle is twice
+the weight of its cargo. Two men are required to navigate the craft; one
+goes ahead armed with a gun or a machete, which is a long knife, and
+answers for many purposes&mdash;a weapon as well as an agricultural
+implement&mdash;and the oxen are supposed to follow him, while the other sits
+on the load and yells as he prods the animals with an iron-pointed goad
+long enough to reach the leaders. The man ahead assists his colleague by
+uttering constant admonitions to the oxen without turning his face, and
+between the two, and the squeaking of the cart-wheels, which are never
+greased, there is noise enough to deafen the whole neighborhood. The
+approach of one of these vehicles can be anticipated half an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Each cart contains five or six days’ forage for the animals, as well as
+rations for the <i>carreteros</i>. They camp whenever night overtakes them,
+even if it is only a mile from the end of their journey. The oxen are
+fastened to the cart and given their fodder, while the men light a fire,
+make their coffee, and either lie under the cart or upon it to sleep.
+Most of the carts have covers or awnings of cured hides, which are
+lashed over boughs to protect the loads in the rainy season. The average
+rate of speed is about a mile an hour over a good road, but ten miles a
+day is fast travelling, owing to the amount of time wasted by the
+roadside.</p>
+
+<p>The cartmen are invariably honest in dealing with their employers, and
+always render a strict account of their cargoes, whether they are
+composed of silver or coffee, but</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b143_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b143_sml.jpg" width="316" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN INTERIOR TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">consider it a privilege, which they have inherited from their ancestors,
+to plunder along the road. Nothing is too hot or too heavy for them to
+carry away, and accordingly precautions are taken for the protection of
+whatever is likely to tempt them. They have an unorganized union to
+protect themselves, and permit no impositions to be practised upon any
+of their number, or underbidding or other irregularities among
+themselves. They charge so much a journey, no matter what their load is,
+and persons having small parcels to be carried have to club together to
+make up a cargo, or pay a high rate for transportation. Many of the
+carts and oxen are owned by those who drive them, but others are leased
+to the carreteros by capitalists who possess a large number.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span> The cattle
+come from the savannas in the south-western portion of the republic,
+where there are immense and nutritious pastures extending over the line
+into Costa Rica.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b144_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b144_sml.jpg" width="259" height="443" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE INDIGO PLANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b145_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b145_sml.jpg" width="327" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE KING OF THE MOSQUITOES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the mineral resources of the country are undoubtedly rich, its
+future wealth will come, if peace can ever be made permanent, from the
+development of the agricultural and timber lands. Beyond the mining
+district down to the Mosquito coast there extends a forest of immense
+area, filled with the finest woods, and it has scarcely been touched.
+The most useful timber is the mahogany, although there are kindred
+varieties quite as good, but not so popular or well known. It is more
+easily obtained too, as it grows upon the ridges and keeps out of the
+swamps, which are full of miasma and mosquitoes. The tree is one of the
+most beautiful, as well as one of the largest, that are found in
+tropical lands, commonly reaching a height of sixty or seventy feet, and
+being from twenty-five to forty feet in circumference. Timbers forty
+feet long and eight feet square are frequent, although so heavy that
+they are difficult to handle; and the only way fine timber can be
+obtained is by taking saw-mills into the forest and cutting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span> up the
+timber into sizes suitable for transportation. This is difficult,
+however, owing to the lack of roads. Logs five and six feet in diameter
+are common, and it is said that the largest trees have the finest color
+and grain.</p>
+
+<p>The mahogany is one of the few trees in the tropical forests whose
+leaves change color with the season, and the Carrib Indians, who are
+employed to cut them, discover their presence by this peculiarity. They
+climb the highest tree they can find, sight the mahoganies, locate their
+position with great skill, and lead the choppers to them with unerring
+accuracy. When the tree is found, the underbrush around it and the lower
+limbs are first cleared away before the trunk is attacked. When it
+falls, the branches are chopped off; then the log is hewn into shape,
+after which it is dragged by oxen&mdash;sometimes a hundred yoke being
+employed&mdash;to the nearest water-course, the choppers going ahead and
+clearing away with their machetes the underbrush and small trees to make
+a road. When the timber is rolled into the river, it is branded and
+allowed to lie there until the rainy season, when the waters rise and
+carry it down to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>There are other trees of great value in the forests, and not for timber
+alone. The caoutchouc, or rubber-tree&mdash;a name which when properly
+pronounced sounds like the plunge of a frog into the water&mdash;kachunk&mdash;is
+very plentiful in the Nicaragua forests, although this resource, like
+most of the others, is comparatively idle. The Mosquito Indians gather
+some, however, which is shipped from Blewfields and Greytown in small
+quantities. The quality is not so good as that which comes from Brazil,
+as the sap is not reduced with any skill or care.</p>
+
+<p>The average North American supposes that the rubber is obtained like
+pitch, and comes from the exuded gums of the tree, but the process is
+altogether different, resembling our method of making maple sugar. When
+the sap begins to rise from the roots to the branches of the tree,
+expeditions of thirty or forty men are organized, who are furnished by
+the exporting merchants with an outfit of buckets, axes, machetes, pans,
+and provisions, and start into the woods. The <i>uleros</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> as the
+rubbermen are called, from the term <i>ule</i>, which is the native name for
+the tree, are always paid a small sum in advance, ostensibly for the
+support of their families during their absence, but which is always
+exhausted in debauchery before they start. When they reach the forest of
+the ule-trees they build a shanty of palms and brush, if there is not
+one already standing, on the bank of some stream, as a great deal of
+water is required for the manufacture of the gum. There they distribute
+their large cans and buckets through the forest at convenient intervals
+and proceed to business. When the <i>ulero</i> selects his tree, he clears
+the trunk of vines and creepers and climbs it to the branches. Then he
+descends, cutting diagonal channels through the bark with a single blow
+of his machete, or knife, left and right, left and right, all meeting at
+the angle. At the bottom of the lowest cut an iron trough about six
+inches long and four inches wide is driven into the tree, which catches
+the milk as it flows from the wound, and conducts it into a bucket on
+the ground below. This is done with great speed and skill by an expert;
+and necessarily so, to prevent waste, as the sap springs out instantly,
+and by the time the spout is driven into the tree is flowing at the rate
+of four gallons an hour. A large tree will produce twenty gallons of
+sap, and will run dry in a single day. The <i>ulero</i> having tapped a dozen
+or eighteen trees has all the work he can attend to emptying the buckets
+into the ten-gallon cans that are provided for the purpose. In the
+evening the cans are carried to the camp, and the sap strained through
+sieves into barrels. In Brazil it is boiled, but in Nicaragua the
+natives have a peculiar system of reducing it. There is a plant or vine
+called the Achuna, whose sap when mixed with that of the rubber-tree has
+the singular property of coagulating it in a few minutes. By whom, or
+how, or where this process was discovered no one can tell. Undoubtedly
+it was an accident, for the vine hangs from all the trees in the <i>ule</i>
+forest, and probably a cutting dropped into a bucket of sap some time or
+another produced the result for which it is now used. Having their
+barrels full, the <i>uleros</i> cut short<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b148_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b148_sml.jpg" width="320" height="394" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A MAHOGANY SWAMP.</p><p>A MAHOGANY SWAMP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">pieces of this vine, soak it in water, and small bunches are thrown into
+pans upon which the sap is poured. In the morning the rubber has turned
+to gum&mdash;about two pounds to every gallon of sap. At the top of the pan
+is a quantity of dark brown liquid, like a weak solution of licorice.
+This is poured off, and then the gum is rolled under heavy weights of
+wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> into long flat strips called tortillas, which are hung over poles
+under the shed to drip and dry. At first they are white, like the
+vulcanized rubber, but with exposure they turn black and become hard
+after a few days. Then the tortillas are stacked up under cover until
+the end of the season, and shipped to market.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b149_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b149_sml.jpg" width="320" height="150" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERNAL COMMERCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cocoa or chocolate tree grows wild in the forests of Nicaragua, and
+when cultivated yields the most profitable crop that can be produced;
+but the republic furnishes but little, comparatively, for export,
+although its possibilities in this direction are almost unlimited. The
+most of the world’s supply of cocoa comes from Ecuador and Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p>There always has been a prejudice in Nicaragua against foreign
+immigration, inspired and stimulated by the priests, who inveterately
+oppose all progress and every innovation. A number of German families
+are settled throughout the country, engaged in mercantile pursuits. Most
+of the large commission houses and exporters are English, while the
+hotel or posada keepers are Frenchmen. England furnishes most of the
+money to move the crops, as the natives are impoverished by wars or
+their own extravagance. The country will never be prosperous until its
+peace is assured and its population increased by the introduction of
+foreign labor and capital.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 328px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b150_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b150_sml.jpg" width="328" height="348" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HOW THE PEONS LIVE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like other Spanish-American countries, the national vices are indolence
+and extravagance. The common people never get ahead, and have no need of
+purses, much less of savings-banks. They might make good wages, as they
+are naturally good producers, but they always spend their earnings
+before they receive them, and are encouraged to keep in debt to those
+who employ them, as, under the law, no laborer can leave a job upon
+which he is employed as long as he owes his employer a penny. This
+system of credit, although it amounts to only a few dollars in each
+case, is equivalent to slavery, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span> peonage which is permanent; for if
+the laborer really aspires to be a free man, he is persuaded or
+threatened or swindled into renewing the obligation under which his life
+is spent.</p>
+
+<p>The aristocracy are equally extravagant. It is a part of their religion,
+apparently, to spend their incomes, even if they do not anticipate them;
+and the latter is generally the case. Nearly every crop is mortgaged to
+the commission man before it is harvested, and the planter is compelled
+to take the price that is offered. The peon is in debt to the planter,
+the planter to the merchant, the merchant to the commission-house, and
+the latter conducts his business on borrowed money; and so it goes on,
+year after year, without cessation, each person involved spending as
+much or more than he makes, and conducting his business on paper, like
+speculators in the stock market, the country growing poorer each year,
+with no possible hope of redemption except by an influx of fresh blood
+and capital. The climate is delightful, the land is wonderfully
+productive, and the products always in active demand in the markets of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cities are pictures of desolation, and along the roads in the
+country are the ruins of <i>estancias</i> that were the abode of wealthy
+planters years ago. Much of the destruction was caused by earthquakes,
+but more by civil war. The population in 1846 was 257,000; in 1870 it
+had been reduced to less than 200,000, and since then there have been
+disturbances in which thousands of men were slaughtered or driven into
+exile by fear or force. The whites, or those of pure Spanish blood,
+number about 30,000; the negroes about half as many; the mixed races,
+Mestizos and Ladinos&mdash;the former of Spanish and Indian and the latter
+Negro and Indian blood&mdash;are probably 8,000; and there are supposed to be
+about as many pure-blooded Indians upon the Atlantic coast and scattered
+throughout the republic. The education of the common people is neglected
+and left to the priests, who teach them nothing but superstition and
+their obligations to the Church. In 1868 a decree was passed making
+education compulsory and free, and providing for the diversion of a
+liberal amount<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span> of the public revenue each year for the support of the
+schools; but the law is a dead letter, and in no year has the amount
+assigned to the Department of Education been appropriated. At present
+there are but sixty schools, with a normal attendance of twenty-five
+hundred, or an average of forty pupils to thirty thousand inhabitants.
+There is a university at Leon, with an average of fifty students, and
+another at Grenada, with a few more, at which law, medicine, and
+theology are taught, under the direction of the bishop; but most of the
+sons of wealthy families are sent to Europe to be educated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b152_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b152_sml.jpg" width="320" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A FAMILIAR SCENE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city of Leon is the commercial metropolis, and was the ancient
+capital. In 1854 the seat of government was removed to Grenada, during
+the great revolution, which lasted for five years, and in which our
+famous filibuster, Walker, figured;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> and the people of the latter city
+would not permit its return to the capital of the viceroys. After
+fighting over the question for several years, shedding much blood and
+destroying much property, a compromise was effected by locating the
+headquarters temporarily at Managua, a smaller place half way between
+the two, where, since 1863, the President has resided, and the Congress
+has assembled every year. The public buildings in Leon remain as they
+were at the time of the removal of the capital, and most of the archives
+are there, the expectations of the citizens being that they will be
+needed for the Government again in the near future; but Grenada keeps a
+threatening look in that direction, and any attempt to disturb the
+present situation would result in another war, so bitter is the rivalry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b153_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b153_sml.jpg" width="322" height="273" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A COUNTRY CHAPEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leon is one of the oldest cities in America, having been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> founded in
+1523 by Fernandez Cordova. Two years before, Pedrarias Divilla, who was
+Governor at Panama, sent to Leon, on a tour of exploration, a lusty old
+buccaneer, named Gil Gonzalez, with a few hundred men. He landed at
+about the centre of the Pacific coast, and marched across to the present
+city of Rivas. Here he found on the borders of the lake a vast
+population of Indians under a cacique named Nicaro, and called the
+country in his reports <i>Nicaro’s Agua</i>, or waters; hence the name. The
+Indians regarded the Spaniards with awe and amazement. They had heard of
+their appearance at Panama and on the Atlantic coast, but believed that
+the stories of their presence, which came from their ancient enemies,
+the Carribs, were false and intended to frighten them. Seeing the chief
+surrounded by such a multitude of savages, Gonzalez approached with
+great caution, and having captured a native, sent him to Nicaro with
+this bombastic message:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b154_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b154_sml.jpg" width="291" height="175" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE UNITED STATES CONSULATE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Tell your chief,” said Gonzalez, “that a valiant captain cometh,
+commissioned to these parts by the greatest king on earth, to inform all
+the lords of these lands that there is in the heavens, higher than the
+sun, one Lord, Maker of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 457px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b155_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b155_sml.jpg" width="457" height="277" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER, LEON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">things, and that those believing on Him shall at death ascend to that
+loftiness, while disbelievers shall descend into the everlasting fire
+that burns in the bottomless pit. Tell your chief that I am coming, and
+that he must be ready upon my arrival at his camp to accept these truths
+and be baptized, or prepare for battle.”</p>
+
+<p>The cacique surrendered, and, with all his warriors and their women, to
+the number of nine thousand, was baptized. In his report to the King of
+Spain, the pious old Bombastes Furioso claimed the credit of having
+converted more heathens than any other man that had ever lived.</p>
+
+<p>In the days of the Spaniards Leon was a splendid city, and there are
+still existing numerous monuments of its opulence and grandeur. The
+public buildings are constructed upon a magnificent scale and without
+regard to cost, and the private dwellings are built in imitation of
+them, being of imposing exteriors and luxurious in their equipment and
+adornment. There were seventeen fine churches to a population of fifty
+thousand, chief of which was the Cathedral of St. Peter, which cost five
+millions of dollars, and was over thirty-seven years in course of
+erection. It was finished in 1743, and is still in a good state of
+preservation, being built of most substantial masonry, with walls of
+stone eighteen or twenty feet thick. It is of the Moorish style of
+architecture, resembling the great cathedral at Seville, Spain, and is
+by far the largest and finest church in Central America. During the
+frequent revolutions it has always been used as a fortress, and its
+walls, although still firm and enduring, are much battered by the
+assaults that have been made upon it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823, during the first revolution after independence between the
+aristocrats and the Indians, there was a fire at Leon which destroyed
+more than a thousand of the finest buildings; and the flames were aided
+in the work of devastation by thousands of Indian soldiers, who
+plundered and murdered the inhabitants. This part of the city has never
+been restored, and long streets, whose pavements are overgrown with
+weeds and underbrush, are still lined with ruined walls<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span> that disclose
+rich marble columns and artistic carvings. In mockery of the former
+magnificence which their ancestors destroyed, the Indian peons are
+living in bamboo huts, enclosed by cactus hedges, on the sites where
+once lived the proudest hidalgos in Central America. There is a
+tradition that the town was once cursed by the Pope, because of the
+murder of an archbishop there, and this accounts for the succession of
+calamities from which it has suffered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b158_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b158_sml.jpg" width="318" height="275" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PACIFIC COAST OF NICARAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ladies of the aristocracy are in youth usually pretty, and at
+whatever age are always proud. For some reason or other they consider
+their country far above and beyond criticism, and themselves superior to
+the rest of Adam’s race. Ancestral pride is so conspicuous as to be
+ofttimes offensive, and the fact that a person born out of Nicaragua
+seems to them to have been a misfortune for which no other
+circumstances<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span> can compensate. This is true among both sexes of the
+upper caste, but more especially among the ladies, whose exalted opinion
+of their own importance in the universe has never been tarnished by
+travel. This feeling has gone far to excite the existing prejudice
+against foreigners, and while the tourists are always most hospitably
+received, the fact that their stay is only temporary adds to the
+pleasure of entertaining them. The most rigid restrictions prevent the
+social intercourse of the sexes, and nowhere in the world is a woman’s
+honor protected with such great precaution; and for excellent reasons.
+No lady of caste would think of receiving a call from a gentleman alone,
+except a priest; and the clergy make the most of their privileges,
+according to common report.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b159_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b159_sml.jpg" width="196" height="365" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ANTICS ON THE BRIDGE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ladies are always idle. To do any sort of work other than embroidery
+is beneath them, and the number of servants they employ is regulated not
+by their necessities but by their means. They are all uneducated, the
+privilege of a few years in a convent only being allowed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span> them; and
+those are spent in learning the lives of the saints, a little
+embroidery, to drum on the piano, and to dance. There is no distinctive
+national costume. The aristocracy imitate the Parisian fashions, while
+the common masses wear whatever they can get. The Nicaraguans are much
+more social in disposition than the citizens of the other Central
+American countries. They have <i>tertulias</i>, which is a near relation of a
+“high tea,” and balls more frequently, and are much more given to
+dinner-parties, at which one of the greatest of imported luxuries is
+codfish.</p>
+
+<p>The great annual holiday of the people is known as <i>El Paseo al Mar</i>,
+(the Excursion to the Sea), but is often alluded to as the festival of
+St. Venus, because of the excesses that are committed there by the
+people, who are most discreet when at home. But as nobody cares what
+occurs at the carnivals at Rome, so can a party of fashionable
+Nicaraguans be allowed liberties at their watering-places. In the latter
+part of March, when the dry season is far advanced and everything is
+buried in dust, after the harvests are gathered and the crops are sold
+and carried to Corinto, the seaport, everybody feels like taking a
+little relaxation. Preparations are made long in advance, but as soon as
+the March moon comes carts are packed with a little furniture and a good
+many trunks, and the exodus begins. It is only about fifteen miles to
+the beach, but the journey occasions as much planning and preparation,
+and is anticipated with as much pleasure, as a tour through Europe.
+Everybody goes, the peon as well as the hidalgo, and for two weeks
+during the full moon the city is deserted. There are no hotels, but each
+family takes a tent or builds a hut of bamboo, and lives <i>à négligé</i>
+under the shade of the forest trees, which extend almost to the ocean.
+The Government sends down a battalion of troops, ostensibly to keep
+order and do police duty, but really as an excuse for giving the
+officers and soldiers a holiday. Social laws are very much relaxed
+during the <i>Paseo</i>, and it is really the only time when lovers can do
+their billing and cooing without the interfering presence of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span> duenna.
+Flirtations are the order of the day, and Cupid is king.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b161_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b161_sml.jpg" width="320" height="304" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THE UPPER ZONE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are no bathing-houses, and no bathing-dresses are worn. The people
+go into the surf as Nature equipped them&mdash;the women and the girls on one
+side of a long spit of land that reaches into the sea, and the men and
+boys on the other. This annual Paseo is the perpetuation of a
+semi-religious Indian custom.</p>
+
+<p>Another peculiar Nicaraguan religious custom is the baptism of the
+volcanoes, a ceremony which is believed by the superstitious to be very
+effective in keeping them in subjection and making them observe the
+proprieties of life. This observance is said to be as old as the
+Conquest, having originated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span> after the first eruption succeeding the
+invasion of Nicaragua by the Spaniards, and is repeated on the
+anniversary of the last disturbance caused by each particular volcano.
+The priests of the nearest city take the affair in charge, and, followed
+by a large company of the faithful, ascend to the crater, and with great
+ceremony sprinkle holy water into it. Each of the volcanic peaks in
+Nicaragua has been repeatedly sanctified in this way except Momotombo,
+the grandest but most unregenerate of them all, who has never permitted
+a human foot to reach his summit or a human eye to look into his crater.
+Two hundred years ago, after old Tombo, as the master is familiarly
+called, had been acting very badly, three brave monks determined to try
+the effect of holy water upon him, and started for the summit with a
+large cross which they proposed to erect there; but they were never
+heard of again, and the people look upon the mountain with greater
+reverence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b162_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b162_sml.jpg" width="323" height="250" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VOLCANOES OF AXUSCO AND MOMOTOMBO, FROM THE CATHEDRAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b163_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b163_sml.jpg" width="337" height="206" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VOLCANO OF COSEQUINA, FROM THE SEA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the tower of St. Peter’s Cathedral in the city of Leon thirteen
+volcanoes can be seen, several of which are active. There are eighteen
+standing in a solemn procession around the lakes of Nicaragua and
+Managua. They are not so high as certain peaks in Guatemala or Costa
+Rica, but look higher from the fact that they rise immediately from the
+level of tide-water, and can be seen from the sea in their full
+grandeur, old Tombo looking to be about the height of Pike’s Peak as
+seen from Colorado Springs. This gigantic mountain rises boldly out of
+the waters of Lake Nicaragua, its bare and blackened summit, which has
+forbidden all attempts to scale its sides, being always crowned with a
+light wreath of smoke, attesting the perpetual existence of the internal
+fires which now and then break forth and cover its sides with burning
+floods. At its base are several hot sulphur springs, and at frequent
+intervals heavy rumbling sounds can be heard from within its walls. In
+the middle of the lake, only a few miles away, is an exact duplicate of
+the mountain; in miniature, however, being but one-fourth its size. This
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span> called Momotombita, the three last letters expressing the
+diminutive. It forms an island, from which its peak rises a perfect
+cone. Its crater has been extinct for hundreds of years; but the island
+was a sacred place to the aborigines. In the forests which now cover it
+are the ruins of vast temples and gigantic idols hewn out of the solid
+rock. The last serious earthquake, in 1867, occurred without much damage
+to the city, whose walls have been several times shaken down in the
+three centuries and a half since it was founded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b164_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b164_sml.jpg" width="336" height="251" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LA UNION AND VOLCANO OF CONCHAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most fearful eruption on record in Nicaragua, and one of the most
+serious the world ever saw, was that of the volcano Cosequina, near
+Grenada, in 1835. It continued for four days, and covered the country
+for hundreds of miles around with ashes and lava, causing a panic from
+which the people did not recover for many years, and resulting in great
+destruction of life and property. The explosions were of such force that
+ashes fell in the city of Bogota, Colombia, fifteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> hundred miles away
+in a direct line, and at an altitude eleven thousand feet above the sea.
+Ashes fell in the West India islands, also far in the interior of
+Mexico, and showers of them that obscured the sun caused great
+consternation in Guatemala and the neighboring republics, while the
+people in Nicaragua thought the end of the world had come. Vessels
+sailing in the Pacific had their decks covered with lava and ashes, and
+several sailors were injured by falling stones; while the ocean for a
+hundred and fifty miles was so strewn with floating ashes and
+pumice-stone that the surface of the water was concealed. The
+anniversary of this horrible catastrophe is always observed by the
+people as a great fast-day, business being suspended throughout the
+whole republic, and the people gathering in the churches to pray for
+deliverance from further eruptions. Since that date the volcano has
+continued active, but has caused no damage.</p>
+
+<p>A great part of the surface of the country is covered with beds of lava
+and scoria, lakes of bitter water that have no bottom, yawning craters
+surrounded with blistered rocks, and pits from which sulphurous vapors
+are constantly rising that the people appropriately call <i>infernillos</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b165_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b165_sml.jpg" width="184" height="157" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE FATE OF FILIBUSTERS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city of Grenada stands at the eastern end of the inhabited valley of
+Nicaragua, as Leon does at the western end, the two rival cities being
+about seventy miles apart. Until its almost total destruction by Walker
+and his filibusters in 1857, it was a beautiful town, filled with fine
+mansions, and proud of its appearance. The population was reduced during
+the civil war, in which the American adventurers played so conspicuous
+a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> part, from thirty-five thousand to fifteen thousand; and although
+that was nearly thirty years ago it has scarcely begun to recover.
+Grenada was the seat of the “aristocratic” government which Walker and
+his allied Nicaraguans overthrew, and was besieged for two years, during
+which time the inhabitants endured not only great hardships, many dying
+of starvation and epidemics which broke out among them, but suffered the
+destruction of almost their entire property. During the days of Spanish
+dominion it was one of the most wealthy and prosperous cities in Central
+America, and its commerce was enormous. The old chronicles relate that
+nearly every day caravans of eighteen hundred mules laden with bullion
+and merchandise arrived from the surrounding country, and carried away
+European goods in exchange.</p>
+
+<p>One of the largest monasteries on the continent was situated here,
+erected and occupied by the Franciscan Friars, who owned extensive
+estates in the surrounding country, and continued to acquire great
+wealth until they were expelled and their property confiscated in 1829.
+It is still standing in a good state of preservation.</p>
+
+<p>The actual capital of Nicaragua, the city of Managua, sits on the
+southern shore of the lake of the same name, about sixty miles from the
+Pacific Ocean, and is reached by an overland journey of three days from
+Leon, which is connected with Corinto, the chief seaport, by a railroad.
+The population of Managua is about eight or ten thousand, at a guess,
+for no census has been taken since 1870. It has increased since that
+date, when the inhabitants numbered six thousand seven hundred. The rich
+residents are mostly planters who have estancias in the neighborhood,
+and live in houses of one or two stories without any pretension to
+architectural beauty or elegance. They are more modern in construction
+than those of Leon and Grenada, for it is only since the seat of
+government was located at Managua that it has been of any commercial or
+political importance. A large portion of the standing army of the
+republic, consisting of two thousand men, is stationed at Managua,
+occupying an old monastery<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span> as a barracks, and the streets are always
+crowded with military men in resplendent uniforms. There are about three
+officers to every ten privates in the army, and positions in the
+military service are actively sought by the sons of the aristocratic
+families, who prefer them to professional or commercial careers. The
+privates are exclusively Indians or half-breed peons, who wear a uniform
+of dirty white cotton drilling with a blue cap. They are supposed to be
+voluntarily enlisted, but when troops are needed they are secured by
+sending squads of impressarios into the country, who seize as many peons
+as they want, bring them, bound with ropes, to the capital, and then
+compel them to sign the enlistment rolls.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b167_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b167_sml.jpg" width="348" height="214" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A FARMING SETTLEMENT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The National Palace is a low, square edifice, with balconies of the
+ordinary Spanish styles, and was formerly the home of one of the
+religious orders. The only handsome rooms are the headquarters of the
+President and the chambers in which the two Houses of Congress meet
+annually. They are fitted up with fine imported furniture, and the walls
+are covered with portraits of men distinguished in the history of the
+republic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span></p>
+
+<p>The peons live in the outskirts of the city, in huts of bamboo thatched
+with palm-leaves and straw, surrounded with curious-looking fences or
+hedges of cactus. They are apparently very poor, and are surrounded with
+filth and squalor; but the real, which is worth twelve and a half cents,
+will sustain a whole family for a week, for they need little more than
+nature has supplied them with&mdash;the plantains and yams that grow
+profusely in their little gardens. They seldom eat meat, and never wash
+themselves. They appear to be perfectly happy, and sit at the doors of
+their huts, women and men, both nearly naked, smoking cigarettes, and
+chatting as contentedly as if all their wants in life were fully
+supplied. Densely ignorant and superstitious, they know nothing of the
+world beyond their own surroundings, and care less.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b168_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b168_sml.jpg" width="201" height="230" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE QUESAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The environs of Managua are very picturesque. On one side is the
+beautiful lake, sixty miles long and thirty miles wide, surrounded by
+volcanoes, and on the other are fertile slopes, on which are coffee
+plantations and cocoa groves, both yielding prodigious crops. The peons
+of the city work upon the estancias when there is anything to be done,
+travelling five or six miles each day in going to and returning from the
+scene of their labor. The country about Managua must have been densely
+populated by the aborigines, and is full of most curious and puzzling
+relics of a prehistoric<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span> race, which the natives regard with great
+veneration. The geologist, as well as the ethnologist and antiquarian,
+finds here one of the most abundant fields for investigation, which was
+explored and described by Stephens, Squier, and many earlier writers.</p>
+
+<p>The Government consists of a President, who receives a salary of two
+thousand five hundred dollars, and is elected for four years, during
+which time, if he is not overpowered by some political rival, he usually
+manages to amass an immense fortune. A common argument in favor of
+re-electing presidents is that they are able to steal all they want
+during their first term. There are two Vice-Presidents, generally the
+President of the Senate and the Speaker of the Lower House, and either
+of them may be designated to perform the duties of the Executive when he
+so elects. There is a cabinet, or council, of four ministers. One has
+the finances in charge; another foreign affairs, agriculture, and
+commerce; a third military affairs and public works; and a fourth
+justice, public instruction, and ecclesiastical affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate is composed of fourteen members, two from each of the
+Departments, or Provinces, elected for four years; and the House of
+Deputies of twenty-four members, or one for each ten thousand of
+population, elected for two years. They are paid one dollar and fifty
+cents per diem during the sessions of Congress. No Senator or Deputy can
+be elected more than two consecutive terms, and no official of the
+Government or member of Congress can be a candidate for election or
+appointment to any other office during his constitutional term of
+service. Ecclesiastics are ineligible for civil positions, and all
+candidates for every post of honor under the Government must have proper
+qualifications; while all persons accepting pensions from the
+Government, and performing the duty of house or body servants, are
+denied the right of suffrage or of holding office. There are three
+courts, State or Department judges being elected by the people. District
+Federal judges and members of the Supreme Court being appointed by the
+House of Representatives and confirmed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span> the Senate, to serve during
+life unless impeached and convicted by the Deputies before the Senate
+for malfeasance in office. It requires a two-thirds vote in the House to
+enact legislation, but only a majority vote in the Senate. The President
+has the power of issuing decrees during the recess of Congress, which
+decrees have the force of law, but must be affirmed or reversed by
+Congress at its next session.</p>
+
+<p>Since the charter of the Interoceanic Canal Company by the Congress of
+the United States, and the actual commencement of work upon the
+long-projected enterprise, under the direction of Chief-engineer
+Menocal, the republic of Nicaragua assumes a position of more prominence
+among nations, and of greater interest to the public at large, than it
+has ever had before. The failure of the Panama Canal Company, and the
+apparent impossibility of piercing the Isthmus at its narrowest part,
+has also given the Nicaragua Company increased importance, but Mr.
+Menocal and the company of capitalists who stand behind him feel no
+doubt of ultimate success.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="SAN_SALVADOR" id="SAN_SALVADOR"></a>SAN SALVADOR.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF SAN SALVADOR.</span></h2>
+
+<p>W<small>HOEVER</small> visits the little republic of San Salvador, and lands at La
+Libertad, its principal seaport, must expect to undergo a novel and
+alarming experience. There is no harbor in the country, although it has
+one hundred and fifty-seven miles of sea-coast. The shore of the Pacific
+is a line of bluffs, with a fringe of beach at the bottom, and upon the
+sand a mighty surf is always beating. Ships anchor several miles off the
+coast, to avoid being driven ashore by the winds that sometimes rise
+very suddenly, and no boat can survive the breakers. An iron pier, or
+mole, twice as long and twice as high as the famous pier at Coney
+Island, extends from the bluff for three-quarters of a mile into the
+sea. A tramway runs from the town of La Libertad, connecting its monster
+warehouses with the pier, and cars loaded with coffee, sugar, and other
+products of the country are shoved out by peons or drawn by mules. The
+freight is piled upon the pier until the steamer arrives, when it is
+carried out to the anchorage in large lighters rowed by a dozen naked
+boatmen. The cargo is hoisted and lowered by means of a huge iron crane
+and derrick, operated by a small steam-engine. Bags and boxes are
+tumbled into great nets of cordage holding two tons or more, which are
+jerked up into the air by the derrick, swung around to be clear of the
+pier, and then dropped into the lighter.</p>
+
+<p>Live cattle are hoisted and lowered by the horns, a lasso being thrown,
+one end of which is attached to the derrick, and the animal finds
+himself suddenly jerked into the air, and hangs kicking and struggling
+until his feet touch the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> bottom of the lighter, when he shakes himself
+to see if he is still alive. It is a wicked way to treat beasts, but
+under the circumstances there seems to be no other method. Sometimes,
+when the rope is carelessly adjusted, and the animal is young and heavy,
+his horns are torn out by the roots, and he falls sixty or seventy feet
+into the lighter, breaking his neck or legs, when one of the boatmen,
+drawing a knife from his belt, severs the jugular, and hangs his head
+over the side of the boat to let his life-blood run into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Horses are lifted and lowered with greater care by means of a strong
+harness of wide leather, with an iron ring in the saddle to which a
+rope’s end is hooked.</p>
+
+<p>Humankind are treated with less consideration. When passengers arrive by
+a vessel they come to the pier on a lighter with freight, which rises
+and sinks with the heavy swell in a manner that is not only very
+alarming, but is almost certain to cause sea-sickness. One may have come
+all the way from New York or Europe to Aspinwall, and then from Panama
+up the coast, without a symptom of the distressing malady, but he is
+pretty sure to succumb to the rocking of the lighter at La Libertad, as
+it rubs and pounds against the iron trestle of the pier, while he is
+awaiting his turn to land. The officers of the vessels, accustomed to
+the motion, spring from the gunwales of the boat to the rounds of
+ladders that hang down the sides of the mole, and climb them as the
+boatmen do; but ladies and gentlemen unacquainted with this method, and
+untrained to clamber among the rigging of a ship, are treated to a
+sensation that is apt to make a timid person apprehensive.</p>
+
+<p>An iron cage, capable of holding six persons, is lowered to the lighter,
+and you are invited to step in. As soon as it is full a boatman shuts
+the door and gives a signal to the engineer above. There is a sudden,
+startling jerk, you shut your eyes, cling to the bars of the cage, and
+feel your heart in your throat. The cage stops as suddenly as it
+started, whirls around swiftly for an instant or two, then swings over
+the pier, and drops with a thump. The door is opened, you step out,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b173_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b173_sml.jpg" width="282" height="473" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LANDING AT LA LIBERTAD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">uninjured, but trembling like a frightened bird, and register an
+unuttered vow that you will never land at La Libertad again. But this
+feeling leaves you when you enjoy a laugh at the demonstrations of alarm
+made by your fellow-passengers who have to follow you, and when you are
+assured, as people always are, that thousands have landed and embarked
+in the same manner without receiving a bruise or having a bone broken.
+It is not so pleasant, but quite as safe, as scrambling up a gangway
+from a dock to the deck of a vessel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b175_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b175_sml.jpg" width="336" height="278" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>EN ROUTE TO THE INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although San Salvador is the smallest in area of the group of republics,
+and only a little larger than Connecticut, it is the most prosperous,
+the most enterprising, and the most densely populated, having even a
+greater number of inhabitants than the land of wooden nutmegs. The
+population<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> averages about eighty to the square mile&mdash;almost twenty
+times that of its neighbors. The natives are inclined to civilized
+pursuits, being engaged not only in agriculture, but quite extensively
+in manufacture. They are more energetic and industrious than the people
+in other parts of Central America, work harder, and accomplish more,
+gain wealth rapidly, and are frugal, but the constantly recurring
+earthquakes and political disturbances keep the country poor. When the
+towns are destroyed by volcanic eruptions, they are not allowed to lie
+in ruins, as those of other countries are, but the inhabitants at once
+clear away the rubbish and begin to rebuild. The city of San Salvador
+has been twice rebuilt since Leon of Nicaragua was laid in ruins, but
+the débris in the latter city has never been disturbed.</p>
+
+<p>San Salvador has always taken the lead in the political affairs of
+Central America. It was the first to throw off the yoke of Spain, and
+uttered the first cry of liberty, as Venezuela did among the nations of
+the southern continent. The patriots of San Salvador received the
+cordial co-operation of the liberal element in the cities of Grenada,
+Nicaragua, and San José of Costa Rica, but were suppressed by the
+Imperial power. Its provisional congress was driven from place to place,
+but remained intact; it had the sympathy and support of the people, and
+defied the invaders of the country. Finally, as a last resort, the
+congress, by a solemn act passed on the 2d of December, 1822, resolved
+to annex their little province to the United States, and provided for
+the appointment of commissioners to proceed to Washington and ask its
+incorporation in the body politic of “La Grande Republica.” Before the
+commissioners could leave the country the revolution in the other
+Central American States had become too formidable to suppress, as the
+example of San Salvador had spread like an epidemic among the people,
+and its demand for liberty had found an echo from every valley and from
+every hill, from the Rio Grande to the Chagres. The five States joined
+in a confederacy one year after the act of annexation to the United
+States was passed, and the resolution was never officially submitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span> to
+our government. This was before the days of the Monroe Doctrine, and if
+the rise of Liberalism in Central America had not been so rapid, the
+political divisions of the North American continent might have been
+different now, and the destiny of several nations changed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b177_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b177_sml.jpg" width="322" height="245" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PEAK OF SAN SALVADOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some time before the organization of the confederacy the people of San
+Salvador had adopted a constitution and formed a State government, being
+always foremost, and their example was followed seven months later by
+Costa Rica, then by Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in succession.
+Salvador was the first of the republics also to throw off the shackles
+of the Church. Indignant at the interference of the archbishop of
+Guatemala, who had charge of the Church in Central America, they defied
+his authority and elected a liberal bishop of their own. The archbishop
+denounced the act and appealed to the Pope, who threatened to
+excommunicate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> the entire population. But the threat was received with
+indifference, and the example of the Salvadorians was shortly after
+imitated by the people of Costa Pica, in like disregard of the will of
+the successor of St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>The President is elected for four years, the members of the Senate for
+three, and of the House of Deputies for one, all of them directly by the
+people. There is a senator for every thirty thousand of the population,
+and a deputy for every fifteen thousand. The exercise of suffrage is
+guarded by some wholesome restrictions. All married men can vote, except
+those who are engaged in domestic service, those who are without stated
+occupation, those who refuse to pay their legal debts, those who owe
+money past due to the Government, those who have accepted pay for any
+service from foreign powers, and those who have been convicted of
+felony. Unmarried men, to exercise the right of citizens, must be
+property owners, and be able to read and write. All voters have to show
+receipts for the payment of taxes the year previous if they are property
+owners, and bankrupts are entirely disfranchised, the idea being that
+none but a producer&mdash;one who adds to the wealth of the State or pays
+taxes&mdash;shall have a voice in its government. None but property owners
+are eligible to office.</p>
+
+<p>The President has a cabinet of four ministers. They have in charge the
+Departments of Finance, War, and Public Works, Internal Affairs and
+Public Instruction, and Foreign Affairs. The Judiciary are appointed by
+the Deputies and confirmed by the Senate. Education is free and
+compulsory. There is a school for every two thousand inhabitants,
+supported by the general government, and a University at the capital
+with three hundred and fifty students, studying law, medicine, and the
+applied sciences, and one hundred and forty pursuing a classical course.</p>
+
+<p>The standing army consists of twelve hundred men, but all able-bodied
+citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty are organized as a
+militia, and are subject to be called upon for service at the will of
+the President.</p>
+
+<p>The capital, San Salvador (“The City of our Saviour”), is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b179_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b179_sml.jpg" width="316" height="240" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PLAZA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">eighteen miles from the sea-coast, and has an elevation of 2800 feet. It
+is surrounded by a group of volcanoes, two of which are active, one,
+Yzalco, discharging immense volumes of smoke, ashes, and lava at regular
+intervals of seven minutes from one year’s end to the other. San
+Salvador is reached by coaches over a picturesque mountain-road, but the
+journey is not pleasant in the dry season on account of the dust, nor in
+the rainy season on account of the mud. The city was founded in 1528 by
+George Alvarado, a brother of the renowned lieutenant of Cortez, who was
+the discoverer, conqueror, and the first viceroy of Central America. The
+situation it occupies is one of the most beautiful that can be imagined,
+being in the midst of an elevated <i>mesa</i>, or tableland, which overlooks
+the sea to the southward, and is surrounded by mountains upon its three
+other sides. As the prevailing winds are from the ocean, the climate is
+always<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span> cool and healthful, and the mountain streams are so abundant
+that the foliage is fresh during the entire year. Through each street
+runs an <i>asequia</i>, or irrigating ditch, which is always filled with
+water. Pipes lead from it into the gardens of the people, and supply
+hydrants for their use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b180_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b180_sml.jpg" width="333" height="482" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SPANISH-AMERICAN COURTSHIP.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is very little architectural taste shown in the construction of
+the dwellings or of the public buildings. This is because of the
+frequency of earthquakes. The walls are of thick adobe, with scarcely
+any ornamentation, and the streets are dull and unattractive;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> but
+within the houses are gardens of wonderful beauty, in which the people
+spend the greater portion of the time, more often sleeping in a hammock
+among the trees in the dry season than under the roofs of their houses.</p>
+
+<p>The public buildings are of insignificant appearance, and even the
+cathedral and the other churches are painfully plain and commonplace
+compared with those of other cities of its size. All this is owing to
+the fact, as has been stated, that the danger of their destruction at
+any moment forbids a lavish expenditure in construction or unnecessary
+display.</p>
+
+<p>The women of San Salvador are neater in appearance, more careful in
+their dress, and are therefore more attractive than their sisters in
+Nicaragua, where, if there is any difference between the sexes, they are
+less tidy than the men. The girls in the rural districts always bathe in
+the <i>asequias</i> every morning at daylight, and the traveller who starts
+out early generally surprises groups of Naiads disporting in the
+streams. They plunge into the bushes or keep their bodies under the
+water until the intruder passes by, but do not hesitate to exchange a
+few words of banter with him, and good-naturedly bid him godspeed.</p>
+
+<p>There is more freedom between the sexes in San Salvador than in the
+sister republics; and it is not at the cost of morals, for, as a rule,
+in countries where social restrictions are the most severe there is the
+greatest amount of licentiousness. The education of the masses has
+proved to be the greatest safeguard, and the number of illegitimate
+births is reduced as the standard of intelligence is elevated. The
+constitutional provision in San Salvador which confers superior
+advantages upon married men, together with a law limiting the marriage
+fees of the priests, have proven to be wise and effective policy. The
+girls marry at fifteen and over, and very few peons reach their majority
+without taking a lawful wife.</p>
+
+<p>There is a public theatre, subsidized by the Government, at which
+frequent entertainments are given, and nearly every season an opera
+company comes from Italy or France. The performances are liberally
+patronized, at high prices of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b182_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b182_sml.jpg" width="304" height="231" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A HACIENDA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">admission. But the most popular <i>funcions</i>, as they are called, are by
+local amateurs, the programmes being made up of vocal and instrumental
+music, recitations, and original poems and orations. The latter are
+always the popular features of the occasion, and the <i>funcions</i> are
+usually arranged to give some young orator an opportunity to show his
+talents before the foot-lights. There is a great deal of rivalry, too,
+among the local poets, each aspirant for honors having his clique of
+admirers, or <i>faccions</i>, who feel it their duty to applaud no one else,
+however meritorious, and to hiss all others down. When two of these
+popular idols appear upon the platform on the same evening, as they
+often do, there are scenes of sensational excitement and sometimes mob
+violence. The subjects of all the orations and poems are usually
+patriotic&mdash;the praise of San Salvador&mdash;for the love of country is a
+theme of which the people never tire. The programmes of all public
+entertainments are mostly composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> of local compositions, national
+airs, and patriotic songs. The musicians prefer the scores of their own
+composers, and everything foreign is to a degree offensive, to be
+tolerated only as a matter of variety.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b183_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b183_sml.jpg" width="286" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERIOR OF A SAN SALVADOR HOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Salvadorians have a dozen or more “Fourths of July”&mdash;memorial
+days&mdash;sometimes two patriotic celebrations occurring in a month, on the
+anniversary of historical events. All classes of people join in the
+demonstrations, closing their places of business, decorating the
+streets, attending high-mass in the morning, engaging in processions and
+hearing patriotic orations during the day, and in the evening closing
+the festivities with fireworks, banquets, and balls. But the two great
+days of the year are Christmas and the Feast of San Miguel (St.
+Michael), the patron saint of the republic. The latter is celebrated
+very much like our Independence Day was in ancient times, except that
+the hours from sunrise to noon are devoted to solemn religious services
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span> all the churches, the bishop himself officiating at the cathedral,
+and the rest of the time to the next morning to holiday festivities.
+There is much powder wasted in fire-crackers, or <i>bombas</i>, as they are
+called, fireworks, and salutes by the artillery.</p>
+
+<p>The annual fair of St. Miguel, which is held in February, is always a
+notable event, being not only a national anniversary, but the greatest
+market season of the year, and the occasion of general and prolonged
+festivities. It lasts about two weeks, and is attended by buyers and
+sellers from all parts of Central America. The importing houses always
+have their representatives present on such occasions. The days are
+occupied with trading, and the nights with balls, concerts, theatrical
+performances, and gambling. Everybody plays cards, and no one, man or
+woman, ever sits down to a game without stakes. Women play at their
+residences with or without their gentlemen friends, and large sums of
+money often pass across the table. At the fairs, and in fact on all
+occasions which bring people together, the peons are entertained with
+cock-fights and bull-fights, although the latter cruel sport is
+nominally forbidden by law. The bull-rings and cock-pits are invariably
+crowded every Sunday afternoon, and always on saints’ days, and often
+the best people are found among the spectators, particularly the young
+men, who ruin themselves with reckless betting. It is the fashion for
+the swells to keep gamebirds, and employ professional cock-fighters to
+train and handle them.</p>
+
+<p>The Christmas festivities commence about midnight, and the explosions of
+cannon and fireworks always begin as soon as the clock in the cathedral
+tower strikes twelve. Everybody is up and dressed before daylight to
+attend early mass, and when the sun rises the streets are full of people
+saluting each other by exchanging the compliments of the day, and
+throwing egg-shells filled with perfumed water. From morning till night
+the air is full of the noise of fireworks, cannonades, the shouts of
+people, and the music of military bands, while processions are
+continually passing through the principal streets. In nearly every house
+preparations have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> been going on for weeks, not for the exhibition of
+Christmas-trees or the exchange of gifts, but for the representation of
+the <i>naciamiento</i>, or birth of Christ. The best room in the house is
+often fitted up to resemble a manger, asses being brought in from the
+stable to make the scene more realistic. Several incidents in the life
+of the Saviour are portrayed in a like manner. In other residences are
+different representations. Sometimes the parlor is arranged like a
+bower, filled with tropical plants and flowers, moss-covered stones and
+sea-shells, and draped with vines. Within the bower are figures of the
+Virgin and Child, surrounded by the kneeling Magi and the members of the
+Holy Family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b185_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b185_sml.jpg" width="344" height="224" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A TYPICAL TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is the ambition of the mistress of the house to surpass all her
+friends and neighbors in the realism of her representation and in the
+elegance with which the puppets are dressed. During the day there is a
+general interchange of calls to see the displays, to criticise them, and
+make comparisons. The grandest display is always made in the cathedral,
+the cost<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> often amounting to many thousands of dollars, while the
+subordinate churches enter into an active and expensive rivalry, raising
+funds for the purpose by soliciting subscriptions in the parish. The
+ceremonies usually begin before daylight, and last for a couple of
+hours, high-mass being sung by the leading vocalists of the country,
+assisted by orchestras and military bands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b186_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b186_sml.jpg" width="340" height="525" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHAT ALARMS THE CITIZENS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The favorite incident for portrayal is the Adoration of the Magi, and
+human figures are usually trained by the priests to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span> play the various
+characters. The most beautiful woman in the city is selected to act the
+part of the Virgin, and some young infant is volunteered to represent
+the baby Christ. The church is always crowded, and illuminated by
+thousands of candles. At the proper moment the curtain is drawn, and the
+choir breaks out in a glorious anthem; the bells of the churches ring,
+and the vast audience, rising to their feet, join in the exultant song,
+“Jubilate! jubilate! Christ is born!” Processions of priests enter, and
+at the close of the anthem the bishop sings high-mass to a living
+representation of the Virgin and Child.</p>
+
+<p>The people are not so priestridden as those of some of the
+Spanish-American countries, being naturally more self-reliant and
+independent. They know what liberty is, and insist upon being allowed to
+enjoy it, both civil and religious. They choose their own priests, and
+the latter elect their own bishop, without regard to the Pope or the
+College of Cardinals. The clerical party in politics, or the Serviles,
+as they were called, because of their slavery to the Church, has long
+been extinct in San Salvador, and the political struggles are more
+personal than over abstract issues. There is a considerable degree of
+superstition among the people, and they believe in all sorts of signs
+and omens, but the priests do not attempt to humbug them with bogus
+miracles or wonder-working images.</p>
+
+<p>Much of this superstition relates to the earthquakes and volcanic
+disturbances to which the country is so subject. Within view of the
+capital are eleven great volcanoes, two of which are unceasingly active,
+while the others are subject to occasional eruptions. The nearest is the
+mountain of San Salvador, about eight thousand feet high, and showing to
+great advantage because it rises so abruptly from the plain. It is only
+three miles from the city, to the westward, very steep, and its sides
+are broken by monstrous gorges, immense rocky declivities, and
+projecting cliffs. The summit is crowned by a cone of ashes and scoriæ
+that have been thrown out in centuries past, but since 1856, subsequent
+to the greatest earthquake the country has known, the crater has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span>
+extinct, and is now filled with a bottomless lake. Very few people have
+ever ascended to the summit, because of the extreme difficulty and peril
+of making the climb, while even a smaller number have entered the chasm
+in which the crater lies. Some years ago a couple of venturesome French
+scientists went down, but became exhausted in their attempts to return.
+Their companions who remained at the top lowered them food and blankets
+by lines, and they were finally rescued, after several days of
+confinement in their rocky prison, by a detachment of soldiers, who
+hauled them up the precipice by ropes.</p>
+
+<p>The two active volcanoes, or <i>vivos</i>, as the people call them, are San
+Miguel and Yzalco, and there are none more violent on the face of the
+globe. They present a magnificent display to the passengers of steamers
+sailing by the coast, or anchored in the harbor of La Libertad and
+Acajutla, constantly discharging masses of lava which flow down their
+sides in blazing torrents, and illuminating the sky with the flames that
+issue from the craters at regular intervals. Yzalco is as regular as a
+clock, the eruption occurring like the beating of a mighty pulse every
+seven minutes.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to conceive of a grander spectacle than this monster.
+It rises seven thousand feet, almost directly from the sea, and an
+immense volume of smoke, like a plume, is continually pouring out of its
+summit, broken with such regularity by masses of flame that rise a
+thousand feet that it has been named <i>El Faro del Salvador</i>&mdash;“The
+Light-house of Salvador.” Around the base of the mountain are fertile
+plantations, while above them, covering about two-thirds of its surface,
+is an almost impenetrable forest, whose foliage is perpetual and of the
+darkest green. Then beyond the forest is a ring of reddish scoriæ, while
+above it the live ashes and lava that are cast from the crater so
+regularly are constantly changing from livid yellow, when they are
+heated, to a silver gray as they cool.</p>
+
+<p>Yzalco is in many respects the most remarkable volcano on earth; first,
+because its discharges have continued so long and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b189_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b189_sml.jpg" width="316" height="412" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>YZALCO FROM A DISTANCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">with such great regularity; again, because the tumult in the earth’s
+bowels is always to be heard, as the rumblings and explosions are
+constant, being audible for a hundred miles, and sounding like the
+noises which Rip van Winkle heard when he awakened from his sleep in the
+Catskills; and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span> finally, it is the only volcano that has originated on
+this continent since the discovery by Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>It arose suddenly from the plain in the spring of 1770, in the midst of
+what had been for nearly a hundred years the profitable estate of Señor
+Don Balthazar Erazo, who was absent from the country at the time, and
+was greatly amazed upon his return to discover that his magnificent
+coffee and indigo plantation had, without his knowledge or consent, been
+exchanged for a first-class volcano. In December, 1769, the peons on the
+hacienda were alarmed by terrific rumblings under the ground, constant
+tremblings of the earth, and frequent earthquakes, which did not extend
+over the country as usual, but seemed to be confined to that particular
+locality. They left the place in terror when the tremblings and noises
+continued, and returning a week or two after, found that all the
+buildings had been shaken down, trees uprooted, and large craters opened
+in the fields which had been level earth before. From these craters
+smoke and steam issued, and occasionally flames were seen to come out of
+the ground. Some brave <i>vaqueros</i>, or herdsmen, remained near by to
+watch developments, and on the 23d of February, 1770, they were
+entertained by a spectacle that no other men have been permitted to
+witness, for about ten o’clock on the morning of that day the grand
+upheaval took place, and it seemed to them, as they fled in terror, that
+the whole universe was being turned upside down.</p>
+
+<p>First there were a series of terrific explosions, which lifted the crust
+of the earth several hundred feet, and out of the cracks issued flames
+and lava, and immense volumes of smoke. An hour or two afterwards there
+was another and a grander convulsion, which shook and startled the
+country for a hundred miles around. Rocks weighing thousands of tons
+were hurled into the air, and fell several leagues distant. The surface
+of the earth was elevated about three thousand feet, and the internal
+recesses were purged of masses of lava and blistered stone, which fell
+in a heap around the hole from which they issued. These discharges
+continued for several days<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b191_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b191_sml.jpg" width="256" height="407" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>YZALCO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">at irregular intervals, accompanied by loud explosions and earthquakes,
+which did much damage throughout the entire republic; the disturbance
+was perceptible in Nicaragua and Honduras. In this manner was a volcano
+born, and it has proved to be a healthy and vigorous child. In less than
+two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span> months from a level field arose a mountain more than four thousand
+feet high, and the constant discharges from the crater which opened then
+have accumulated around its edges until its elevation has increased two
+thousand feet more. Unfortunately, the growth of the monster has not
+been scientifically observed or accurately measured, but the cone of
+lava and ashes, which is now twenty-five hundred feet from the
+foundation of earth upon which it rests, is constantly growing in bulk
+and height by the incessant discharges of lava, ashes, and other
+volcanic matter upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of San Salvador has been thrice almost entirely, and eleven
+times in its history partially, destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic
+eruptions coming together. These catastrophies occurred in 1575, 1593,
+1625, 1656, 1770, 1773, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873, and 1882. The most
+serious convulsions took place in 1773 and 1854, when not only the City
+of Our Saviour, but several other towns were entirely ruined, and nearly
+every place suffered to a greater or less degree; but the restoration
+was rapid and complete.</p>
+
+<p>The chief products of the country are coffee, cocoa, sugar, indigo, and
+other agricultural staples, which are raised by the same process that
+prevails in other States, with the addition of a balsam that is very
+valuable, and is grown exclusively on a little strip of land lying along
+the coast between the two principal seaports, La Libertad and Acajutla.
+Lying to the seaward of the volcanic range is a forest about six hundred
+square miles in extent that is composed almost exclusively of
+balsam-trees, and is known as the “Costa del Balsimo.” It is populated
+by a remnant of the aboriginal Indian race, who are supported by the
+product of their forest, and are permitted to remain there undisturbed,
+and very little altered from their original condition.</p>
+
+<p>The forest is traversed only by foot-paths, so intricate as to baffle
+the stranger who attempts to enter it; and it is not safe to make such
+an attempt, as the Indians, peaceful enough when they come out to mingle
+with the other inhabitants of the country, violently resent any
+intrusion into their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b193_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b193_sml.jpg" width="316" height="290" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THE INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">strong-hold. They live as a community, all their earnings being
+intrusted to the care of <i>ahuales</i>&mdash;old men who exercise both civil and
+religious offices, and keep the common funds in a treasure-box, to be
+distributed among the families as their necessities require. There is a
+prevailing impression that the tribe has an enormous sum of money in its
+possession, as their earnings are large and their wants are few. The
+surplus existing at the end of each year is supposed to be buried in a
+sacred spot with religious ceremonies. Both men and women go entirely
+naked, except for a breech-clout, but when they come to town they assume
+the ordinary cotton garments worn by the peons. They are darker in
+color, larger in stature, more taciturn and morose, than the other
+Indians of the country, but are temperate, industrious, and adhere to
+their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> ancient rites with great tenacity. They are known to history as
+the Nahuatls, but are commonly spoken of as “Balsimos.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b194_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b194_sml.jpg" width="324" height="246" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HAULING SUGAR-CANE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Agriculture is carried on by them only to an extent sufficient to supply
+their own wants, and usually by the women, while the men are engaged in
+gathering the balsam, of which they sell about twenty thousand dollars’
+worth each year. They number about two thousand people, and including
+what they spend at their festivals, which are more like bacchanalian
+riots than religious ceremonies, and are accompanied by scenes of
+revolting bestiality, their annual expenses cannot be more than one half
+of their incomes.</p>
+
+<p>The balsam is obtained by making an incision in the tree, from which the
+sap exudes, and is absorbed by bunches of raw cotton. These, when
+thoroughly saturated, are thrown into vats of boiling water and replaced
+by others. The balsam leaves the cotton, rises to the surface of the
+water, and at intervals is skimmed off and placed in wooden bowls or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span>
+gourds, where it hardens, and then is wrapped in the leaves of the tree
+and sent to market. In commerce it is known as Peruvian balsam, because
+in early times Callao was the great market for its sale, but the product
+comes exclusively from San Salvador.</p>
+
+<p>There is one railroad in San Salvador, extending from Acajutla to the
+city of Sonsonate, the centre of the sugar district, and it is being
+extended to Santa Ana, the chief town of the Northern Province. It is
+owned by a native capitalist, and operated under the management of an
+American engineer. The plan is to extend the track parallel with the sea
+through the entire republic, in the valley back of the mountain range,
+with branches through the passes to the principal cities. It now passes
+two-thirds of the distance around the base of the volcano Yzalco, and
+from the cars is furnished a most remarkable view of that sublime
+spectacle. The entire system when completed will not consist of more
+than two hundred and fifty miles of track, and the work of construction
+is neither difficult nor expensive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="SAN_JOSE" id="SAN_JOSE"></a>SAN JOSÉ.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF COSTA RICA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>N<small>EARLY</small> four hundred years ago an old sailor coasted along the eastern
+shore of Costa Rica in a bark not much bigger than a canal-boat,
+searching for a passage to the western sea. He had a bunk built in the
+bows of his little vessel where he could rest his weary bones and look
+out upon the world he had discovered. There was little left of him but
+his will. He had explored the whole coast from Yucatan to Trinidad, and
+found it an unbroken line of continent, a contradiction of all his
+reasoning, a defiance of all his theories, and an impassable obstacle to
+the hopes he had cherished for thirty years. The geography of the New
+World was clear enough in his mind. The earth was a globe, there was no
+doubt of it, and there must be a navigable belt of water around. So he
+groped along, seeking the passage he felt should be there, cruising into
+each river, and following the shorelines of each gulf and bay.
+Instinctively he hovered around the narrowest portion of the continent,
+where was but a slender strip of land, upheaved by some mighty
+convulsion, to shatter his theories and defy his dreams. It was the most
+pathetic picture in all history. Finally, overcome by age and infirmity,
+he had to abandon the attempt, and fearing to return to Spain without
+something to satisfy the avarice of his sovereign, surrendered the
+command of his little fleet to his brother Bartholomew, and wept while
+the carnival of murder and plunder, that was to last three centuries,
+was begun.</p>
+
+<p>Among other points visited for barter with the Indians was a little
+harbor in which were islands covered with limes, and Columbus marked the
+place upon his chart “Puerto de<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b197_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b197_sml.jpg" width="316" height="314" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CRATER OF A VOLCANO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Limon.” To-day it is a collection of cheap wooden houses and bamboo
+huts, with wharves, warehouses, and railway shops, surrounded by the
+most luxurious tropical vegetation, alive with birds of gorgeous
+plumage, venomous reptiles, and beautiful tiger-cats. Here and there
+about the place are patches of sugar-cane and groups of cocoa-nut trees,
+with the wide-spreading bread-fruit that God gave to the tropical savage
+as He gave rice and maize to his Northern brother, and the slender,
+graceful rubber-tree, whose frosty-colored mottled trunk looks like the
+neck of a giraffe. It scarcely casts a shadow; but the banana, with its
+long pale green plumes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span> furnishes plenty of shelter for the
+palm-thatched cabins, the naked babies that play around them, and the
+half-dressed women who seem always to be dozing in the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Surrounding the city for a radius of threescore miles is a jungle full
+of patriarchal trees, stately and venerable, draped with long moss and
+slender vines that look like the rigging of a ship. Their limbs are
+covered with wonderful orchids as bright and radiant as the plumage of
+the birds, the Espiritu Santo and other rare plants being as plentiful
+as the daisies in a New England meadow. There is another flower,
+elsewhere unknown, called the “turn-sol,” which in the morning is white
+and wax-like, resembling the camellia, but at noon has turned to the
+most vivid scarlet, and at sunset drops off its stem. This picture is
+seen from shipboard through a veil of mist&mdash;miasmatic vapor&mdash;in which
+the lungs of men find poison, but the air plants food. It reaches from
+the breasts of the mountains to the foam-fringed shore, broken only by
+the fleecy clouds that hang low and motionless in the atmosphere, as if
+they, with all the rest of nature, had sniffed the fragrance of the
+poppy and sunk to sleep.</p>
+
+<p>But in the mornings and the evenings, when the air is cool, Limon is a
+busy place. Dwarfish engines with long trains of cars wind down from the
+interior, laden with coffee and bananas. Half-naked roustabouts file
+back and forth across the gangplanks, loading steamers for Liverpool,
+New York, and New Orleans. The coffee is allowed to accumulate in the
+warehouses until the vessels come, but the bananas must not be picked
+till the last moment, at telegraphic notice, the morning the steamer
+sails. Trains of cars are sent to the side-tracks of every plantation,
+and are loaded with the half-ripe fruit still glistening with the dew.
+There are often as many as fifty thousand bunches on a single steamer,
+representing six million bananas, but they are so perishable that more
+than half the cargo goes overboard before its destination is reached.
+The shipments of bananas from Costa Rica are something new in trade.
+Only a few years since all our supply came from Honduras and the West
+Indies, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span> development of the plantations around Limon has given
+that port almost a monopoly. This is due to the construction of a
+railway seventy miles into the interior, intended to connect the capital
+of the country and its populous valley with the Atlantic Ocean. The road
+was begun by the Government, but before its completion passed into the
+hands of Minor C. Keith, of Brooklyn, who has a perpetual lease, and is
+attempting to extend it to San José, from and to which freight is
+transported in ox-carts, a distance of thirty miles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b199_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b199_sml.jpg" width="304" height="314" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUBBER-TREES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Along the track many plantations have been opened in the jungle, and
+produce prolifically. Numbers of the settlers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> from the United
+States, from the South particularly, and it being the fashion to
+christen the plantations, the traveller finds over the entrances
+sign-boards that bear familiar names. Over the gate-way to one of the
+finest haciendas, as they are called, is the inscription “Johnny Reb’s
+Last Ditch,” a forlorn and almost hopeless ex-Confederate having drifted
+there, after much buffeting by fortune, and taken up Government land, on
+which he now is in a fair way to make a fortune.</p>
+
+<p>From the terminus of the railway the ride to the capital is over
+picturesque mountain passes and through deep gorges and cañons whose
+mighty walls never admit the sun. There are no coaches, but the ride
+must be made on mule-back, starting before sunrise so as to reach the
+city by dark. San José is found in a pretty valley between the two
+ranges of the Cordilleras, and surrounded by an entertaining group of
+volcanoes, not less than eight being in sight from any of the housetops.
+Ordinarily they behave very well, and sleep as quietly as the prophets,
+but now and then their slumbers are disturbed by indigestion, when they
+get restless, yawn a little, breathe forth fire and smoke, and vomit
+sulphur, lava, and ashes. One would think that people living continually
+in the midst of danger from earthquakes and eruptions would soon become
+accustomed to them; but it is not so. The interval since the last
+calamity, when the city of Cartago was destroyed, has been forty
+years&mdash;so long that the next entertainment is expected to be one of
+unusual interest; and as no announcements are made in the newspapers,
+the people are always in a solemn state of uncertainty whether they will
+awake in a pile of brimstone and ashes or under their ponchos as usual.
+This gives life a zest the superstitious do not enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>It is the theory of the local scientists that there is a subterranean
+connection between the group of volcanoes, and that prodigious fires are
+constantly burning beneath. Therefore it is necessary for at least one
+of them to be always doing business, to permit the smoke and gases to
+escape through its crater, for if all should suspend operations the
+gases would gather in the vaults below, and when they reached the fires<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b201_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b201_sml.jpg" width="326" height="508" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE ROAD FROM PORT LIMON TO SAN JOSÉ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">would shake the earth by their explosion. It is said to be a fact that
+the total cessation of all the volcanoes is followed by an earthquake,
+and if Tierra Alba, which is active now, should cease to show its cloud
+of smoke by day and its pillar of fire by night, the people would leave
+their houses and take to the fields in anticipation of the impending
+calamity. All the buildings in the country are built for earthquake
+service, being seldom more than one story in elevation, and never more
+than two, of thick adobe walls, which are light and elastic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 206px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b203_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b203_sml.jpg" width="206" height="296" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PEON.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city has about thirty thousand inhabitants&mdash;nearly one-seventh of
+the entire population of the republic&mdash;and seems<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span> quaint and queer to
+the North American traveller because of its unlikeness to anything he
+has seen at home. The climate is a perpetual spring. The flowers are
+perennial; the foliage fades and falls in autumn, dying from exhaustion,
+but never from frost. The days are always warm and delightful, and the
+nights cool and favorable to sweet rest. Winter is not so agreeable as
+summer, for when it is not raining the winds blow dust in your eyes, and
+you miss the foliage and fruits. There is not such a thing as an
+overcoat in the place&mdash;the storekeepers do not sell them&mdash;and the
+natives never heard of stoves. One can look over the roofs of the town
+from the tower of the cathedral and not see a chimney anywhere. The
+mercury seldom goes above eighty, and never below sixty, Fahrenheit. The
+thick walls of the houses make an even temperature within, scarcely
+varying five degrees from one year to another, and it never rains long
+enough for the dampness to penetrate them. There is no architectural
+taste displayed, and a never-ending sameness marks the streets. It is
+only in the country that picturesque dwellings are found, and usually
+Nature, not man, has made them so. The shops differ from the residences
+only in having wider doors and larger rooms, while the warehouses are
+usually abandoned monasteries or discarded dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>The merchants are mostly foreigners&mdash;Frenchmen or Germans; the
+professional men and laborers are natives. The people are more peaceful
+and industrious than in the other Central American States, and have the
+reputation for greater honesty, but less ingenuity, than their
+neighbors. They take no interest in politics, seldom vote, and do not
+seem to care who governs them. There has not been a revolution in Costa
+Rica since 1872, and that grew out of the rivalry of two English banking
+houses in securing a government loan. The prisons are empty; the doors
+of the houses are seldom locked; the people are temperate and amiable,
+and live at peace with one another. The national vice is
+indolence&mdash;<i>mañana</i> (pronounced manyannah), a word that is spoken
+oftener than any other in the language, and means “some other time.” It
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> a proverb that the Costa-Rican is “always lying under the
+mañana-tree,” and that is why the people are poor and the nation
+bankrupt. The resources of the country, agricultural, mineral, pastoral,
+and timber, are immense, but have not even been explored. Ninety per
+cent. of the natives have never been outside the little valley in which
+they were born; while the Government has done little to invite
+immigration and encourage development. There are two railroads, both
+unfinished, and the money that was borrowed to build them was wasted in
+the most ludicrous way.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 it was decided that the future prosperity of the country
+demanded the construction of railways connecting the one inhabited
+valley with the two oceans, and the Congress ordered a survey. It was
+made by English engineers, who submitted profiles of the most
+practicable routes and estimates of the cost of construction. There
+being no wealth in the country, a loan was necessary, and the two
+banking houses, both operated by Englishmen upon English capital, sought
+the privilege of negotiating it. The President made his selection. The
+disappointed banker decided to overthrow the Government and set up a new
+one that would cancel the contract and recognize his claims. Down on the
+plains of Guanacasta was a cow-boy, Tomas Guardia by name, who had won
+reputation as the commander of a squad of cavalry in a war with
+Nicaragua, and was known over all Central America for his native
+ability, soldierly qualities, and desperate valor.</p>
+
+<p>The banker who had failed to get his spoon into the pudding called into
+the conspiracy a number of disappointed politicians and discontented
+adherents of the existing Government, and it was decided to send for
+Guardia to come to the capital and lead the revolution. By offering him
+pecuniary inducements and a promise of being made commander-in-chief of
+the Federal army if the revolution was a success, the services of the
+cow-boy were secured. He called together about one hundred men of his
+own class, made a rendezvous at a plantation just outside of the city
+limits, and one moonlight<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b206_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b206_sml.jpg" width="305" height="377" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BANANA PLANTATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">night rode into town, surprised the guard at the military garrison,
+captured the commander of the army and all his troops, took possession
+of the Government offices, and proclaimed martial law. As the
+Costa-Rican army consisted of but two hundred and fifty men, accustomed
+only to police duty and parades, this was not a difficult or a daring
+undertaking. Those of the officials who were captured were locked up,
+and those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span> who escaped fled to the woods and then left the country.
+Among the latter class was the “Constitutional President,” as the
+regularly elected rulers in Spanish America are always called, to
+distinguish them from the frequent “Pronunciamento Presidents” and
+“Jefes de Militar,” or military dictators.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus dethroned the legitimate ruler, Guardia proclaimed himself
+Military Dictator, and called a Junta, composed of the men who had
+employed him to overthrow the Government. They met, with great
+formality, and solemnly issued a proclamation, reciting that the
+Constitutional President having absented himself from the country
+without designating any one to act in his place, it became necessary to
+choose a new Chief Magistrate. In the mean time the Junta declared
+Guardia Provisional President until an election could be held. The
+latter took possession of the Executive Mansion, called all the people
+into the plaza, swore them to support him, reorganized the bureaus of
+the Government and the army, placing the cow-boys who had come up from
+Guanacasta with him in charge. The father-in-law of the English banker
+who suggested the revolution was announced as the candidate for the
+Presidency, and it was expected that he would be chosen without
+opposition. But General Guardia, having had a taste of power, thought
+more of the same would be agreeable, and passed the word quietly around
+among his officers that he was a candidate himself. As they constituted
+the judges of election and the returning board, this hint was
+sufficient, and when the returns began to come in after ejection day,
+the banker and his co-conspirators found, to their surprise and chagrin,
+that their tool had become their master, and General Guardia was
+declared Constitutional President by a unanimous vote, only two thousand
+ballots having been cast by a population of two hundred thousand.</p>
+
+<p>This cow-boy, when he took his seat, could neither read nor write. He
+was, however, a man of extraordinary natural ability, gifted with brains
+and a laudable ambition. He sprang<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> from a mixture of the Spanish and
+native races, had energy, shrewdness, a cool head, and a fair idea of
+government: in all respects the most remarkable, and in many respects
+the greatest man the little republic ever produced. He learned rapidly,
+and selected the wisest and ablest men in the country for his advisers.
+Under his administration the nation showed greater development than it
+has enjoyed before or since, and, so far as lay in his power, he
+introduced and encouraged a spirit of moral, intellectual, and
+commercial advancement, established free schools and a university,
+overthrew the domination of the priests, sent young men abroad to study
+the science of government, and preserved the peace as he aided the
+progress of the people. If he had been as wise as he was progressive,
+Costa Rica would have made rapid strides towards the standard of modern
+civilization, but in his mistaken zeal for the development of the
+country he left it bankrupt.</p>
+
+<p>The two railroads were commenced by him. Under the estimates of the
+engineers the cost of construction and equipment for two narrow-gauge
+lines, from San José to Port Limon, on the Atlantic coast, and Punta
+Arenas, on the Pacific, a total distance of one hundred and sixty miles,
+was placed at $6,000,000&mdash;$37,500 per mile. The line from Port Limon was
+constructed under the direction of a brother of Henry Meiggs, the famous
+fugitive from California (who fled to Peru, and lived there like a
+second Monte Cristo), but the shorter line, from San José to Punta
+Arenas, was attempted under the personal supervision of the President
+himself, who went at it in a very queer way.</p>
+
+<p>All the necessary material and supplies to build and equip the road were
+purchased in England, sent by sailing-vessels around the Horn, and
+landed at Punta Arenas. But instead of commencing work there, the
+President, who had never seen a locomotive in his life, repudiated all
+advice, rejected all suggestions, and ordered the whole outfit to be
+carried seventy-five miles over the mountains on carts and mule-back, so
+as to begin at the other end. This undertaking was more difficult and
+expensive than the construction of the road. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b209_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b209_sml.jpg" width="321" height="496" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PICKING COFFEE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span></p>
+
+<p>Guardia’s extraordinary departure from the conventional was not without
+reason. It was based upon a mixture of motives, not only ignorance and
+inexperience, but pride and precaution. The conservative element of the
+population, the Bourbon hidalgos, and the ignorant and the superstitious
+peons, were opposed to all departures from the past, and saw in every
+improvement and innovation a dangerous disturbance of existing
+conditions. The methods their fathers used were good enough for them.
+There was also a large amount of capital and labor engaged in
+transporting freight by ox-carts, which had always been the “common
+carriers” of the republic, and those interested recognized that the
+construction of the railway would make their cattle useless, and leave
+the peon carters unemployed. To resist the construction of the railroad
+they organized a revolution, threatening to tear up the tracks and
+destroy the machinery. To mollify this sentiment, and furnish employment
+for the cartmen to keep them out of mischief, was the controlling idea
+in Guardia’s mind, so with great labor and difficulty, and at an
+enormous expense, the locomotives and cars were taken to pieces and
+hauled over the mountains to San José. The first rails were laid at the
+capital by the President himself, with a great demonstration, and the
+work continued until the money was exhausted; and the Government, having
+destroyed its credit by this remarkable proceeding, was unable to borrow
+more. The loan, which under ordinary circumstances would have been
+sufficient to complete the enterprise, was all expended before forty
+miles of track were laid, ten miles of which extend between Punta
+Arenas, the Pacific seaport, and Esparza, the next town, and thirty
+miles between San José and Alajuela, at the western end of the valley.
+This road is now operated by the Government, under the direction of a
+native engineer, who was never outside the boundaries of the republic,
+and never saw any railway but this. He is, however, a man of genius and
+practical ability, and if he were allowed to have his way the road might
+be a paying enterprise. But the Government uses it as a political
+machine, employs a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span> many superfluous and incompetent men&mdash;mostly
+the relatives and dependents of influential politicians&mdash;carries freight
+and passengers on credit, and does many other foolish things that make
+profits impossible, and cause a large deficiency to be made up by
+taxation each year. On every train of three cars&mdash;one for baggage and
+two for passengers&mdash;are thirteen men. First a manager or conductor who
+has general supervision, a locomotive engineer and stoker, two ticket
+takers, two brakemen for each car, and two men to handle baggage and
+express packages&mdash;all of them being arrayed in the most resplendent
+uniforms, the conductor having the appearance of a major-general on
+dress parade. Freight trains are run upon the same system and at a
+similar expense. Shippers are allowed thirty and sixty days after the
+goods are delivered to pay their freight charges, and passengers who are
+known to the station agents can get tickets on credit and have the bill
+sent them upon their return&mdash;a concession to a public sentiment that
+justifies the postponement of everything until to-morrow&mdash;the mañana
+policy that keeps the nation poor.</p>
+
+<p>Thousands of ox-carts are still employed between the towns of Esparza
+and Alajuela, the termini of the railway, carrying freight over the
+mountains; and it usually takes a week for them to make the journey of
+thirty-five miles, often longer, for on religious festivals, which occur
+with surprising frequency, all the transportation business is suspended.
+A traveller who intends to take a steamer at Punta Arenas must send his
+baggage on a week in advance. He leaves the train at Alajuela, mounts a
+mule, rides over the mountain to the town of Atenas, where he spends the
+night. The next morning at daybreak he resumes his journey, and rides
+fifteen miles to San Mateo, breakfasts at eleven, takes his siesta in a
+hammock until four or five in the afternoon, then mounting his mule
+again, covers the ten miles to Esparza by sunset, where he dines and
+spends the night, usually remaining there, to avoid the heat of Punta
+Arenas, until a few hours before the steamer leaves; and then, if the
+ox-carts have come with his baggage, makes the rest of his trip by
+rail.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span></p>
+
+<p>The journey is not an unpleasant one. The scenery is wild and
+picturesque. The roads are usually good, except in the dry season, when
+they become very dusty, and after heavy rains, when the mud is deep. But
+under the tropic sun and in the dry air moisture evaporates rapidly, and
+in six hours after a rainfall the roads are hard and good. The
+uncertainty as to whether his trunks will arrive in time makes the
+inexperienced traveller nervous.</p>
+
+<p>The Costa-Rican cartmen are the most irresponsible and indifferent
+beings on earth. They travel in long caravans or processions, often with
+two or three hundred teams in a line. When one chooses to stop, or meets
+with an accident, all the rest wait for him if it wastes a week. None
+will start until each of his companions is ready, and sometimes the road
+is blocked for miles, awaiting the repair of some damage. The oxen are
+large white patient beasts, and are yoked by the horns, and not by the
+neck, as in modern style, lashings of raw cowhide being used to make
+them fast. They wear the yokes continually. The union is as permanent as
+matrimony in a land where divorce laws are unknown. The cartmen are as
+courteous as they are indifferent. They always lift their hats to a
+<i>caballero</i> as he passes them, and say, “May the Virgin guard you on
+your journey!” Thousands of dollars in gold are often intrusted to them,
+and never was a penny lost. A banker of San José told me that he usually
+received thirty thousand dollars in coin each week during coffee season
+by these ox-carts, and considered it safer than if he carried it
+himself, although the caravan stands in the open air by the roadside
+every night. Highway robbery is unknown, and the cartmen, with their
+wages of thirty cents a day, would not know what use to make of the
+money if they should steal it. Nevertheless they always feel at liberty
+to rob the traveller of the straps on his trunks, and no piece of
+baggage ever arrives at its destination so protected unless the strap is
+securely nailed, and then it is usually cut to pieces by the cartmen as
+revenge for being deprived of what they consider their perquisite.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span></p>
+
+<p>At sunset the oxen are released from their burdens at the nearest
+<i>tambo</i>, or resting-place, upon the way, and are kept overnight in sheds
+provided for them. At these places are drinking and gambling booths,
+with usually a number of dissolute women to tempt and entertain the
+cartmen. The evenings are spent in carousal, in dancing, and singing the
+peculiar native songs to the accompaniment of the “marimba,” the
+national instrument, which is, I believe, found in no other land.</p>
+
+<p>The marimba is constructed of twenty-one pieces of split bamboo of
+graded lengths, strung upon two bars of the same wood according to
+harmonic sequence, thus furnishing three octaves. Underneath each strip
+of bamboo is a gourd, strung upon a wire, which takes the place of a
+sounding-board, and adds strength and sweetness to the tones. The
+performer takes the instrument upon his knees and strikes the bamboo
+strips with little hammers of padded leather, usually taking two between
+the fingers of each hand, so as to strike a chord of four notes, which
+he does with great dexterity. I have seen men play with three hammers in
+each hand, and use them as rapidly and skilfully as a pianist touches
+his keys. The tones of the marimba resemble those of the xylophone,
+which has recently become so popular, except that they are louder and
+more resonant. The instrument is peculiarly adapted to the native airs,
+which are plaintive but melodious. At all of the tambos where the
+cartmen stop marimbas are kept, and in every caravan are those who can
+handle them skilfully. Tourists generally travel in the cool hours of
+the morning and evening to avoid the blistering sun, and it is a welcome
+diversion to stop at the <i>bodegas</i> to listen to the songs of the
+cartmen, and watch them dancing with darkeyed, barefooted señoritas.</p>
+
+<p>The women of the lower classes do not wear either shoes or sandals, but
+go barefooted from infancy to old age; yet their feet are always small
+and shapely, and look very pretty under the short skirts that reach just
+below the knees. The native girls are comely and coquettish in the
+national dress,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 334px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b215_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b215_sml.jpg" width="334" height="365" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE MARIMBA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">which consists of nothing but a skirt and a chemise of white cotton,
+with a brilliantly colored scarf, or “reboza,” as they call it, thrown
+over their heads and shoulders, and serving the double purpose of a
+shawl and bonnet. The features of the women are small and even, and
+their teeth are perfect. Their forms, untrammelled by skirts and
+corsets, are slender and supple in girlhood, and the scanty garments,
+sleeveless, and reaching only from the shoulders to the knees, disclose
+every<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span> outline of their figures, and are worn without a suggestion of
+immodesty. Such a costume in the United States would call for police
+interference; but one soon becomes accustomed to bare arms and necks and
+legs, and learns that these innocent creatures are quite as jealous of
+their chastity as their sisters in the land where the standard of
+civilization forbids the disclosure of personal charms outside the
+ball-room or the bathing beach. The ladies of the aristocracy imitate
+the Parisian fashions, except that hats and bonnets are almost unknown.
+They seldom leave their homes except to go to mass, and at the entrance
+of a church every head must be uncovered.</p>
+
+<p>There is not a millinery store in the land. Every woman wears a “reboza”
+of a texture suitable to her rank and wealth, and as it is not
+considered proper to expose their faces in public, the scarf is
+generally drawn over the features so as to conceal all but their
+ravishing eyes. And it is well that this is so, for they plaster their
+faces with a composition of magnesia and the whites of eggs that gives
+them a ghastly appearance, and effectually conceals, as it ultimately
+destroys, the freshness and purity of their complexions. This stuff is
+renewed at frequent intervals, and is never washed off.</p>
+
+<p>There is a popular prejudice against bathing. A man who has been on a
+journey will not wash the dust off his face for several days after
+arrival, particularly if he has come from a lower to a higher altitude,
+as it is believed that the opening of the pores of the skin is certain
+to bring on a fever.</p>
+
+<p>While passing over a dusty road upon a hot, sultry day I dismounted at a
+foaming brook, rolled up my sleeves, and commenced to bathe my head and
+face and arms. The guide who was with me cried “Caramba!” in
+astonishment, and tried to pull me away. When I demanded an explanation
+of his extraordinary behavior he begged me for the love of the Virgin
+not to wash my face, for I would certainly come down with the fever the
+next day. I smiled at this remonstrance, and gave myself a refreshing
+bath, while he looked on as solemnlv as if I intended to commit suicide.
+For an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span> hour after, as we travelled on, he muttered prayers to the
+Virgin and his patron saint to protect me from the fever, and to-day no
+doubt believes that I was saved by the interposition of Divine power in
+answer to his petitions. He afterwards reproached me for not having made
+a vow because of my remarkable deliverance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b217_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b217_sml.jpg" width="319" height="356" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COFFEE-DRYING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>However, if anybody supposes that the inhabitants of the little republic
+are uncouth, unmannerly, or uneducated, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span> makes a great mistake. They
+are quite up to our standard of intelligence, and although education is
+not so universal as in this country, the leading families of Costa Rica
+are as cultivated as our own. They surpass us in social graces, in
+conversational powers, in linguistic and other accomplishments. They
+have keener perceptions than we, are more carefully observant of the
+nicer proprieties, can usually speak one or two languages besides their
+own fluently, and have a cultivated taste for music and the arts. No
+Costa-Rican lady or gentleman is ever embarrassed; they always know how
+to do and say the proper thing, and while in many cases their
+sympathetic interest in your welfare may be only skin-deep, and their
+affectionate phrases insincere, they are nevertheless the most
+hospitable of hosts and the most charming of companions. In commerce as
+well as in society this deportment is universal; in their stores and
+offices they are as polite as in their parlors, and the same manners are
+found in every caste. No laborer ever passes a lady in the street
+without lifting his hat; every gentleman is respectfully saluted,
+whether he be a stranger or an acquaintance, and in the rural districts
+whoever you meet says, “May the Virgin prosper you!” or “May Heaven
+smile upon your errand!” or “May your patron saint protect you from all
+harm!” He may not care a straw whether you reach the end of your journey
+or not, and may not have any more regard for your welfare than the fleas
+on his coat, and if you ask him how far it is to the next place he will
+tell you a falsehood, but he recognizes and practises the beautiful
+custom of the country, and says, “God be with you!” as if he intended it
+as a blessing.</p>
+
+<p>The Government supports a good university at San José, under the
+direction of Dr. Juan F. Ferras, and a system of free graded schools,
+managed by the Minister of Education, who is a member of the cabinet.
+Education is compulsory, the law requiring the attendance of all
+children between the ages of eight and fourteen; and it is enforced,
+except in the sparsely settled districts where the schools are
+infrequent. Those who send their children to private schools, or do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span>
+send them at all, are subject to a heavy fine, which goes into the
+school fund. There is also a poll-tax for the support of the educational
+system. The schools are entirely free from sectarian influences. In
+fact, both the Minister of Education and the Director of the University
+belong to the German school of materialists, towards which all men of
+education in these countries drift when they leave the Mother Church.
+There is no other place for them to go. The Protestants in San José have
+a little chapel where the Church of England service is recited, hymns
+are sung, and usually Sabbath mornings a selected sermon from some
+published volume is read by a lay member; but the flock is too small to
+support a pastor, and none of the missionary societies in England or
+America appear to care to enter the field. During the administration of
+President Guardia there was a constitutional amendment adopted
+separating the Church and the State. The monks and nuns were expelled
+from the country, the monasteries and nunneries confiscated, and by
+legislation the priests were deprived of much of their power and
+perquisites. In 1884, a few months before his death, the late President
+Fernandez expelled the archbishop from the country. The latter went to
+him demanding a voice in the management of the university, and a share
+of the public funds for the use of the Catholic Theological Seminary.
+The controversy was heated, and when the archbishop departed from the
+Presidential mansion he left the curse of Rome behind him. Fernandez,
+hearing that his Grace was talking about a revolution, sent him a
+passport and a file of soldiers to escort him out of the country, to
+which he has not been allowed to return.</p>
+
+<p>The confessional is open and public by law, and the priests are
+forbidden to wear their vestments in the streets. But these statutes are
+not enforced, and, regardless of the offensive attitude of the
+Government, the devotion of the masses to the Church is quite as marked
+as in any of the Catholic countries. The intelligent families, however,
+are gradually growing unmindful of their ancestral religion, and the
+next generation will see a more rapid decline of the power of the
+priests.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span> Business and professional men never attend mass, leaving that
+duty to their wives and daughters and servants. They are seldom seen
+inside a church, except upon occasions of ceremony or at funerals. But
+the women invariably attend mass each morning.</p>
+
+<p>A familiar sight in Costa Rica is a death procession. When some one is
+dying the friends send for a priest to shrive him. The latter comes, not
+silently and solemnly, a minister of grace and consolation, but
+accompanied by a brass band, if the family are rich enough to pay for it
+(the priest receiving a liberal commission on the business), or, if they
+are poor, by a number of boys ringing bells and chanting hymns. Behind
+the band or bell-boys are two acolytes, one bearing a crucifix and the
+other swinging an incense urn. Then follows the priest in a wooden box
+or chair, covered by a canopy, and carried by four men wearing the
+sacramental vestments, and holding in his hand, covered with a napkin,
+the Host&mdash;the emblem of the body of Christ. People upon the streets
+kneel as the procession passes, and then follow it. Reaching the house
+of the dying, the band or bell-ringers stand outside, making all the
+disturbance they can, while the priest, followed by a motley rabble,
+enters the death-chamber, administers the sacrament, and confesses the
+dying soul. Then the procession returns to the church as it came. Going
+and coming, and while at the house, the band plays or the bells are rung
+constantly, and all the men, women, and children within hearing fall
+upon their knees, whether in the street or at their labor, and pray for
+the repose of the departing spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Funerals are occasions of great ceremony. Notices, or <i>avisos</i>, as they
+are called, are printed and posted upon all of the dead-walls, like
+announcements of an auction or an opera, and printed invitations are
+sent to all the acquaintances of the deceased. The priests charge a
+large fee for attendance, proportionate to the means of the family, and
+when they are poor it is common for some one to solicit contributions to
+pay it. The spectacle of a beggar sitting at a street corner asking alms
+to pay the burial fee of his wife or child is a very common<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span> one, and
+quite as often one can see a father carrying in his arms to the cemetery
+the coffin of a little one, not being able to pay for a priest and a
+carriage too.</p>
+
+<p>The number of illegitimate births in the country is accounted for, not
+so much by a low state of morals; as by the enormous fees exacted by the
+priests for performing marriage ceremonies. Unfortunately the Government
+has not yet established the civil rite, as is the case in several of the
+Spanish-American States. It takes all a peon can earn in three months to
+pay the priest that officiates at his nuptials.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of Costa Rica consists of a President, two
+Vice-Presidents, who are named by the President, and are called
+Designado Primero and Designado Segundo (the first and second
+designated). They have authority to act in the place of the President in
+case of his absence from the seat of government, or in the event of his
+death or disability, and he is responsible for their official conduct.</p>
+
+<p>There is a Congress, consisting of a Senate of twelve members and a
+Chamber of Deputies of twenty-four, elected biennially, as in the United
+States. Also a Council of six men, selected from the Congress by the
+President, who act as a sort of cabinet and Supreme Court combined. They
+are continually in session, have power to review the decisions of the
+courts, to reverse or affirm them, to issue decrees which have the force
+of law until the next session of the Congress, to audit the accounts of
+the Treasury, and perform various other acts. This Council is confirmed
+by the Congress, and is supposed to act as a check upon the President
+and the judiciary. The President has a cabinet of two members, appointed
+by himself, and they are usually the two Vice-Presidents, or Designados.
+To one he will assign the duty of looking after foreign affairs and the
+finances of the Government, while the other will have the army, the
+educational system, and other internal affairs to manage.</p>
+
+<p>The successor of the famous cow-boy President, Guardia, was his
+brother-in-law, General Prospero Fernandez, one of his lieutenants in
+the revolution by which he came into power,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b222_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b222_sml.jpg" width="260" height="295" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DON BERNARDO DE SOTO, PRESIDENT OF COSTA RICA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and who was made commander-in-chief of the army of two hundred and fifty
+men when Guardia took the Executive chair. He was a man of fine
+appearance, but of dull and slow mental powers, spending most of his
+time upon his hacienda, or plantation, and leaving the affairs of the
+State to his secretaries, Don Jesus Maria Castro and Don Bernardo de
+Soto. Fernandez died before the expiration of his term, in the spring of
+1885, and was succeeded by De Soto, a young man of whom much is
+expected. He was a pet and protégé of the great Guardia, and after
+graduating at the University of San José was sent to Europe to complete
+his education, and by a study of the world as well as books to qualify
+himself to succeed his patron in the Presidential chair. Guardia died,
+however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span> before De Soto had reached the age that made him eligible to
+the Presidency, and Fernandez stepped in to fill the interim. He
+conscientiously acted as a sort of trustee or executor of Guardia’s
+will, and made the young man, then only twenty-seven, his Minister of
+War, Education, and Public Works. When Fernandez died De Soto assumed
+the Presidency, just as if he had inherited a crown, there being no
+other candidate. The President has just passed his thirtieth birthday,
+and commands the respect and confidence of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Costa Rica was the first discovered of all the countries on this
+Continent, but of its resources the least is known. The Cordilleras of
+the Andes pass through the republic from the south-east to the
+north-west. South of Cartago they divide into two ranges, one running up
+the Pacific coast, and the other tending towards the Atlantic until it
+is broken off at Lake Nicaragua. These ranges not only enclose rich
+valleys, in the chief of which is San José, but along their slopes on
+either side are extensive tracts of land already cleared and abounding
+in fertility. Along the coast are large areas of jungle and plains of
+more or less extent, only slightly developed because of the malarious
+atmosphere. The Pacific coast is healthier and more thickly settled. A
+large prairie covers the northern part of the republic, upon which many
+cattle are grazed, and it extends over the Nicaragua boundary. In the
+north-eastern corner is an extensive forest, inhabited by bands of
+roaming Indians, and full of the most valuable timber.</p>
+
+<p>What the country needs is enterprise and capital, and these it must
+secure by immigration. The population has increased somewhat during the
+last half century, but entirely from natural causes, as more people have
+moved away than have come in to settle. No attempt has been made by the
+Government to attract immigrants until recently, for years ago the
+conservative element of the population were opposed to inviting
+strangers into their midst. This sentiment has, however, died out, and
+there is an increasing desire to do something to call in capital and
+labor.</p>
+
+<p>The staple products of the country are coffee, corn, sugar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span> cocoa,
+bananas, and other tropical fruits, but only coffee and bananas are
+exported in any quantity. The increase in the coffee crop has been very
+large, the product in 1850 being fourteen million pounds, while in 1884
+it was over forty million. The quality is said to be superior to that
+grown elsewhere, and the yield greater in proportion to the number of
+trees. England and France take the greater share of the crop, the
+exports to the United States reaching only eight million five hundred
+thousand pounds in 1884. The land is practically free, for the
+Government sells it at a nominal price per acre, and allows long time
+for payment. Quite a number of settlers from the United States and the
+West Indies have come in recently and located on the line of the eastern
+road, which is to connect Port Limon, on the Atlantic, with the
+interior.</p>
+
+<div class="blockmem2"><p><span class="smcap">Note To Second Edition.</span>&mdash;On the 29th and 30th of December, 1888,
+Costa Rica was visited by the most destructive earthquake ever
+known there. Nearly all the cities and settlements suffered more or
+less, but San José was almost entirely destroyed. Three-fourths of
+the buildings were either shaken down or shattered beyond repair,
+including all the official structures, the Capitol, the President’s
+residence, and the Cathedral. The loss to the Government alone is
+estimated at $2,000,000, while that suffered by private individuals
+was several times that amount. No official report upon the loss of
+life has been made, and the estimates vary from three hundred to
+seven hundred and fifty.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BOGOTA" id="BOGOTA"></a>BOGOTA.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF COLOMBIA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>A<small>LTHOUGH</small> geographically one of our nearest neighbors, Bogota, the
+capital of the United States of Colombia, is almost as far distant by
+days, if not by miles, from New York as the interior of India, and quite
+as difficult to reach. Until recently there has been no direct
+communication by steam between the ports of Colombia and those of our
+own country. Within the last three years an English company has
+established a line of steamships between New York and the mouth of the
+Magdalena River. Two trips a month are made, the vessels touching at
+several of the West India ports en route, and making the voyage to
+Barranquilla in fifteen days. Three times a month the Pacific Mail
+steamers leave New York for Aspinwall, where a steamer for the Colombian
+ports and Europe sails almost every day, under the flag of England,
+Germany, France, Spain, Italy, or the Netherlands. The voyage <i>via</i>
+Aspinwall requires about the same time as the other, fifteen days. There
+ought to be direct communication not only from New York, but from the
+Gulf ports, as the demands of commerce require it; and a much larger
+trade might be obtained if conveniences of transportation existed. But
+the policy of the United Stated Congress in refusing to aid steamship
+lines, even by the payment of reasonable compensation for the carriage
+of mails, prohibits capitalists from investing money in such
+enterprises, as they would be compelled to compete with the subsidized
+companies of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting Aspinwall, which is a cosmopolitan place, the city of
+Barranquilla is the principal port of Colombia, and to it all
+merchandise and passengers bound for Bogota and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span> interior of the
+country must go. In the old Spanish colony times Carthagena was the
+greatest commercial metropolis of Colombia, or New Granada, as it was
+then called; and it is one of the quaintest, as it is one of the oldest,
+cities in South America. In the time of Philip the Second it was the
+most strongly fortified place on the continent, and the headquarters of
+the Spanish naval forces in the New World. It was the rendezvous of the
+Spanish galleons which came to South America for treasure. There are
+many rich mines in the mountains back of the city, which have produced
+millions in silver and gold. Here came the pirates to plunder. They
+committed so much damage that the King of Spain thought it worth his
+while to build a wall around the entire city, on the top of which forty
+horses can walk abreast, and which is said to have cost ninety million
+dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b226_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b226_sml.jpg" width="318" height="183" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>BARRANQUILLA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carthagena was the seat of the Inquisition, and in Charles Kingsley’s
+novel, “Westward Ho!” its readers will find a charming description of
+the place. It was here that Frank and the Rose of Devon were imprisoned
+by the priests, and the old Inquisition building in which they were
+tortured and burned is still standing. But it is no longer used for the
+confinement<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span> and crucifixion of heretics. For nearly sixty years after
+the overthrow of the Catholic Church it stood empty, but it is now
+occupied as a tobacco factory. There is an underground passage between
+the old Inquisition building and an ancient fortress upon a hill
+overlooking Carthagena, through which prisoners used to be conducted,
+and communication maintained in time of siege; but, like everything else
+about the place, it has long been in a state of decay. Some years ago a
+party of American naval officers attempted to explore the passage, but
+found it filled with obstructions, and were compelled to abandon the
+enterprise. The old castle is obsolete now, and in a state of ruin,
+being used only as a signal station. When a vessel enters the harbor a
+flag is run up by a man on guard to notify the Captain of the Port and
+the merchants of its arrival.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b227_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b227_sml.jpg" width="318" height="279" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CARTHAGENA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span></p>
+
+<p>There are some fine old churches and palaces in Carthagena constructed
+of stone, which show the magnificence in which the old grandees lived
+when the city was a commercial metropolis. Many of them are empty now,
+and others are used as tenement-houses. In the cathedral, which is one
+of the largest and most elaborate to be found on the hemisphere, is a
+curious object of interest. It is a magnificent marble pulpit covered
+with exquisite carvings. It ranks among the most beautiful specimens of
+the sculptor’s art in the world. The people of Carthagena think there is
+nothing under the sun to equal it, and the story of its origin adds
+greatly to its value and interest. Two or three hundred years ago the
+Pope, wishing to show a mark of favor to the devout people of Colombia,
+ordered the construction of a marble pulpit for the decoration of the
+grand cathedral at Carthagena. It was designed and carved by the
+foremost artists of the day at Rome, and when completed was with great
+ceremony placed on board a Spanish galley bound for the New World. While
+en route the vessel was captured by pirates, and when the boxes
+containing the pulpit were broken open, and their contents found to be
+of no value as plunder, they were tipped overboard. But by the
+interposition of the Virgin, none of the pieces sank; and the English
+pirates, becoming alarmed at the miracle of the heavy marble floating on
+the water, fled from the ship, leaving their booty. The Spanish sailors
+got the precious cargo aboard their vessel again with great difficulty,
+and started on their way; but before they reached Carthagena they
+encountered a second lot of pirates, who plundered them of all the
+valuables they had aboard, and burned their ship. But the saints still
+preserved the pulpit; for, as the vessel and the remainder of the cargo
+were destroyed, the carved marble floated away upon the surface of the
+water, and, being guided by an invisible hand, went ashore on the beach
+outside the city to which it was destined.</p>
+
+<p>There it lay for many years, unknown and unnoticed. Finally, however, it
+was discovered by a party of explorers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span> who recognized the value of the
+carvings and took it aboard their ship en route for Spain, intending to
+sell it when they reached home. But the saints still kept their eyes
+upon the Pope’s offering, and sent the vessel such bad weather that the
+captain was compelled to put into the port of Carthagena for repairs.
+There he told the story of the marble pulpit found upon the beach, and
+it reached the ears of the Archbishop. His Grace sent for the captain,
+informed him that the pulpit was intended for the decoration of the
+cathedral, and related the story of its construction and disappearance.
+The captain was an ungodly man, and intimated that the Archbishop was
+attempting to humbug him. He offered to sell the marble, and would not
+leave it otherwise. Having repaired the damage of the storm, the captain
+started for Europe, but he was scarcely out of the harbor when a most
+frightful gale struck him and wrecked his vessel, which went to the
+bottom with all on board; but the pulpit, the subject of so many divine
+interpositions, rose from the wreck, and one morning came floating into
+the harbor of Carthagena, where it was taken in charge by the Archbishop
+and placed in the cathedral for which it was intended, and where it now
+stands.</p>
+
+<p>Near the miraculous pulpit, in the same church, is the preserved body of
+a famous saint. I forget what his name was, but he is in an excellent
+state of preservation&mdash;a skeleton with dried flesh and skin hanging to
+the bones. He did something hundreds of years ago which made him very
+sacred to the people of Carthagena, and by the special permission of the
+Pope his body was disinterred, placed in a glass case, and shipped from
+Rome to ornament the cathedral of the former city, along with the
+miraculous pulpit. The body is usually covered with a black pall, and is
+exposed only upon occasions of great ceremony, but any one can see the
+preserved saint by paying a fee to the priests. I purchased that
+privilege, and was shown the glass coffin standing upon a marble
+pedestal. The bones are bare, except where the brown skin, looking like
+jerked beef, covers them, and are a ghastly spectacle. During a
+revolution at Carthagena some impious soldiers upset the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span> coffin and
+destroyed it. In the <i>melée</i> one of the saint’s legs was lost, or at
+least the lower half of it from the knee down; but the priests replaced
+it with a wax leg, plump and pink, which, lying beside the original,
+gives the saint a very comical appearance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b230_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b230_sml.jpg" width="325" height="255" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ENTRANCE TO THE OLD FORTRESS, CARTHAGENA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is much of interest to see at Carthagena, and the place has had a
+most romantic and exciting history, being described at length in
+“Thomson’s Seasons.” Again and again has it been sacked by the pirates,
+as it was formerly the shipping-point for the product of the gold and
+silver mines for which the mountains south of it have been so famous.
+Tons and tons of gold and silver have been sent thence to Spain. In the
+times of the viceroys the mines were worked under the direction of the
+Government. One-fifth of the net product went to the King, another fifth
+to the Church, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> miner was permitted to keep the remainder. The
+old records show that the share of the King was several millions a year
+for two hundred years or more, and that indicates how enormous the
+profit must have been; for the miners and officials were no more honest
+in those days than now, and it is not entirely certain that the share to
+which his Majesty was entitled always reached him.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications of Carthagena surpass in extent and solidity those of
+any city in the New World, and are still in good condition, although not
+occupied, having been constructed without regard to expense and for all
+time. The massive walls of the city are to all appearance impregnable,
+and the ancient subterranean passages leading outward to the foot of the
+adjacent mountains are still visible. The entrance to the magnificent
+harbor is studded with ancient fortifications, which, though now unused
+for more than half a century, seem almost as good as new. Formerly the
+city was connected by ship-channel with the river Magdalena, at a point
+many leagues above the delta, and was, therefore, in easy communication
+with the fertile valleys and plateaux of the interior&mdash;the gate of
+commerce in time of peace, and secure alike from protracted siege or
+successful assault in time of war.</p>
+
+<p>The decline of Carthagena seems to have commenced with the present
+century, and to have steadily continued to within the past fifteen
+years, when the commerce of the country began to revive. In the mean
+time the ship-canal connecting the port with the great fluvial highway
+of the interior having fallen into disuse, became filled up and
+overgrown with tropical jungle; so that the few foreign trading-vessels
+visiting the coast sought harborage farther up, at a place called
+Barranquilla, near the mouth of the Magdalena. Barranquilla has become
+the chief city of commercial importance within the United States of
+Colombia, and is the residence of many of the principal merchants of the
+republic. It is a growing city, and from a few houses twenty years ago
+it now has a population of upwards of twenty-five thousand. Situated as
+it is, so near the outlet of the Magdalena River, it is destined to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span>
+increase in size and commerce, and to become to Colombia what New York
+is to the United States&mdash;the great commercial emporium of the republic;
+Aspinwall and Panama, free ports, being more a highway of nations than a
+part of this country. To this end Barranquilla has many things in its
+favor. The custom-house is located there. All the river steamers and
+sailing-vessels on the Magdalena, conveying from the vast back-lying
+interior to the coast the multitudinous products of the country, start
+from and return to this place.</p>
+
+<p>But Barranquilla has its drawbacks. As soon as it secured a little
+commerce a large bar began to form at the mouth of the river, and has
+grown until it has become a sand-spit which prevents the entrance of
+steamers. Then a new town, called Sabanilla, was started on the spit,
+which is connected with Barranquilla by a railway fourteen miles long,
+owned and operated by a German company. But the harbor of Sabanilla,
+though now the principal one of the republic, is neither convenient nor
+safe. It is shallow, full of shifting sand-bars, and exposed to furious
+wind-storms; while the new port of Barranquilla is quite inaccessible
+from the delta, by reason of its treacherous sand-bars. So with the
+opening of the ancient <i>dique</i>, or ship-channel, between Carthagena and
+Calamar, or the construction of a railway between the first-named point
+and Barranquilla (both of which enterprises are being agitated),
+Carthagena may regain her ancient prestige and become the chief port of
+the republic.</p>
+
+<p>Sabanilla is a most desolate place, nothing but sand, filth, and
+poverty; and were it not for the sea-breeze that constantly sweeps
+across the barren peninsula upon which it stands, the inhabitants could
+not survive. No one lives there except a colony of <i>cargadors</i>, boatmen,
+and roustabouts, who swarm, like so many animals, in filthy huts built
+of palm-leaves, and a few saloon-keepers, who give them wine in exchange
+for the money they earn. The men and women are almost naked, and the
+children entirely so. Perhaps the reason for the nastiness of the place
+is because there is no fresh water; but the inhabitants ought not to be
+excused on this account,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span> as the beach furnishes as fine bathing as can
+be found in the world, and is at their very doors. All the fresh water
+used has to be brought in canoes from a point eight miles up the river,
+and is sold by the dipperful: but only a moderate quantity is necessary
+for consumption. Most of the inhabitants are Canary Islanders, who
+monopolize the boating business along this coast; but sprinkled among
+them are many Italians, and nearly every nation on earth is represented,
+even China. The only laundry is run by a Chinaman, and another is cook
+at a place that is used as a substitute for a hotel. The boatmen are
+drunken, quarrelsome, desperate wretches; murder is frequent among them,
+and fighting the chief amusement.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b233_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b233_sml.jpg" width="179" height="239" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COLOMBIAN MILITARY MEN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Barranquilla is the most modern town in Colombia except Aspinwall, which
+it resembles somewhat. It has some fine houses and quite a large foreign
+colony, many of its merchants being Germans, who live in good style, and
+enjoy many comforts at an enormous cost; for flour is twenty-five
+dollars a barrel and meat twenty-five cents a pound, beer twenty-five
+cents a glass, and everything else in proportion. There is nothing in
+plenty but fruits and flies. The town is the capital of the State of
+Sabanilla, and has a considerable military garrison, which is important
+in keeping down insurrections. During the revolution of 1885
+Barranquilla was the headquarters of the insurrectionary army, and,
+commanding the only outlet from the interior, is naturally a place of
+consequence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span> from a military as well as from a commercial standpoint.</p>
+
+<p>The great valley of the Magdalena, extending from the Caribbean coast to
+the equatorial line, is one of inexhaustible resources. Its width varies
+from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles before gradually sloping
+to a point in the northern borders of the equator. At the mouth of the
+river Cauca this valley branches off into another of less general width
+but of greater elevation, and consequently possesses a more equable and
+temperate climate. The river Cauca is itself navigable by a
+light-draught steamer as far as Cali, a point less than eighty miles
+from the port of Buenaventura on the Pacific coast. The lower valley of
+the Magdalena is one vast alluvial plain, a large portion of which is
+subject to periodical overflow. In fact, during the rainy season the
+greater portion of it is usually under water. This, however, might be
+prevented, and the fertile lands reclaimed, by a system of dikes far
+less expensive than those of the lower Mississippi. But in a country
+where population is sparse, and Nature lavish in her bounties, such
+enterprises are not usually undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>The distance from Barranquilla to Honda, the head of navigation on the
+Magdalena, is seven hundred and eighty miles, following the course of
+the river, but in a direct line is only about one-third of that
+distance. The journey by boat requires from ten to thirty days,
+according to the condition of the river. In the rainy season the banks
+are full, and the current so strong that the little steamers cannot make
+much progress; but if the moon is bright enough to show the course, they
+are kept in motion night and day. In the dry season the river is
+shallow, and the boats have to tie up at dark, and remain so till
+daylight. Then, on nearly every voyage they run aground, and often stick
+for a day or two, sometimes a week, before they can be got off.</p>
+
+<p>The boats are similar to those used upon the Ohio and other rivers, with
+a paddle-wheel behind, and draw only a foot or two of water even when
+heavily laden, so that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> can go over the bars. There are two
+steamboat companies, both with United States capital; one is managed by
+a Mr. Joy, and the other by a Mr. Cisneros, a naturalized Italian.
+During the revolution all the boats were seized by the insurgents. Their
+sides were covered with corrugated iron, so as to make them
+bullet-proof, a small cannon or two mounted upon the decks, and the
+cabins filled with sharp-shooters. So prepared, they were used as
+gun-boats, and were quite effective. Many of them were destroyed, so
+that transportation facilities upon the Magdalena are not so good as
+they were.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b235_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b235_sml.jpg" width="298" height="248" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON THE MAGDALENA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first two hundred miles is a continuous swamp; the next three
+hundred miles is a vast plain, which is under water about two months in
+the year, during the floods that follow the rainy season, but at other
+times is covered with cattle, which are driven into the mountains before
+the floods come.</p>
+
+<p>The banks along the river were formerly occupied with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> profitable
+plantations, which were worked by negro slaves, as neither the Spaniards
+nor the native Indians could endure the climate and the mosquitoes. But
+when the emancipation of the slaves took place, in 1824, the plantations
+were abandoned, and have since been so overgrown with tropical
+vegetation that no traces of their former cultivation exist. The
+negroes, who have descended from the former slaves, have relapsed into a
+condition of semi-barbarism, and while they still occupy the old
+estancias, lead a lazy, shiftless, degraded life, subsisting upon fish
+and the fruits which grow everywhere in wonderful profusion. Nature
+provides for them, and no amount of wages can tempt them to work. A few
+small villages have sprung up along the river, which are trading
+stations, and furnish some freight for the steamers in the shape of
+fruit, poultry, eggs, cocoa-nuts, and similar articles, which are
+attended to by the women of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The river itself is a great natural curiosity. It flows almost directly
+northward, and drains an enormous area of mountains which are constantly
+covered with snow. The current is as swift as that of the Mississippi,
+which it resembles, and the water, always muddy, is so full of sediment
+that one can hear it striking the sides of the boat. The water will not
+mix with that of the sea, and for fifty miles into the ocean it can be
+distinguished. In some places it is seven or eight miles wide, at others
+it is scarcely more than a hundred yards, where it has cut its way
+through the rolling earth. The channel, which has never been cleared, is
+full of treacherous bars and snags, which are continually shifting, and
+make it necessary to tie up the steamer every night, except in times of
+high water during the rainy season. The mosquitoes are monumental in
+size, and at some seasons of the year, when the winds are strong and
+blow them from the jungles, it is almost impossible to endure them. The
+officers and deck hands of the boat all wear thick veils over their
+faces, and heavy buckskin gloves, awake or asleep; and the passengers,
+unless similarly protected, are subject to the most intense torment.
+Often the swarms are so thick that they obscure the sky, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span> sound
+of humming is so loud that it resembles the murmur of an approaching
+storm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b237_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b237_sml.jpg" width="316" height="222" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COLOMBIAN ’GATORS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some ludicrous stories are told about adventures with the mosquitoes. I
+have been solemnly assured that oftentimes when they have attacked a
+boat and driven its captain and crew below, they have broken the windows
+of the cabin by plunging in swarms against them, and have attempted to
+burst in the doors. Although this may be somewhat of an exaggeration, it
+is nevertheless true that frequently horses and cattle, after the most
+frightful sufferings, have died from mosquito bites on board the
+vessels. Not long ago a herd of valuable cattle were being taken from
+the United States to a ranch up the Magdalena River, and became so
+desperate under the attacks of the mosquitoes that they broke from their
+stalls, jumped into the water, and were all drowned. Passengers
+intending to make the voyage always provide themselves with protection
+in the shape of mosquito-bars, head-nets, and thick gloves, and when on
+deck are compelled to tie their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> sleeves around their wrists and their
+pantaloons around their ankles.</p>
+
+<p>The alligators are so numerous along the banks that the same
+story-tellers assert that you could step from the back of one to
+another, and thus walk for miles without touching ground. They are
+playful creatures, and not at all timid, but bask quietly in the sun
+until disturbed, when they plunge into the river. The steamboats are
+always followed by schools of them, and the passengers amuse themselves
+by firing at them from the deck. No attempt has been made to kill them
+for profit, but if some enterprising hunters should go to the Magdalena
+country and make a business of curing and shipping alligator hides, they
+would find it a profitable venture.</p>
+
+<p>Once or twice a day the steamboats stop for freight or fuel, which is
+supplied them by the settlers, and brought on board by naked negroes.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Honda, at the head of navigation, is a place of considerable
+importance, and at intervals for the last quarter of a century American
+companies have undertaken the construction of a railroad from it to
+Bogota&mdash;a distance of seventy miles through mountains. About ten leagues
+of track have been built, but those in charge have been compelled again
+and again to abandon it because of the revolutions and the impossibility
+of securing labor. The natives cannot be induced to work, and no wages
+that the company can pay will induce immigration. But the enterprise is
+being slowly extended, with the encouragement of the Government in the
+shape of a concession of money and lands, and ultimately the
+perseverance which conquers all things will succeed. There is also a
+liberal concession from the Government to another syndicate of New York
+capitalists for the construction of a railway into the Cauca valley,
+where are supposed to be the richest goldmines in the world, from which
+the hundreds of millions taken away by the Spaniards came.</p>
+
+<p>From Honda to Bogota the journey must be made on mule-back, and it
+requires four days to cover the seventy miles. Recently there has been a
+line of stagecoaches established<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> between Bogota and the town of
+Agrialarge, which shortens the time a day, and the distance by saddle
+thirty miles. In describing the journey Mr. Scruggs, recently United
+States Minister to Colombia, says:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b239_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b239_sml.jpg" width="282" height="365" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VEGETABLE IVORY PLANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“After perfecting all necessary arrangements the day previous, the
+traveller rises at six, takes a light breakfast of chocolate and bread,
+and hopes to be on the way by seven. But people here take life easily.
+Servants and guides and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span> muleteers make no note of time, and it is quite
+useless to try to hurry them, so that if he gets fairly under way by
+noon he is fortunate. Just beyond the deep, broad valley of the
+Magdalena are the snow-capped mountains of Tolima. They seem
+marvellously near, and yet they are more than one hundred miles distant,
+so very clear and transparent is the pure ethereal atmosphere of this
+elevated region. In the opposite direction is the dish-shaped valley of
+Guaduas, fringed with luxuriant foliage of the coffee plantations and
+the virgin forests of emerald green. In the centre of this valley
+reposes the parochial village, with its church steeples reaching upward
+as if in feeble imitation of the adjacent mountain-peaks.</p>
+
+<p>“The valley is watered by the Rio Negro; justly so named, for its waters
+are as black as ink, so rendered by their passage through the coal and
+mineral deposits along the foothills of the Sierra. Near by are a noted
+sulphur spring and the extinct volcano which Humboldt describes as
+likely, one day, to break out afresh and destroy this beautiful valley.
+Though quite hot, the atmosphere is singularly dry and sanitary, and the
+place is often resorted to by invalids from Bogota and the more elevated
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>“Up to this point our journey has been alternating between deep valleys
+and dizzy mountain-peaks. We cross one only to encounter another. Such
+is the Camino Real, or ‘Royal Highway,’ the only available route between
+the Colombian capital and the outside world. Within the past few years
+it has been much improved, it is true, and at great expense to the
+Government; but it is still little else than a mere mule trail, not wide
+enough in many places for two mules to walk abreast, and so tortuous and
+precipitous as to be impassable except on the backs of animals trained
+to the road. When we reflect that this is the overland highway of an
+immense commerce, and that it has been in constant use since the Spanish
+conquest, we naturally marvel that it is no better. It seems to have
+been constructed without any previous survey whatever, and without the
+least regard for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 232px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b241_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b241_sml.jpg" width="232" height="448" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>EN ROUTE TO BOGOTA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">comfort or convenience, making short curves where curves are quite
+unnecessary, or going straight over some mountain spur or peak, when the
+ascent might have been rendered less difficult by easy curves. But, to
+the observant traveller, the inconveniences and hardships of the journey
+are, in some measure, compensated by the varied and captivating scenery.
+He passes through a variety of climates within a few hours’ ride. At one
+time he is ascending a dizzy steep by a sort of rustic stairway hewn
+into the rock-ribbed mountain, where the air reminds him of a chilly
+November morning; a few hours later he is descending to the region of
+the plantain and the banana, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> the summer never ends, and the rank
+crops of fruits and flowers chase each other in unbroken circle from
+January to December. On the bleak crests of the paramos he encounters
+neither tree nor shrub, where a few blades of sedge and the flitting of
+a few sparrows give the only evidences of vegetable or animal life;
+while in the deep valley just below, the dense groves of palm and
+cottonwood are alive with birds of rich and varied plumage, and the air
+seems loaded with floral perfumes until the senses fairly ache with
+their sweetness.</p>
+
+<p>“This plain is the traditional elysium of the ancient Chibchas, and
+their imperial capital was near the site of the present capital of
+Colombia; and perhaps around no one spot on the American continent
+cluster so many legends of the aborigines, or quite so many improbable
+stories illustrative of the ancient civilization. Here one can almost
+imagine himself in the north temperate zone, and in a country inhabited
+by a race wholly different from the people heretofore seen in the
+republic. Agriculture and the useful arts seem at least a century ahead
+of those on the coast and in the torrid valleys of the great rivers. The
+ox-cart and plantation-wagon have supplanted the traditional pack-mule
+and ground-sled; the neat iron spade and patent plough have taken the
+place of wooden shovels and clumsy forked sticks; the enclosures are of
+substantial stone or adobe, and the spacious farmhouse, or quinta, has
+an air of palatial elegance compared with the mud and bamboo hut of the
+Magdalena. The people have a clear, ruddy complexion, at least compared
+with those heretofore seen in the country, and their dialect is a near
+approach to the rich and sonorous Castilian, once so liquid and
+harmonious in poetry and song, so majestic and persuasive on the forum.
+None of these agricultural implements, and none of these commodious
+coaches and omnibuses, were manufactured here nor elsewhere in Colombia.
+They have all been imported from the United States or England. They were
+brought to Honda by the river steamers, packed in small sections, and
+thence lugged over the mountains piece by piece.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span></p>
+
+<p>“One peon will carry a wheel, another an axle, a third a coupling-pole
+or single-tree, and the screws and bolts are packed in small boxes on
+cargo mules. The upper part or body of the vehicle is likewise taken to
+pieces and packed in sections. One man will sometimes be a month in
+carrying a wagon-wheel from Honda to the plain. His method is to carry
+it some fifty or a hundred paces and then rest, making sometimes less
+than two miles a day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b243_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b243_sml.jpg" width="318" height="244" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SABANA OF BOGOTA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“When the vehicle finally reaches the plain, the pieces are collected
+and put together by some smithy who may have learned the art from an
+American or English mechanic. One scarcely knows which ought to be the
+greatest marvel, the failure to manufacture all these things in a
+country where woods and coal and iron ore are so abundant, or the
+obstacles that are overcome in their successful importation from foreign
+countries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span></p>
+
+<p>“At the time of the Spanish conquest, in 1537, the inhabitants of this
+region were the Chibchas, who, according to Quesada, numbered about
+three-quarters of a million. Their form of government was essentially
+patriarchal, and their habits were those of an agricultural people given
+to the arts of peaceful industry. Their religion contained much to
+remind us of the ancient Buddhists. It imposed none of those revolting
+sacrifices of human victims which marked the rituals of the Aztecs. They
+had their divine Mediata in Bohica, or Deity of Mercy. Their Chibchacum
+corresponded to the Buddhist god of Agriculture. Their god of Science,
+as represented by earthen images which I have examined, was almost
+identical with the Buddhist god of Wisdom, as represented by the images
+in some of the Chinese temples. They had also a traditional Spirit of
+Evil, corresponding to Neawatha of the ancient Mexicans and to the Satan
+of the Hebrews. And connected with their flood myth was a character
+corresponding to the Hebrew Noah, the Greek Ducalaine, and the Mexican
+Cojcoj.</p>
+
+<p>“The capital of the Chibchan empire was Bocata, of which Bogota is
+manifestly a mere corruption. It was situated near the site of the
+present Colombian capital. But their most ancient political capital was
+Mangueta, near the site of the present village of Funza, on the opposite
+side of the plain. Near the site of the present grand cathedral, in the
+heart of the present city of Bogota, was a temple consecrated to the god
+of Agriculture. Here the Emperor and his cacique, accompanied by the
+chief men of the country, were wont to assemble twice a year and offer
+oblations to the deity who was supposed to preside over the harvests&mdash;a
+ceremony not unlike the ‘moon feasts’ celebrated to-day in many of the
+interior districts of China.</p>
+
+<p>“The altitude of the plain above the sea-level is 8750 feet, and its
+mean temperature is about 59° Fahrenheit. The atmosphere is thin, pure,
+and exhilarating, but it is perhaps not conducive either to longevity or
+great mental activity. A man, for instance, accustomed to eight hours’
+daily mental<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span> labor in New York or Washington will here find it
+impossible to apply himself closely for more than five hours each day.
+If he exceeds that limit ominous symptoms of nervous prostration will be
+almost sure to follow.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b245_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b245_sml.jpg" width="318" height="364" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SANTA FÉ DE BOGOTA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bogota has a population of one hundred thousand, and is in some respects
+quite modern, but in others two centuries behind the times. It is built
+chiefly with adobe houses that have a very unprepossessing appearance on
+the exterior. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> interiors of many of the houses are elegantly
+furnished. It costs one thousand dollars to pay the freight on a piano
+to the city, yet nearly all the well-to-do people have them. From Honda
+to Bogota they have to be carried on the backs of mules. There are few
+carriages, because the roads will not allow of them; but there is an
+extensive system of street-car lines, every bit of material used in
+their construction being brought in the same manner over the mountains.
+The cars were shipped in sections not too heavy for a man to carry, and
+the rails were borne upon the shoulders of a dozen persons. Yet,
+notwithstanding this enormous expense, the roads, which are owned by New
+York capitalists, are very profitable investments, the fare charged
+being twelve and a half cents in Colombian coin, which is equivalent to
+ten cents in our currency. The street-car drivers carry horns, which
+they blow constantly, so as to notify the people in the houses of their
+approach. The streets are narrow, paved with stone, and in the centre of
+each is a gutter, through which a stream of water is constantly flowing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b246_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b246_sml.jpg" width="194" height="330" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MONUMENT IN THE PLAZA OF LOS MARTIRS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The streets, as in other Spanish-American cities, are named after the
+saints, battle-fields, and famous generals;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span> but the houses are not
+numbered, and it is difficult for a stranger to find one that he happens
+to want to visit.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b247_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b247_sml.jpg" width="180" height="492" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAZA, AND STATUE OF BOLIVAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The police do duty only at night. During the day the citizens take care
+of themselves. Four policemen are stationed at the four corners of a
+plaza. Every fifteen minutes a bell rings, which causes the guardians of
+the city to blow their whistles and change posts. By this system it is
+impossible for them to sleep on their beats. They are armed with lassos,
+and by the dexterous use of this formidable weapon they pinion the
+prowling thief when he is trying to escape. They also have a short
+bayonet as an additional weapon. Petty thefts are the thief crimes. The
+natives are not quarrelsome nor dishonest. They will steal a little
+thing; but as messengers you can easily trust them with three thousand
+or twenty thousand dollars. When they work they go at it in earnest, but
+they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span> are not fond of exertion. It is a curious sight to see cargadors
+going about with loads. They generally go in pairs, one behind the
+other, with a stretcher. The natives of the lower class are fond of
+drinking and gambling. They have a beverage called chica, which has a
+vile smell. It does not intoxicate as quickly as whiskey, but it
+stupefies.</p>
+
+<p>Society is very exclusive, and strangers call first. If the visit is
+returned the doors of society are opened. The predominating language is
+Spanish, but all the upper classes speak French. They get everything
+from France, too, in the way of dress and luxuries. It is absolutely
+necessary to speak French to get along. The city is a city of
+paradoxes&mdash;of great wealth, of great poverty, and a peculiar mixture of
+customs that often puzzle the stranger. The foremost men in the
+mercantile, political, and literary circles are from the old Castilian
+families, but so changed by intermarriage that all bloods run in their
+veins.</p>
+
+<p>The ruling class are the politicians, but they are more under the
+control of the military than is generally the case elsewhere. Out of
+thirty-three Presidents that have ruled the republic seventeen have been
+generals in the army. Among the leading minds are highly educated men
+who can converse and write fluently in several languages, who can
+demonstrate the most difficult problems in astronomical or mathematical
+formulas, who can dictate a learned philosophical discourse, or dispute
+with any the influence of intricate history. Their constitution, laws,
+and government are modelled after those of the United States; their
+financial policies after England; their fashions, manners, and customs
+after the French; their literature, verbosity, and suavity after the
+Spaniards. Patriotic eloquence is their ideal, and well it is realized
+in some of their orators.</p>
+
+<p>Until the ratification of the “concordat” with the Pope, in 1888,
+education was free and compulsory, sectarian schools were prohibited,
+and all orders of religious seclusion suppressed; but under that
+document the ancient relations between the Church and State were
+restored, the school laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b249_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b249_sml.jpg" width="311" height="252" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GOING TO THE MARKET.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">were repealed, the education of the children was intrusted again to the
+priests, and the monks and nuns were permitted to return to the country
+and reoccupy the cloisters from which they were expelled by the Liberal
+party several years before. The monasteries, convents, and valuable
+productive estates which had been confiscated by the Government from
+time to time since 1825 were restored to the religious orders; and all
+the educational institutions, including the university, themedical, law,
+and other scientific schools, the learned societies, the observatory,
+the libraries, and museums, were removed from the charge of the civil
+minister of education, placed under the care of the archbishop, with a
+liberal subsidy from the public treasury for their maintenance, and by
+the terms of the “concordat” devoted forever “to the glorification and
+advancement of the Holy Catholic Church.” In one or two of the seaports
+Protestant missionaries are getting a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> foothold, but very slowly, as
+everything is against them. The unconquered Indian tribes retain their
+peculiar religious rites.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b250_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b250_sml.jpg" width="189" height="262" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A CABALLERO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lately banks and bankers have multiplied to a great extent. Paper-money,
+heretofore almost unknown, is fast supplanting the coin of the country.
+This places a great power in the hands of the bankers. They are allowed
+to issue bills far above their specie reserve, charging from
+three-fourths to one and a half per cent. a month for loans. The profits
+are very large, some banks paying dividends as high as thirty per cent.
+per annum. The wholesale and commission merchants comprise a large
+class. They buy from the lowest-selling market giving the largest
+credits, and sell to the small tradesmen of their individual section,
+often supplying these individuals with goods in advance on the coming
+crop. This gives them control of the produce a long time ahead.</p>
+
+<p>The non-producers are the gamblers and beggars. The people are given to
+games of chance. Lotteries and raffles find many devotees. Beggars are
+very plentiful, owing to the peculiar diseases that scourge the country.
+Saturday is their day; then every merchant places on his table a
+quantity of small change, and delivers it as the mendicants call. There
+are a number of hospitals, cared for by the Sisters of Charity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b251_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b251_sml.jpg" width="323" height="404" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN ORCHID.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Colombians are musicians, and spend a great amount of time and money
+in gaining this accomplishment. The German piano is found in almost
+every house, and many young people gain their living teaching this art,
+while extravagant figures are paid to foreign professors. There are few
+actors or actresses. The taste of the people is favorable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> the growth
+of this art, and when a really good artist passes through the country he
+reaps a rich harvest.</p>
+
+<p>Collectors of orchids are often sent out by European houses. They
+establish themselves at the most convenient place, and send out native
+runners, paying them from one to thirty cents a plant, according to the
+kind and condition of the parasites. They are worth from £5 to £100 in
+Europe. All the lower classes work indiscriminately. Indeed, the women
+do the heaviest part of the work, carrying over the mountains burdens
+equal to those of the men, and one or two children besides. Travellers
+are carried over the mountain-passes in “sillas” upon the backs of
+natives. These carriers are sure-footed, and capable of great endurance,
+usually making better time than mules. The sillas are nothing more than
+rude bamboo chairs, fastened to the backs of the silleros by two belts
+crossing over the chest and a third passing over the forehead. On a
+level road these silleros have a gentle trot that does not jar the
+rider, keeping a pace of four miles an hour for half a day. When they
+are climbing in the mountains they seldom slip or fall, and very few
+accidents ever occur unless they happen to get too much agendiente
+(rum). But it requires time and patience to accustom one to human-back
+riding, although the natives of the country prefer the silla to the
+saddle.</p>
+
+<p>Bogota is half a mile nearer the stars than the summit of Mount
+Washington and at this elevation the climate is delightful, although it
+is only a few degrees from the equator. The tropical fruits are here
+found in abundance, as well as the products of the temperate zones.</p>
+
+<p>The streams are full of fish, and the mountains are full of game; but
+nevertheless the people prefer bacon and codfish to the natural luxuries
+of their country, and even these cannot be found cooked in any palatable
+way. Indians will walk for three days&mdash;men and women together, and each
+woman usually carrying a child besides&mdash;having heavy loads of produce or
+long strings of fish upon their backs. The woman will sit all day in the
+marketplace peddling off her stuff to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> customers, while the man is
+patronizing the gambling booths; and at night, if there is any money
+left, they will both get drunk together, and then spend two or three
+more days on the road, walking home with empty pockets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b253_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b253_sml.jpg" width="319" height="300" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>OVER THE MOUNTAINS IN A “SILLA.”</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are no hotels worth mentioning in Bogota, only a few <i>fondas</i> (or
+restaurants) and <i>tambos</i>, at which the peons stop. There are very few
+strangers travelling in the country, and they generally carry letters of
+introduction, and usually packages, to the acquaintances of their
+friends, who entertain them hospitably. The few who visit the county
+from the United States stop at a boarding-house kept by a lady from New
+Hampshire, whose late husband was engaged in business<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span> at Bogota. There
+are probably half a dozen other citizens of the United States at the
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>The original name of the city was Santa Fé de Bogota (Bogota of the Holy
+Faith). The plan of the city is irregular, and it lies upon sloping
+ground, with three or four streams running through it. The houses are
+never more than two stories in height, built of adobe and whitewashed.
+The ground-floor has no windows, and the rooms fronting the streets are
+usually occupied as shops, the proprietors living up-stairs. There is
+never more than one entrance, which is through a passage into the patio,
+or court, upon which all the rooms open. The second story is furnished
+with balconies, upon which the women spend most of their lives.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral stands, as in all Spanish-American cities, upon the main
+plaza, and is quite large and imposing as to its exterior; but the
+interior is bare, damp, and cold, and barren of decoration, except a few
+tawdry wax or wooden images of the saints. The pulpit is quite an
+elegant affair, being handsomely inlaid with tortoise-shell and embossed
+silver. There are two rows of seats, one on either side, which are
+occupied exclusively by men. The women all kneel through the entire
+service, or squat upon little pieces of carpet which they bring with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>A half-century or more ago the erection of a very beautiful capitol of
+white marble, and of the pure Grecian order of architecture, was
+commenced, but the building still stands unfinished and unoccupied, a
+monument to procrastination. There have been several spasmodic attempts
+to complete it, but they have been interrupted by revolutions, and the
+money diverted or stolen. The President resides in a dilapidated
+structure, and the several executive departments of the Government
+occupy confiscated monasteries and convents, which, under the recent
+“concordat” with Rome, must be restored to the monks and nuns. There is
+a fine university, a museum containing many valuable and venerated
+historical relics, a national library which is composed mostly of
+ancient tomes, eighty or ninety thousand in number, an observatory,
+said<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> to be nearer the stars than any other in the world, and a military
+academy, organized by Lieutenant Lemly, of the United States army, and
+considered the best on the Southern Continent.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b255_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b255_sml.jpg" width="192" height="444" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>NATURAL BRIDGE OF PANDI, COLOMBIA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bogota was once a city famous for its learned societies and literary
+culture, but during the last decade the entire population have been
+devoting themselves to politics and war. The revolution of 1884-5 was
+prolonged and disastrous, and there has been little, if any, improvement
+in political or commercial conditions since. The Liberal party,
+representing the young and progressive element, elected as President in
+1884 Dr. Rafael Nuñez, and then attempted to overthrow him because of
+his reactionary tendencies. Nuñez was sustained by the clerical, or
+Bourbon element; and having a well-organized army behind him, succeeded
+not only in maintaining his power, but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> re-electing himself for a
+second term with a Congress unanimously in sympathy with his policy. The
+Constitution was so amended as to transform the Federation into an
+inseparable union of States like our own, the name was changed from “The
+United States of Colombia” to “The Republic of Colombia,” and the
+President was endowed with most extraordinary powers, little short of
+those exercised by the Shah of Persia or the Czar of Russia. Then a
+treaty, or “concordat,” was entered into with the Vatican, under which
+the civil as well as the ecclesiastical authority of the Pope is
+recognized, and all that the Liberal party had accomplished during its
+struggles for thirty years was wiped out by a single stroke of the pen.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b256_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b256_sml.jpg" width="193" height="222" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DON RAFAEL NUÑEZ, EX-PRESIDENT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The extreme ultramontanism of Dr. Nuñez awakened a series of
+revolutions, and resulted in his abdication of the Presidency; his
+successor being Dr. Holguin, one of the most prominent and learned
+leaders of the Clerical party, who has spent his life in Congress, in
+the executive departments of the Government, and in the diplomatic
+service.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CARACAS" id="CARACAS"></a>CARACAS.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF VENEZUELA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>T<small>HE</small> voyage from New York to Venezuela is one of the most delightful in
+the world, and gives the traveller not only a nine days’ taste of the
+sea, but shows him a glimpse of tropical America, and affords him an
+opportunity to study the peculiar life and customs of our
+Spanish-American neighbors. A splendid fleet of steamers&mdash;the “Red D”
+line, owned by Messrs. Boulton, Bliss &amp; Dallett, of New York, and
+sailing under the American flag&mdash;furnish as comfortable transportation
+facilities as can be found on any ocean, and the journey can be made in
+thirty days, eighteen of which will be spent at sea and at the ports of
+the Antilles, and the remainder at the capital and chief cities of
+Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p>If the whole coast of South America had been explored for the worst
+place in twenty thousand miles to build a city, there could not have
+been found one with greater natural disadvantages, which human ingenuity
+cannot overcome, than La Guayra, the seaport of Caracas, capital of
+Venezuela. It is a town of about six thousand inhabitants, stretched
+along a rocky beach for about two miles. Five hundred feet from the
+water the Venezuelan range of the Andes Mountains begins, and rises
+almost perpendicularly to the height of five and six thousand feet. One
+hundred feet from the houses the bottom of the sea slopes off into a
+hundred fathoms of water, and a mile out it is said to be two thousand
+feet deep. There is not the slightest excuse for a harbor, nor the
+slightest protection for vessels, which always lift their anchors and
+get out of the way when indications of a storm are seen. The anchor lies
+on the sloping rock at the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span> of the sea, but it has to be lifted
+every few hours, or the shifting sand will bury it beyond recovery. The
+surf always runs very high when a strong breeze is blowing, and under
+these circumstances vessels are expected to load and unload. Two
+wharves, or moles, have been built at an acute angle, with the narrow
+point open, and into this the lighters are steered, where they are
+comparatively easy while shifting cargoes. The vessels always stay out
+far enough to avoid the surf, but rise and fall, tip and rock with the
+swells that go under them with the motion that the billows of the ocean
+give.</p>
+
+<p>Clinging to the little ledge between the surf and the foot of the rocks
+the town stands. There is only one street along which the warehouses are
+situated, with a rather imposing custom-house and the invariable plaza,
+or park, in which stands an equestrian statue of Guzman Blanco, the
+“boss” of Venezuela. There is said to be a statue of Guzman in every
+town in the republic, erected by his orders, but at the expense of the
+Government, while he was President. There are three of them at the
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>The guide-books and geographies say that La Guayra is the hottest and
+most unhealthy place in the world; that it is hotter than Cairo, or
+Madras, or Abushar, or Aden, or Yuma; but the United States consul says
+that this is an absurd and inexcusable falsehood, and represents the
+city as being a most attractive summer resort. Humboldt says
+yellow-fever is born there, and that it is the chief distributing point
+for the plague; the consul says that there is only occasionally a case
+of fever of a mild type, which is often mistaken for genuine
+yellow-jack, and people ordinarily recover from it. Humboldt says, too,
+that in his time this was a famous place for tidal waves; that a lookout
+was always stationed at the fort, which sits in a crevice in the
+mountains above the town, to watch for them, and when one was seen
+coming a gun was fired to warn the vessels, which pulled in their
+anchors and put out to sea to escape being dashed against the mountains.
+He also says that it was the worst place for barnacles (<i>teredo
+navalis</i>) in the world, and that vessels were totally ruined by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span> lying
+at anchor there; but Mr. Bird says these stories are all humbug, and
+while it might have been so in Humboldt’s time, the conditions are
+totally different now.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b259_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b259_sml.jpg" width="322" height="302" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WAITING FOR THE NEW YORK STEAMER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Above the city, among the rocks, are the ruins of old Spanish forts
+which have been the scenes of the most terrific conflicts, and the
+ravines have run with blood from the carnage until the sea has been as
+red as a sunset. In the days of the buccaneers La Guayra was a favorite
+place for fighting, and there being no harbor, the pirate kings were
+always cruising after the galleons which came there to load with
+treasures for the King of Spain. Upon the top of a high bluff
+overlooking the town is an immense castle, which was at one time the
+residence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span> of the Captain-general of the Spanish colonies, and is
+haunted by all sorts of legends and romantic traditions. It is now in
+ruins, and the underground tunnel which formerly connected it with the
+Military Barracks, four miles away, has caved in at many places.</p>
+
+<p>To readers of that remarkable novel, “Westward, Ho!” by Charles
+Kingsley, this castle has a romantic interest, as it was here where the
+Rose of Devon was carried by her Spanish lover, and where she was sought
+and found by Aymas and Frank Leigh. But things are different nowadays.
+The great American house of Boulton, Bliss &amp; Dallett have their
+headquarters there, control the trade, send vessels to New York every
+ten days without molestation laden with coffee, and the only blood that
+flows is shed by the fleas.</p>
+
+<p>I have thus far neglected to give due credit to the tropical flea, to
+whose industry, enterprise, and assiduous solicitude all travellers in
+Spanish-America are indebted for a great deal of diversion. At first his
+attentions are somewhat annoying, and there is a general disposition to
+conceal acquaintance with him; but when every man, woman, and child in a
+company is constantly scratching, it becomes difficult to ignore
+conditions that are common and conspicuous, and everybody admits, first
+with blushes and then with brazen shamelessness, that he’s got ’em.
+There is no use of trying to conceal the fact. They are as common and as
+plenty as flies in the basement kitchen of a city boarding-house, and
+the Venezuela coat-of-arms would more truly represent the condition of
+the country if it showed a man vainly trying to scratch in seven places
+at once instead of a wild horse dashing over the pampas. They are little
+black insects, which will get into your clothing in the most
+unaccountable manner. You find them in your shoes and under your
+shirt-collar; you wake up in the night and think you have somehow
+wandered into a plantation of nettles; or, when you become a little more
+accustomed to it, dream regularly that you are lying on the prickly side
+of a cactus. To rub the flesh with brandy does some good, but the better
+way is to grin and bear it. The pests are bad enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span> in Mexico; they
+are worse in the West Indies; but in Venezuela&mdash;the less said the
+better.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b261_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b261_sml.jpg" width="318" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THE SUBURBS OF LA GUAYRA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Between La Guayra and Caracas rises a mountain called La Silla (The
+Saddle), from the shape of its summit, eight thousand six hundred feet
+above the sea, and there are three roads between the two cities. The
+shortest is a trail nine miles long, through a ravine, which was used by
+the Indians at the time of the discovery by Columbus, but it is
+impassable for quadrupeds, and dangerous for any but expert and
+experienced mountaineers. Then there is an old wagon-road, steep and
+rough, for twenty-two miles, which was constructed by the Spaniards
+after the Conquest. The third is a tramway, narrow gauge, built along
+shelves which have been excavated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span> in the side of the mountains by
+English engineers and English capital. The train goes slowly, and there
+is almost always a track-walker with a spade upon his shoulder in sight.
+It would not do to run up or down the grades in the night, or at a speed
+greater than ten miles an hour; hence it requires two hours and a half
+to make the journey, than which there is no more interesting in the
+world. The grade averages one hundred and ninety-seven feet to the mile,
+the highest altitude passed being four thousand six hundred feet; and
+one does not know which to admire the most&mdash;the difficulties nature has
+placed in the way of man, or the manner in which man has overcome them.</p>
+
+<p>Humboldt, who came up the wagon-road, which runs almost parallel with
+the tramway for most of the distance, said that the only mountain
+scenery which equals it is that of the Island of Teneriffe, where a
+fragment of the alpine grandeur rises from the bosom of the sea. But one
+can scarcely imagine a picture more imposing or impressive than is
+represented here. Almost under the equator, with the ocean continually
+in view, and the mountains rising into the clouds all around you, the
+little engine puffs and pants like a restless stallion as it climbs
+around in the crevice that has been dug for the track. The road is
+solidly constructed, as English railways always are, has all the modern
+appliances for safety, and has been running so far without an accident;
+but if anything should break, if the engineer should lose control of the
+train for an instant, there would be no need of an inquest&mdash;there would
+be nothing for a coroner’s jury to sit upon.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred and fifty years ago that king of buccaneers, Sir Francis
+Drake, paid a visit to Caracas under circumstances worthy of notice. It
+was before the forts had been built around La Guayra; in fact, it was
+owing to the adventure of Sir Francis that the Spaniards put them there.
+This Mr. Drake, as all know who are familiar with the doings of Queen
+Elizabeth’s time, was a Britain bold, and had a little affair with the
+Spanish Armada. Having disposed of the enemies of the virgin Queen in
+the waters around home, he started<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b263_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b263_sml.jpg" width="324" height="355" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STILL MORE SUBURBAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">out on a cruise for gold and glory, with “Westward, Ho!” inscribed upon
+the pennant that flew at the royal top-gallant of his main-mast. Mr.
+Drake was a gentleman of great valor, and his antipathy to the Spaniards
+and Catholics was pronounced. He started out from Plymouth with a
+gallant fleet, and when he came across a Spanish galleon or a Spanish
+town in the colonies he “went for it then and there.” The Rev. Charles
+Kingsley has described the voyage, which continued around the globe, in
+a most fascinating manner. He followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> in the wake of Sir Francis two
+hundred years after, and his descriptions of South American scenes and
+scenery are unsurpassed.</p>
+
+<p>Drake’s capture of Caracas was considered the boldest of all his
+achievements. It was in 1595 that he stood in with his squadron at La
+Guayra, and the inhabitants, when they realized the presence of the man
+who had devastated the West Indies, abandoned their homes and fled to
+the mountains, carrying the news of the arrival of the terrible
+Englishman. The Alcaldes of Caracas assembled all the men in the country
+who could carry arms, from the ages of sixteen to seventy, and marched
+down the wagon-road along which the railway runs, to stay the invader.
+Half way down they prepared an ambush and lay in wait to annihilate him.
+Drake landed at La Guayra with seventy men, captured a fellow named
+Villalpando, who, by gifts of treasure, agreed to guide him up the old,
+dangerous, and abandoned Indian trail. So, while the gallant Alcaldes
+with all the men of Caracas were marching down one road Sir Francis was
+marching up another, which they thought he would not dare to climb.
+Neither met an enemy, and while the Spaniards were lying in ambush Sir
+Francis was hanging the traitorous Villalpando in what is now the Plaza
+Bolivar, drinking the wine from the Spanish cellars, ravishing the
+women, and plundering the houses of the citizens. But one old hidalgo,
+named Alonzo de Ledeoma, who remained behind, denounced the invaders
+from the threshold of his plundered house, declared them to be cravens,
+and dared the bravest of the Englishmen to meet him in single combat.
+Sir Francis and his crew jeered at the brave old man, and told him to
+send for his fellow-citizens who had gone down the mountain-road; but he
+insisted on fighting them alone, and was accommodated. They killed him
+as tenderly as they could, set fire to the city, and then, laden with
+all the portable property of value in Caracas, marched down the ravine
+to La Guayra again, and sailed away with a million dollars’ worth of
+treasure, captured without the loss of a single man.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> its
+metropolis, and according to geographies one of the most delightful
+places of residence in the world, lies in a narrow valley between two
+high ranges of mountains, which lift their heads nearly nine thousand
+feet on one side, and something over six thousand on the other. To one
+standing in the centre of the city it seems to be entirely surrounded by
+peaks, to lie in a pocket or deep depression; but from the top of
+“Calvary,” a hill which used to be a cemetery, but is now a park, one
+can see two roads that lead out, two passes through the mountains whence
+the river comes and whither it flows. The natural beauties of the place
+are very marked, and make it plain why Venezuelans are proud of their
+chief city. There is an old gentleman at Caracas, Mr. Middleton by name,
+who for over fifty years has been in the diplomatic service of Great
+Britain. He has served at Paris, at Madrid, at Mexico, at Buenos Ayres,
+at Brazil, and his last station was as Minister to Venezuela. When the
+age came which required him to be placed upon the retired list he would
+not go back to England, but wished to remain there, where, he says, it
+is but a step to Paradise. “I have been here since 1869,” he remarked;
+“I have seen this country in war and in peace, and have experienced two
+earthquakes, the last of which killed three hundred people, but there is
+no place on earth possessing so many natural and climatic attractions.
+All I ask is to end my days in this eternal spring.”</p>
+
+<p>But, speaking of earthquakes, Caracas is a favorite place for them. The
+town was entirely destroyed in 1812, and more or less of it has been
+shaken down at intervals since. The residents are quite sensitive on the
+subject, and insist that more lives are lost in the United States by
+fires and cyclones and railroad accidents than in Venezuela by
+earthquakes. They talk of the great fires in Boston and Chicago as being
+infinitely more to be dreaded than the earthquake of 1812, which shook
+every building from its foundation, and buried twenty thousand people in
+the ruins. There is no doubt a constant danger from volcanic fires, but
+the people are not subjected to some of the ills we are heir to.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span></p>
+
+<p>The present Government, under the inspiration of Guzman Blanco, is
+making earnest efforts to secure immigrants, and is offering the most
+alluring inducements to settlers upon the public lands. Venezuela is not
+thickly populated. It has more territory than France, Spain, and
+Portugal together, and is about one-seventh as large as the United
+States. The population in 1884 was 2,121,000, with only a slight
+increase for ten years. The country could sustain a population of
+100,000,000, for the soil is exceedingly rich, and produces two crops a
+year without fertilization or irrigation.</p>
+
+<p>There are three zones, three climates within the limits of
+Venezuela&mdash;from cold too intense to be endured by man to the greatest
+degree of heat known to the earth’s surface. Although the capital is
+only ten degrees north of the equator, the temperature is delightful,
+and it is easy to realize the truth of the statement that Caracas enjoys
+a perpetual spring. The thermometer, which stands about sixty degrees at
+midnight, rises to seventy-five or eighty at noon, but there is always a
+fresh breeze blowing either from the ocean or from the snow-capped Andes
+to the south-west.</p>
+
+<p>There was no printing-press in Venezuela until after the triumph of
+Bolivar, and the colonies were not encouraged in the arts or the
+sciences or any form of industry. The most profitable crops of sugar and
+coffee were kept a monopoly for the crown of Spain, and the people found
+it to their advantage to produce no more than they needed for their own
+sustenance, as every ounce of surplus was seized by the Government.
+Then, after independence was established, the rulers of the country
+imitated their former oppressors and kept the people down, robbing them
+in every possible way, until revolution after revolution was the result,
+and local wars followed each other so rapidly that the country was
+deluged with blood. Discontent was universal, and discontent always
+results in conspiracies and revolutions. Bolivar the Liberator
+(pronounced Bo-leè-var), the Washington of the country, was driven into
+exile, and died in poverty in a neighboring country. But Bolivar is
+honored there now, and the public<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b267_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b267_sml.jpg" width="310" height="388" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON A COFFEE PLANTATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">veneration is even greater, if possible, than that shown for Washington
+and Lincoln in the United States. He died of a broken heart in Santa
+Marta, Colombia, and was originally buried there, but ten years after
+his death Paez, the man who overthrew the Liberator and drove him into
+exile, thought it would be a popular thing to bring his bones home. This
+was done with great ceremony, and they were buried in the cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span>
+fronting Plaza Bolivar, upon which his equestrian statue stands. But his
+heart is in Colombia still. It was removed from the body, and remains in
+an urn in the Santa Marta cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>In the museum of the University, in a beautiful room kept as sacred as
+the Holiest of Holies, is a collection of relics as precious to the
+people as fragments of the true cross. There are Bolivar’s clothing, his
+saddle, his spurs, his boots, and books, and every little memento of him
+that could be gathered up, including the coffin in which his remains
+were originally buried. There are paintings representing his past
+achievements on earth and his present glory in heaven, where he is
+surrounded by cherubim and seraphim covering his head with laurels. The
+most precious of all the relics is a portrait of Washington, sent to
+Bolivar in 1828 by George Washington Parke Custis, with this
+inscription: “This picture of the Liberator of North America is sent by
+his adopted son to him who acquired equal glory in South America.”</p>
+
+<p>When Guzman Blanco turned an old cathedral into a pantheon for the
+burial of distinguished dead, the remains of Bolivar were for a third
+time removed, and finally deposited in a beautiful marble tomb. Upon it
+is a statue of the hero, represented as standing with a military cloak
+around him&mdash;a noble and dignified face. On one side is a statue of
+“Plenty,” scattering corn from a tray; on the other a representation of
+“Justice.” The inscription on the monument is:</p>
+
+<div class="blockmem"><p class="c"><span class="capt">SIMON BOLIVAR.</span></p>
+
+<p class="c">Cineres hic condit; honorat grata et memor patria.</p>
+
+<p class="c">1852.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is another, an equestrian statue to Bolivar, in the centre of the
+city, surrounded by a park called by his name, upon which fronts “The
+Yellow House,” as the residence of the President is called, and several
+of the Federal palaces. The standard coin of the country is called by
+his name, and is of a value equal to the franc of France. The coins and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span>
+paper-money bear his portrait as well as his name, and a pathetic
+attempt is made by the people to show after his death the gratitude they
+should have paid to the starving exile.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from the statue of Bolivar stands a heroic figure in bronze,
+with no inscription upon its pedestal but the name “Washington.” It was
+erected to celebrate the centenary of Bolivar’s birth, and its
+dedication was accompanied by a ceremony which has never been equalled
+in magnificence on the southern continent&mdash;a tribute to the man who
+“filled one world with his benefits and all worlds with his name.” There
+are shops and stores, hotels and streets named after Washington, and his
+memory is reverenced as much as at home. But this people, so
+instinctively republican, so patriotic and appreciative of freedom,
+never knew what liberty was until within the last ten years. Since then
+the priests have been dethroned and the schools have been made free.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b269_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b269_sml.jpg" width="192" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON A BACK STREET.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Guzman Blanco may be a tyrant, but he has produced results which are
+blessing the people. Until he became President the Church ruled the
+people as it formerly ruled Mexico, but, like Juarez in the latter
+country, he went to radical and excessive measures to overthrow its
+tyranny. He confiscated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span> Church property, drove out the nuns and
+Jesuits, seized the convents, turned them into hospitals and schools,
+and made the most venerable monastery a pest-house for lepers and
+small-pox. He deprived the Church of the right to hold or acquire
+property, seized the cemeteries, and opened them to the burial of the
+dead of whatever faith. He even went so far as to expel the archbishop
+because the latter refused to sing a Te Deum when a monument to the man
+who did all this was erected. With such audacity and by such means has
+Guzman Blanco deprived the Church of its former power and prestige. His
+opponents, like those of Juarez and Diaz in Mexico, are chiefly
+Churchmen (Bourbons), but as he exercises no mercy when his will is
+violated, they are in a state of the most abject submission.</p>
+
+<p>The schools of Venezuela are supported by the Federal Government from
+the revenues of the Post-office and a trade license system. Formerly the
+mails now handled by the railroads were carried by Indian runners over
+the mountains from the coast, and so from Caracas inland still farther,
+as is the case yet where there are no railroads. A runner carries a
+package weighing about sixteen pounds strapped upon his back. His
+clothing is sufficient, as he leaves a city, to preserve the last
+requirement of decency. When he gets alone, however, he deposits his
+fig-leaf in some convenient place, and rapidly “walks in maiden
+meditation, garment free,” until he approaches his destination, when he
+finds the uniform belonging to that end of the post-route, and dons it
+for remaining courtesies. These runners are faithful, prompt,
+serviceable, and of great endurance.</p>
+
+<p>At the post-office you can get two sorts of stamps. The proceeds from
+foreign postage go into the general treasury. Another stamp is used for
+local postage, for letters addressed to persons within the town or
+State, and is required upon commercial paper, upon all deeds, mortgages,
+leases, contracts, notes, receipts, certificates, etc. The proceeds of
+its sale are devoted to the support of the schools, which are free to
+all, but are usually attended by the children of the lower classes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> The
+negroes are particularly eager to learn, and the average attendance of
+the blacks is very much greater than that of white children, and out of
+proportion of the population. The ratio of illiteracy is greater among
+the whites than among the negroes, and people are beginning to complain
+that servants and laborers are being spoiled by education.</p>
+
+<p>There is a Telephone Exchange, with four hundred and seventy-five
+subscribers, with branch lines to La Guayra and other cities. The
+instrument is very popular in all the tropical countries, where any
+method by which physical exertion may be avoided receives both public
+and private approbation. The Spaniard shouts “<i>Oyez, oyez!</i>” (Hear ye,
+hear ye!) when he goes to the telephone, the same words that are used by
+bailiffs to open courts of law in the United States, and it sounds quite
+odd not to hear the familiar “Holloa!” after the bell jingles. The
+telephone is extensively used in private houses; and as the etiquette of
+the country prohibits ladies from shopping or going upon the streets
+without an escort, they find Mr. Bell’s invention a great convenience.
+They visit with their friends and gossip over the wire, order their
+meats and groceries from the market, and direct the storekeepers to send
+up samples of the goods they want to buy. The electric light is quite
+common also, the Opera-house being illuminated by it, as well as the
+President’s palace, or “Yellow House,” as it is called, in imitation of
+our President’s mansion at Washington, and other public buildings. The
+Opera-house is subsidized by the Government during the season. There is
+always a good company here. Performances are given twice a week, and the
+subsidy received by the present management is forty thousand dollars for
+the season, with free use of the house and scenery, which belongs to the
+Government. We attended a presentation of “Robert le Diable,” and it was
+as well rendered as the average operatic performance in the United
+States. The theatre is a magnificent building of stone, standing in a
+plaza or park; and although the interior is rather bare of decorations,
+and the attempt to secure the greatest amount of coolness gives it a
+barn-like air, in its<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> equipments and arrangement the house is equal to
+any in New York. The attendance was rather small, or looked so in the
+great auditorium, which seats two thousand five hundred people, and the
+President, who is said to be a constant devotee of the opera, was
+absent.</p>
+
+<p>When Guzman Blanco drove out the nuns and monks he made good use of
+their property. One monstrous Carmelite monastery, covering an entire
+block, was confiscated, remodelled, and turned into a university, which
+is supported by the Government and attended by the youth of Venezuela
+professionally inclined. Science, law, medicine, and all the ologies but
+theology are taught here, and the schools are well managed and of a high
+grade. Attached to the university is a public library and museum, under
+the care of Professor Ernst, a distinguished German scientist. This
+institution is supported by the revenues of a coffee plantation
+confiscated from the monks and now belonging to the Government.</p>
+
+<p>Across a small park from the university, in which stands the inevitable
+statue of Guzman Blanco, is what is known as the “Palacio Federal,”
+bearing the inevitable marble tablet to keep before the minds of the
+people that it was erected by that “illustrious American.” It is the
+largest, handsomest, and most useless building in Caracas, and one of
+the finest in South America. Like all the rest of the improvements it
+stands upon confiscated ground, where once was a convent, the oldest and
+largest in the country, whose massive walls were stanch enough to endure
+the great earthquake of 1812. Guzman had a great time pulling it down,
+but he is a man of enormous will and energy, and when he resolves upon
+anything it is as good as done.</p>
+
+<p>The Palacio Federal is the Capitol of Venezuela. It covers an entire
+square of about two acres, built around a circular park in which are
+fountains, statuary, and beautiful flowers, and which is reached by
+grand archways on either side. Owing to an earthquake tendency in these
+parts the buildings in Caracas are never more than two stories high,
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b273_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b273_sml.jpg" width="299" height="384" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERIOR COURT OF A CARACAS HOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">seldom more that one. This is the tallest structure in the city, having
+two full stories, with a wide balcony stretching around the interior
+walls. At one end is a lofty elliptical-shaped room, two hundred feet
+long, and from forty to one hundred in width, without a pillar. This is
+the place where official balls and receptions are held, and the
+Venezuelans are much given to that sort of thing. There is no carpet,
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> floor being of inlaid woods of different colors, and there has been
+no attempt at frescoing, and the walls and ceilings are of the most
+ghastly white, so that the furniture of gilt, and upholstered in the
+most gorgeous brocades and satins, has a somewhat startling effect. It
+is arranged, as all Venezuelan furniture is, in rows along the walls.
+This room is used as a national portrait-gallery also, and there is a
+collection of about sixty pieces, as good as one often finds and better
+than we have at Washington, representing the notable men in the history
+of the republic. On one side is a heroic portrait of Bolivar, and on the
+other one of Guzman Blanco, looking as grand and proud as if he had made
+the world. Guzman was the author and creator of this gorgeousness, and
+the people are not apt to forget it; but he was strictly impartial in
+making the collection of portraits, and if the men whose faces look down
+upon us were to meet in the room where their portraits face each other
+with fraternal cordiality, there would be such a carnival of blood and
+bruises as has never been seen since the celebrated encounter of the
+Kilkenny cats.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the wings of the Palacio Federal sits the Supreme Court of the
+country, and in the other are the offices of the Interior and War
+Departments, while at the opposite end of the building are the halls of
+the National Legislature, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies&mdash;two
+lofty, barn-like rooms, each about sixty feet square, and entirely
+destitute of decoration, except the never-ending portraits of Bolivar
+and Guzman. The members sit in ordinary cane-seated office-chairs,
+without desks or tables, the presiding officers being placed in little
+coops perched very high up on the walls, with a shelf for the tribune on
+one side, and another for the clerk on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Congress meets on the 20th of February of each year. The Upper House is
+composed of two senators from each State, elected by a direct vote of
+the people, and serving for four years. The Lower House has one
+representative for each twenty-five thousand population, elected for two
+years, also by a direct vote of the people. The first duty of Congress<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span>
+when it assembles is to elect from its own members a council of sixteen,
+and this council selects a President of the republic, with two
+Vice-Presidents from its members, by ballot. The Council is perpetual,
+and supposed to be always in session, their constitutional duty being to
+serve as a check upon the President. They can veto his acts, but he
+cannot veto theirs. They have power to enact legislation during the
+Congressional recess, which is known as Decrees of the Council, and is
+supposed to be reviewed by Congress at the following session. The
+Council elects the Federal judiciary and confirms the appointments of
+the President, thus sharing in the executive as well as the legislative
+power of the Government, and, to a certain extent, in the judicial, as
+they have the authority to remove as well as appoint judges.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the constitutional form of government in Venezuela; but if
+common rumor is worthy of belief, its exercise is somewhat mythical.
+Guzman Blanco is supposed to carry Congress, Council, President, and
+courts all under his own hat. He nominates senators and members of
+Congress, and his candidates are invariably elected. He makes out a list
+of candidates for the Council, and they are chosen. Then the man whom he
+names is made President. There is a constitutional provision prohibiting
+the re-election of a President, so that Guzman can serve in that
+capacity every alternate two years, the intervening time being filled by
+some friend of his choice, who is said to be entirely subject to his
+will.</p>
+
+<p>The official residence of the President faces the central plaza, or
+Plaza Bolivar, and is known as the Yellow House, but is not at present
+occupied, being too small to contain the family of General Crespo, who
+has seven children. Guzman Blanco never occupied it, for the same
+reason, as he has nine children. The Yellow House is a gaudy affair of
+two stories, with only twelve rooms, including four official parlors, a
+magnificent state dining-room, servants’ quarters, and all that sort of
+thing. Official dinners are given there nowadays, and occasionally the
+President receives foreign ambassadors in the parlors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span></p>
+
+<p>The city of Caracas is a Federal district, like the city of Washington,
+with a governor appointed by the President. His office is in a memorable
+room, corresponding to Independence Hall in Philadelphia. It was
+formerly the chapel of an old convent, confiscated like the rest, and
+the remainder of the building is used for the police headquarters, the
+municipal court, and other local authorities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b276_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b276_sml.jpg" width="317" height="238" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SPANISH MISSIONARY WORK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This narrow little room which the Governor occupies is the same in which
+the Declaration of Venezuelan Independence was signed, and upon its
+walls hangs a picture commemorating the event. Strangely enough, beside
+this painting of the decree of Liberty hangs a heavy gilt frame
+containing the banner Pizarro carried in the conquest of Peru&mdash;the
+rarest and most interesting relic in all South America. It is about four
+feet square, of heavy pink silk, faded almost to white, embroidered with
+gold by the fair hands of Queen Isabella herself, the design being the
+combined escutcheons of Aragon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> and Castile, and it is still in an
+excellent state of preservation. It is with the keenest irony of
+contrast that this age-begrimed banner should hang in the room where the
+first voice was raised against the tyranny it represented; here, beside
+the voice, scarcely legible now to the eye, but to the mind speaking
+with mighty force the long story of Spanish oppression, and illustrating
+the first feeble and unsuccessful protest. This banner was the emblem of
+cruelty, avarice, and lust, and under its dainty folds more crimes were
+committed in the name of Christ and civilization than an eternity of
+perdition could adequately punish.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b277_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b277_sml.jpg" width="156" height="301" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WOMAN’S CHIEF OCCUPATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of equally striking significance in the room where this banner hangs
+exists a permanent rebuke and protest against the religion in whose name
+these crimes were committed. The Government refuses to recognize the
+authority of the Romish Church even in the sanctity of marriage, and a
+civil ceremony is essential to legitimate wedlock. The bride and groom
+may go to the church afterwards, but they must come here first, and in
+the presence of the civil magistrate make the vows to love, honor, and
+obey until death do them part, or their issue will have no right of
+inheritance. The Church has threatened to excommunicate, but the decree
+of Congress is inexorable, and the archbishop has finally yielded
+submission. When a couple want to be married, the groom<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span> goes to the
+Governor or his deputy and secures a license, notice of which is given
+for two weeks in a printed form, which is tacked upon a bulletin-board
+beside the entrance to the office. Banns are also required to be
+published for the same period in the official newspaper. Then, if no one
+appears with cause by which the two should not be united, the
+bridal-party comes to the office of the Governor, and there make their
+vows and sign the contract which makes them man and wife.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the form of marriage contract:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="r">
+“<span class="smcap">Parish Tribunal</span>, Caracas, Ja. 18th, 1885.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>“This day have appeared before me, presiding over this tribunal,
+Serapio Antonio Gutierez and Felipa Rivas, and declared that they
+are unmarried: that he is twenty-five years of age and that she is
+fifteen; that she is a resident of this parish, and that he is a
+resident also; that his occupation is that of a merchant, and that
+her occupation is that peculiar to the home. They declare that they
+have not changed their places of residence during the last six
+months, and that they desire to enter into marriage.</p>
+
+<p>“In performance of the foregoing announcement, which has been
+advertised for fifteen days, as the law directs, in the most public
+places of this city, and no one having appeared to deny their right
+to become husband and wife, they therefore on this day agree to
+become such, and have taken upon them the vows required and
+recognized by the law. Therefore, this day, at seven o’clock in the
+evening, assembled with them in the municipal palace, I, General
+Basidio Gabante, President of the Eastern Federal District, by
+order of the Governor and President of the Municipal Council, in
+the presence of Felipe Aguerra, an engineer, citizen of this
+Republic, and Luis R. Tores, merchant and citizen of the Republic,
+have declared the evidence of their free will and right to
+matrimony sufficient under the law.</p>
+
+<p>“Then was read to them, as above named, section thirteen of the law
+of the Republic, which explains and sets forth the reciprocal
+rights and duties of the husband and wife. Immediately thereafter I
+asked Serapio Antonio Gutierez the question, ‘Do you wish to take
+Felipa Rivas as your wife?’ who then answered in a distinct voice,
+‘Yes; I want her, and take her thus.’ Then I asked Felipa Rivas,
+‘Do you take Serapio Antonio Gutierez to be your husband?’ who in
+the same manner answered, ‘Yes; I want him, and take him thus.’</p>
+
+<p>“Addressing myself to both, I said, ‘You are now joined in
+matrimony, perpetual and indissoluble, and you are required to
+support and assist each other, and provide each other, and the
+children that may be born to you, with the necessaries of the home,
+and be to each other a comfort and a blessing.</p>
+
+<p>“The above, having been properly witnessed, was signed by the
+married couple in my presence, and immediately entered in the book
+of civil registry.</p>
+
+<p class="r">
+“SERAPIO ANTONIO GUTIEREZ.<br />
+“FELIPA RIVAS.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+“<span class="smcap">Felipe Aguerra</span>, <i>Engineer</i>. } <i>Witnesses.</i><br />
+“<span class="smcap">Luis R. Tores.</span>
+<span style="margin-left: 5.23em;"> }</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Julio Baez Pumar</span>, <i>Clerk</i>. <span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Basidio Gabante</span>,</span> <i>Prefect</i>.”</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b279_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b279_sml.jpg" width="370" height="384" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BODEGA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under a glass cylinder, on a stand beneath the banner of Pizarro, is a
+large book bound in scarlet plush, with heavy gold clasps and hinges, in
+which the contracts are kept and the record of Venezuelan wedlock
+preserved. All the Catholics go at once to the church from the municipal
+palace, and repeat their vows, with the benediction of the priest, but
+this is not essential. At this same office the record of births and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span>
+deaths is also kept in the strictest manner. Formerly, as in Cuba, the
+legitimacy of a child and permission to bury the dead could be
+acknowledged by the Church alone, but the republic has confiscated all
+the cemeteries, and opened the gates to those of every faith, Jew or
+Gentile, Protestant or Catholic.</p>
+
+<p>The Government is very exacting in many respects. One day a little boy
+was stolen. The only clew was given by some children, who saw their
+playmate seized by a man who drove away with him in a hack. Every
+hackman in the city was arrested and thrown into prison; every coach was
+seized, with its horses and harness, and notice given by the police
+authorities that not a wheel should be turned in the streets until the
+child was found. These summary measures made every coach-owner a
+detective, and finally the hackman who was engaged in the abduction
+confessed, and the child was recovered without the payment of the ransom
+demanded.</p>
+
+<p>The police arrangements in Caracas are excellent; there are no robberies
+or murders, and one seldom sees an intoxicated man upon the streets.
+Liquor is sold at nearly all the groceries, or bodegas, as they are
+called, and the <i>aguardiente</i> which the common people use is the most
+vicious sort of fire-water; but the punishment of offenders is extreme,
+and those who have not sufficient self-control to drink moderately are
+taken in charge by their friends at the first sign of intoxication.
+There are several street-car lines in Caracas, and the conductors carry
+a horn, which they blow upon approaching a street-crossing, as is the
+practice in Mexico. The cars are all open, and are small, being capable
+of holding not more than twelve or fourteen people.</p>
+
+<p>The burial of prominent men is attended with great pomp and ceremony,
+and it is customary to have those who are present at the funeral sign a
+testimonial to the worth of the dead, or pass a series of resolutions
+setting forth their merits and distinguished traits. These tributes are
+placed in the coffin, in order that in case the remains should ever be
+disinterred, posterity would know the character of him whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span> bones they
+handled. When a member of the family dies, it is customary to drape the
+furniture and pictures of the parlor in mourning, and to let it remain
+so for a full year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b281_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b281_sml.jpg" width="228" height="290" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A GLASS OF AGUARDIENTE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The etiquette governing the habits of the ladies is the same that exists
+in Mexico and other Spanish-American countries, it not being proper for
+them to appear alone upon the streetsor in public places. They go to
+mass accompanied by a colored woman as a duenna, who carries a chair for
+her mistress to sit upon during service, there being no seats or pews in
+the churches. In the evening women are seen in large numbers upon the
+streets, and at the plaza where the band plays they swarm in gayly
+dressed crowds. The ladies of Venezuela are said by travellers to rank
+next to those of Peru<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span> for beauty, although it would be as much as a
+man’s life is worth to intimate such a thing to the brothers and lovers
+of Caracas, who very naturally and properly concede nothing in this
+respect to “the daughters of the sun,” as the Peruvians are called. The
+Venezuela girl has more animation, more vivacity than her sister across
+the Cordilleras, and perhaps more intelligence, for she possesses more
+liberty of thought and action than the ladies in other countries of
+Spanish America, and more attention is paid to her education. The
+climate of Caracas is similar to that of Lima, and although the city is
+almost under the equator, it has an altitude of eight thousand feet, and
+is surrounded by snow-clad mountains which temper the heat of the
+tropics and make a temperature like that of June the whole year round.
+The ladies have therefore the same clear, rich complexion of an olive
+tint, and the same great “melting eyes.” Their features are usually of
+artistic perfection and their figures Venus-like. They have no national
+costume, but dress in the latest Paris styles. The milliners and
+modistes of Caracas go to Paris twice a year, and the wives and
+daughters of the rich men of the country order their dresses there.
+There is more society than in Peru, and during the winter season Caracas
+is very gay. At the opera the boxes are invariably filled with ladies as
+handsomely dressed and as highly bejewelled as can be seen at the
+Metropolitan Opera House or the Academy of Music in New York.</p>
+
+<p>There are a large number of American families in Caracas, and several
+Venezuelan gentlemen have married in the United States. One of the
+loveliest girls in Venezuela is the granddaughter of “Josh
+Billings”&mdash;the late Henry W. Shaw. Twenty years ago or more a merchant
+at Caracas named Señor Don Santana sent his son to Poughkeepsie to be
+educated, and while he was there he met and married the daughter of Mr.
+Shaw. The young man has succeeded to the business of his father, and is
+now at the head of one of the largest mercantile houses in the republic.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Guzman Blanco is the handsomest woman in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b283_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b283_sml.jpg" width="197" height="408" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A VENEZUELA BELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">country. She is a tall, slender brunette, with brilliant eyes and
+complexion and a sylph-like figure. Her husband worships her, and she is
+said to be the only person in the land to whom the Dictator’s iron will
+has ever yielded. She is quite as famous for her loveliness of
+disposition as for her personal attractions, and her charity and
+generosity are proverbial. Every artist in Venezuela has painted her
+portrait a number of times, and in the room which Guzman Blanco uses as
+an office there are seven pictures of her, in various costumes and
+attitudes, and two busts in marble. Mrs. Guzman Blanco is the leader in
+fashion as well as society, and all her dresses are made by Worth. Each
+spring and fall, when they are received from Paris, the ladies of
+Caracas are invited to examine them. In a room adjoining the chamber are
+a number of large glass-cases, like those in a modiste’s shop, in which
+her treasures<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> always hang; and whenever a reception is given by the
+Dictator this wardrobe is open to visitors&mdash;a new and novel idea, but
+one which gives the ladies of Venezuela great pleasure. Mrs. Guzman
+Blanco was in New York with her husband a couple of years ago, where her
+beauty attracted much attention.</p>
+
+<p>The Venezuelans are the most courteous people that can be imagined.
+Impoliteness is unpardonable. The clerk with whom you deal over his
+counter expresses his wish that you may live long and prosper, and
+thanks you gratefully for giving him the pleasure of showing his goods,
+whether you purchase anything or not. When a gentleman meets a lady, be
+she his sweetheart or his grandmother, he always says he “is lying at
+her feet,” and he would rather be shot than pass before her. They are
+not the semi-barbarians some people in the northern continent suppose.
+They have accomplishments which ought to make the rest of America
+ashamed. Usually they are able to speak three or four different
+languages, have refined tastes in art and music, and, while they lack
+ingenuity, and usually do things in the hardest way, are nevertheless
+possessed of the keenest perceptive faculties, and seem almost to read
+your thoughts. It is not difficult to make known your wants, even if you
+cannot understand a word of their language. They do not allow smoking in
+the street-cars and public places, as in Mexico and Havana, and although
+it is the privilege of the masculine gender to stare at the feminine
+with all the eyes they have, the men are never rude, and ask the pardon
+of a beggar when they refuse to give him alms.</p>
+
+<p>But the people always put the locks upon the wrong door, and wrong side
+up. When they build a house, it seems as if they studied the most
+difficult mode of construction. They erect solid walls first, and then
+chisel out cavities for the timbers to rest in. There are no stoves or
+chimneys, and charcoal is the only fuel. Gas is produced at four dollars
+and a half per thousand feet, from American coal which costs twenty
+dollars a ton. There is no glass in the windows, but a grating<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> of iron
+bars keeps out intruders, and heavy wooden shutters shut out the air and
+light. Such blinds as are common in North America would be the most
+admirable protection, but no one has ever introduced them, and the
+people will continue to swelter behind solid shutters until the end of
+time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b285_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b285_sml.jpg" width="341" height="402" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE LOWER FLOOR OF THE HOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rooms of houses are not plastered, but the joists are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span> all exposed.
+The floors are of tile, and paper is pasted upon the walls, which are of
+cement and stone. In the court of every house are the most beautiful
+flowers. Tuberoses grow on great trees, and the oleander is as common as
+the lilac in New England. The parks look like the botanical gardens of
+the North, and in the evening are always thronged with gentlemen and
+ladies until a late hour.</p>
+
+<p>Guzman Blanco, the uncrowned king of Venezuela, the man whose authority
+is more absolute in this republic than is that of any king in Europe in
+his own dominions, is a native of Caracas, where he was born fifty-five
+years ago. His father was the private secretary of Bolivar, and at one
+time a member of his cabinet. He died only a short time since, and his
+funeral was a pageant which was surpassed in the history of the country
+only by the demonstration at the removal of Bolivar’s remains. He was
+active in the affairs of State almost until his death; now an exile, now
+a minister, vibrating between the extremes of power and poverty, as the
+party to which he was attached was up or down; and under this confusion,
+in the atmosphere of revolution, young Guzman was educated. He added the
+name of Blanco&mdash;that of his mother&mdash;to his baptismal name, to
+distinguish him from his father, and became Guzman Blanco; but he is
+more often called General Guzman by the people nowadays. When a mere boy
+he became a soldier, and had his ups and downs until the year 1874, when
+he led a successful revolution against the existing authority and became
+President. Since that year several attempts have been made to overturn
+him, but none has succeeded, and being a man to win friends as well as
+to acquire power, his political strength has grown with years until his
+authority is now absolute.</p>
+
+<p>There is, and always will be, a difference in opinion as to his personal
+character and motives. That he is vain and imperious is admitted, and
+that many of his acts would not be tolerated by such a people as those
+who live in the United States cannot be questioned; but, conceding
+everything his enemies may say as true, it is nevertheless a fact that
+since<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span> Guzman Blanco has been ruler over this republic it has prospered
+and had peace&mdash;something it never had before. There have been varied and
+extensive improvements; the people have made rapid strides in progress;
+they have been given free schools and released from the bondage of the
+Church; the credit of the Government has been improved, its debts
+reduced, and the interest to its creditors is for the first time in
+history paid promptly, in full and in advance. The moral as well as the
+mental and commercial improvement of the people has been the result of
+his acts, and as long as he lives their lives and property will be safe.</p>
+
+<p>A man under whose influence such progress has been made can be pardoned
+for the delinquencies of which Guzman Blanco is accused; and while his
+vanity is amusing, it nevertheless, in the forms it takes, illustrates
+the pride he feels in his achievements, and the realization of the
+importance of his career in the history of his republic.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the pedestal of one of the five statues he has erected to his own
+memory appear the words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockmem"><p class="c">TO &nbsp; THAT &nbsp; ILLUSTRIOUS &nbsp; AMERICAN,</p>
+
+<p>THE PACIFICATOR AND REGENERATOR OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA,</p>
+
+<p class="c"><span class="sans">GENERAL ANTONIO GUZMAN BLANCO.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>In these words the purpose and ambition of the man appear. To be the
+“Pacificator and Regenerator” where Bolivar was the Liberator is worthy
+the ambition of any man; and he who will erect a statue of Washington as
+the ideal his people should carry in their minds cannot be without a
+good motive somewhere in his consciousness. Future historians, when they
+look back upon the career of Guzman Blanco, will be more generous than
+contemporaneous critics, and will forget that he erected these statues
+to himself.</p>
+
+<p>There are three statues to Guzman now standing in Caracas, but nobody
+would believe it if the number of tablets erected in his honor were
+told. You can scarcely look in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span> direction without being officially
+informed in letters carved in enduring marble that this, that, or the
+other thing was done by the order of, or under the administration of,
+that illustrious American, etc.</p>
+
+<p>One night all these statues and many of the tablets were pulled down. It
+is a curious story, and the United States has what the play-bills call a
+contemporaneous human interest in the affair, for the <i>casus belli</i> was
+a Boston girl.</p>
+
+<p>Guzman, when he was President, had a nephew of whom he was very fond,
+and who was made by him the commander-in-chief of the Venezuelan army.
+He was engaged to an American girl, whose parents lived in Caracas then,
+but now in Boston. For some reason the girl’s father and the President
+had a violent quarrel, and the former was notified that it would be to
+his welfare to leave the country. In these Spanish-American countries a
+man who values his life never awaits a second invitation of this sort,
+and the Boston gentleman, with his family, took the next steamer. They
+were accompanied to La Guayra by the young general, who made no secret
+of his sympathy with the father of his <i>fiancée</i>, and expressed his
+views of the President’s tyranny in a very emphatic manner. Guzman sent
+for the young man, and advised him to hold his tongue and let the girl
+go. The passionate lover gave his uncle some very plain words, which
+ended in his being offered a choice between his commission in the army
+and his North American sweetheart. He broke his sword over his knees,
+threw the severed blade at Guzman’s feet, and tore off his epaulettes.
+That night all the statues of Guzman fell down. It was discovered that
+the bronze had been sawed where the feet met the pedestals, and a rope
+used to tumble them over. Of course the young general was suspected, and
+he followed his girl to Boston to escape his uncle’s wrath. The romance
+ended in a marriage, as all good love stories do, and after residing in
+Boston the couple returned to Caracas, where they now live&mdash;she one of
+the most attractive and accomplished ladies in the city, and he an
+exporter of coffee and chocolate. Guzman has never forgiven him, and
+some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span> his friends think his life is not safe there, but he laughs at
+their timidity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b289_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b289_sml.jpg" width="314" height="427" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN OLD PATIO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Guzman’s private residence is the finest in Venezuela, and a full-length
+portrait of James G. Blaine adorns his parlor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> That apartment is very
+handsomely decorated and upholstered, the work having been done by
+artists imported from Paris; but there is such a vivid brilliancy in the
+frescoing, the fabrics, and the furniture that one wishes these tropical
+people who have so much money had a little more refinement of taste.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most striking incidents in the career of this extraordinary
+man was his defiance of the Pope. To realize its full significance, it
+must be understood that Venezuela has always been a Catholic country;
+that there was not a Protestant church in the whole country; that Guzman
+was himself born and baptized a Catholic, and that under the
+Constitution the archbishop was a member of the National Council. Guzman
+first suppressed all the monasteries and nunneries of the country, and
+confiscated their property, which was converted into houses of useful
+education. Then, in 1876, he sent to Congress a message, in which he
+said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“I have taken upon myself the responsibility of declaring the
+Church of Venezuela independent of the Roman Episcopate, and ask
+that you further order that parish priests shall be elected by the
+people, the bishop by the rector of the parish, and the archbishops
+by Congress, returning to the uses of the primitive Church founded
+by Jesus Christ and His apostles. Such a law will not only resolve
+the clerical question, but will be besides a grand example for the
+Christian Church of republican America, hindered in her march
+towards liberty, order, and progress by the policy, always
+retrograde, of the Roman Church, and the civilized world will see
+in this act the most characteristic and palpable sign of advance in
+the regeneration of Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p class="r">
+“<span class="smcap">Guzman Blanco.</span>”</p></div>
+
+<p>To this the Congress replied:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“Faithful to our duties, faithful to our convictions, and faithful
+to the holy dogmas of the religion of Jesus Christ, of that great
+Being who conserved the world’s freedom with His blood, we do not
+hesitate to emancipate the Church of Venezuela from that Episcopacy
+which pretends, as an infallible and omnipotent power, to absorb
+from Rome the vitality of a free people, the beliefs of our
+consciences, and the noble aspirations and destinies which pertain
+to us as component parts of the great human family. Congress offers
+to your Excellency and will give you all the aid you seek to
+preserve the honor and the right of our nation, and announces now
+with patriotic pleasure that it has already begun to elaborate the
+law which your Excellency asks it to frame.”</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span></p>
+
+<p>This declaration of independence caused a great sensation in the
+Catholic Church, and excommunication was threatened to all who failed in
+their allegiance to the Vatican; but neither the Government nor the
+people were to be intimidated, and the Pope has since tried diplomatic
+measures to restore union with the Mother Church. There has been a
+nuncio there for several years, and he resides there still, but is
+making no progress.</p>
+
+<p>Macuto is the Newport of Venezuela&mdash;the summer, or rather the winter
+resort of the wealthy and aristocratic, who find the temperature of
+Caracas trying upon their constitutions, and seek sea-air, sea-bathing,
+and flirtations under the palms. It is six miles from La Guayra, and is
+reached by a tramway, over which a little dummy engine goes shrieking
+every half hour, and by a broad boulevard which would furnish as
+delightful a drive as that upon the beach at Long Branch were it not for
+the dust, which is almost hub-deep, and nearly suffocates one. La
+Guayra, as I have stated, has the blissful reputation of being the
+hottest place on earth, shut in as it is by mountains on all sides but
+the west, and blistering not only in the direct heat but in that
+reflected from the rocks, which is a great deal more oppressive&mdash;a
+pocket which no air except the west wind, the hottest of all, can reach.
+But Macuto is around the corner, one might say&mdash;around a point of rocks,
+and upon a little peninsula that stretches out from the beach, where it
+can catch not only all the breezes that ruffle the sea, but the winds
+that come from the mountains, down a ravine through which flows a
+beautiful stream as cool as one in the Adirondacks.</p>
+
+<p>It was Guzman Blanco, of course, who found out this little settlement of
+fishermen, built the seawall to protect the peninsula, made the
+boulevard from the city, built the railroad, brought plenty of fresh
+water from the mountains, and built bath-houses there; so that the
+people of La Guayra can in twelve minutes leave the hottest place on
+earth for one where the air is always fresh and cool, where yellow-fever
+never<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> comes, and where a good salt-water bath can be had for the sum of
+six cents in Venezuela money.</p>
+
+<p>The bathing arrangements are quite odd. The sharks are so numerous that
+it is dangerous to bathe in the surf, and nobody cares to have his legs
+bitten off; so a semicircular pen of piling has been erected, at
+government expense, reaching about a hundred feet into the sea. Through
+this piling the surf beats fiercely. The pen is divided in the centre by
+a high wall, one side being for the ladies and the other for the
+gentlemen. At the shore end is a miniature castle of stone, likewise
+divided into two rooms, with a row of benches around the wall, and hooks
+over them on which to hang clothes. Everybody bathes <i>au naturel</i>;
+bathing-dresses are unknown. You pay five cents for a ticket, and ten
+cents for a sheet, which is used as drapery and as a towel, and then
+undress. The attendant hands you the sheet when you are stripped, and,
+concealing your nakedness with that protection, you climb down the stone
+stair-way, hang your sheet over the railing, and plunge in. The water is
+glorious, warm and salty, so dense that it will almost bear you on the
+surface, and deep enough to swim and dive. When you have had enough of
+it, you climb up the stairs, seize your sheet and throw it around you,
+and sit on the bench until you are dry enough to resume your clothes.
+Some of the more modest ladies, or, they say, those who have no charms
+to display, wear in the water a sort of night-dress made of towelling,
+but the pretty ones wear nothing but smiles&mdash;not even a blush.</p>
+
+<p>During the day everybody stays in-doors after the bathing-hour, which is
+about nine o’clock in the morning. The fashionable get up about eight
+o’clock, drink a cup of coffee, eat a roll, go to mass, saunter down to
+the bath, and return in time to dress for breakfast, the most elaborate
+meal of the day, which is served about eleven o’clock. The menu offers
+soup, fish, game, steaks, sweetmeats, and wine. Then the people loll
+around till dinner, which comes after five o’clock in the afternoon, and
+is a repetition of the breakfast, except that roasts are served instead
+of steaks. After dinner everybody goes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span> to the grand promenade along the
+beach. The band plays, the ladies are gayly dressed, the gentlemen twirl
+their canes, admire their small feet in the moonlight, and chatter like
+a lot of magpies. The promenading and gossiping are kept up until
+midnight, except twice a week, on Thursdays and Sundays, when there is
+dancing at the hotel or at some one of the private residences. The
+season lasts from October, when the rainy period ends, until April, when
+it begins; but families from Caracas and other cities seldom remain at
+Macuto more than three or four weeks. The charge at the hotel is four
+dollars per day&mdash;about three dollars and a quarter in American money. If
+some one would build a first-class American hotel here, and provide the
+comforts that are found in the States, it would be a paying investment;
+and I would not wonder if a subsidy would be paid by the Government.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b293_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b293_sml.jpg" width="228" height="139" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHOCOLATE IN THE ROUGH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coffee plantations, or <i>quintas</i>, as they are called, extend from
+the coast far up into the mountains, and are very prolific. The people
+here claim to raise the best coffee in the world; and it is a singular
+fact asserted by the exporters that only the poorer grades go to the
+United States, while all of the better quality is sent to France and
+Germany. Just why this is so no one explains, further than repeating the
+remark so often made that the Americans do not like good coffee.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b294_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b294_sml.jpg" width="320" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SEPARATING THE COCOA-BEANS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another curious fact is that chocolate costs more here than it does in
+New York&mdash;here where it is grown and manufactured, for very little of
+the genuine article is sold in our market. When the cocoa-beans are
+thoroughly dried in the sun they are shipped in gunny sacks to market,
+where the chocolate manufacturer gets hold of them. He grinds them into
+a fine powder of a gray color that looks like Graham flour, mixes it
+with the pure juice of the sugar-cane, called <i>papillon</i>, and flavors
+the mixture with the juice of the vanilla-bean. After being boiled for a
+certain length of time, this is poured into moulds and allowed to
+harden, when it becomes the chocolate of commerce. The Caracas
+chocolate, as all the product of Venezuela is termed, is considered the
+best in the world. It costs sixty-five cents per pound at the factories
+there, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span> can be purchased for forty-five or fifty cents a pound in
+New York. The best cocoa-beans are forty cents a pound here, but the
+Yankee manufacturer has a way of increasing their weight and reducing
+their value by adulteration. Pipe-clay is cheap and heavy, and it is
+supposed to be harmless. It weighs five times as much as cocoa, and as
+the profit in lager-beer is in the foam, so is the profit in chocolate
+in the pipe-clay, or whatever substance it may be mixed with.</p>
+
+<p>Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo are the two great exporting markets of
+Venezuela, from which the greater part of the coffee and chocolate is
+shipped. The former place is famous for being one of the most
+unhealthful in the world, and the bay upon which it is situated is
+called Golfe Triste (the gulf of tears), because of the terrible
+scourges which are born in its miasmas. The bottom of the bay is said to
+be literally covered with the bones of those who have been heaved
+overboard for the lack of a better place to bury them. The ghost of that
+most famous of all freebooters, Sir Francis Drake, haunts the place, for
+he died here of yellow-fever, and his body lies in a leaden coffin
+thirty fathoms deep in the sea. The place is called Puerto Cabello (the
+port of the hair), on the pretence that ships are so safe in its harbors
+that they might be tied to their moorings with a single hair. This is
+something of an exaggeration, but nevertheless the harbor is the best on
+the Spanish Main, and has such abrupt banks that a vessel can be run up
+against the shore anywhere to take her cargo.</p>
+
+<p>Off the coast of Puerto Cabello lies the island of Curaçoa, the
+quaintest, most novel, and altogether most interesting place on the
+Spanish Main. It is a fragment of Amsterdam, set upon a coral rock in
+the middle of the sea. It has always been a colony of Holland, with all
+the picturesque quaintness, stupidity, and wooden-shoe-oddity of the
+fatherland. Leaving the tropic scenes of Spanish America at bedtime and
+waking up in Holland in the morning makes you feel like one of Plato’s
+troglodytes, who were raised in a cavern and then suddenly dropped into
+the world. You cannot quite allay<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span> the feeling that something has been
+done to you; the appearance of things has changed so suddenly and
+completely that you do not feel quite right about it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b296_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b296_sml.jpg" width="318" height="165" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PUERTO CABELLO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Curaçoa looks like a toy town built by a child of uncommonly incoherent
+mind, by taking blocks out of a box and setting them up in irregular
+rows regardless of size, shape, or color. The general effect is a
+nightmare of gable-ends and dormer-windows painted a bright yellow.
+Immense warehouses with great gaping doors and windows stand beside
+quaint little Dutch cottages surrounded by beautiful gardens, and stores
+several stories high, of the most elaborate architecture, rise beside
+low structures as flat fronted and as square cornered as a dry-goods box
+with a Dutch oven on top of it. Quaint dormer-windows stare at you from
+the most unexpected places; hideous yellow towers, like the legs of some
+petrified monster sticking up into the air, meet your view in all
+directions; and great prison-like fortresses, with port-holes like the
+eyes of needles, and ponderous doors lapping over like the covers of a
+banker’s ledger, appear with surprising frequency. The streets are
+narrow, crooked, and rough. They begin in the most unreasonable places
+and go nowhere. Some of them start broadly, but wind around like the
+track of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span> serpent, growing narrower and narrower until they suddenly
+end, like the edge of a wedge, against a stone wall.</p>
+
+<p>Curaçoa is a great place for business, although it is so quiet and
+sleepy that one might think the whole town had taken a dose of laudanum.
+It is the distributing point of a large amount of commerce, a harbor of
+refuge for vessels in distress, the haven of political exiles from South
+America, and the hotbed of conspiracies and revolutions against
+neighboring republics.</p>
+
+<p>South of Curaçoa is Maracaibo, with its curious lake, in which are towns
+built upon stilts, that give the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice, to
+this land. The explorers, like tourists of modern times, were given to
+tracing resemblances in America to what they were familiar with in
+Europe, and they imagined these huts rising on piles above the water
+looked like the city of canals and gondolas. But there is no more
+resemblance to Venice than to Chicago, and the name of Venezuela, like
+that of the continent, is a falsehood which the world has allowed to
+stand uncontradicted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="QUITO" id="QUITO"></a>QUITO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF ECUADOR.</span></h2>
+
+<p>O<small>N</small> the west coast of South America is found the perfection of
+sea-travel&mdash;fine ships, fair weather, and a still sea. Although one
+floats under, or rather over, the equator, the atmosphere is cool, the
+breezes delicious, and the water as smooth as a duck-pond. The Pacific
+Navigation Company is a British institution, founded by an American, Mr.
+William Wheelwright, of New York, which has been sending vessels from
+Panama to Liverpool, through the Straits of Magellan, for over forty
+years, and has not only a monopoly of transportation on the coast, but
+subsidies from the British Government and the various South American
+States whose ports it enters. It charges enormous rates for freight and
+passengers, the tariff from Valparaiso being forty dollars per ton for
+freight and two hundred and ninety-seven dollars per head for passengers
+for a distance about as great as from New York to Liverpool; but the
+company gives its patrons the best the country affords, and until the
+recent steam greyhounds were turned out to race across the ocean, had
+the finest and largest ships afloat. One set of vessels run from Panama
+to Valparaiso, where a change is made to another set, built for heavy
+seas, which go through the Straits of Magellan, via Rio de Janeiro, to
+Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>Those which ply along the west coast from Panama southward are built for
+fair weather and tropical seas, with open decks and airy state-rooms,
+through which the breezes bring refreshing coolness. Such vessels would
+not live long in the Atlantic nor in the Caribbean Sea, but find no
+heavy weather<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b299_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b299_sml.jpg" width="322" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ALONG THE COAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">on the Pacific, where the wind is “never strong enough to ruffle the fur
+on a cat’s back,” as the sailors say, and ships sail in a perpetual
+calm. The trip to Chili, however, is long and tiresome, lasting
+twenty-five days. Less than half the time is spent at sea, as there are
+thirty-eight ports at which the vessels, under the company’s contracts,
+are obliged to call. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of Ecuador,
+and next to Callao, Peru, and Valparaiso, Chili, the most important
+place on the coast, is the first stopping-place, four days from Panama.
+Although the westernmost city of South America, Guayaquil has about the
+same longitude as Washington, and is only two degrees south of the
+equator. It is sixty miles from the sea, on a river which looks like the
+Mississippi at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span> New Orleans, and stretches along the low banks for more
+than two miles.</p>
+
+<p>One’s first impression, if he arrives at night, is that the ship has
+anchored in front of a South American Paris, so brilliant are the
+terraces of gas-lamps, rising one after the other, as the town slopes up
+towards the mountains. When morning dawns the deception is renewed, and
+one has a picture of Venice before him, with long lines of white
+buildings, whose curtained balconies look down upon gayly clad men and
+women floating upon the river in quaint-looking, narrow gondolas and
+broad-bosomed rafts. Unless he is warned in time, the traveller meets
+with a sudden and disgusting surprise upon disembarking, for the
+gondolas are nothing but “dug-outs” bringing pineapples and bananas from
+up the river; the rafts are balsam-logs lashed together with vines, and
+the houses are dilapidated skeletons of bamboo, whitewashed, which look
+as if they had been erected by an architectural lunatic, and would
+tumble into the river with the first gust of wind. The streets are dirty
+and have a repulsive smell, and the half-naked Indians which throng them
+are continually scratching their bodies for fleas and their heads for
+lice. Half the filth that festers under the tropic sun in Guayaquil
+would breed a sudden pestilence in New York or Chicago, yet the
+inhabitants say it is a healthy city, where yellow-fever or cholera
+never comes.</p>
+
+<p>A narrow-gauge street railway, or <i>tramvia</i>, as they call it, reaches
+from the docks a couple of miles to the edge of the city, and upon its
+cars the products of the plantations are brought to the docks and loaded
+by lighters upon outgoing vessels. Like all Spanish ports, this one has
+no wharfage, but ships of whatever tonnage have to anchor in the river a
+mile or so from shore, and release or receive freight upon barges, which
+are towed, not by tugs, for there is not such a thing in all that
+region, but by oarsmen in a row-boat. Passengers have to reach the
+steamers in a similar way.</p>
+
+<p>When we arrived there we were immediately surrounded by a crowd of
+boatmen, who clambered up the sides of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span> vessel, screaming with all
+the strength of their lungs the merits of their boats. Their
+vociferousness and persistency would make the Niagara Falls hackmen
+green with jealousy; and the fact that most of them were bare up to
+their thighs, and entirely shirtless, made the scene picturesque,
+although somewhat alarming to a timid person. The costume of the Ecuador
+boatmen is equivalent to a pair of cotton bathing-trunks, and they are
+as much at home in the water as in their canoes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b301_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b301_sml.jpg" width="287" height="218" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE RIVER AT GUAYAQUIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With twenty-five or thirty of these naked black men surrounding him,
+shoving and pushing one another, screaming, gesticulating, and
+performing a war-dance of the most extraordinary description, a timid
+man is apt to be deceived by appearances, and imagine that he has fallen
+into the hands of a tribe of hungry cannibals, instead of a party of
+innocent Sambos who wish to promote his welfare. As soon as these
+maniacs discovered we were Americans, they were smart enough to
+introduce into the bedlam as much of our mother-tongue<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> as they could
+command, making the scene all the more amusing. One big fellow, black as
+midnight, with only about half a yard of muslin and a dilapidated panama
+hat to protect his person from the elements, jumped up and down, yelling
+at the top of his lungs, “Me Americano! me Americano! Me been to
+Baltimoore!” Becoming interested in the fellow, we learned that he had
+been a sailor on a Spanish man-of-war which several years ago visited
+that city.</p>
+
+<p>Among the crowd of howling dervises was a pleasant-looking fellow with a
+whole pair of pantaloons and a linen duster on. He was not so noisy as
+the rest, and could speak a little English. Taking him aside, I told him
+how large our party was, and where we wanted to go. He agreed to take us
+and our luggage ashore for two dollars, and was at once engaged;
+whereupon, instead of going off and minding their own business, the
+crowd began to abuse Pepe&mdash;for that, he said, was his name&mdash;and the rest
+of us in the most violent manner; and when the baggage was brought up
+they seized upon it, and each man attempted to carry a piece into his
+own boat. But the mate of the steamer was equal to the occasion, and
+laid about him with so much energy that the deck was soon cleared.</p>
+
+<p>The street railway only extends to the limits of the city, but a short
+walk beyond it gives one a glimpse of the rural tropics. At one end of
+the main street, which runs along the river front, is a fortress-crowned
+hill, from the summit of which a charming view of the surrounding
+country can be obtained, but the better plan is to take a carriage and
+drive out a few miles. The road is rough and dusty, but passes among
+cocoa-nut groves and sugar plantations, through forests fairly blazing
+with the wondrous passion-flower, so scarlet as to make the trees look
+like living fire; with pineapple-plants and banana-trees bending under
+the enormous loads of fruit they carry. The rickety old carriage passed
+along until our senses were almost bewildered by visions none of us had
+ever seen. Nowhere can one find a more beautiful scene of tropical
+vegetation in its full glory, and no artist ever mingled<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span> colors that
+could convey an adequate idea of nature’s gorgeousness here.</p>
+
+<p>The most beautiful thing in the tropics is a young palm-tree. The old
+ones are more graceful than any of our foliage plants, but they all show
+signs of decay. The young ones, so supple as to bend before the winds,
+are the ideal of grace and loveliness, as picturesque in repose as they
+are in motion. The long, spreading leaves, of a vivid green, bend and
+sway with the breeze, and nod in the sunlight with a beauty which cannot
+be described.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b303_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b303_sml.jpg" width="307" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE RIVER ABOVE GUAYAQUIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is considerable business done in Guayaquil, and some of the
+merchants carry stocks of imported goods valued at half a million
+dollars, with an annual trade of double that amount. It is the only town
+in Ecuador worth speaking of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span> in a commercial point of view, and its
+tradesmen do the entire wholesale business of that republic. The
+shipments of cocoa, rubber, hides, coffee, ivory, nuts, and cinchona
+(quinine) bark amount to about $6,000,000 a year, and the imports, the
+President of Ecuador told us, amount annually to $10,000,000. There is
+no way to ascertain the truth of his Excellency’s statements, as the
+Government keeps no statistics of its commerce, and he admitted that it
+was only an estimate based upon the amount of duties collected; but one
+may be allowed to doubt that a country like Ecuador, the most backward,
+ignorant, and impoverished in all America, can purchase for many years
+in succession twice as much as it sells.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b304_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b304_sml.jpg" width="178" height="256" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN AVERAGE DWELLING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Founded in 1535 by one of the lieutenants of Pizarro, Guayaquil has been
+the market for five hundred miles of coast ever since, but now it is
+almost destitute of native capital, nearly all the merchants being
+foreigners, mostly English and German, with one or two from the United
+States. It is the only place in Ecuador in which modern civilization
+exists; the rest of the country is a century behind the times. Since its
+foundation Guayaquil has been burned several times, and often plundered
+by pirates; now its commercial condition seems secure from all dangers
+except revolutions, which are epidemic in Ecuador. In fact, the country
+would feel queer without one. Earthquakes are frequent, but the elastic
+bamboo houses<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span> only shiver&mdash;they never fall. To the torch of the
+revolutionist, however, they are like tinder, and the blocks that have
+been burned over testify to its effectiveness as a weapon of
+destruction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b305_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b305_sml.jpg" width="318" height="279" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GUAYAQUIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Over the entrances to the houses are tin signs, each of which represents
+the flag of the country of which the dweller within is a citizen; and
+upon these signs are painted warnings to revolutionary looters or
+incendiaries&mdash;“This is the property of a citizen of Great Britain;” or,
+“This is the property of a citizen of Germany;” or, “This is the
+property of a citizen of the United States”&mdash;and the robber and
+torch-bearer are expected to respect them as such, but seldom do.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar freed Ecuador from the Spanish yoke, as he did<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span> Colombia,
+Venezuela, Bolivia, and Peru, and it was one of the five States which
+formed the United States of Colombia under his presidency; but the
+priests had such a hold upon the people that liberty could not live in
+an atmosphere they polluted, and the country lapsed into a state of
+anarchy which has continued ever since. The struggle has been between
+the progressive element and the priests, and the latter have usually
+triumphed. It is the only country in America in which the Romish Church
+survives as the Spaniards left it. In other countries popish influence
+has been destroyed, and the rule which prevails everywhere&mdash;that the
+less a people are under the control of that Church the greater their
+prosperity, enlightenment, and progress&mdash;is illustrated in Ecuador with
+striking force.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 118px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b306_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b306_sml.jpg" width="118" height="147" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERSON OF INFLUENCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One-fourth of all the property in Ecuador belongs to the bishop. There
+is a Catholic church for every one hundred and fifty inhabitants: of the
+population of the country ten per cent. are priests, monks, or nuns; and
+two hundred and seventy-two of the three hundred and sixty-five days of
+the year are observed as feast or fast days.</p>
+
+<p>The priests control the Government in all its branches, dictate its laws
+and govern their enforcement, and rule the country as absolutely as if
+the Pope were its king. As a result seventy-five per cent. of the
+children born are illegitimate. There is not a penitentiary, house of
+correction, reformatory, or benevolent institution outside of Quito and
+Guayaquil; there is not a railroad or stage-coach in the entire country,
+and until recently there was not a telegraph wire. Laborers get from two
+to ten dollars a month, and men are paid two dollars and a quarter for
+carrying one hundred pounds of merchandise on their backs two hundred
+and eighty-five miles. There is not a wagon in the republic outside<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span> of
+Guayaquil, and not a road over which a wagon could pass. The people know
+nothing but what the priests tell them; they have no amusements but
+cock-fights and bullfights; no literature; no mail-routes, except from
+Guayaquil to the capital (Quito), and nothing is common among the masses
+that was not in use by them two hundred years ago. If one-tenth of the
+money that has been expended in building monasteries had been devoted to
+the construction of cartroads, Ecuador, which is naturally rich, would
+be one of the most wealthy nations, in proportion to its area, on the
+globe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b307_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b307_sml.jpg" width="315" height="223" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A FAMILY CIRCLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There once was a steam railroad in Ecuador. During the time when Henry
+Meiggs was creating such an excitement by the improvements he was making
+in the transportation facilities of Peru, the contagion spread to
+Ecuador, and some ambitious English capitalists attempted to lay a road
+from Guayaquil to the interior. A track seventeen miles long was built,
+which represents the railway system of Ecuador in all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span> the geographies,
+gazetteers, and books of statistics; but no wheels ever passed over this
+track, and the tropical vegetation has grown so luxuriantly about the
+place where it lies that it would now be difficult to find it. Last year
+a telegraph line was built connecting Guayaquil with Quito, the highest
+city in the world; but there is only one wire, and this is practically
+useless, as not more than seven days out of the month can a message be
+sent over it. The people chop down the poles for firewood, and cut out
+pieces of the wire to repair broken harness whenever they feel so
+disposed. Then it often takes a week for the line-man to find the break,
+and another week to repair it. In the Government telegraph office I saw
+an operator with a ball and chain attached to his leg&mdash;a convict who had
+been sent back to his post because no one else could be found to work
+the instrument. A young lady took the message and the money. There is a
+cable belonging to a New York company connecting Guayaquil with the
+outside world, but rates are extremely high, the tariff to the United
+States being three dollars a word, and to other places in proportion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b308_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b308_sml.jpg" width="283" height="197" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CATHEDRAL AT GUAYAQUIL, BUILT OF BAMBOO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span></p>
+
+<p>Although almost directly under the equator, the temperature of Guayaquil
+seldom rises above ninety, and after two o’clock in the day it is always
+as cool as a pleasant summer morning in New England. A fresh breeze
+called the <i>chandny</i> blows over the ice-capped mountains, and brings
+health to a city which would otherwise be uninhabitable. On clear
+afternoons Mount Chimborazo, or “Chimbo” as they call it for short,
+until recently supposed to be the highest in the hemisphere, can be
+seen&mdash;white, jagged, and silently impressive&mdash;against the clear sky.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b309_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b309_sml.jpg" width="305" height="262" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A COMMERCIAL THOROUGHFARE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The road to Quito is a mountain-path around the base of Chimbo,
+traversed only on foot or mule-back, and then only during six months of
+the year; for in the rainy season it is impassable, except to
+experienced mountaineers.</p>
+
+<p>During the rainy seasons the recent President, Don Jesus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b310_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b310_sml.jpg" width="331" height="370" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PRESIDENT’S PALACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Maria Caamaño, resided in Guayaquil, in a barracks guarded by soldiers,
+where he could watch the collection of customs and see to the
+suppression of revolutions. He was the representative of the Church
+party, and the people of the interior were loyal to him; but the liberal
+element, which mostly exists on the coast, where a knowledge of the
+world has come, was in a perpetual state of revolt, and required
+constant attention. A fortress overlooking the town of Guayaquil, and a
+gun-boat in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> the harbor, keep the people in subjection. We called upon
+the President at his headquarters, and found him swinging in a hammock
+and smoking a cigarette. He is a man of slight frame, with noticeably
+small hands and feet, which he appeared quite anxious should not escape
+our observation. He has a pleasant and intelligent face, but seemed to
+be bewildered when we drew him into conversation about the commerce of
+his country. He was educated in Europe, and has the reputation of being
+a man of culture, although the abject tool of the priests.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b311_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b311_sml.jpg" width="277" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE OUTSKIRTS OF GUAYAQUIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the rest of the country is still in the middle ages,
+Guayaquil shows symptoms of becoming a modern town. It has gas,
+street-cars, ice-factories, and other improvements, all introduced by
+citizens of the United States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> The custom-house is built of pine from
+Maine and corrugated iron from Pennsylvania, and a citizen of New York
+erected it. An American company has a line of paddle-wheel steamers,
+constructed in Baltimore, on the river, and the only gun-boat the
+Government owns is a discarded merchant-ship which plied between New
+York and Norfolk. Some of the houses, although built of split bamboo and
+plaster, are very elegantly furnished, and the stores show fine stocks
+of goods. But the rear portion of the city is so filthy that one has to
+hold his nose as he passes through it. The people live in miserable dirt
+hovels, and the buzzard is the only industrious biped to be seen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b312_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b312_sml.jpg" width="254" height="262" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BUSINESS OF IMPORTANCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no fresh water in town, but all that the people use is brought
+on rafts from twenty miles up the river, and is peddled about the place
+in casks carried upon the backs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span> donkeys or men. It looks very funny
+to see the donkeys all wearing pantalettes&mdash;not, however, from motives
+of modesty, as the native children go entirely naked, and the men and
+women nearly so, but to protect their legs and bellies from the gadfly,
+which bites fiercely here. Bread as well as water is peddled about the
+town in the same way, and vegetables are brought down the river on rafts
+and in dug-outs, which are hauled upon the beach in long rows, and
+present a busy and interesting scene. Guayaquil is famous for the finest
+pineapples in the world&mdash;great juicy fruits, as white as snow and as
+sweet as honey. It is also famous for its hats and hammocks made of the
+pita fibre from a sort of cactus. The well-known Panama hats are all
+made in Guayaquil and the towns along that coast, but get their name
+because Panama merchants formerly controlled the trade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b313_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b313_sml.jpg" width="320" height="239" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PINEAPPLE FARM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One afternoon, at Guayaquil, I witnessed a singular ceremony, which is,
+however, very common there. One of the churches had been destroyed by an
+earthquake, and funds<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span> were needed to repair it. So the priest took the
+image of the Virgin from the altar, and the holy sacrament, and carried
+them about the city under a canopy, clad in his sacerdotal vestments. He
+was preceded by a brass band, a number of boys carrying lighted candles
+and swinging incense urns, and followed by a long procession of men,
+women, and children. The assemblage passed up and down the principal
+street, stopping in front of each house. While the band played, priests
+with contribution plates entered the houses, soliciting subscriptions,
+and the people in the procession kneeled in the dust and prayed that the
+same might be given with liberality. Where money was obtained a blessing
+was bestowed; where none was offered a curse was pronounced, with a
+notice that a contribution was expected at once, or the curse would be
+daily repeated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b314_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b314_sml.jpg" width="278" height="181" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A WATER MERCHANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All imported goods are first brought to Guayaquil, and from that point
+distributed. Those destined for Quito are conveyed by steamboat up the
+rivers for a distance of sixty miles. From the termination of the
+steamboat route the distance to Quito is two hundred and sixty miles,
+making the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b315_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b315_sml.jpg" width="177" height="150" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A FREIGHT TRAIN ON THE WAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">total distance from Guayaquil three hundred and twenty miles. Between
+the upper end of the steamboat route and Quito all packages of
+merchandise that do not weigh more than two hundred pounds are conveyed
+on the backs of horses, mules, or donkeys. The average cost in United
+States currency&mdash;in which all values are stated&mdash;is four dollars per one
+hundred pounds between Guayaquil and Quito. Pianos, organs, safes,
+carriage-bodies, large mirrors, and some other articles too heavy or too
+bulky to be carried on a single horse are placed on a frame of bamboo
+poles and carried on the shoulders of men the entire land portion of the
+journey. A piano weighing about six hundred pounds can be carried by
+twenty-four men in two divisions, one half serving as a relay to the
+other half. Although labor is very low-priced, the man-carriage is quite
+expensive. A cart-road, or railroad, both of which are feasible and
+practicable, would greatly reduce the expense of transportation, and
+would materially influence domestic manufactures, as well as the
+introduction of foreign manufactured products. It seems almost
+impossible that any American goods could, after undergoing such a
+tremendous carriage, compete with native manufactures, however crude, in
+Quito, and yet they do. Nearly all the furniture in use in that city is
+brought from the United States in separate parts and put together on
+arrival; and in that, the highest and oldest city in America, many
+people sleep on Grand Rapids beds. The twelve breweries running in Quito
+import their hops from the United States and Europe, and with railroad
+facilities American beer, as well as hops, could be liberally sold in
+Quito. American<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span> refined sugars are largely consumed, although the
+native products are very good.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b316_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b316_sml.jpg" width="307" height="293" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PASSENGER TRAIN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ecuador, with about one million inhabitants, has only forty-seven
+post-offices, but they are so widely distributed that it requires a mail
+carriage of 5389 miles to reach them all; seventy-two miles by canoes
+and 5317 by horses and mules. About five hundred miles of the seaboard
+service is also covered by foreign steamship mail service. Between Quito
+and Guayaquil there are two mails each way per week by couriers&mdash;the
+usual time one way, travelling day and night, being six days. Other
+sections of the country are less favored by mail service, the receipt
+and departure of mails ranging from once a week to once a month, as
+people happen to be going.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p>
+
+<p>During the year 1885 there were carried within the country 2,989,885
+letters, and 50,700 letters were sent to foreign countries, eighty per
+cent. of them being between Guayaquil and the neighboring towns. No
+interior postage is charged on newspapers, whether of domestic or
+foreign publication. Interior letter postage is five cents each
+one-fourth ounce. The postage on letters to foreign countries is twelve
+cents each half ounce and one cent per ounce on newspapers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b317_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b317_sml.jpg" width="273" height="183" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE COMMON CARRIER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The social and political condition of Ecuador presents a picture of the
+dark ages. There is not a newspaper printed outside of the city of
+Guayaquil, and the only information the people have of what is going on
+in the world is gained from the strangers who now and then visit the
+country, and from a class of peddlers who make periodical trips,
+traversing the whole hemisphere from Guatemala to Patagonia. These
+peddlers are curious fellows, and there seems to be a regular
+organization of them. They are like the old minstrels that we read of in
+the novels of Sir Walter Scott. They practise medicine, sing songs, cure
+diseased cattle, mend clocks, carry letters and messages from place to
+place, and peddle such little articles as are used in the households of
+the natives. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span> often takes them three or four years to make a round
+trip, going invariably on foot, and carrying packs upon their backs.
+When their stock is exhausted they replenish it at the nearest source of
+supply, and are ever welcome visitors at the homes of the natives. This
+internal trade does not amount to much in dollars and cents, but
+supplies the lack of retail establishments and newspapers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b318_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b318_sml.jpg" width="317" height="174" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HOTEL ON THE ROUTE TO QUITO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital and the productive regions of Ecuador are accessible only by
+a mule-path, which is impassable for six months in the year during the
+rainy season, and in the dry season it requires eight or nine days to
+traverse it, with no resting-places where a man can find a decent bed,
+or food fit for human consumption. This is the only means of
+communication between Quito and the outside world, except along the
+mountains southward into Bolivia and Peru, where the Incas constructed
+beautiful highways which the Spaniards have permitted to decay until
+they are now practically useless. They were so well built, however, as
+to stand the wear and tear of three centuries, and the slightest attempt
+at repair would have kept them in order.</p>
+
+<p>Although the journey from Guayaquil to Quito takes nine days, Garcia
+Moreno, a former President of Ecuador, once<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span> made it in thirty-six
+hours. He heard of a revolution, and springing upon his horse went to
+the capital, had twenty-two conspirators shot, and was back at Guayaquil
+in less than a week. Moreno was President for twelve years, and was one
+of the fiercest and most cruel rulers South America has ever seen. He
+shot men who would not take off their hats to him in the streets, and
+had a drunken priest impaled in the principal plaza of Quito, as a
+warning to the clergy to observe habits of sobriety or conceal their
+intemperance. There was nothing too brutal for this man to do, and
+nothing too sacred to escape his grasp. Yet he compelled Congress to
+pass an act declaring that the republic of Ecuador “existed wholly and
+alone devoted to the services of the Holy Church,” and forbidding the
+importation of books and periodicals which did not receive the sanction
+of the Jesuits. He divided his army into four divisions, called
+respectively “The Division of the Blessed Virgin,” “The Division of the
+Son of God,” “The Division of the Holy Ghost,” and “The Division of the
+Body and Blood of Christ.” He made the “Sacred Heart of Jesus” the
+national emblem, and called his bodyguard the “Holy Lancers of Santa
+Maria.” He died in 1875 by assassination, and the country has been in a
+state of political eruption ever since.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b319_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b319_sml.jpg" width="180" height="268" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WAITING FOR THE MULES TO FEED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span></p>
+
+<p>Although the road to Quito is over an almost untrodden wilderness, it
+presents the grandest scenic panorama in the world. Directly beneath the
+equator, surrounding the city whose origin is lost in the mist of
+centuries, rise twenty volcanoes, presided over by the princely
+Chimborazo, the lowest being 15,922 feet in height, and the highest
+reaching an altitude of 22,500 feet. Three of these volcanoes are
+active, five are dormant, and twelve extinct. Nowhere else on the
+earth’s surface is such a cluster of peaks, such a grand assemblage of
+giants. Eighteen of the twenty are covered with perpetual snow, and the
+summits of eleven have never been reached by a living creature except
+the condor, whose flight surpasses that of any other bird. At noon the
+vertical sun throws a profusion of light upon the snow-crowned summits,
+when they appear like a group of pyramids cut in spotless marble.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b320_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b320_sml.jpg" width="184" height="236" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>EN ROUTE TO THE SEA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cotopaxi is the loftiest of active volcanoes, but it is slumbering now.
+The only evidence of action is the frequent rumblings, which can be
+heard for a hundred miles, and the cloud of smoke by day and the pillar
+of fire by night, which constantly arises from a crater that is more
+than three thousand feet beyond the reach of man. Many have attempted to
+scale it, but the walls are so steep and the snow is so deep that ascent
+is impossible even with scaling-ladders. On the south side of Cotopaxi
+is a great rock, more than two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b321_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b321_sml.jpg" width="513" height="321" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SOMEWHERE NEAR THE SUMMIT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">thousand feet high, called the “Inca’s Head.” Tradition says that it was
+once the summit of the volcano, and fell on the day when Atahaulpa was
+strangled by the Spaniards. Those who have seen Vesuvius can judge of
+the grandeur of Cotopaxi if they can imagine a volcano fifteen thousand
+feet higher shooting forth its fire from a crest covered by three
+thousand feet of snow, with a voice that has been heard six hundred
+miles. And one can judge of the grandeur of the road to Quito if he can
+imagine twenty of the highest mountains in America, three of them active
+volcanoes, standing along the road from Washington to New York.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b323_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b323_sml.jpg" width="316" height="280" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE ALTAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city of Quito lies upon the breast of a very uncertain and
+treacherous mother, the volcano Pichincha, which rises to an altitude of
+sixteen thousand feet, or about four thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span> five hundred feet above
+the plaza. Since the Conquest the volcano has had three notable
+eruptions&mdash;in 1575, 1587, and 1660, when the city was almost entirely
+destroyed. In 1859 there was a severe earthquake followed by an
+eruption, which, while it did not do much damage in the city itself,
+caused great destruction and loss of life in the surrounding towns and
+villages. In 1868 the great convulsion which extended along the entire
+South Pacific coast was severely felt in Ecuador, where, it is stated,
+seventy-two towns were destroyed and thirty thousand people killed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b324_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b324_sml.jpg" width="281" height="290" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A STREET IN QUITO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was a great scare in Ecuador in the summer of 1868 because of the
+violent eruption of the volcano Tunguragua, one of the largest in the
+group, rising nearly two thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span> feet above the line of perpetual
+snow; but after a few days of agitation, in which immense masses of lava
+and ashes were thrown out of the crater, the eruption subsided without
+doing much damage.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b325_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b325_sml.jpg" width="170" height="276" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHERE PIZARRO FIRST LANDED.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here in these mountains, until the Spaniards came, in 1534, existed a
+civilization that was old when Christ was crucified; a civilization
+whose arts were equal to those of Egypt; which had temples four times
+the size of the Capitol at Washington, from a single one of which the
+Spaniards drew twenty-two thousand ounces of solid silver nails; whose
+rulers had palaces from which the Spaniards gathered ninety thousand
+ounces of gold and an unmeasured quantity of silver. Here was an empire
+stretching from the equator to the antarctic circle, walled in by the
+grandest groups of mountains in the world; whose people knew all the
+arts of their time but those of war, and were conquered by two hundred
+and thirteen men under the leadership of a Spanish swineherd who could
+neither read nor write.</p>
+
+<p>The age of Quito is unknown. The present city was built by the Spaniards
+after the Conquest, but it stands upon the foundations of a city they
+destroyed, which was older than the knowledge of men. The history of the
+ancient place dates back only a few years before the arrival of the
+Spaniards in the country; for they, ignorant men, interested in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span> nothing
+but plunder, destroyed every means by which its antiquity could have
+been traced.</p>
+
+<p>Ecuador was the scene of the first conquest. The Spaniards, under
+Pizarro, landed first on the island of Puna, at the mouth of the harbor
+of Guayaquil, and first stepped upon the main coast at Tumbez, in Peru,
+a few miles southward. Here they found that the Incas, for the first
+time in the history of that remarkable race, were at war. Huayna-Capac,
+the greatest of the Incas, made Quito his capital, and there lived in a
+splendor unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. At his death he divided
+his kingdom into two parts, giving Atahualpa the northern half, and
+Huscar what is now Bolivia and the southern part of Peru. The two
+brothers went to war, and while they were engaged in it Pizarro came.
+Everybody who has read Prescott’s fascinating volumes knows what
+followed. With the aid of the Spaniards Atahualpa conquered his brother,
+and then the Spaniards conquered him. When he lay a prisoner in the
+hands of the guests he had treated so hospitably, he offered to fill his
+prison with gold if they would release him. They agreed, and his willing
+subjects brought the treasure; but the greedy Spaniards, always
+treacherous, demanded more, and Atahualpa sent for it. Runners were
+hurried all over the country, and the simple, unselfish people
+surrendered all their wealth to save their king. But Pizarro became
+tired of waiting for the treasure to come, and the men in charge of it,
+being met by the news that Atahualpa had been strangled, buried the gold
+and silver in the Llanganati, where the Spaniards have been searching
+for it ever since.</p>
+
+<p>No amount of persuasion, temptation, or torture could wring from the
+Indians the secret of the buried gold. Two men of modern times are
+supposed to have known its hidingplace. One of them, an Indian, became
+mysteriously rich, and built the Church of San Francisco, in Quito. On
+his deathbed he is said to have revealed to the priest who confessed him
+that his wealth came from the hidden Inca treasure, but he died without
+imparting the knowledge of its location.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b327_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b327_sml.jpg" width="349" height="285" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>EQUIPPED FOR THE ANDES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another man, Valverde by name, a Spaniard, married an Inca woman, and is
+supposed to have learned the secret from her, for he sprang from abject
+poverty to the summit of wealth almost in a single night, “without
+visible means of support.” Valverde, when he died, left as a legacy to
+the King of Spain a guide to the buried treasure. Hundreds of fortunes
+have been wasted, and hundreds of lives have been lost, in vain attempts
+to follow Valverde’s directions. They are perfectly plain to a certain
+point, where the trail ends, and cannot be followed farther because of a
+deep ravine, which the credulous assert has been opened by an earthquake
+since Valverde died. These searches have been prosecuted by the
+Government as well as by private individuals; and if all the money that
+has been spent in the search for Atahualpa<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span>’s ransom had been expended
+on roads and other internal improvements, the country would be much
+richer, and the people much more prosperous than they are.</p>
+
+<p>The devotion of the Indians to the memory of their king, who was
+strangled three hundred and fifty years ago, is very touching. When “the
+last of the Incas” fell, he left his people in perpetual mourning, and
+the women wear nothing but black to-day. It is a pathetic custom of the
+race not to show upon their costumes the slightest hint of color. Over a
+short black skirt they wear a sort of mantle, which resembles in its
+appearance, as well as in its use, the <i>manta</i> that is worn by the
+ladies of Peru, and the <i>mantilla</i> of Spain. It is drawn over their
+foreheads and across their chins, and pinned between the shoulders. This
+sombre costume gives them a nun-like appearance, which is heightened by
+the stealthy, silent way in which they dart through the streets. The
+cloth is woven on their own native looms, of the wool of the llama and
+the vicuna, and is a soft, fine fabric.</p>
+
+<p>While the Indians are under the despotic rule of the priests, and have
+accepted the Catholic religion, three hundred and fifty years of
+submission have not entirely divorced them from the ancient rites they
+practised under their original civilization. Several times a year they
+have feasts or celebrations to commemorate some event in the Inca
+history. They never laugh, and scarcely ever smile; they have no songs
+and no amusements; their only semblance to music is a mournful chant
+which they give in unison at the feasts which are intended to keep alive
+the memories of the Incas. They cling to the traditions and the customs
+of their ancestors. They remember the ancient glory of their race, and
+look to its restoration as the Aztecs of Mexico look for the coming of
+Montezuma. They have relics which they guard with the most sacred care,
+and two great secrets which no tortures at the hands of the Spaniards
+have been able to wring from them. These are the art of tempering copper
+so as to give it as keen and enduring an edge as steel, and the
+burial-place of the Incarial treasures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b329_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b329_sml.jpg" width="335" height="339" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE OLD INCA TRAIL.</p><p>THE OLD INCA TRAIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spaniards are the aristocracy, poor but proud&mdash;very proud. The mixed
+race furnishes the mechanics and artisans; while the Indians till the
+soil and do the drudgery. A cook gets two dollars a month in a
+depreciated currency, but the employer is expected to board her entire
+family. A laborer gets four or six dollars a month and boards himself,
+except when he is fortunate to have a wife out at service. The Indians
+never marry, because they cannot afford to do so. The law compels them
+to pay the priest a fee of six dollars&mdash;more money than most of them can
+ever accumulate. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> a Spaniard marries, the fee is paid by
+contributions from his relatives.</p>
+
+<p>It is a peculiarity of the Indian that he will sell nothing at
+wholesale, nor will he trade anywhere but in the marketplace, on the
+spot where he and his forefathers have sold garden-truck for three
+centuries. Although travellers on the highways meet whole armies of
+Indians bearing upon their backs heavy burdens of vegetables and other
+supplies, they can purchase nothing from them, as the native will not
+sell his goods until he gets to the place where he is in the habit of
+selling them. He will carry them ten miles, and dispose of them for less
+than he was offered at home. An old woman was trudging along one day
+with a heavy basket of pineapples and other fruits, and we tried to
+relieve her of part of her load, offering ten cents for pineapples which
+could be had for a quartillo, or two and a half cents, in market. She
+was polite but firm, and declined to sell anything until she got to
+town, although there was a weary, dusty journey of two leagues ahead of
+her. The guide explained that she was suspicious of the high price we
+offered, and imagined that pineapples must be very scarce in market, or
+we would not pay so much on the road; but it is a common rule for them
+to refuse to sell except at their regular stand. A gentleman who lives
+some distance from town said that for the last four years he had been
+trying to get the Indians, who passed every morning with packs of
+alfalfa (the tropical clover), to sell him some at his gate, but they
+invariably refused to do so; consequently he was compelled to go into
+town to buy what was carried past his own door. Nor will the natives
+sell at wholesale. They will give you a gourdful of potatoes for a penny
+as often as you like, but will not sell their stock in a lump. They will
+give you a dozen eggs for a real (ten cents), but will not sell you five
+dozen for a dollar. This dogged adherence to custom cannot be accounted
+for, except on the supposition that their suspicions are excited by an
+attempt to depart from it.</p>
+
+<p>In Ecuador there are no smaller coins than the quartillo, and change is
+therefore made by the use of bread. On his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> way to market the purchaser
+stops at the bakery and gets a dozen or twenty breakfast-rolls, which
+cost about one cent each, and the market-women receive them and give
+them as change for small purchases. If you buy a cent’s worth of
+anything and offer a quartillo in payment, you get a breakfast-roll for
+the balance due you. The landlord at the hotel requires you to pay your
+board in advance, because he has no money to buy food and no credit with
+the market-men; the muleteers ask for their fees before starting,
+because their experience teaches them wisdom. There is scarcely a
+building in the whole republic in process of construction or even
+undergoing repairs. Death seems to have settled upon everything
+artificial, but Nature is in her grandest glory.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b331_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b331_sml.jpg" width="322" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A TYPICAL COUNTRY MANSION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span></p>
+
+<p>Architecturally, Quito is not unlike other Spanish-American towns,
+except that it is dirtier and a little more dilapidated. There is not
+even an excuse for a hotel, and private hospitality is restricted by the
+poverty of the people. Few people ever go there&mdash;only those who are
+compelled&mdash;and the demand for a hotel is not sufficient to justify the
+establishment of one. One-fourth of the entire city is covered with
+convents, and every fourth person you meet is a priest, or a monk, or a
+nun. There are monks in gray, monks in blue, monks in white, monks in
+black, and orders that no one ever heard of before. There are all sorts
+of priests, also, in all sorts of rigs, wearing the outlandish hats
+which are seen elsewhere only upon the theatrical stage. Some of the
+holy fathers look as if they had just been “making up” for a comic
+opera, and the jolly or grim old fellows one sees in Vibert’s pictures
+are found on almost every corner in Quito.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b332_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b332_sml.jpg" width="194" height="282" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A WAYSIDE SHRINE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the entrance to many dwellings may be seen the figure of a saint with
+candles burning around it, and the people appear to be continually
+coming from or going to church. The bells are constantly clanging, and
+it seems to a stranger as if the entire city were given up to perpetual
+devotions. The next most noticeable thing is the filthiness. The streets
+are used as water-closets, in daylight as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span> well as in the dark, and are
+never cleaned from one year’s end to another. There are no wagons or
+carriages, and only seldom can a cart be seen, the backs of mules, men,
+and women being the only vehicles of transportation. There is an
+unaccountable prejudice against water in every form, the natives
+believing that its frequent use will cause fevers and other diseases.
+When they have returned from a journey they never think of washing their
+faces for several days, for fear of taking a fever, but wipe off the
+flesh with a dry towel. I do not believe a Quito woman ever washes her
+face. She keeps it constantly covered with chalk, and looks as if some
+one had been trying to whitewash her. I do not know how she would look
+<i>al fresco</i>, but she has beautiful eyes, lips, and teeth, and a perfect
+figure till she reaches the age of thirty-five or thereabouts, after
+which she becomes either very fat or very lean.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b333_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b333_sml.jpg" width="150" height="252" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHARCOAL PEDDLER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If it were not for the climate, Quito would be in the midst of a
+perpetual pestilence; but notwithstanding the prevailing filthiness,
+there is very little sickness, and pulmonary diseases are unknown.
+Mountain fever, produced by cold and a torpid liver, is the commonest
+type of disease. The population of the city, however, is gradually
+decreasing, and is said to be now about sixty thousand. There were five
+hundred thousand people at Quito when the Spaniards came, and a hundred
+years ago the population was reckoned at double what it now is. Half the
+houses in the town are empty, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> to see a new family moving in would
+be the sensation of the decade. Most of the finest residences are locked
+and barred, and have remained so for years. The owners are usually
+political exiles, who are living elsewhere, and can neither sell or rent
+their property. Political revolutions are so common, and the results are
+always so disastrous to the unsuccessful, that there is a constant
+stream of fugitives leaving the State.</p>
+
+<p>Although Ecuador is set down in the geographies as a republic, it is
+simply a popish colony, and the power of the Vatican is nowhere felt so
+completely as here. The return of a priest from a visit to Rome is as
+great an event as the declaration of independence; and so subordinated
+is the State to the Church that the latter elects the President, the
+Congress, and the judges. Not long ago a law was in force prohibiting
+the importation of any books, periodicals, or newspapers without the
+sanction of the Jesuits. A crucifix sits in the audience-chamber of the
+President and on the desk of the presiding officer of Congress. All the
+schools are controlled by the Church, and the children know more about
+the lives of the saints than about the geography of their own country.
+There is not even a good map of Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>No lady ever goes to mass (and all go once a day) without a small Indian
+boy or a maid-servant following her with a strip of carpet or hassock,
+upon which she kneels during service. There are no pews in the churches,
+but the floors are marked off like a chess-board, and each square
+numbered. These squares, about two or three feet in dimensions, are
+rented to those who belong to the parish, and when a man goes to church
+he hunts for his place on the floor and kneels down within the narrow
+space.</p>
+
+<p>As in Mexico, servants go in droves. Families seldom have less than four
+or five, and each adult brings along all his or her kin, who are
+expected to lodge and feed with the father’s or mother’s employer. But
+it does not cost much to keep them, and the wages of my lady’s maid in
+New York or Chicago would support a whole village. They want nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span>
+but black beans, called frijoles, and tortillas. Meat and bread are
+unknown luxuries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b335_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b335_sml.jpg" width="280" height="267" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GOVERNMENT BUILDING AT QUITO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spaniards are famous for their politeness, and in Ecuador, as in all
+other parts of South America, courtesy is a part of their religion. The
+lowest, meanest man in Quito is politeness personified, but it is all on
+the surface. He will stab you or rob you as soon as your back is turned.
+The Ecuadorian gentleman will promise you the earth, but will not give
+you even a pebble. This hypocrisy results in mutual distrust. No one
+ever believes what is said to him; partnerships in business are seldom
+formed, and corporations are unknown. If a man gets a little cash he
+never invests it in public enterprises, but keeps it in a stocking for
+fear he may be swindled&mdash;and the fear is well founded. Only the Indians<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span>
+keep faith, and that exclusively among themselves. To steal from a
+Spaniard they consider not only proper but justifiable. The Spaniards
+stole all they have from them. They never rob, swindle, or betray one
+another. They are as faithful as death to their own race.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b336_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b336_sml.jpg" width="322" height="326" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COURT OF A QUITO DWELLING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Once upon a time there was a revolutionary conspiracy among the Indians.
+An uprising was to occur simultaneously all over the republic. As the
+natives could neither read nor write, they were given bundles of sticks,
+each bundle containing the same number. One was to be burned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span> each day,
+and the night after the last was burned was to see the uprising. None
+betrayed the secret. Of the many thousands who were admitted to the
+conspiracy not one violated faith.</p>
+
+<p>All sorts of labor are done in the most primitive manner. The
+agriculturists do not plough, but plant the seed by poking a hole in the
+ground with a stick. Threshing and corn-shelling are done by driving
+horses over the grain. The hair is removed from hogs, not by hot water
+and scraping, but by burning. Everything is done in the slowest and most
+difficult way. For that reason, and because the interior is so isolated
+from the rest of mankind, the country does not know the meaning of the
+words progress and prosperity. Until the influence of the Romish Church
+is destroyed, until immigration is invited and secured, Ecuador will be
+a desert rich in undeveloped resources. With plenty of natural wealth,
+it has neither peace nor industry, and such a thing as a surplus of any
+character is unknown. One of the richest of the South American
+republics, and the oldest of them all, it is the poorest and most
+backward.</p>
+
+<p>On the south-west side of Quito, within half a mile of the city’s
+centre, flows the Machangari River, a small, rapid, and never-failing
+stream. The rapid fall of the water provides mill-sites every few rods,
+which are utilized by six small flour-mills and a small manufactory of
+woollen blankets. The six flour-mills, having a total of eighteen run of
+stone, give employment to twenty-four men, whose daily wages range from
+twelve to twenty-five cents. In the whole woollen blanket manufactory
+forty persons are employed, at average daily wages of twelve cents.
+Aside from the water-motors mentioned, the only motor in use is a small
+steam-engine in a suburban village, used in a sugar refinery where
+twelve persons work for wages ranging from twelve to twenty cents per
+day. The manufacture of adobe, hard brick, and roofing-tile is carried
+on more or less in conjunction, and gives employment to about three
+hundred men and women, the women exercising the right of doing any kind
+of work<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b338_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b338_sml.jpg" width="323" height="273" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHAT THE EARTHQUAKES LEFT</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">performed by the men. No machinery is used, the brick and tile being
+moulded by hand in a box. These workers receive each twelve cents a day.
+The making of pottery is carried on in a small way at about fifty
+places, furnishing work for about one hundred persons, who when hired
+earn twelve cents a day. There is one manufactory of silk and high hats
+at which twelve men are employed, at twenty-five cents a day. There are
+also about fifty places at which Indian felt hats are made, a total of
+one hundred persons being employed, with wages at twelve cents a day.
+Matting manufacturing is carried on at three places, at which hand-looms
+only are used. The material employed is the fibre of the cactus, which
+is very serviceable. Thirty persons at this pursuit earn from eighteen
+to twenty cents per day wages. There is no foundery in Quito, and all of
+the iron-working is restricted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span> to what is done in a few blacksmith
+shops. There is one combined cart and blacksmith shop, at which carts
+are made and general repairing is done, employing ten men at twenty-five
+cents a day. The industries mentioned have long been established. There
+are also numerous tailor shops, shoe-shops, tin-shops, and carpenter
+shops. At the latter are made sofas, bureaus, tables, and all other
+articles of furniture difficult of transportation by pack-animals.
+Nearly all the chairs in use were brought from the United States, packed
+in parts, and were put together when sold. Coffins also are made at the
+carpenter shops. All of the work done at these shops is done by hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b339_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b339_sml.jpg" width="196" height="451" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PROFESSIONAL BEGGAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The only industry that has sprung up in recent years is that of
+beer-making, which has been inspired and promoted by the German element.
+There have been established<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span> twelve breweries, which employ a total of
+one hundred and twenty men, at average daily wages of twenty cents. The
+barley used is of native growth, and is bought at a low price. The hops
+are imported from the United States and Europe, and by reason of
+expensive transportation are very costly.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b340_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b340_sml.jpg" width="188" height="221" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN ECUADOR BELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though Quito has a population of about sixty thousand, it has had for a
+long period considerable note as a place of art in sculpture and
+painting, and has several public-schools of ordinary grade, and three
+universities, in charge of the priests, yet it has never been a field in
+which literature thrived, or the business of printing flourished. It
+contains no newspaper, and but one weekly journal is issued. This is the
+oficial paper, and is devoted solely to the publication of official
+documents. Its circulation is about one thousand copies, exclusively
+among government and foreign officials, and is gratuitous. The principal
+printing establishment is owned and managed by the Government, in which
+twenty persons are employed. Among its material are one rotary press (on
+which the official paper is printed), five hand-lever presses, and a
+good assortment of type. No work is done except for government use.
+There are five other small printing concerns, each employing from two to
+six persons, at which is done the miscellaneous printing of the public.
+They use nothing but hand-lever presses. The presses and type were
+purchased, in the United States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p>
+
+<p>Revolutions in Ecuador are frequent, and they usually begin by an
+attempt to assassinate the President. The plan of procedure is usually
+for the discontented political faction to create a mutiny in the army,
+either by bribes to the officers or promises of promotion. As the
+private soldiers always obey their officers, like so many automatons,
+and are as willing to fight on one side as the other, to secure the
+officers is to secure the army. The next step is to seize the barracks
+and arsenal, put the President to death, proclaim some one else
+provisional dictator, and then call a junta, or convention, to nominate
+“a constitutional Executive.” Señor Caamaño seems to bear a charmed
+life, for during his term of four years as President he had numerous
+remarkable escapes. The last attempt to assassinate him was in January,
+1886, while he was journeying from Guayaquil to Quito. He was riding, as
+travellers usually do, by night, to escape the heat of the sun, when his
+small escort was attacked by a band of mountaineers, and fled, leaving
+the President to look out for himself. He jumped from his horse, ran
+into the forest which lines the road, and creeping through the trees to
+the river, swam to the other side, and made his way, thirty miles on
+foot, to the hacienda of a friend, where he knew he would find refuge.
+For two days and nights he was in the forest without food, and when he
+finally reached a safe haven was totally exhausted. For a week or ten
+days he lay ill with a fever, but couriers were sent to Guayaquil and
+Quito who arrived there before the reports of his assassination, and
+assured the officials of the Government of his safety. At the same time
+a mutiny broke out at the military garrisons in both cities, but was
+quelled, and the leaders summarily shot.</p>
+
+<p>Since the inauguration of Don Antonio Flores as President, in 1888,
+Ecuador has been at peace, and shows bright promises for the future. He
+is the foremost statesman of the republic; has ability, wealth,
+knowledge, and experience surpassing most of his fellow-citizens, and,
+what is equally effectual among the Spanish-American people, the
+prestige of a venerated name. His father was a Venezuelan, and at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span> one
+time represented New Grenada in the Cortes at Madrid. General Flores
+stood with Bolivar at the head of the Revolution for Independence,
+organized the Republic of Ecuador, and was its first President. The son
+has inherited his father’s ability, his patriotism and zeal, and has
+spent his life in the civil, diplomatic, judicial, and military service.
+He did not seek the presidency, and therefore entered upon the duties of
+his office free of all entanglements, and with the one purpose, to
+modernize this Hermit of Republics, and bring its people to the standard
+of nineteenth century civilization.</p>
+
+<p>From Guayaquil to Callao, and in fact to the end of the continent, the
+western coast of South America presents an unbroken line of mountains,
+with a strip of desert between them and the sea. Occasionally some
+stream from the mountains brings down the melted snow and opens an
+oasis. These oases have been utilized by the planters as far back as the
+Conquest, when the industrious Jesuits made as vigorous a war upon the
+desert as upon the Incas, and conquered one as easily as they conquered
+the other. Wherever this barren strip has been irrigated it produces
+enormous crops of sugar, coffee, and other tropical products, and the
+whole of it might be redeemed by the introduction of a little capital
+and industry. If the money that has been wasted in revolutions had been
+expended in the development of its mines, and the soldiers had dug
+irrigating ditches with as much ardor as they have fought each other,
+there would be no richer country on the globe. Wherever the Incas
+touched the earth it produced in profusion, and their wealth was
+fabulous. Their empire extended three thousand miles north and south,
+and about four hundred miles east and west, from the Pacific to the
+great forests of the Amazon, which their simple tools were unable to
+subdue.</p>
+
+<p>In no part of the world does nature assume more imposing forms. Deserts
+as repulsive as Sahara alternate with valleys as rich and luxuriant as
+those of Italy. Eternal summer smiles under the frown of eternal snow.
+The rainless region&mdash;this desert strip which lies between the Andes and
+the sea&mdash;is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b343_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b343_sml.jpg" width="315" height="351" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A HOTEL ON THE COAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">about forty miles in width, and the panorama presented to the voyager is
+a constant succession of bare and repulsive wastes of sand and rocks,
+uninhabited, whose silence is broken only by the incessant surf, the
+bark of the sea-lions, and the screams of the water-birds which haunt
+its wave-worn and forbidding shore. The coast is dotted with small rocky
+islands, which have been the roost of myriads of birds for ages, and
+furnish guano for commerce. The steamers seem<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span> to furnish them their
+only entertainment, and they surround every vessel which passes, soaring
+about and above the masts, screaming defiance to the invaders of their
+resorts. The water, too, is full of animal life. Nowhere does the sea
+offer science so many curious forms of animate nature; monsters unknown
+to northern waters can be seen from the decks of the steamers, and at
+night their movements about the vessel are shown by a line of fire which
+always follows their fins. The water is so strongly impregnated with
+phosphorus that every wave is tipped with silver, and every fish that
+darts about leaves a brilliant trail like that of a comet. The larger
+fishes, the sharks and porpoises, find great sport in swimming races
+with the ship, and under the bowsprit a small army of them are to be
+seen every evening, sailing along beside the vessel, darting back and
+forth before its bows, leaping and plunging over one another. Their
+every motion is apparent, and the outlines of their bodies are as
+distinct as if drawn with a pencil of fire. Nowhere is this phenomenon
+so conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>The first point beyond Guayaquil is the island of Puna, where Pizarro
+first landed, and where he waited with a squad of thirteen men while the
+deserters from his expedition went back to Panama in his ships,
+promising to send reinforcements, which afterwards came. Beside Puna is
+the famous Isle del Muerto (dead man’s island), which looks like a
+corpse floating in the water. Just below, and the northernmost town of
+Peru, is Tumbez, where Pizarro met the messengers from Atahualpa’s army
+who came to ask the object of his visit.</p>
+
+<p>Behind Tumbez are the petroleum deposits of Peru, which have been known
+to the natives ever since the times of the Incas, but they were ignorant
+of the character or the value of the oil. A Yankee by the name of
+Larkin, from Western New York, came down here to sell kerosene, and
+recognized the material which the Indians used for lubricating and
+coloring purposes as the same stuff he was peddling. An attempt has been
+made to utilize the deposits, which are very extensive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span> but so far they
+have not been successful in producing a burning fluid that is either
+safe or agreeable.</p>
+
+<p>At each of the little ports on the Peruvian coast the steamer stops and
+takes on produce for shipment to Liverpool or Germany. These towns are
+simply collections of mud huts, inhabited by fishermen or the employés
+of the steamship company, dreary, dusty, and dirty. Back in the country,
+along the streams which bring fertility and water down from the
+mountains, are places of commercial importance, the residences of rich
+hacienda owners, and the scenes of historic events as well as
+prehistoric civilization. The products of the country are sugar, coffee,
+cocoa, and cotton, while those of the town are “Panama” hats and fleas.
+In each one of the ports the natives are busy braiding hats from
+vegetable fibres, and the results of their labor find a market at Panama
+and in the cities of the coast, where, as in Mexico, a man’s character
+is judged by what he wears on his head. The hats are usually made of
+<i>toquilla</i>, or <i>pita</i>, an arborescent plant of the cactus family, the
+leaves of which are often several yards long. When cut, the leaf is
+dried, and then whipped into shreds almost as fine and tough as silk.
+Some of these hats are made of single fibres, with not a splice or an
+end from the centre of the crown to the rim. It often requires two or
+three months to make them, and the best ones are braided under water, so
+as to make the fibre more pliable. They sometimes cost as much as two
+hundred and fifty dollars, but last a lifetime, and can be packed away
+in a vest-pocket, turned inside out, and worn that way, the inside being
+as smooth and well finished as the other. The natives make beautiful
+cigar-cases too; but it is difficult for a stranger to purchase either
+them or their hats, because they have an idea that all strangers are
+rich, and will pay any price that is asked. One old lady offered me a
+cigar-case of straw, such as is sold in Japanese stores for one or two
+dollars, and politely agreed to sell it for twenty dollars. When I told
+her I could get a silver one for that price, she came down to eighteen
+dollars, then to twelve dollars, and finally to one dollar. They have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span>
+no idea of the value of money, and are habitually imposed upon by local
+traders, who exchange food for their straw-work at merely nominal rates,
+and then sell the hats at enormous figures.</p>
+
+<p>At each of the ports where the steamer stops an army of officials come
+aboard to get a good dinner or breakfast and a cocktail or two at the
+expense of the steamship company. They wear gay uniforms and swords, and
+there is usually one inspector, or official, for every ten packages of
+merchandise. First, there is the “captain of the port,” with his
+retinue; then the governor of the district, with his staff; then the
+collector of customs, with a battalion of inspectors; and, finally, the
+commandante of the military garrison and all his subordinates. The deck
+of the vessel fairly swarms with them, and as the steamer’s arrival is
+the only event to give variety to the monotony of their lives, they
+celebrate it for all it is worth. It is little wonder that the
+governments of these South American countries are poor, with all these
+tax-eaters at every little town of four or five hundred inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b346_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b346_sml.jpg" width="192" height="331" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CUSTOMS OFFICERS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are a great many more railroads in Peru than is generally
+supposed. Nearly all of the coast towns have a line connecting them<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span>
+with the plantations of the interior; and as there are no harbors, but
+only open roadsteads, expensive iron piers have been constructed through
+the surf from which merchandise is lifted into barges or lighters and
+taken to the ships, which anchor a mile or so from the shore. Where
+there are no piers the lighters are run through the surf when the tide
+is high, are loaded at low tide, and then floated off to buoys to await
+the arrival of vessels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b347_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b347_sml.jpg" width="245" height="181" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A HOME ON THE COAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All along the coast there is a system of “deck trading” carried on by
+the people of the country. Men and women come on board with market
+produce, fruits, and other articles, which are strewn about the deck,
+and are sold to people who visit the vessel at each port for the purpose
+of buying. These traders are charged passage-money and freight by the
+steamship companies, but are a nuisance to the other passengers. Each
+female trader brings a mattress to sleep upon, a chair to use during the
+day, her own cooking and chamber utensils, and spends a greater part of
+her life abroad, sailing from one port to another.</p>
+
+<p>At Payta we took on a battalion of Peruvian soldiers, with one
+brass-mounted officer to every seven men. The Peruvian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span> soldier always
+has his wife with him; at least there is a woman who maintains such a
+relation. The ceremony of marriage is not observed, nor is it to any
+great extent in civil life, for the expense of matrimony is so great
+that among the <i>cholos</i>, as the peasants are called, men and women live
+their lives together without any formality, and with the sanction of
+public sentiment, even if they lack the sanction of the law. For this
+the Catholic Church is responsible, and to it can be traced the cause of
+the illegitimacy of more than half of the population. The fee charged by
+the priests for performing the ceremony of marriage is so excessive that
+the poor cannot pay it; hence marriage is practically placed under what
+may be called a prohibitory tariff. This prevails in all of the South
+American countries where the Church still holds its power, but in those
+which are now under the control of the Liberal party the rite of civil
+marriage has been established by law, and the ceremony now costs from
+twenty-five cents to a dollar.</p>
+
+<p>With each company of Peruvian troops is a squad of women called
+<i>rabonas</i>, generally one to every three or four men, volunteers who
+serve without pay but receive rations, and are given transportation by
+the Government. They are always with the men&mdash;in camp, on the march, and
+in battle. In camp they do the cooking and other necessary work; on the
+march they share the exposure and fatigue, being treated exactly as the
+men are, and do most of the foraging for the messes to which they
+belong. In battle they nurse their own wounded, rob the dead, cut the
+throats of enemies whom they find lying alive on the field, carry water
+and ammunition, and perform other brutal or useful services. They are
+always enumerated in the rosters of troops and in the reports of
+casualties, which read: so many men and so many rabonas killed and
+wounded; for they share the soldier’s death as well as his privations.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these wives of the regiment have children with them, and there
+is scarcely a company without a dozen or so little youngsters, without
+any clew to their paternity, following their mothers’ heels. They are
+poor, miserable, degraded creatures, just one degree above the dogs with
+which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b349_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b349_sml.jpg" width="291" height="272" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PERUVIAN SOLDIER AND RABONA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">they sleep. Their powers of endurance are extraordinary. Often it is the
+case that they will march twenty or thirty miles over a dusty road,
+carrying a child on their back, without water or food. When the latter
+is scarce they eat leaves of the coca-tree, which when mixed with lime
+are said to be very palatable and nourishing. Each woman carries a
+little bag of lime round her neck, into which she dips her fingers and
+draws out a few grains of powder to leaven a lump of leaves she is
+constantly chewing. The poor children have the hardest time, for they
+are always without rest or shelter, and often without food. But it is
+the experience they are born into, and they know nothing of a better
+life. The officers told me that the children often die on the march,
+when their mothers strip the clothes from them, and throw the bodies<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span>
+into the sand or woods, without even a burial or a tear, glad to be
+relieved of an encumbrance by death.</p>
+
+<p>With the battalion which boarded our steamer at Payta were two women and
+thirty children. They were quartered upon the hurricane-deck, without
+any shelter but the starlit tropic sky, and were packed in, men and
+women together, like steers in a cattle-car. Water and food were
+furnished them, the latter consisting only of frijoles and tortillas.
+Instead of complaining of their beds upon the surface of the shelterless
+deck, the soldiers told me that it was the most comfortable place they
+had found for months, and would be glad to stay there always; but the
+passengers and officers of the ship would have objected, as the stench
+that came from them was something horrible, resembling that which is
+usually noticed in a crowded emigrant-car.</p>
+
+<p>One night, on the unsheltered deck of the vessel, without surgical
+assistance or even the knowledge of the officers or crew, a child was
+born. The mother wrapped it in an old blanket and laid it down upon the
+boards. Thirty-six hours afterwards she, with the rest of the party,
+climbed down th ship’s side on a ladder, got into a launch in which
+there was scarcely standing-room, and was towed to shore, where a long
+and tiresome march into the mountains was to be begun the same night. On
+her arms was the baby, and on her back was a bag which looked as if it
+weighed fifty or sixty pounds. She was a mere girl, perhaps sixteen or
+seventeen years of age, and they said it was her first baby, of which
+she, like all young mothers, was uncommonly proud. This appeared to be a
+commonplace occurrence, for it was scarcely noticed by the other women
+or men of the crowd, and when I asked an officer which of his company
+was the father of the child, he replied, “<i>Dios sabe</i>” (God knows). He
+said there had been four similar accouchements in his company within six
+months, and that he thought the mothers and babies were all doing well.</p>
+
+<p>“Will the child live?” I asked the surgeon.</p>
+
+<p>“Live? yes; you couldn’t drown it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span>”</p>
+
+<p>The custom of having rabonas with the army grew out of the habit the
+Indians had of taking their wives to war, and the marital ties became
+slackened by common consent. The Government not only licenses but
+encourages the practice, as it makes the men more contented, and, as a
+sanitary measure, the surgeons say, is beneficial. The ratio of disease
+is very small in the armies where the rabonas are allowed, as compared
+with that in others, and any experienced surgeon can see why this is so.</p>
+
+<p>All the private soldiers in South America, at least upon the west coast,
+are Indians or negroes, and all the officers white. A white man, a
+Spaniard, whatever be his station in life, cannot be forced or persuaded
+to carry a musket. During the defence of Lima against the army of Chili,
+however, lawyers, merchants, clerks, and everybody, regardless of caste
+or condition, served in the ranks as they did during our war, but
+without uniform. They would fight in defence of their homes, but were
+too proud to wear the uniform of a common soldier. Hence the rank and
+file is composed chiefly of Indians, or <i>cholos</i>, a term which is used
+to designate the mixed race descended from the ancient and aboriginal
+Inca and his conqueror the Spaniard. There are very few full-blooded
+Indians in the country, for during the three hundred and fifty years of
+Spanish supremacy the original inhabitants were almost entirely
+exterminated. There are a good many negroes and Chinamen in Peru who are
+mixed with the natives indiscriminately, and they all go to compose the
+cholos.</p>
+
+<p>There are military schools for the education of officers, and the line
+and staff of the armies are made up of the sons of the aristocracy, as
+in Germany and England. They wear a very gaudy uniform, and always
+appear in it, whether on duty or not. Officers are never seen in
+anything but full military dress, with plenty of gold lace and
+“flubdubs.”</p>
+
+<p>The soldiers are all “volunteers.” Conscription is forbidden by the
+constitution of most of the republics, and a “volunteer” is an Indian
+who is captured on the highway, or in a saloon, or at his home, and
+locked up until there are enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span> to send to headquarters, where he is
+taken before a recruiting-officer, and made to sign a statement setting
+forth that he “volunteered” to serve his country as long as his services
+are needed. Then his hands are tied behind him, and he is lashed to a
+dozen or more other “volunteers,” who are driven down to the garrison,
+where uniforms are put on them, muskets furnished, and they are turned
+over to a drill-sergeant, who puts them through the simple tactics until
+they know how to carry a gun and fire it. I saw a drove of about one
+hundred and fifty of these “volunteers” come into Lima one day, tied up
+like chickens or turkeys in bunches of ten each, with an escort of
+twenty men, who had probably gone through the same process of
+“volunteering” a year or so before, and rather enjoyed the remonstrances
+of the conscripts. Behind the column came seventy-five or so women,
+weeping and chattering, and some of them had children tugging at their
+hands and skirts. The women could stay with their husbands if they
+liked, and become rabonas, and probably most of them did. With such
+material composing its army did Peru attempt to defend its coast and
+cities, with their enormous wealth, against assault by Chili.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 173px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b352_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b352_sml.jpg" width="173" height="205" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LOOKING SEAWARD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The soldiers of Chili are of an entirely different sort. They are
+naturally belligerent, and in the late war with Peru were promised free
+license to plunder. The soldiers of Peru were peaceable, quiet,
+inoffensive cholos, a silent, suffering race of people who had served
+under a system of peonage<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> all their lives, had no idea what they were
+fighting for, and made as weak a defence as possible. Whenever they met
+the Chillanos in battle they always fled, even when they outnumbered the
+enemy; for the Chillano, reckless, daring, and combative, never remained
+in line of battle, but always fought with a charge and a whoop, carrying
+everything before him, taking no prisoners, but cutting the throat of
+every man he could reach.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Arica is a good example of all the engagements of the war
+between Chili and Peru. South of that town, which lies upon the Pacific
+coast, rises a great hill or promontory twelve hundred feet, and almost
+perpendicular, out of the sea, and then slopes off at a steep grade to
+the plain behind it. Upon the peak of this precipice the Peruvians
+placed a heavy battery for the protection of the city, manned by about
+twelve hundred soldiers. The Chillano men-of-war came in one day and
+engaged this fort in an artillery duel at long range which lasted until
+nightfall. During the darkness about two thousand soldiers were landed
+above the town; they flanked it, and creeping carefully to the foot of
+the hill, lay until daylight, when they dashed up the slope with a
+fearful charge. The cannon were all turned seaward, and were useless;
+the men were surprised in their sleep, and the demoralization among the
+Peruvians was so great that scarcely a shot was fired. Being shut off
+from escape, they jumped over the precipices into the sea, preferring
+drowning to having their throats cut with the knives of the Chillanos,
+who always carry them for that purpose. This was known, and always will
+be known, as the Arica massacre, for nearly three-fourths of the
+Peruvians were slaughtered.</p>
+
+<p>The island of San Lorenzo, which was once the seat of a powerful
+fortress, protects the harbor of Callao, the second port on the Pacific
+coast of South America in population and commercial importance. It is
+the headquarters of the steamship lines and of the great mercantile
+houses, and the population is about one-half of foreign birth. One can
+hear all the languages of the earth spoken at Callao, and when we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b354_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b354_sml.jpg" width="232" height="235" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BOATMAN ON THE COAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">arrived upon the dock there was a group to illustrate the cosmopolitan
+character of the citizens. A Chinaman, an Arab, a negro, and a Frenchman
+were sitting upon a box, while around them were clustered Spaniards,
+Englishmen, Irishmen, Germans, and Italians. The city is irregular and
+shabby-looking, but has been a place of great wealth. Millions after
+millions of dollars’ worth of silver have been shipped from here by the
+Spaniards&mdash;silver stolen from the temples of the Incas, or dug from the
+mines which they operated before the Spaniards came. It was here that
+the old buccaneers used to rendezvous and waylay the galleons on their
+way to Spain. Of recent years the importance of Callao has very much
+decreased. A constant succession of wars and revolutions in Peru has
+destroyed its commerce; and although there is usually a great deal of
+shipping in the harbor, the present amount of trade is below that of the
+past. There are two lines of railroad to Lima, the capital of the
+republic, which lies six miles up in the foot-hills of the Andes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="LIMA" id="LIMA"></a>LIMA.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF PERU.</span></h2>
+
+<p>A<small>LTHOUGH</small> the glory of Lima has long since faded, it is easy to see how
+grand and beautiful the place was in the days of its ancient prosperity,
+when it was called “The City of the Kings.” Few places possess such
+historical or romantic interest as this old vice-regal, bigoted,
+corrupt, licentious capital of Peru, the second city founded by the
+Spaniards in South America, and the seat of Spanish power for more than
+three centuries. Pizarro selected the location, and founded the city on
+the 6th of January, 1535, that being the anniversary of the
+manifestation of the Saviour to the wise men, the Magi. The pious old
+cutthroat called it “The City of the Kings”&mdash;<i>Ciudad de los Reyes</i>. The
+Emperor gave the infant capital a coat of arms of his own design, being
+three golden crowns upon an azure field, with a star above them. But the
+name Lima, which was an Inca term to denote the presence of an oracle
+near where the city stood, was at once applied to the place by the
+natives, and being so much easier to pronounce, soon forced itself into
+common usage in spite of Pizarro and the King, and is now alone
+recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Lima is about one hundred and twenty-five thousand. It
+has been much larger, for during the last twelve years war and decay
+have been the rule, and peace and growth the exception. Before that time
+there had been quite a “boom,” owing to the energy of Henry Meiggs, the
+California fugitive, and to the introduction of railroads; but the
+devastation of foreign invaders and the havoc of domestic revolutionists
+have made Lima only a pitiful shadow of its former greatness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b356_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b356_sml.jpg" width="296" height="355" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LIMA AND ITS ENVIRONS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The churches and convents and monasteries of Lima are the finest and
+most expensive in America, while the architecture of private structures
+surpasses that of any other Spanish-American city except Santiago. The
+old palace of Pizarro, which was erected by him when the city was
+founded, and in which he was assassinated, is still used for the offices
+of the Government; while the Senate occupies the council-chamber of the
+old Inquisition building, which is famous for its ceiling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span> of carved
+work, and infamous for the cruel and bloody work that has been done
+within its walls. This ceiling was imported from Spain in the year 1560,
+and was carved by the monks of the mother-country as a gift to the
+Inquisition council of the new. Here sat the most extensive and
+important dependency of the Church of Rome, extending its jurisdiction
+over the whole of the New World, roasting heretics upon live coals or
+stretching them upon the rack, long after the Inquisition in Europe had
+ceased to exist. The torture-room, which adjoined the council-chamber,
+is now a retiring-room for the Senate, while the dark pockets in the
+walls, in which heretics were sealed up until they were smothered, are
+used as closets and wardrobes.</p>
+
+<p>The Chamber of Deputies occupies the ancient home of the College of St.
+Marcas, the oldest institution of learning in America, founded by the
+Society of Jesus in 1551, sixty-nine years before the Pilgrims landed at
+Plymouth.</p>
+
+<p>The San Franciscan convent and church are two of the most extensive
+structures in the whole of America, and cost as much as the Capitol at
+Washington, if not more. The whole interior is covered with the most
+beautiful tiles, which have stood the test of three centuries, and still
+surpass the best that modern genius can produce. These tiles are
+celebrated all over Europe, not only for the enormous quantity of
+them&mdash;for they cover many acres of surface&mdash;but for the beauty of their
+design and perfect finish. In this convent is shown the bed on which St.
+Francis died, the sack-cloth robe that he wore, his sandals, his rosary,
+and the coffin in which his body was taken to Rome. The monk who acted
+as our cicerone insisted that the founder of his order died in the room
+in which these relics were, and pointed out the exact spot where he
+breathed his last; but a brief cross-examination brought him up to an
+explanation that he meant that this room was modelled upon the one in
+which St. Francis died.</p>
+
+<p>Lima did produce a saint, however&mdash;Santa Rosa, a woman who was famous
+for her wealth, her beauty, her self-abnegation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span> and her devotion to
+the Church, and was canonized by Pope Clement X. in 1671. Her remains
+lie in the Church of Santo Domingo, and an extensive convent has been
+erected in her honor. She was the only American ever canonized, and the
+fact that a Peruvian received this exclusive honor has made her not only
+the patron saint, but one of the great figures in the history of the
+Catholic Church on this continent. The anniversary of her birth is
+always celebrated throughout South America, and the third centennial,
+which occurred in April, 1886, was the occasion of one of the grandest
+demonstrations ever seen on the coast of the South Pacific.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b358_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b358_sml.jpg" width="323" height="257" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Six months before, the most reverend archbishop at Lima, the dean of the
+Catholic hierarchy in Spanish America, issued an eloquent pastoral,
+calling upon his flock to unite with him in honoring the memory of Santa
+Rosa, the only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span> American saint and the patroness of two continents. The
+invitation was generously responded to. The Government immediately made
+as liberal an appropriation of money as was possible in the depleted
+condition of the treasury; private citizens and corporations contributed
+to the funds, and a commission of distinguished persons was appointed to
+form a programme of the festivities. A cordial invitation was sent by
+the archbishop to the principal religious dignitaries in South and
+Central America and Mexico to visit Lima on this memorable occasion, and
+to accept the national hospitality.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th the ceremonies were commenced. The body of Santa Rosa was
+taken from its resting-place in the Church of Santo Domingo, and borne
+in solemn procession to the church erected in her honor. The day was
+declared a holiday. From every housetop flags and streamers were
+floating; the different legations and consulates hoisted their national
+emblems; flowers were strewn in the streets through which the cortege
+was to pass; and from the windows and balconies hung superb drapery of
+silk and velvet. The remains of the saint, deposited in a beautifully
+ornamented urn, were carried on the shoulders of the Dominican monks,
+and the mayor and municipality of the city, with the few remaining
+survivors of the War of Independence, acted as the guard of honor. The
+municipal and private schools of both sexes followed, the little girls
+charmingly dressed in white and blue, the favorite colors of Santa Rosa,
+and with garlands of roses in their hands. Along the route the different
+fire brigades had erected artistic arches from their ladders and
+apparatus, and as the procession passed, white doves were loosened from
+their fastenings, and flew gracefully amid the banners and canopies
+overhanging the streets. In some of the streets traversed carpets were
+laid down and covered with roses. Arriving at the Church of Santa Rosa
+of the Fathers, the precious urn was deposited on the altar, surrounded
+by a dazzling blaze of light, and was watched over during the night by a
+special guard of honor.</p>
+
+<p>The next day the same ceremony was repeated, the object<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span> being to carry
+the remains of the saint to those places with which her life was most
+intimately associated. Thus the Convent of Santa Catalina, the Church of
+Santa Rosa of the Mine&mdash;establishments founded by the intercession of
+the Rose of Peru&mdash;were visited, and the final ceremonies were performed
+at the cathedral. The interior of the cathedral, larger than the
+cathedral in New York, was handsomely decorated with hangings of scarlet
+velvet bound with gold; the superb altar, with its pillars cased in
+silver, covered with lights and flowers; and the venerable archbishop,
+with his numerous retinue of monsignori, canons, and friars, officiated
+at the solemn high-mass, with the votive offering especially permitted
+by the Holy Father, in reply to a request from the Lima ecclesiastics.</p>
+
+<p>The square without was filled by troops from the citadel of Santa
+Catalina, national salutes were fired, and all Lima in gala dress was in
+the streets. The Ministers of State, the Justices of the Supreme and
+Superior courts, and all of the principal authorities, joined in the
+procession, which, after the conclusion of the ceremony at the
+cathedral, proceeded to Santo Domingo to deposit the remains underneath
+the grand altar, where for nearly three centuries they have rested.</p>
+
+<p>Santa Rosa was born at Lima in the year 1586. She was of humble parents,
+her father being a matchlock man in the escort of the viceroy, and her
+mother a woman of the lower class. She was christened under the name of
+Isabel, but while yet an infant the beautiful color appearing on her
+cheeks caused her to be called Rosa. From her earliest years she
+manifested a deep religious spirit, and although poor in the world’s
+goods, her extraordinary charity and self-sacrifice for the poor and
+sick brought her into the notice of the people. Refusing all the
+inducements and invitations to enter upon a monastic life, she steadily
+dedicated her efforts towards doing good. Many miraculous cures are
+attributed to her. She died in 1617. Shortly after her death the
+authorities of Lima petitioned the archbishop that the necessary
+investigation be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span> initiated to establish her sanctity, and when the
+proofs were obtained they were laid before Pope Urban VIII. at Rome, who
+in 1625 sent a commission to Lima to conclude the investigation. After
+due consideration of the facts presented to the Holy College at Rome,
+Pope Clement IX., in 1668, ordered the canonization of Rosa under the
+title of St. Rosa of Lima.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima, for a population of about one hundred and twenty thousand,
+there are one hundred and twenty-six Catholic churches and twelve
+monasteries and convents; and the same religious privileges extend all
+over Peru. There are two Protestant churches in the republic. One of
+them is in Lima, and is usually without a pastor, being of the Church of
+England school, and supported by the English-speaking residents; the
+other is at Callao, and an active young Protestant, Rev. Mr. Thompson,
+formerly of Philadelphia, is its pastor. The church is unsectarian, and
+is largely sustained by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, a British
+corporation which has a monopoly of commerce on the west coast, and
+keeps its headquarters at Callao. No attempt at Protestant missionary
+work has ever been made in Peru, although Mr. Thompson says the field is
+very inviting. His time is spent mostly among the sailors who haunt
+Callao by the hundreds, and in looking after the English-speaking
+congregation under his charge. There is no Sunday in Peru. The shops are
+open on that day as usual, and in the afternoon bull-fights,
+cock-fights, and similar entertainments are always held. The women
+invariably go to mass in the morning, and represent the entire family,
+as very few men are ever seen in the churches. Under President Prado,
+from 1869 to 1876, the Catholic Church was subjected to the same sort of
+treatment it has received in the other republics, but his successors
+were more hospitable towards the priests, and the Church is regaining
+much of its ancient influence. Some of the confiscated monasteries have
+been restored, and a bishop presides over the lower branch of the
+national legislature, having been elected by a popular vote in one of
+the interior cities. He is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> a jolly-looking old padre, rosy and rotund,
+and has not the appearance of suffering much mortification of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of Pizarro, the Indian butcher, lie in the crypt of the grand
+cathedral which he built in 1540, and which is still the most imposing
+ecclesiastical edifice in all America. It is said to have cost nine
+million dollars; and that amount may have been spent upon it, but the
+money came from the old Inca temples, which were robbed of their gold
+and silver ornaments and stripped of their carved timbers by the
+Spaniards. The latter never produced anything in Peru by their own
+efforts. They simply expended their plunder for the benefit of
+themselves and the Church. Of the ninety millions of dollars in silver
+and gold which Pizarro is said to have realized from his evangelical
+work among the Indians, the King of Spain got one-fifth and the Church
+even a larger share, so that it could afford to build cathedrals and
+convents as fine as those of Europe, and endow them with fabulous
+wealth. Prescott says that from a single Inca temple Pizarro took 24,800
+pounds of gold and 82,000 pounds of silver. One of his lieutenants asked
+for the nails which supported the ornaments in this temple, and got
+22,000 ounces of silver. It was this money that erected the magnificent
+churches which Lima has to-day, and which made the capital of the New
+World the most luxurious and profligate known to history.</p>
+
+<p>Later, the marvellous products of the mines of Potosi and Cerro de Pasco
+added to the fabulous wealth of Peru. In 1661 La Palata, the viceroy,
+rode from the palace to the cathedral on a horse every hair of whose
+mane and tail was strung with pearls, whose hoofs were shod with shoes
+of solid gold, and whose path was paved with ingots of solid silver. It
+was during this time that the galleons from the East, “from far Cathay,”
+laden with gems and silks and spices, went to Callao to exchange them
+for the products of Potosi and Pasco; while, out of sight, on the verge
+of the horizon, Sir Francis Drake and the bold John Hawkins and other
+buccaneers lay-to in their swift-sailing cruisers to snatch the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b363_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b363_sml.jpg" width="494" height="293" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GRAND PLAZA, LIMA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">treasure-ships as they came around the island of San Lorenzo, and carry
+home the booty to lay it at the feet of Elizabeth, the virgin queen of
+England.</p>
+
+<p>But all this grandeur is gone, and the last traces of it are now to be
+found in the pawn-shops of Lima, which are full of rare old silver,
+paintings, china, and lace. The people are so poor that they are
+compelled to sell their jewels to get bread and meat. The stagnation of
+business has deprived them of their ordinary incomes from real estate,
+and the war has taken off the laborers, so that the sugar haciendas and
+the mills are idle. I met people whose incomes were formerly hundreds of
+thousands of dollars, from rentals and interest on investments, who are
+now compelled to patronize the pawn-shops, because their tenants cannot
+pay rent and their investments no longer produce a profit. The
+paper-money of the country is as valueless as the Confederate bills were
+during our civil war. One issue, the Incas, is entirely worthless. The
+Government tried to enforce its circulation by locking up men who
+refused to accept it as legal tender; but the merchants marked up the
+prices of their goods, and charged two thousand dollars a yard for
+calico, when the Treasury surrendered, and issued another loan which is
+almost as bad as the first. You give a twenty-dollar bill to your
+bootblack and two hundred and fifty dollars an hour for a hack. It costs
+about six hundred dollars a day for board at the hotel, and fifty
+dollars for a bunch of cigarettes.</p>
+
+<p>House-owners who have leased their property for a term of years without
+specifying in what sort of money the rent shall be paid are compelled to
+accept this worthless paper at par. I met a lady whose income from rents
+ten years ago was more than a thousand dollars a week in gold, but now
+it is only the same amount in paper&mdash;scarcely enough to pay the
+servants&mdash;and she is selling her bric-à-brac to live. The haciendas and
+farms are no longer tilled, because for several years past all the
+laborers have been pressed into the army; and the sugar plantations are
+useless, for the machinery by which they were operated was destroyed by
+the Chilians during the recent war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b366_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b366_sml.jpg" width="320" height="368" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN CHAMBER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The devastation which the Chilian army created was almost equal to that
+caused by Pizarro when he invaded the homes of the peaceful Incas. The
+lines of march of the Chilians are shown by the complete destruction of
+everything they could break down or burn. Whole cities, villages, farms,
+factories, were swept away by a malicious desire to do as much injury as
+possible, regardless of the rights of non-combatants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span> and in violation
+of all the laws of civilized war. The beautiful winter resorts of Peru,
+Milleflores (its Newport) and Chorillos (its Long Branch), the
+residence-places of the wealthy people and the haunts of those who
+sought rest&mdash;where there were palaces as beautiful as those of Paris,
+and parks like the legendary gardens of Babylon&mdash;were entirely
+destroyed, not by accident, but by dynamite and other explosives.
+Exquisite marble statues now lie in fragments upon the ground, artistic
+fountains were shattered, trees were girdled, irrigating ditches
+destroyed, and every possible vandalism was committed, not only on the
+property of Peruvians, but upon that of foreigners, whose claims for
+damages will amount to more than Chili can ever pay.</p>
+
+<p>The magnificent trees in the parks, along the boulevards, and even in
+the botanical garden, were cut down for fuel by the soldiers of Chili;
+the entire museum of Peruvian curiosities, one of the largest and finest
+in the world, was packed up and shipped to Santiago; the books in the
+National Library were thrown into sacks and sent after the museum, and
+historical paintings were cut from their frames as private plunder. The
+greatest painting of Peru&mdash;Marini’s “Burial of Atahualpa, the last of
+the Incas”&mdash;was stolen from the wall where it hung, but the protests of
+the diplomatic corps induced the Chilians to return it. The churches and
+private houses were stripped in a similar manner, and what could not be
+stolen was burned. Nothing was sacred in the eyes of these modern
+vandals, whose purpose was to deprive the Peruvians of everything they
+prized.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence of a refined taste in art and music is everywhere apparent
+in Peru. There is scarcely a home without a piano, and the city of Lima
+once rivalled Madrid in its treasures of art. There remain but two
+notable statues&mdash;that of Columbus, in marble, representing him in the
+act of handing a crucifix to an Indian girl; and that of Bolivar the
+Liberator, upon a rearing horse, in bronze (like the statue of Jackson
+in Washington), which stands in front of the old Inquisition building,
+on the spot where heretics were burned two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> hundred years ago. The
+famous arch over the old bridge, which was erected in 1610, has been
+destroyed, and many other artistic ornaments of the city which have been
+written of again and again are gone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b368_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b368_sml.jpg" width="318" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERIOR OF A LIMA DWELLING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The President occupies the former residence of Henry Meiggs, the
+Californian, who did so much for Peru. It is a magnificent structure,
+erected and furnished when money had no value to the owner; but, like
+everything else in Lima, it is only a relic of its original beauty, and
+as a measure of economy a corner of the lower floor is rented for a
+grocery.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have travelled everywhere say that the women of Lima are the
+most beautiful in the world. There is something about the climate of the
+country, where rain never falls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b369_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b369_sml.jpg" width="248" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN PALACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and where decay is almost unknown, that gives them a brilliancy of
+complexion that women of other lands do not possess. Perhaps their
+national costume does much to heighten their beauty, for any woman not
+positively ugly would look well in the embroidered manta that the ladies
+of Lima always wear. This manta is a shawl of black China crape, and the
+amount of silk embroidery upon it indicates the wealth of the wearer.
+Some of them are extremely beautiful and cost as much as five hundred
+dollars; but ordinary mantas, such as the majority wear, can be bought
+for fifteen or twenty dollars in Peruvian money, which is worth
+twenty-five per cent. less than American gold. A very common article of
+dyed cotton is imported from England at a cost of three or four dollars,
+for the use of the negro and Indian women. The manta is worn by every
+woman, regardless of her rank or wealth, whenever she appears on the
+street; but in their homes, at the opera, and when they go out to
+afternoon receptions or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span> evening balls, the ladies adopt the Parisian
+styles, and dress with a great deal of taste.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b370_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b370_sml.jpg" width="196" height="273" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN BELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The manta is square in shape and about two yards in size. It is folded
+so as to be triangular, and the centre of the fold is placed upon the
+forehead, where there is usually a bit of lace that hangs down to the
+eyes. One end of the manta falls down the front of the dress as far as
+the knee, while the other is thrown around the shoulders and fastened at
+the breast with an ornamental pin. Thus, usually only the face is shown;
+and when a maiden or a matron wishes to disguise herself, she draws the
+shawl up so as to cover her mouth and nose, and permit only her great
+black, roguish eyes to be seen. And such eyes! Always large, age never
+seems to dim them, and no degree of self-discipline can rob them of or
+subdue their coquettish appearance. The poet who wrote</p>
+
+<div class="poetry">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">“Of that dark queen<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For whose mere smile a world was bartered,”<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">described a Lima lady. The manta is usually drawn so closely about the
+figure as to show its outlines with the most conspicuous distinctness,
+and the young women of Lima are as famous for their beauty of form as
+for their beauty of face.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b371_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b371_sml.jpg" width="267" height="406" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WATCHING THE PROCESSION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are always slender, generally short of stature, and as graceful as
+sylphs; but they lose their beauty of figure with maternity, and one
+seldom finds a married woman more than thirty or thirty-five years of
+age, if she is the mother of children, who retains the statuesque grace
+of maidenhood. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span> ripen early, reach their prime at sixteen or
+seventeen, and generally marry at that age. At twenty-five they are fat,
+but they never lose the radiance of their eyes or their complexion.
+Their stoutness comes from the lack of exercise and the excessive use of
+sweetmeats, for they spend their lives in rocking-chairs, munching
+<i>dulces</i>, as they call confectionery.</p>
+
+<p>There is a romantic story about the manta which explains the reason that
+it is always black. The Peruvian women never wear colors in the street,
+and this custom is observed by the aristocracy as well as by the
+peasantry; nor do they ever wear bonnets except at an opera, and there
+very seldom. The same is true of the women of Ecuador and Chili,
+although in the city of Valparaiso, which is the most modern in its
+customs and in the style of living of any place on the west coast, the
+use of the manta is gradually dying out, and it is worn only at church.
+No woman with a bonnet on will be admitted to any Catholic church on the
+west coast. Sometimes strangers wear them in, but the sextons and ushers
+invariably ask that they be removed. Mrs. Admiral Dahlgren, of
+Washington, in her book called “South Sea Sketches,” relates that she
+was ordered out of a church because she was wearing a bonnet, and
+misunderstanding what was said to her, took no notice of the command
+until quite a commotion was raised, when some lady explained its cause.
+A bonnet is called a <i>gorra</i> in Spanish, and Mrs. Dahlgren was very much
+amused at its similarity to the familiar Irish ejaculation.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the custom of wearing the manta originated among the
+Incas, but that they wore colors until the assassination of Atahualpa,
+their king, by the Spaniards under Pizarro. Then every woman in the
+great empire, which stretched from the Isthmus of Panama to the Strait
+of Magellan, abandoned colors and put on a black manta, and it has since
+been worn as perpetual mourning for “the last of the Incas.” There is
+probably some truth in this story, for in the graves of the Incas that
+have been destroyed by scientific resurrectionists, have been found
+female mummies with mantas of brilliant colors wrapped around them, and
+fastened<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b373_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b373_sml.jpg" width="283" height="362" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE DAUGHTER OF THE INCAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">with pins very much like those worn at the present day. It is also true
+that the natives, the peons of Peru and Ecuador, the descendants of the
+Incas, never wear anything except black, and still celebrate with
+impressive and appropriate ceremonies the anniversary of the day on
+which Atahualpa was strangled. In Chili the custom has died out, for the
+Inca empire was never able to sustain itself there against the savage<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span>
+Araucanian tribes of Indians who inhabited the southern range of the
+Andes.</p>
+
+<p>The Inca women in Peru and Ecuador are not at all pretty. They are
+dwarfish in stature, broad across the shoulders, and resemble in feature
+the squaws of the North American tribes, except that they have the
+almond-shaped eyes of the Mongolians; and it is probably true, as urged
+by the antiquarians, that the Incas were of the same origin as the
+Chinese, for their customs, their adeptness at all sorts of ingenious
+work, and their manner of living bear a striking resemblance to those of
+the interior provinces of the Chinese empire. The Incas have had their
+blood diluted by intermarriage with the lower grades of the Spanish
+race, and it is very difficult to find pure natives now. The people of
+the mixed race are called cholos.</p>
+
+<p>It is the transplanted Spanish rose, the pure Castilian type, that
+blooms with the greatest beauty in the gardens of Peru. The climate has
+refined it, and has clarified the dark olive tint that is found in
+Castile. The greatest beauties in Lima are the descendants of the oldest
+families&mdash;those of the longest residence in the country&mdash;and their
+loveliness appears not only to have been transmitted from generation to
+generation, but to have been enhanced thereby. This is true not alone of
+the aristocrats, for some of the loveliest girls belong to the humbler
+families, and are found in the tenement-houses, clothed in the shabbiest
+garments, which serve only to heighten their loveliness, and to make
+them fair prey for the wolves that prowl around in Lima as they do
+everywhere else. The fate of these girls, if described, would make a
+chapter more horrible to contemplate than the disclosures recently made
+in London. Their beauty is a fatal gift, and their poverty and ignorance
+make them an easy prey to the tempter. Seldom are they allowed to remain
+at home after the age of fourteen or fifteen, when they become the
+mistresses of the haughty dons. But the social laws of Spanish America
+are so liberal that these women are treated much better than in lands of
+higher civilization, for it is not only expected that every<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b375_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b375_sml.jpg" width="507" height="320" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUINS OF THE WAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377"></a>{377}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">man who can support a mistress will do so, but his reputation will
+suffer among his fellows if he does not.</p>
+
+<p>Just now the country is prostrated, the effect of a long series of wars
+during which it was robbed of everything that the army of Chili could
+carry away; so that there is very little gayety and not much display of
+dress. But the people retain the relics of their former prosperity, and
+the ladies of the present generation have inherited the treasures their
+mothers bought and wore at the time when money was so plenty. Much of
+this finery&mdash;the jewels and laces&mdash;has gone to the pawnbrokers, and many
+of the most aristocratic families in the republic are now living upon
+its proceeds. The women are, like the French, very skilful in
+dress-making, and everything they wear is becoming. They imitate the
+Parisian styles with the greatest ingenuity, and have remarkable taste
+in making over old clothes.</p>
+
+<p>The pawnshops are full of beautiful things. Here are toilet sets of
+solid silver, beautifully chased, including the meaner vessels of the
+bedroom, which betoken the luxury and extravagance of an age when the
+mines of the Andes were pouring out silver, and the guano-beds of the
+sea were being turned into gold. Similar reminiscences of ancient glory
+can be seen to-day in the toilets of the ladies, in the heirlooms which
+they wear on their wrists, on their breasts, and in their ears, as well
+as in the rich, old-fashioned fabrics which their grandmothers wore
+before them, made in the days when people did not intend things to wear
+out.</p>
+
+<p>It is very difficult to secure admission to the aristocratic circles of
+Peru. They are as exclusive as any such circle in the world, and social
+laws are rigid. But an American who goes to Lima with good letters of
+introduction will be received with cordial hospitality, and be admitted
+to circles which the resident, however rich and respectable, can never
+enter. American naval officers are especially welcome, and the Peruvian
+belles are as strongly attracted by the glitter of brass buttons as are
+their sisters in the United States. Since the war there have been few
+public balls and few receptions, as the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378"></a>{378}</span> are living from hand to
+mouth, with little hope to brighten the commercial horizon; but when you
+bring a letter to a Peruvian gentleman, his house and all his belongings
+“are at your disposition, señor,” and he is offended unless you accept
+his hospitality, although you may be aware that he has to pawn some
+heirloom to pay for the dinner he gives you.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b378_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b378_sml.jpg" width="293" height="282" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERIOR OF THE ORDINARY SORT OF HOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ancient social restrictions which make it a breach of decorum for a
+gentleman to meet a lady alone until after marriage, still exist in
+Peru. If you call at the residence of Señor Bustamente you must ask for
+him, and if he is not at home you may leave your compliments for the
+ladies of the family, but under no circumstances ask to see them. If he
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379"></a>{379}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b379_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b379_sml.jpg" width="322" height="465" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A VERY COMMON SPECTACLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">at home your welcome will be cordial, and you will be asked to a seat
+upon the sofa, which is always reserved for guests, and is the place of
+honor. You will be entertained by him until the ladies appear one by
+one, for they always stop to dress. No Spanish-American lady is ever
+ready to receive<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380"></a>{380}</span> a caller. The lady of the house and her daughters will
+chat with you about the opera and the bull-fight and the latest scandal,
+and will perform brilliantly upon the piano, but beyond that her powers
+of entertainment do not go. If you can get Señorita Dolores over in the
+corner&mdash;and she will be delighted with a <i>tête-à-tête</i>&mdash;you will find
+that she knows nothing whatever about the world beyond her own limited
+circle of acquaintance. She has not the vaguest idea of the United
+States, and does not know whether Paris is in America, or New York in
+England. She will look at you with her great eyes with the most childish
+innocence, and ask if the bullfights in New York are as exciting as
+those of Lima, and if there is as agile a picador in the States as Señor
+Rubio. When you tell her that bull-fighting is not recognized as a
+legitimate amusement in New York, she will exclaim “Santa Maria!” and
+ask what entertainment you have when the opera-house is closed. Then,
+when you say that eight or ten theatres are always open, she will cry
+out to papa across the room to take her to New York by the next steamer.</p>
+
+<p>The señorita got her education at a convent, has learned to embroider,
+to play the piano, to dance, and has committed to memory the lives of
+the saints; and there her accomplishments end. She is so beautiful that
+you are sorry you explored her mind; you feel guilty of having exposed
+her ignorance; you wish that you could simply sit and look at her, a
+picture of loveliness, forever; but when you ask her to dance, and she
+moves away with you in a waltz or mazourka, you discover that however
+empty her head may be, the education of her feet has not been neglected.
+No one who has ever waltzed with a Peruvian girl will wish for another
+partner. She is simply animated gracefulness, and her endurance is
+remarkable. She clings a little closer than our girls would consider
+consistent with propriety, and dances with an abandon that would call
+out a remonstrance from a watchful mamma in the States. She gives her
+whole mind and soul to it, regardless of consequences, and sighs when
+the music ceases, as if there were nothing more in life to enjoy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381"></a>{381}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 223px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b381_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b381_sml.jpg" width="223" height="302" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN MILK-PEDDLER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The air and light of Lima are very favorable for photography, and the
+city has galleries as fine as any in New York. The reception-rooms,
+corridors, show-windows, and even the ceilings, are lined with portraits
+of belles of the town, which are on sale not only there but at the
+news-stands and printshops. In Havana and Venezuela, to have the
+photograph of a young lady is equivalent to the announcement of an
+engagement, but in Peru it signifies nothing. You can buy the portraits
+of your neighbors’ daughters anywhere in town, and their popularity is
+estimated by the number sold. Lima girls, with their great black eyes
+and shapely figures, make fine subjects for a photographer, and
+strangers usually take home<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382"></a>{382}</span> collections of the pictures of beauties.
+The photograph dealers have their portraits put up in covers ready for
+the market, like views of Niagara Falls or Coney Island.</p>
+
+<p>Milk is peddled about Lima by women, who sit astride a horse or a mule,
+with a big can hanging on either side of the saddle. When they ride up
+to a door-way they give a peculiar shrill scream, which the servants
+within recognize.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the embroidery and other similar work in Lima is done by the
+nuns, who are very expert at it. They make the finest sort of lace,
+embroider towels, napkins, handkerchiefs, and skirt-fronts for dresses
+on silk and velvet. At some of the shops you can buy dress patterns;
+that is, skirt-fronts, sleeves, collar, cuffs, belt, etc., embroidered
+in the finest possible style, and ready to make up. It is one of the
+ancient customs handed down from the days of the viceroys. The nuns make
+most of the confectionery sold in the city, moulding the unrefined sugar
+into artistic shapes, coloring it to imitate nature, and flavoring it to
+suit the palate.</p>
+
+<p>The fashionable entertainment in Peru is bull-baiting. The bull is not
+killed, as in Spain and Mexico and other countries, and no horses are
+slaughtered in the ring. The animal is simply teased and tortured to
+make a Liman holiday. The young men of the city do the baiting, and it
+is regarded as a very high-toned sort of athletic sport, like polo at
+Newport. The young ladies take darts made of tin, decorate them with
+ribboned lace and rosettes, and give them to their lovers to stick into
+the hide of the bull. The great feat is to cast these darts so as to
+strike the bull in the fore-shoulder or in the face, and in order to do
+it he who throws them must stand before the animal’s horns. Active young
+fellows perform very dexterously, but it takes nerve and agility, and at
+times fair señoritas have seen their lovers badly gored.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of entertainment is what is called <i>Buena Noche</i>, or “Good
+Night.” Then the band plays in the principal plaza, fireworks are
+exploded at the expense of the shopkeepers and saloon-men, whose profits
+are increased,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383"></a>{383}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b383_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b383_sml.jpg" width="322" height="518" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MINDLESS OF CARE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384"></a>{384}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385"></a>{385}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">hucksters surround the place with tables, selling cakes, candies,
+ice-cream, and peanuts, and all the populace come out to gossip and
+flirt. These festivals furnish about the only opportunity for Vilkins to
+get a word alone with his Dinah, for on a “Buena Noche” he can offer her
+his arm, and promenade up and down the plaza, murmuring soft nothings in
+her ear as long as she will hear them, or until the great bell of San
+Pedro strikes midnight, when there are a hustle and a bustle, and
+everybody goes home.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the largest and finest stores in Lima are owned and managed by
+Chinese merchants, who have the monopoly of the trade in mantas and silk
+dress-goods. Italians usually keep the bodegas and eating-houses. There
+are half a dozen large American mercantile establishments, and the house
+of Grace Brothers, of which Mr. William R. Grace, ex-mayor of New York,
+is the head, practically monopolizes the foreign trade of Peru. Much of
+the business in the interior is done by itinerant peddlers, who carry
+their wares on their backs, and tramp over the whole continent from the
+Isthmus to Patagonia. There is also a class of itinerant doctors of
+Indian blood, called <i>collahuayas</i>, who travel on foot from Bogota, in
+Colombia, to Buenos Ayres, carrying the news from place to place, and
+practising a sort of voodoo system over the sick. They are well known
+throughout the country, and exercise a remarkable influence among the
+natives, who entertain them as guests of distinction wherever they go.</p>
+
+<p>All the benevolent institutions of Lima are supported by a “Sociedad de
+Beneficencia,” an organization of citizens who raise money by private
+subscriptions, and by bull-fights, cock-fights, and lotteries. The
+Penitentiary is a noble building, erected on the plan of the
+Philadelphia House of Correction, by a Philadelphia architect, the
+prisoners in which are engaged in making uniforms, shoes, and other
+equipments for the army. Capital punishment is abolished in Peru, but
+political offenders are tried by military courts, and shot when found
+guilty of conspiracy or treason. There are in the prison one hundred and
+thirty-five unhanged murderers serving out life sentences.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386"></a>{386}</span></p>
+
+<p>There are four daily newspapers in Lima, in which are published
+cablegrams from all parts of the world. They are edited with ability,
+but their writers indulge in the grandiose, florid style that sounds
+very funny to the plain-spoken American. One of the editors was sent to
+jail and fined five hundred dollars, besides having his paper
+suppressed, for making some reflections upon the acts of Congress; but
+as soon as he got out of prison he started another paper, and he is now
+blazing away in the most fearless manner, just as if the penitentiary
+were not half empty and the Government in need of convict labor. The
+papers make their appearance on the street about ten o’clock at night,
+and are cried by newsboys, who make as much racket as our own. In the
+morning carriers deliver copies to regular subscribers. Advertising
+patronage seems to be pretty good in Lima, for the newspapers have about
+two pages of display “ads.” to every one of reading matter; but they do
+not get good rates, and times are so hard that the merchants give very
+little cash, but require the editors to “trade it out” in the country
+fashion. Advertising is always an index to commerce, and the condition
+of Peru is illustrated by the fact that almost every merchant in Lima is
+selling out at cost&mdash;<i>gran realization</i>, they call it. Credit is not
+given at the stores except to the Government, and that is compulsory.
+The foreign merchants will not sell to the authorities except for cash,
+and the native merchants do not want to, for only in one instance in a
+hundred are they ever paid.</p>
+
+<p>All the houses in Lima are built on the earthquake plan&mdash;either of great
+thick walls of adobe, or mere shacks of bamboo reeds, lashed together by
+thongs of rawhide, and plastered within and without with thick layers of
+mud. This style of architecture will answer in a country where it never
+rains, and where cyclones never come, but if a good pour should fall in
+Lima, much of the town would be washed into the river Rimac and carried
+out to sea. There is never more than one entrance to a house, and that
+is protected first by a great iron grating, and then by solid doors. The
+windows are covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387"></a>{387}</span> with bars. This was done as a precaution against
+bandits in early times, and against revolutionists in later days; and a
+very essential precaution it has been, for during the time of the
+viceroy bands of robbers came down from the mountains, and hordes of
+pirates from the sea. Through the single entrance passes every one who
+comes and goes&mdash;the butcher, the baker, the priest who comes to shrive
+the dying, and the young man to whom Mercedes is engaged.</p>
+
+<p>The roofs of the dwellings are always perfectly flat, and among the
+common people are used as barn-yards and henneries. In many cases a cow
+spends all her days on the roof of her owner’s residence, being taken up
+when a calf, and taken down at the end of life as fresh beef. In the
+mean time she is fed on alfalfa, and the slops from the kitchen.
+Chicken-coops are still more common on the roofs of dwellings, and in
+the thickly populated portions of the town your neighbors’ cocks waken
+you at daylight with reminders of St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>Lima is a poor place to sell umbrellas, for along the coast from the
+northern boundary of Peru, far south-west to the end of the Chilian
+desert, rain never falls. There is a disagreeable, dismal, sticky,
+rheumatic dew, however, which is worse than a shower; for during the
+winter season, beginning in April and ending in October, it penetrates
+the thickest clothing, and gives one the sensation described by
+Mantilini as “demnition moist.” The thermometer is pretty regular,
+however, and ranges from sixty to eighty degrees Fahrenheit during the
+year, January being the hottest month, and July the coolest. Pulmonary
+complaints are unknown, but fevers are very common, and the mortality
+among infants is pitiable. At Callao yellow-fever is usually endemic,
+and there are three or four deaths every week among the marine
+population, as the sanitary regulations are not well enforced, and the
+city is dirty.</p>
+
+<p>The chamber occupied by the Peruvian House of Deputies is a long, narrow
+apartment in what was formerly the University of St. Mark, the oldest
+institution of learning in America,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388"></a>{388}</span> having been founded in 1551, and
+confiscated by the Government from the Church in 1869. The spectators
+sit in a very high, narrow gallery over the heads of the
+representatives, who are arranged in two rows of chairs, without desks,
+around the three walls of the chamber, the presiding officer and clerks
+having the fourth wall at their back. The centre of the room is occupied
+by a long table, at one end of which sits the presiding officer, who is
+a priest (with an appearance of having lived on the fat of the land),
+and at the other end a crucifix is placed, upon which the members of
+Congress are sworn to support the Constitution. When a formal speech is
+made, the orator stands upon a platform, with a desk or table before
+him, and a running debate is participated in by members from their
+chairs.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate Chamber is in the old Inquisition building, just across the
+Plaza de Bolivar, in which one hundred heretics are said to have been
+burned to death, and thousands publicly scourged.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Peru entertain the most cordial sentiments towards the
+United States, which is the more remarkable because of the feeling
+prevalent in all classes that the administration of President Garfield
+was the cause of many of the losses and much of the misery which they
+suffered during the war with Chili. They cannot be convinced that they
+were not trifled with and betrayed at the most critical period of their
+history, and that Mr. Blaine was not responsible. Without entering into
+the controversy as to whether Mr. Blaine authorized General Hurlbut to
+interfere, or whether General Hurlbut’s action was voluntary, it is
+nevertheless true that the moment he stepped in Chili held back, and the
+moment he withdrew she renewed the devastation of her sister republic
+with a hundred-fold more energy than before. If our Government had taken
+the same stand in the war between Chili and Peru that she occupied
+regarding the troubles in the Central American States, thousands of
+lives, property worth millions of dollars, and the richest resources of
+Peru might have been saved. Mr. Blaine’s original attitude was that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389"></a>{389}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 514px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b389_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b389_sml.jpg" width="514" height="320" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VIEW OF CUZCO AND THE NEVADO ASUNGATA FROM THE BROW OF
+THE SACSAHUAMAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390"></a>{390}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391"></a>{391}</span></p>
+
+<p>United States would not tolerate the dismemberment of Peru, and that was
+clearly and plainly announced, with a wholesome effect. All at once the
+protest was withdrawn, without warning, without any premonition, and
+then, with a knife at her throat and a revolver at her heart, Peru
+consented to surrender the coveted provinces.</p>
+
+<p>General Hurlbut had been condemned for acting imprudently, for getting
+our Government into a scrape without excuse, for committing it to a
+policy that was not tenable; but no one can visit Peru and see the
+results of the war without respecting the memory of General Hurlbut. He
+acted from the noblest impulses, in behalf of humanity, in defence of
+civilization. Whether he tried to put a stop to the war with or without
+authority, he was justified in doing so&mdash;justified in trying to prevent
+the burning of defenceless cities, the murder of non-combatants, the
+robbery of homes, and the despoliation of everything that was sacred.</p>
+
+<p>Peru was overcome, conquered, and resistless. Her army was destroyed,
+and her citizens, who had attempted to defend her capital with what
+weapons they could gather, were smitten down like grass before the
+scythe. There was scarcely a voice to be raised in defence of the women
+and children. Then the pillage commenced. Dynamite and petroleum were
+the weapons of Chili, and millions of dollars’ worth of private property
+was swept away daily, until the Chilians got tired of murder, of rapine,
+of pillage and devastation. It was these which General Hurlbut tried to
+prevent, and had our Government supported him, or at least had not
+interfered, he would have been successful. As it is, the Chilians laugh
+and the Peruvians mutter curses, when “the foreign policy of the United
+States” is mentioned. It is said that Hurlbut exceeded his instructions,
+and much of the blame of failure was thrown upon him. He was a proud and
+sensitive man, and felt censure keenly. His disgrace, and the neglect of
+his Government to sustain him in the attitude he had taken, not only
+shortened but ended his life, and he died in Lima a broken-hearted man.
+But he has been canonized by the people of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392"></a>{392}</span> Peru as a political saint,
+and they worship his memory as they do that of Bolivar&mdash;the Washington
+of South America, the man who gave liberty to five republics. They
+regard Hurlbut as the noblest of all Americans. His portrait hangs in
+their parlors, and is still for sale at the photograph galleries and
+picture stores. His funeral was attended by the greatest demonstration
+Peru has ever witnessed, and the grateful people would erect a statue to
+him if they had money enough left to pay the expense.</p>
+
+<p>When Chili conquered Peru, Admiral Lynch, the Irishman who commanded the
+Chilian army, set up General Iglesias as “provisional President until
+the pacification of the country.” General Caceres, who commanded a
+division of <i>montañes</i>, or mountaineers, refused to surrender, and
+rejected the terms of peace dictated by Chili. He retired to the Andes,
+and carried on a guerilla warfare as long as the Chilian army was in
+Peru. When Lynch and his legions retired, Caceres turned his attention
+to the government with the alliterative title which the Chilians left in
+Lima, and for three years kept Iglesias busy defending the coast and the
+capital from his assaults. Business was almost entirely suspended;
+commerce was stagnant, because Peruvians were producing nothing, and had
+no money to pay for imported goods. The people lived on the pawn-shops,
+and the Government, deprived of its revenues, resorted to extreme
+conscription and confiscation measures. Caceres hovered around Lima for
+three years with his army of Indian guerillas, doing little fighting,
+but producing terror everywhere. Iglesias had no force to suppress his
+rival, and could only defend the capital and chief seaports against
+attack.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of Lima, as in all Spanish-American towns, is a plaza, or
+public square, with a fountain and statuary in the centre, and the
+palace, the cathedral, the archbishop’s residence, the municipal
+offices, and other public institutions facing it on the four sides. Into
+this plaza, the very heart of the city, in August, 1885, the Government
+troops permitted Caceres and his mountaineers to come; but they had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393"></a>{393}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b393_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b393_sml.jpg" width="496" height="346" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>BETWEEN BATTLES, BALLS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394"></a>{394}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395"></a>{395}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">sufficient notice of his approach to enable them to place sharp-shooters
+in the towers of the churches, cannon on the roof of the palace, and
+musketeers on the roofs of all the buildings around it. The buildings
+are two stories high, with the front walls reaching two or three feet
+above the roof, so that those who participated in this novel defence of
+the city had good breastworks to protect them. When Caceres came into
+the plaza he was met with volleys from all sides, and the pavements were
+strewn with the dead. He made a desperate struggle, but his Indians, few
+of whom had ever been in a city before, and none of whom had ever been
+under fire, scattered and were lost in the labyrinth of narrow streets,
+where they were pursued and killed by cavalrymen, who plunged out of the
+palace at full gallop when it was seen that the forces of Caceres were
+wavering. Of the three thousand men who came with the mountain general,
+two thousand lay dead or wounded upon the pavements of Lima before the
+battle was two hours old, and with the rest, who were called together by
+trumpeters, Caceres retired to Arequipa to prepare for another campaign.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of December, 1885, he repeated the attack with better
+success, and captured the city, ending a seven years’ war in Peru. A
+provisional government was organized until April, when Caceres was
+elected constitutional President, and has since, in a thorough, wise,
+and patriotic way, been trying to restore a crushed and devastated
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>General Andres Caceres, the successful leader, the chosen President of
+Peru for a term ending April, 1890, is a man about fifty years of age, a
+native of the ancient town of Ayacucho, and the son of a colonel of the
+army of Chili. His mother was a Peruvian, and his father spent the later
+years of his life in Peru. The mother had Indian blood in her veins, and
+from her Caceres has inherited much of the Indian disposition and
+character which have given him his popularity among the montañes who
+followed his standard in the struggle. At an early age Caceres entered
+the army, and having by his daring energy and military skill won the
+confidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396"></a>{396}</span> and admiration of President Castilla, was sent to Europe to
+learn the art of war in the French and German military schools. Upon his
+return he was detailed for duty as an engineer, but when the war with
+Chili broke out he was made a general of division, and was perhaps the
+most successful officer in the Peruvian army.</p>
+
+<p>Don Miguel Iglesias, the head of the government which Caceres tried so
+long to overthrow, is a descendant of one of the oldest and most
+aristocratic families of Peru, and before the war with Chili he occupied
+several posts of eminence and honor, having been Secretary of the
+Treasury, and afterwards Secretary of War. He is a <i>plantador</i>, or
+planter, and lives at the old town of Caxamarca, which the readers of
+Prescott’s story of the Conquest will remember as the seat of Atahualpa.
+During the war with Chili General Iglesias also took a prominent part,
+but was not considered a successful military leader, having no taste or
+inclination in that direction. After the downfall of the Calderon
+government Iglesias was made provisional President, and continued to
+exercise power for four years, but lacked the energy and ability
+necessary to meet the crisis; and although the people generally regarded
+him as an honest and patriotic man, he lost their confidence, and the
+victory of Caceres was welcomed.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the leading men of Peru is Don Nicolas Pierola, who has been
+a conspicuous figure in the political dramas and military tragedies that
+have been enacted during the last ten years, and will continue to be
+heard from in the future. He has had a most remarkable career, having
+been four times banished from the republic. Pierola is a son-in-law of
+the ill-starred Emperor Iturbide of Mexico, whose daughter he met while
+a student in Paris. His life has been a romantic one, and illustrates
+the ups and downs of South American politics. Pierola <i>père</i> was a
+famous scientist and <i>littérateur</i>, and was the intimate friend and
+co-worker of Humboldt, Sir Humphry Davy, Doctor Von Tschudi, the
+Austrian philosopher, and other men of that age. He was for a long time
+a professor of natural sciences at the University of Madrid, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397"></a>{397}</span>
+returned to Peru, his native country, to pursue his inquiries into the
+traditions of the Incas, and to preside over the university at Arequipa,
+the second city in Peru. He had something to do with politics too, and
+was the Peruvian Minister of Finance for several years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b397_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b397_sml.jpg" width="248" height="344" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A WARRIOR AT REST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pierola the younger, who was educated in Europe, is one of the most
+accomplished and able men in South America. He commenced life as an
+editor, and in 1864 became the manager of <i>El Tiempo</i>, the organ of
+President Pezot, who was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398"></a>{398}</span> overthrown by a revolutionary army under
+General Prado. The latter banished the young and ardent editor until he
+was himself overthrown. Then Pierola returned to Peru, and became the
+Minister of Finance under President Balta, being the ruling spirit of
+the administration, and inaugurating the vast system of public
+improvements under Henry Meiggs. Prado again led a successful
+revolution, and in 1878 Pierola was banished for the second time. When
+the war with Chili broke out he returned to Peru, and tendered his
+allegiance and his sword to the man who had driven him into exile. His
+services were accepted, and he became the commander of a regiment, and
+afterwards a general of division.</p>
+
+<p>In December, 1879, President Prado deserted his post and secretly fled
+from the country, leaving a proclamation on his desk which authorized
+the Vice-President to exercise the duties of the office “until he had
+returned from the transaction of some very urgent and important business
+which demanded his presence abroad.” The army of Chili had been
+successful in several battles, and was marching upon the capital. The
+army of Peru had been practically destroyed; its ports were blockaded,
+its treasury was empty, and the President, Prado, had fled from the
+results of his blundering imbecility. He has never returned, and is
+understood to be in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>There was a mere gleam of hope left for Peru, and the people called on
+Pierola to become their leader. A junta or convention of leading men was
+quickly called, and the power of military and political chief, which is
+the polite way of describing a dictator, was conferred upon Pierola. He
+had no money, no ammunition, and only the frightened remnants of a
+demoralized army; but he made the best fight he could, and compelled the
+Chilian army to stop the carnival of devastation they had begun. When
+Peru was conquered the Chilian Government would not recognize Pierola as
+dictator, and in the absence of Prado, the constitutional President, set
+up a dummy administration of their own choice, with which terms of peace
+were made, forfeiting the strip of territory containing the deposits of
+guano and nitrate of soda. This was what<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399"></a>{399}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b399_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b399_sml.jpg" width="330" height="514" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GATE-WAY TO THE ANDES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400"></a>{400}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401"></a>{401}</span></p>
+
+<p>Chili desired, and for this she made the war. Her Government knew that
+Pierola would never consent to sacrifice the richest portion of the
+republic, hence it refused to treat with him, and caused his banishment
+for the third time.</p>
+
+<p>Pierola went to France again, and remained in exile until May, 1885,
+when he was sent for by the business men of Lima, who endeavored to
+secure a suspension of hostilities between Caceres and Iglesias, the
+leaders of the rival factions of Peru, and to place Pierola in power, in
+order to restore peace to the country and revive its paralyzed trade and
+industries. He returned reluctantly, and his friends arranged to have
+him proclaimed President, but the Iglesias Government hearing of the
+plot, banished him for a fourth time, shortly before Caceres captured
+the city. Pierola is now in France, but expects to return to Peru, and
+do his share towards restoring the country. This can be done only by the
+introduction of foreign capital and labor, as the land-owners and
+merchants of Peru are bankrupt, and the native laboring element largely
+reduced by the casualties of almost thirteen years of constant warfare.
+A large amount of English and American capital is already going into the
+country, and will tempt labor to follow. The most important act of the
+Government has been to contract with Mr. Michael P. Grace, of New York,
+recently, for the completion of the famous Oroya railroad, and the
+development of the Cerro del Pasco mines.</p>
+
+<p>A quarter of a century ago an unknown man, a fugitive from justice,
+arrived at the port of Callao, and appeared among the Spaniards, as
+Manco Capac, at once the Adam and the Christ of the Incas, appeared to
+the Indians two thousand years before. As the mysterious and deified
+Manco Capac taught the Indians a knowledge of the agricultural and
+mechanical arts, this unknown man taught their successors to build
+railroads, and stands to-day as the ideal of Yankee enterprise and
+engineering genius. He plunged the Government of Peru into a debt that
+will never be paid, but laid the foundations for a system of internal
+development that would bring the republic great wealth if peace could be
+only secured.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402"></a>{402}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b402_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b402_sml.jpg" width="276" height="291" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HENRY MEIGGS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Everybody has heard of Henry Meiggs, the partner of Ralston, the
+California banker, who drowned himself in the Golden Gate, the friend of
+Flood, O’Brien, Mackey, Sharon, and one of the princes of the golden era
+of ’49. Bret Harte has written of him, and Mark Twain has used him as a
+text. He committed forgeries in San Francisco years ago, and when his
+crime was discovered he took a boat and rowed out into the bay; but
+instead of jumping overboard, as Ralston did twenty years afterwards, he
+climbed upon the deck of a schooner, purchased her, and sailed away from
+the scene of his remarkable career. He went to Peru, bringing much of
+his wealth and all of his irresistible energy with him. These he applied
+to the difficulties that had staggered that country, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403"></a>{403}</span> overcame them.
+He sent back money to California to reimburse with good interest those
+who lost by his forgeries, but remained away till he died, one of the
+richest, most influential, and famous men on the coast. From Ecuador to
+Patagonia, through Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, Meiggs’s enterprises
+extended, and the result is a series of railroads at right angles with
+the coast, connecting the interior of the country with the seaports, and
+giving the estates, and the mines in the mountains, the sugar haciendas,
+and the nitrate beds, easy outlets to the ocean. Nearly every port on
+the west coast has its little railroad, from twenty to two hundred and
+fifty miles in length, some of them reaching into the very heart of the
+Andes, the arteries of the continent’s commerce, and intended to make
+profitable possessions which would otherwise have no worth.</p>
+
+<p>The Oroya road, which Meiggs left incomplete, has been counted as the
+eighth wonder of the world, for there is nothing in the Rocky Mountains
+or the Alps which compares with it as an example of engineering science,
+or presents more sublime scenery. But neither scenic grandeur nor
+engineering genius can alone make a railroad pay, particularly if it
+goes nowhere. In this instance the money gave out, and Meiggs died when
+the road was only partially completed, there remaining fifty miles
+between the present terminus (Chicla) and the point which was aimed
+at&mdash;the mines of Cerro del Pasco, one of the richest and most extensive
+silver deposits in the world. Most of the grading and tunnelling between
+Chicla and the mines has been completed, and it only remains to lay the
+ties and rails and put in the bridges to send a locomotive over the
+Andes into the great valley which stretches north and south between the
+two Cordilleras. This Mr. Grace has agreed to do. The completion of the
+line to the mining regions will cost ten million dollars, but that
+portion already constructed and in operation, with all its rolling
+stock, station-houses, and equipments of every sort, he gets for
+practically nothing, as under the conditions of a ninety-nine years’
+lease he has the use of the railroad and all that belongs with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404"></a>{404}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b404_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b404_sml.jpg" width="283" height="288" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE HEART OF THE ANDES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">it free for the first seven years, and pays but twenty-five thousand
+dollars per year rental for the property during the remainder of the
+term. In other words, Mr. Grace gets a property which cost twenty-seven
+million six hundred thousand dollars, eighty-six miles of railroad
+already equipped and in operation, fifty miles of the most expensive
+tunnelling and grading in the world for nothing, provided he will
+complete the line. And more than this, he gets the Cerro del Pasco
+silver mines, which were worked for centuries by the Jesuits, and have
+yielded hundreds of millions of dollars even under the primitive system
+of working which was applied to them by the monks and the native
+Indians. They were discovered by a native, who while watching sheep on
+the hills was overtaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405"></a>{405}</span> by night. He piled together a few stones, under
+the lee of which he built a fire. In the morning he noticed that the
+heat had split some of the stones, and he was attracted by something
+shining from what had been the interior of one of them. He picked up the
+stone, and took it home to show to his friends. The bright substance was
+found to be silver, and the great mines of the Cerro del Pasco were
+discovered.</p>
+
+<p>From 1630 to 1824 the mines of the Cerro del Pasco are said to have
+produced nearly twenty-seven thousand two hundred tons of pure silver.
+The ore is not in fissure veins, but in an enormous mass, similar to the
+carbonates of Leadville, and yields from forty to one hundred dollars
+per ton. It is worked at a cost of three dollars per ton. Even the
+tailings, which the priests and Indians have left during the two and a
+half centuries they have been digging away in their rude manner, can be
+shipped to New York at a profit, and they amount to millions of tons,
+with silver enough in them, it is estimated, to pay the cost of
+constructing the road, and to afford it a business that will pay the
+expense of operating.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b405_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b405_sml.jpg" width="315" height="218" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN INCA REMINISCENCE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406"></a>{406}</span></p>
+
+<p>About ten per cent. of the Cerro del Pasco district is now occupied by
+native miners, who are pegging along in the old-fashioned way, losing
+more silver than they gain in their operations, and securing about
+one-quarter of the profit they could obtain by the use of improved
+machinery. Their mines are constantly flooded with water, and have to be
+abandoned for the greater part of the year. There are also a number of
+old mines, which were worked first by the Jesuits and then by the
+Government, but which have been given up long since and allowed to fill
+with water. These abandoned mines Mr. Grace agrees to pump and place in
+working order, and when they are cleared he has the privilege of working
+them to his own profit for ninety-nine years. The local miners have
+agreed to give him twenty per cent. of their gross product for
+introducing pumping machinery and operating it. The same set of pumps
+will serve the whole district, and the revenue which will be derived
+from the native miners will pay the expense of keeping in order the
+mines which Mr. Grace will operate. It is estimated that seven hundred
+and fifty thousand dollars will clean up the property and pay for the
+necessary machinery to do thorough work, and the profits cannot be
+overestimated if all that is told of the mines is true.</p>
+
+<p>I will not repeat the fables and tradition about these mines, of which
+the air is full. The El Dorado for which the world was hunting two
+centuries ago was but a shadow of the substance said to have been found
+here. Away in the heart of the Andes, almost beyond the reach of men,
+involving an enormous cost for transportation, and an expense of
+operation which miners of modern times would consider unprofitable, the
+priests and monks in past centuries found untold tons of treasure. The
+one-fifth which was always set apart for the King of Spain, and of which
+a record was scrupulously kept by the viceroys, reached into the
+millions, and the tithes which were paid to the Church amounted to
+millions more. During the last few decades the mines have scarcely been
+worked, for as large a product of silver as Peru could consume was found
+in more convenient localities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_407" id="page_407"></a>{407}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b407_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b407_sml.jpg" width="323" height="242" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COWHIDE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The railroad was begun by Mr. Meiggs in 1870. Starting from the sea, it
+ascends the narrow valley of the once sacred Rimac, rising five thousand
+feet in the first forty-six miles to a beautiful valley, where the
+people of Lima have found an attractive summer resort; then it follows a
+winding, giddy pathway along the edge of precipices and over bridges
+that seem suspended in the air, tunnels the Andes at an altitude of
+fifteen thousand six hundred and forty-five feet&mdash;the most elevated spot
+in the world where a piston-rod is moved by steam&mdash;and ends at Oroya,
+twelve thousand one hundred and seventy-eight feet above the sea.
+Between the coast and the summit there is not an inch of down grade, and
+the track has been forced through the mountains by a series of
+sixty-three tunnels, whose aggregate length is twenty-one thousand feet.
+The great tunnel of Galera, by which the pinnacle of the Andes is
+pierced, will be, when completed, three thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_408" id="page_408"></a>{408}</span> eight hundred feet
+long, and will be the highest elevation on the earth’s surface where any
+such work has been undertaken. Besides boring the mountains of granite
+and blasting clefts along their sides to rest the track upon, deep
+cuttings and superb bridges, the system of reverse tangents had to be
+adopted in cañons that were too narrow for a curve. So the track zigzags
+up the mountain side on the switch and back-up principle, the trains
+taking one leap forward, and after being switched on to another track,
+another leap backward, until the summit is won; so that often there are
+four or five lines of track parallel to each other, one above another,
+on the mountain side. Almost the entire length of the road was made by
+blasting. There is no earth in sight except what was carted for use in
+ballasting, and the work of grading was done, not by the pick and
+shovel, but with the drill and hundreds of thousands of pounds of
+powder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b408_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b408_sml.jpg" width="281" height="179" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INCA RUINS OF UNKNOWN AGE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is estimated that the construction of this road cost Peru seven
+thousand lives. Pestilence and accident, landslides, falling boulders,
+premature explosions, <i>sirroche</i>&mdash;a disease which attacks those who are
+not accustomed to the rare air of the high latitudes&mdash;fevers due to the
+deposits of rotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_409" id="page_409"></a>{409}</span> granite, and other causes resulted in a frightful
+mortality during the seven years the road was under construction; but
+the project was pushed on until the funds gave out. The cost in human
+life was no obstacle. At several points it was necessary to lower men by
+ropes over the edges of precipices to drill holes in rocks and put in
+charges of blasting-powder, and this reckless mode of construction was
+attended by frequent fatalities. A curious accident occurred at one
+point on the line, where a plumber was soldering a leak in a water-pipe.
+A train of mules, loaded with cans of powder, was being driven up the
+trail. One of them rubbed against the plumber, who struck at the animal
+with his red-hot soldering-iron, which in some way came in contact with
+the powder, and caused an explosion that blew the whole train of mules,
+the gang of workmen, the plumber, and everybody who was by, over the
+precipices, the sides and bottom of which were strewn with fragments of
+men and mules for a mile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b409_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b409_sml.jpg" width="317" height="163" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A SETTLEMENT OF THIS CENTURY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The scenic grandeur of the Andes is presented nowhere more impressively
+than along the cañon of the Rimac River, which this railroad follows.
+The mountains are entirely bare of vegetation, and are monster masses of
+rock, torn and twisted, rent and shattered by tremendous volcanic
+upheavals. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_410" id="page_410"></a>{410}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b410_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b410_sml.jpg" width="280" height="179" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A CITY OF FOUR CENTURIES AGO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the bottom of the cañon, and where it occasionally spreads out into a
+valley of minute dimensions, are the remains of towns and cities, whose
+origin is hidden in the mists of fable, and whose history is unknown.
+This region bears no resemblance to any other picture of nature&mdash;lifted
+above the rest of the world, as coldly and calmly silent, as
+impenetrable, as the arctic stars. Here was developed a civilization
+which left memorials of its advancement, genius, and industry carved in
+massive stone, and written upon the everlasting hills in symbols which
+even the earthquakes have been unable to erase. Here are the ruins of
+cities which were more populous than any that have existed in Peru
+since&mdash;evidences of industry which their destroyers were too indolent to
+imitate, and of a skill which could cope with everything but the
+destructive weapons of the invaders. A survey of their remains justifies
+the estimates given of their enormous population, which are that the
+people once herded in these narrow valleys were as numerous as those now
+spread over the United States. The struggle which they had to sustain
+themselves is shown in the traces of their industry and patience. They
+built their dwellings upon rocks, and buried their dead in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_411" id="page_411"></a>{411}</span> caves, in
+order to utilize what soil there was for agriculture. They excavated
+great areas in the desert until they reached moisture enough for
+vegetation, and then brought guano from the islands of the sea to fill
+these sunken gardens. They terraced every hill and mountain side, and
+placed soil in the crevices of the rocks, until not an inch of surface
+that could grow a stalk of maize was left unproductive.</p>
+
+<p>The steep mountains along the Rimac are terraced up to the very summit,
+these terraces being often as narrow as the steps of a stairway, and
+many of them are walled up with stone. They are veritable
+hanging-gardens, and lie on such slopes that they look as if it were
+impossible for any one to get foothold to cultivate them, or even for
+the roots of what was planted there to sustain the mighty winds which
+sometimes sweep down the valley.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b411_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b411_sml.jpg" width="228" height="181" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BIT OF INCA ARCHITECTURE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The irrigation system of the Incas was perfect, their ditches extending
+for hundreds of miles, and curving around the hills, here sustained by
+high walls of masonry, and there cut through the living rock. They were
+carried over narrow valleys upon enormous embankments, and show evidence
+of engineering skill as great as that which lifted the Meiggs railroad
+above<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_412" id="page_412"></a>{412}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b412_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b412_sml.jpg" width="324" height="234" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RELIC OF A PAST CIVILIZATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the clouds into the mountains. Massive dams and reservoirs were erected
+to collect the floods that came from the melting snows, and the water
+was taken to localities which were rainless. Under these conditions, in
+this great struggle for existence, the Incas established and sustained a
+Government&mdash;the first in which the equal rights of every human being
+were recognized&mdash;and worshipped a being whose attributes were similar to
+those of the Christian God. The great sea, breaking with ceaseless
+thunder upon the rocky coast, impressed the dweller in the desert with
+reverence and awe, and he recognized by an equally natural logic that
+the sun was the source of light and happiness. Hence these two objects,
+the sun and the sea, were personified, and were seated upon the thrones
+in the magnificent pantheons of the Incas. The race which conquered them
+came with dripping swords and lust for plunder. Skilled in the arts of
+peace, but powerless in war, there was no adequate resistance, and the
+blood-and-gold-thirsty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_413" id="page_413"></a>{413}</span> Pizarro rode up this valley on a mission of
+murder, rapine, and destruction. The towns stand as he left them, with
+not even an echo to break the silence. Occasionally the Spaniards built
+new places of residence to utilize the improvements of the Incas, but in
+1882 the Chilian army came down the valley, and treated the Peruvians as
+Pizarro had treated the race which he found here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b413_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b413_sml.jpg" width="324" height="242" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A visit to the Incas’ cemeteries, where millions of bodies are buried in
+the drifting sand, gives a clew to the extent of the original
+population, as well as to their arts, religion, and customs. The dead
+were preserved after the custom of ancient Egypt, and a few moments’
+toil with a shovel will disclose mummies whose features are perfectly
+preserved, whose eyes are petrified, whose fingers are clasped with
+rings, and who are surrounded with such implements and utensils as those
+who buried them thought they would need in the other world. As the
+soldier takes his blanket and the cooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_414" id="page_414"></a>{414}</span>-kit, his food and his
+portable treasures, so did the doctrine of future life cause the dead
+Incas to be equipped for their departure from one world to another. In
+this rainless region, protected by the magnetic sand, nothing can decay,
+and the contents of the Inca graves are as well preserved as if their
+age were counted by days instead of centuries. Wood, vegetable, and
+flesh petrify, fabrics and articles of stone and clay are preserved.
+There is no moisture to produce decay of the bodies, and there are no
+insects to consume them. The contents of the sand-hills are protected
+from every form of destruction, and their extent has never been
+measured.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b414a_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b414a_sml.jpg" width="133" height="184" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN OLD SETTLER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b414b_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b414b_sml.jpg" width="136" height="186" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FRESH FROM THE TOMB.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is still fashionable to go on resurrection expeditions to the Inca
+burying-grounds for mummies, and for the articles that were placed in
+their graves. In each grave are found articles of decoration, as well as
+the utensils required by the spirits to set up house-keeping in the
+happy land&mdash;rings and other ornaments of gold and silver, cups and
+platters of both metals made in quaint designs, copper articles, strings
+of beads, weaving and cooking apparatus, water-jugs, weapons of war, and
+other curiosities that interest antiquarians nowadays. Professor
+Ramondi, a distinguished French scientist in Lima, has a collection of
+Inca<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_415" id="page_415"></a>{415}</span> relics for which he was offered two hundred thousand dollars in
+gold by the British Museum. Under the patronage of the Government he is
+writing a voluminous work on the antiquities of Peru, three volumes of
+which have been published, and five more are yet to come.</p>
+
+<p>The most curious things in Peru are the mummies’ eyes&mdash;petrified
+eyeballs&mdash;which are usually to be found in the graves, if one is careful
+in digging. The Incas had a way of preserving the eyes of the dead from
+decay, some process which modern science cannot comprehend, and the
+eyeballs make very pretty settings for pins. They are yellow, and hold
+light like an opal. It is an accepted theory among scientists, however,
+that before the burial of their mummies the Incas replaced the natural
+eye with that of the squid, or cuttle-fish, and that these beautiful
+things are shams.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_416" id="page_416"></a>{416}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="LA_PAZ_DE_AYACUCHO" id="LA_PAZ_DE_AYACUCHO"></a>LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA.</span></h2>
+
+<p>“The Callao painter” is something that skippers dread. Its brush is the
+breeze, and its pigments are in the air. It comes and goes without
+premonition, and its work is usually done in the night. A vessel will
+enter the harbor of Callao with its timbers as white as the virgin snow,
+and its planking as clean as holy-stone and elbow-grease can make them.
+The disgusted sailors may awaken in the morning and find everything
+covered with a brown, nasty film, which penetrates the cabin, and even
+the battened hatchways of the vessel, filling the air with a repulsive
+odor, and clinging to the wood-work until it is scraped off. It looks
+like a chocolate-colored frost, but does not melt in the sun. When it is
+damp one can remove it easily, but if it once dries it sticks like
+paint, and its tenacity is not easily overcome. The origin and source of
+this mysterious and aggravating artist is unknown, but it is peculiar to
+that harbor. Nowhere else is the phenomenon noticed, or at least
+ship-masters who have sailed the world over say that Callao is the only
+place where a ship can be painted inside and outside in a single night.
+Of course there are theories about it which may or may not hold good,
+and over them scientific minds have argued, and will argue interminably.
+Some say that the guano is forced up by vapors into the atmosphere,
+while others assert that it is a species of volcanic dust driven through
+the water by subterranean forces. However, the only point on which all
+agree is that it is a repulsive phenomenon, and has been the cause of
+more profanity than anything else which seamen encounter on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_417" id="page_417"></a>{417}</span> west
+coast. It is never noticed on land, but only in the harbor, and for a
+few miles up and down the shore.</p>
+
+<p>The glory of Callao as a shipping centre has departed. Where formerly
+there were a hundred vessels in the harbor, there are only half a dozen
+now. The lack of trade in Peru, the poverty of the people, the enormous
+tariffs imposed by the Government, and the exorbitant port dues charged,
+have driven commerce away. Two years ago the Government in its poverty
+and need of funds was willing to dispose of everything it could control
+for spot cash, and practically sold the harbor at Callao to a French
+company, to whom the docks and anchorage have been leased for a term of
+years at two hundred thousand dollars a year. This company has the right
+to tax shipping to any extent it pleases, and has established a system
+of rules so oppressive as to drive most of the vessels away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b417_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b417_sml.jpg" width="320" height="170" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHERE PERU’S WEALTH CAME FROM.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From Callao to Valparaiso the coast is a panorama of desolation&mdash;a
+constant succession of bleak and barren cliffs, with not a green or
+lovely thing for fifteen hundred miles. On one side is the Pacific
+Ocean, with its great swells sweeping almost around the globe, as
+regular and constant as the throbbings<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_418" id="page_418"></a>{418}</span> of the human pulse. On the other
+side rise the impenetrable Andes in a range whose altitude averages
+fifteen thousand feet, and whose peaks tower twenty and twenty-two
+thousand feet above the sea. Between the ocean and the mountains for a
+thousand miles, with a varying width from twenty to fifty miles, lies a
+strip of drifting sand, which no rivers water, and where rain never
+falls. All the water used by the inhabitants is taken from the ocean,
+that for mechanical purposes being used in its natural condition, and
+that for food being condensed into steam, and purged of its salt by
+machinery. There is not a well or a spring along the coast, and
+drinking-water is an article of merchandise, like ice or flour, costing
+about seven cents a gallon to the consumers.</p>
+
+<p>Some distance below Callao, upon a great rock which rises from the sea,
+and shows an unbroken surface to the western sun, is carved the image of
+a candelabra&mdash;an eight-horned candlestick&mdash;about one hundred feet long
+and fifty feet across from end to end of the lower arms. The execution
+is perfect, and it is said to be carved in lines about a foot deep and a
+yard wide. When and how the picture came there no one can tell. The
+oldest sailor on the coast says that the oldest man he knew when a boy
+could tell nothing of its origin. They call it “The Miraculous
+Candlestick,” and pious Catholics say that St. James dropped it when he
+came to Peru and placed himself at the head of the Spaniards, at the
+time they were driving the Incas out of their ancient homes.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of Peru, upon a similar rock, is the imprint of a human
+foot as long as a pikestaff, which is supposed to mark where the Apostle
+alighted when he dropped down from heaven to aid in the subjugation of
+the heathen and the triumph of the Cross. At any rate, like the foot of
+St. James, this image of the Holy Candlestick, if made by human labor,
+must have cost months and months of toil at a time when such things were
+needed to impress the Indians with a reverence for the Church of Rome
+and the doctrines it taught. Sometimes, if the wind blows seaward, the
+carving is covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_419" id="page_419"></a>{419}</span> by the drifting sand, when the padre of the nearest
+village goes down with a lot of Indians to dig it out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b419_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b419_sml.jpg" width="318" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PERUVIAN PORT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first port of importance on the coast south of Callao is the town of
+Mollendo (pronounced <i>Molyendo</i>), the western terminus of the railway
+that furnishes means of communication for Bolivia and the interior of
+Peru to the sea. It was built in 1876 by Henry Meiggs for the Peruvian
+Government, at a cost of forty-four million dollars&mdash;an enormous average
+of one hundred and thirty-five thousand dollars per mile; for it is only
+three hundred and twenty-five miles long. Its western terminus is the
+highest point now reached by steam, being something over fourteen
+thousand five hundred feet above the sea, although the Oroya road will
+be higher when it reaches the Cerro del Pasco mines. No other railway in
+the world can show an equal amount of excavation or such massive
+embankments, but the Oroya road has more tunnels. The line is now under
+the management of a Boston man, Mr. Thorndike,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_420" id="page_420"></a>{420}</span> and everything is
+conducted upon the United States plan. Along the side of the track, for
+a distance of eighty-five miles, is an eight-inch iron pipe, for the
+purpose of supplying the stations with water, as there is none on the
+coast; and it is the longest aqueduct in the world, coming from springs
+in the mountains, seven thousand feet above the sea, to the port of
+Mollendo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b420_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b420_sml.jpg" width="318" height="182" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE OLD TRAIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Across a hot, lifeless, desolate desert the railway runs one hundred and
+seven miles to the city of Arequipa&mdash;the name appropriately signifying
+“a place of rest;” and it is one of the oldest, most celebrated, and
+beautiful towns in Peru, situated in a small oasis in the desert, rich
+in its agricultural resources, and surrounded by valuable mines. Just
+behind the city is as magnificent and imposing a mountain as can be
+found anywhere in the world&mdash;the volcano Misti, 18,538 feet high, and
+covered with eternal snow. The city was founded by Pizarro in 1540, and
+has always been second to Lima in size and importance, being the
+political as well as the commercial capital of the Southern provinces,
+and the seat of a university which for nearly three hundred years has
+been the most famous upon the west coast in South America, and has<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_421" id="page_421"></a>{421}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b421_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b421_sml.jpg" width="496" height="299" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AREQUIPA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_422" id="page_422"></a>{422}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_423" id="page_423"></a>{423}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">graduated the most eminent scholars and statesmen in the history of
+Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing the Paso de Arricroo between the greatest cluster of peaks in
+the Andes, south of Quito, the railway reaches Vuicarrago, one hundred
+miles from Arequipa, the highest town in the world, where the barometer
+in the plaza shows an elevation of 14,443 feet. The ascent to it is
+usually made by stages, the traveller taking two or three days for it,
+so as to accustom himself gradually to the altitude; for the sudden
+change from tide-water to this enormous elevation&mdash;a distance of only
+two hundred and seven miles&mdash;generally brings on that distressing
+disease sirroche. It is always painful, and often dangerous. The first
+symptom is numbness of the limbs, then dizziness and nausea; the blood
+bursts from the ears and nose, the lips crack and bleed, a feeling of
+faintness makes it impossible to stand, and there is no cure but
+absolute quiet or a return to a lower altitude. During the construction
+of the railway a great many men died from the effects of the dreaded
+sirroche, which is often followed by a sudden and quickly fatal mountain
+fever. Few people escape the ailment, and no animal but the llama and
+others of that species native to the mountain regions can survive. At
+every town along the road droves of llamas can be seen which have been
+driven in from the mountain settlements laden with furs and skins, or
+with ore from the mines. The llama is the only beast of burden in the
+Upper Andes, and is docile, patient, sure-footed, and speedy. It can
+carry a burden of one hundred pounds, which is fastened to a
+pack-saddle, and when that weight is exceeded will lie down and refuse
+to move until the surplus is removed. The llama is about as large as a
+one-year-old colt or a good-sized black-tail buck. It has a heavy coat
+of wool; but those that are used for transportation purposes are seldom
+sheared.</p>
+
+<p>The vicuña, a sort of gazelle, a gentle, timid animal, is found in large
+numbers in the interior of the Andes, particularly in Bolivia. It is
+fawn-colored, has long, soft, silken hair, with a peculiar gloss that
+resembles what are known as “changeable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_424" id="page_424"></a>{424}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b424_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b424_sml.jpg" width="319" height="296" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE VICUÑA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">silks,” and changes color in different lights. In the old Inca days,
+before the Spanish invasion, centuries ago, the vicuña was the royal
+ermine of the Inca kings, and no one but the Imperial family and nobles
+of a certain rank was allowed to wear it. The animal was also protected
+by some sacred tradition, and was allowed to go unharmed in the forests,
+where it accumulated in great numbers; but the Spanish invaders,
+regardless of all rights, human and divine, hunted it down, and
+slaughtered it for food. The Indians expected that some severe penalty
+would be visited upon the invaders for destroying and eating the sacred
+animal, and lost faith when they escaped divine retribution. Now vicuña
+skins are very scarce and are expensive, and the natives attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_425" id="page_425"></a>{425}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b425_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b425_sml.jpg" width="527" height="309" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LAKE TITICACA.</p><p>LAKE TITICACA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_426" id="page_426"></a>{426}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_427" id="page_427"></a>{427}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">impose upon strangers who seek them robes made of the skins of guanaco
+kids, killed and skinned the moment they are born.</p>
+
+<p>The guanaco is supposed to be a cross of the vicuña and the llama, and
+is next in value and beauty to the vicuña. If the kid is killed the
+moment it is born the hair has the same color, and is about as fine as
+the genuine vicuña, but is not so long or so luscious. This animal is
+numerous, easily domesticated, and breeds rapidly. It is almost as
+plentiful in South America as the goat, and is valuable for its skin and
+flesh. The body is deep at the breast, but narrow at the loins, and is
+covered with long, soft, very fine hair, which is usually a pale yellow,
+except under the belly, where it is a beautiful snowy white. It has many
+of the characteristics of the North American deer, being very
+swift-footed and graceful, combined with the strength and endurance of
+the llama, being able to carry a load of from seventy-five to one
+hundred and twenty-five pounds for a long distance. The flesh resembles
+that of the antelope, but is not as juicy as venison. The skin is
+invaluable to the Indians, as it furnishes the material of which their
+garments are made. Occasionally in the stomach of a guanaco is found
+what is called a “bezoar” stone, a magical sort of affair, which will
+cure any kind of disease if carried in the pocket. Large numbers of
+guanaco skins are sent to Europe, where they are used for carriage
+robes, for lining coats and cloaks, for trimming, and for other purposes
+to which fine fur is adapted. Large quantities of alpaca and also llama
+wool are exported from Chili and Peru; some of it comes to the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>The alpaca is a sort of cross between the llama and the sheep. The
+llamas, alpacas, and guanacos have a peculiar way of defending
+themselves. If abused or made angry by teasing, they will turn upon
+their assailants, and squirt a pint or so of saliva, like a shower-bath,
+from between their teeth, being able to throw it with great force five
+or six feet. If this saliva gets into the mouth or eyes, or upon any
+place on the flesh where the skin is broken, it is poisonous, and
+inflammation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_428" id="page_428"></a>{428}</span> sets in at once. It is said that men frequently die of
+blood-poisoning from this cause, and a native will keep clear of the
+nose of a vicious guanaco as a colored person will avoid the heels of an
+Irish mule.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b428_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b428_sml.jpg" width="272" height="268" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A STREET IN CUZCO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Traversing the pass of Alto del Crucero, 14,660 feet above the level of
+the sea, and the highest altitude reached by any railway in the world,
+the road descends into the great basin of Titicaca, the heart of the
+Andes, stretching northward and southward between the two great chains
+of the Cordilleras for fifteen hundred miles, almost level, and twelve
+thousand feet above the ocean. Here in majestic splendor lies Lake
+Titicaca, one of whose islands was the Eden of the Incas, the birthplace
+of that prehistoric empire whose civilization has been the wonder and
+mystery of centuries. Here Manco<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_429" id="page_429"></a>{429}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b429_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b429_sml.jpg" width="321" height="287" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>RUINS OF AN INCA TEMPLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Capac (the Adam) and Mama Ocllo (the Eve) of Inca tradition, the
+Children of the Sun, arose like Aphrodite, and bearing a golden rod,
+marched down the valley until they reached the place where Cuzco now
+stands, and there commanded the Indians to erect a city, the seat of an
+Imperial dynasty which lasted a thousand years, and possessed a wealth
+and an industry that had no measure. Around the lake stand the mighty
+temples and palaces, erected of blocks of stone as large as those of the
+Pyramids, quarried and conveyed by means that still remain a mystery,
+and will never be known. These monuments of an extinct civilization,
+these evidences of art and industry that surpass any prehistoric
+architecture on the earth, are standing now in mute impressiveness,
+mocking decay, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_430" id="page_430"></a>{430}</span> they taunted the conquistadors who tried to overthrow
+them. But the Spaniards stripped them of their treasures, murdered their
+inmates, and destroyed everything that could not withstand their power.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b430_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b430_sml.jpg" width="316" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CONVENT OF SANTA DOMINGO, CUZCO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The riches of Peru and Bolivia have been their curse from the time when
+Pizarro invaded the continent to the plunder of their nitrate deposits
+by Chili. It is true that few countries have suffered from such an evil,
+but it is nevertheless a fact that the wealth of these republics has
+been the cause of their disasters. For three hundred years the people
+sat with folded hands, and enjoyed the profits of the development of
+their natural resources by foreigners, and now, stripped of them, sit
+impoverished, mourning the departure of their prosperity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_431" id="page_431"></a>{431}</span></p>
+
+<p>Just how much plunder Pizarro got in his raids upon the Incas is not
+known, and cannot be estimated, but millions went to the King of Spain
+as his twenty per cent.; the Catholic Church got millions more as her
+share; Sir Francis Drake, John Hawkins, and other pirates got away with
+an immense amount of gold and silver; and the quantity expended in the
+erection of churches, convents, monasteries, and palaces by the viceroys
+is incalculable. History asserts that ninety millions of dollars’ worth
+of precious metals was torn from the Inca temples, and the faithful
+subjects of Atahualpa filled the room in which he was imprisoned with
+gold, in their endeavor to satisfy the avarice of the invaders. Prescott
+and Robertson and other historians tell fabulous stories of the wealth
+of the Incas, and we know it was enough to restore financial prosperity
+to Spain, and to give every cutthroat who came to the coast a fortune.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b431_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b431_sml.jpg" width="182" height="239" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHAT THE SPANIARDS LEFT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The amount of money made by Peru from her guano deposits cannot be
+estimated any more accurately than by the plunder stolen from the Incas.
+The exports have continued from 1846 to the present day, and the annual
+shipments have amounted to millions of tons, valued between twenty and
+thirty million dollars, and this to the benefit of a State whose
+population has never reached two millions, and three-fourths of which
+were Indians who had no share in its profits. The exhausted lands of the
+Old World required this manure to revive<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_432" id="page_432"></a>{432}</span> them, and their owners paid
+high prices for what cost Peru nothing. The result of this revenue was
+the continuation of the extravagance among the people which was
+practised by their forefathers when the mountains poured out streams of
+silver. It was an epidemic of riches, and the Government of Peru,
+instead of wisely hoarding its source of wealth and protecting it,
+plunged into a system of reckless expenditure, until the end of the war
+found its revenues cut off and the country burdened with a debt of two
+hundred and fifty million dollars which it never can pay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b432_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b432_sml.jpg" width="324" height="228" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WHERE THE GUANO LIES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But even if Peru and Bolivia have been robbed of all their guano, the
+deposits of nitrate of soda in the deserts along their coasts would have
+made them rich again; but Chili has stolen these also. The whole coast,
+from the twenty-third to the twenty-fifth parallel of latitude, appears
+to be one solid mass of this valuable mineral, fit for a hundred
+different uses, and worth in the market from forty to sixty dollars a
+ton. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_433" id="page_433"></a>{433}</span> was discovered in 1833 by an accident, the hero of the
+discovery being a forlorn old Englishman by the name of George Smith.
+There is no telling how much lies in the mines, but it is the opinion of
+those who have explored the country that at the present rate of
+excavation it will take eight or ten centuries to dig it away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b433_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b433_sml.jpg" width="320" height="174" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A NITRATE MINING TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the sand of this desert, which drifts before the wind like snow,
+nature has laid the bed of nitrate. No one knows how it was formed, and
+man has not attempted to measure its extent. The sand is first shovelled
+off, and then a crust of sun-baked clay from four to twelve inches thick
+is removed. This discloses a bed of white material that looks like
+melting marble, full of moisture, and is as soft as cheese. The strata
+is often four or five feet thick, and averages two or three feet. It is
+broken up by crow-bars and shovelled into carts, then taken to crushers,
+which grind it up into particles as large as pebbles. These are lifted
+by elevators into great vats, where it is boiled until dissolved in
+ordinary sea-water. Then the solution is run off into a series of
+shallow iron vats exposed to the air, which, being moistureless, and
+heated by constant sunshine, causes rapid evaporation. The salt from the
+water<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_434" id="page_434"></a>{434}</span> mixed with the nitrate causes crystallization, and after a
+certain period of exposure to the air and sun the vats are found to be
+covered upon the bottom and sides with white sparkling crystals, like
+alabaster, under a yellowish liquor. This liquor is carefully drawn off,
+for it is even more valuable than the saltpetre, and is conducted by
+pipes to another crucible, where it is boiled and chemically treated
+until it produces the iodine of commerce, useful for a hundred medical
+and chemical purposes, and costing as much per ounce as the saltpetre
+brings per hundred-weight. The liquor having been withdrawn, the
+saltpetre is shovelled upon drying-boards, where it is exposed to the
+sun for a while, then put into bags and shipped to Europe and America.
+It is graded like wheat and corn, according to quality. The highest
+grade goes to the powder-mills, the next to the chemical works, and the
+third to the fertilizer factories, where it is made into manure. The
+iodine is packed in little casks, and covered with green hides, which
+shrink with drying until they are as tight as a drum-head, and keep out
+moisture. It was these nitrate of soda deposits that caused the late war
+between Chili and Peru.</p>
+
+<p>After the independence of South America, when the several republics were
+being divided, Bolivia was given a little strip of land between Peru and
+Chili in order that she might have a pathway to the sea. It lay between
+the twenty-third and the twenty-fifth parallels, and was so recognized
+on all the maps of Chili, as well as those of other nations. It was a
+barren, waterless desert, worthless in every respect, as was originally
+supposed, but some years ago the rich deposits of silver and nitrate of
+soda were discovered. When their value became known, Chili suddenly
+ascertained that under some ancient right this strip of territory
+belonged to her, and kindly offered to divide it with Bolivia in such a
+way as to leave the silver and soda on the Chilian side. Bolivia of
+course resisted, and having a treaty of offence and defence with Peru,
+called upon the latter nation to assist in the defence of her rights.
+This was the real cause of the war. The ostensible excuse for it was
+that Bolivia charged an export duty of ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_435" id="page_435"></a>{435}</span> cents a hundred-weight on
+nitrate exported. This the Chilians deemed excessive, and sent a fleet
+to defend her citizens in refusing to pay it. Now that she has secured
+the territory and the mines, she charges one dollar and twenty-five
+cents a hundred-weight export duty on the same article at the same
+place, and thinks people impertinent when they complain. The results of
+the war are that Bolivia has not only lost her seaports and her nitrate,
+but Peru has lost all her guano and a large portion of her richest
+territory, while Chili is so much the richer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b435_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b435_sml.jpg" width="313" height="234" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GUANO ISLANDS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At one time Peru might have prevented the invasion of her territory, and
+caused the entire army of Chili to perish, but the instincts of noble
+generosity and the unwritten law of common humanity were observed. If
+Peru had been as merciless as Chili the struggle would have been
+shortened and the result would have been different. Along the coast from
+Guayaquil, Ecuador, to Coquimbo, Chili, a distance of more than two
+thousand miles, stretches a desert on which a drop<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_436" id="page_436"></a>{436}</span> of rain never fell.
+Occasionally a stream, born of a union between the burning sun and the
+eternal snows of the Andes, finds its way to the sea, bringing
+nourishment to the soil and making a little oasis where men can live.
+But unless the water-supply is very great&mdash;and it is only so
+occasionally&mdash;the stream is swallowed by the thirsty sands and absorbed
+by the atmosphere, which is so dry that nothing ever decays, and causes
+more rapid evaporation than is known elsewhere. In this desert lie the
+nitrate mines, and towns have sprung up around them the inhabitants of
+which are supplied with water by artificial means. Salt water is turned
+into fresh by means of enormous condensers, and a supply is kept in vast
+iron reservoirs, from which it is sold to the people at a price about
+the same as we pay for beer. At the saloons one can get a glass of
+filtered ice-water for five cents; at the reservoirs a bucket of warm,
+nasty stuff is sold for ten.</p>
+
+<p>If you ask a learned man why it never rains there, he will say that the
+clouds are deprived of all their moisture when they cross the mountains
+from the eastward, and when they come up from the westward ocean are at
+once sucked dry by the heat that radiates from the sun-baked sands.
+Occasionally along the coast are found immense cemeteries in which the
+Incas buried their dead; and the contents of the graves are as well
+preserved as if their age were counted by weeks instead of centuries.
+The most interesting and extensive of the burial grounds is at
+Pachacamac, south of Lima, in Peru, where millions of bodies lie, often
+in three stratas, and very generally in two. Near this place was the
+famous temple dedicated to Pachacamac, the chief divinity of the Incas,
+and whom they acknowledged as the creator of the world. It was the Mecca
+of that day, and each believer was expected to visit it at least once in
+his life. The pilgrims came from all parts of the empire, bringing
+votive-offerings, which made the temple very rich; and Pizarro is said
+to have obtained a vast quantity of plunder from it. Around the temple
+arose a large city of monasteries to accommodate the priests and
+devotees, and inns to shelter the pilgrims; but the place is in ruins
+now.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_437" id="page_437"></a>{437}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b437_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b437_sml.jpg" width="322" height="343" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ACROSS THE CONTINENT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At one of these towns the whole army of Chili was concentrated&mdash;forty
+thousand men&mdash;preparing for the invasion of Peru. The Peruvian gun-boat
+<i>Huascar</i> (pronounced <i>Wascar</i>) came into the harbor, and with a few
+shots might have destroyed the reservoirs and the condensing
+establishments, and left these forty thousand men to die of thirst, for
+there was no fresh water within two hundred and fifty miles of them. But
+the commander of the <i>Huascar</i> had a heart. He was a noble, generous
+German&mdash;Admiral Grau&mdash;and he sent word to the Chillano commander that he
+presented his army with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_438" id="page_438"></a>{438}</span> their lives. He said he would not attack
+defenceless men, and sailed off in pursuit of some Chillano gun-boats
+which had run away when they saw the <i>Huascar</i> coming.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b438_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b438_sml.jpg" width="323" height="180" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A STATION ON THE ROAD.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The present terminus of the Bolivia railroad is at Puno, a little town
+of five thousand inhabitants, at an elevation of twelve thousand five
+hundred feet; but it is proposed to extend it farther up the valley,
+through another pass of the Andes, and then down the eastern slopes to
+the head of navigation on the Amazon&mdash;neither a difficult nor an
+expensive undertaking. An expedition has recently started from Buenos
+Ayres to make an exploration from the head of navigation on the Paraguay
+River into the mountains of Bolivia, for the purpose of constructing a
+cart-road, and ultimately a railroad to connect the mining regions of
+the latter republic with the Atlantic ports of the continent, and great
+hopes are entertained of its success. The little town of Puno owes its
+origin to the rich mines that surround it, and some of them are
+producing generously. It has a small amount of other commerce in hides
+and wool, coca-leaves, and cinchona. It is the centre of the alpaca wool
+trade, and considerable is exported.</p>
+
+<p>To reach La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, from Puno one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_439" id="page_439"></a>{439}</span> must cross Lake
+Titicaca, sailing its full length, and, reaching its southern shores,
+mount a mule and ride twenty-five miles along the ancient highway of the
+Incas, a wonderful road, nearly four thousand miles long, built eight
+hundred years or more ago, and still in a good state of preservation,
+notwithstanding the neglect of the Spaniards to keep it in repair.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most glorious monuments of the civilization of the Incas
+were the public or royal roads, extending from the capital to the
+remotest parts of the empire. Their remains are still most impressive,
+both from their extent and the amount of labor necessarily involved in
+their construction, and in contemplating them we know not which to
+admire most&mdash;the scope of their projectors, the power and constancy of
+the Incas who carried them to a completion, or the patience of the
+people who constructed them under all the obstacles resulting from the
+topography of the country and from imperfect means of execution. They
+built these roads in deserts, among moving sands reflecting the fierce
+rays of a tropical sun; they broke down rocks, graded precipices,
+levelled hills, and filled up valleys without the assistance of powder
+or of instruments of iron; they crossed lakes, marshes, and rivers, and
+without the aid of the compass followed direct courses in forests of
+eternal shade. They did, in short, what even now, with all of modern
+knowledge and means of action, would be worthy of the most powerful
+nations of the globe. One of the principal of these roads extended from
+Cuzco to the sea, and the other, which is followed to La Paz, ran along
+the crest of the Cordilleras from one end of the empire to the other,
+their aggregate lengths, with their branches, being about four thousand
+miles. Modern travellers compare them, in respect of structure, to the
+best works of the kind in any part of the world. In ascending mountains
+too steep to admit of grading, broad steps were cut in the solid rocks,
+while the ravines and hollows were filled with heavy embankments,
+flanked with parapets, and planted with shade-trees and fragrant shrubs.
+They were from eighteen to twenty-five Castilian feet broad, and were
+paved with immense blocks of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_440" id="page_440"></a>{440}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b440_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b440_sml.jpg" width="323" height="287" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHASQUIS AT REST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">stone. At regular distances on these roads tambos&mdash;buildings for the
+accommodation of travellers&mdash;were erected. To these conveniences were
+added the establishment of a system of posts, by which messages could be
+transmitted from one extremity of the Incas’ dominions to the other in
+an incredibly short time. The service of the posts was performed by
+runners&mdash;for the Peruvians possessed no domestic animals swifter of foot
+than man&mdash;stationed in small buildings, likewise erected at easy
+distances from each other all along the principal roads. These
+messengers, or <i>chasquis</i>, as they were termed, wore a peculiar uniform,
+and were trained to their particular vocation. Each had his allotted
+station, between which and the next it was his duty to speed along at a
+certain pace with the message, dispatch, or parcel intrusted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_441" id="page_441"></a>{441}</span> his
+care. On drawing near to the station at which he had to transmit the
+message to the next courier, who was then to carry it farther, he was to
+give a signal of his approach, in order that the other might be in
+readiness to receive the missive and no time be lost; and thus it is
+said that messages were forwarded at the rate of one hundred and fifty
+miles a day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b441_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b441_sml.jpg" width="270" height="223" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHASQUIS ASLEEP IN THE MOUNTAINS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bridges constructed by the Peruvians were exceedingly simple, but
+were well adapted for crossing those rapid streams which rush down from
+the Andes and defy the skill of the modern engineer. They consisted of
+strong cables of the cabuya, or of twisted rawhide stretched from one
+bank to the other, something after the style of the suspension-bridges
+of our times. Poles were lashed across transversely, covered with
+branches, and these were again covered with earth and stones, so as to
+form a solid floor. Other cables extended along the sides, which were
+interwoven with limbs of trees, forming a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_442" id="page_442"></a>{442}</span> kind of wicker balustrade. In
+some cases the mode of transit was in a species of basket or car,
+suspended on a single cable, and drawn from side to side with ropes. It
+would appear at first glance that bridges of this description could not
+be very lasting, yet a few still exist which are said to have been
+constructed by the Incas more than four hundred years ago. The modern
+inhabitants of some parts of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili still use the same
+means of crossing their torrent rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b442_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b442_sml.jpg" width="219" height="242" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BIT OF LA PAZ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city of La Paz has about seventy thousand inhabitants, mostly Aymara
+Indians, poor, degraded, and ignorant. The full name of the place is La
+Paz de Ayacucho, and it means “the peace of Ayacucho,” being so
+christened in 1825, to commemorate the victory which established the
+independence of Bolivia from the hated crown of Spain. At that time the
+republic was a part of the old Province of Peru, and a separate State
+was founded by Bolivar, the Venezuelan Liberator of the Continent, who
+gave freedom to these people as he did<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_443" id="page_443"></a>{443}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b443_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b443_sml.jpg" width="243" height="142" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CATHEDRAL AT LA PAZ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">to his own countrymen, and the new republic was christened in his honor.
+La Paz was originally called Nuestra Señora de la Paz&mdash;“the peace of the
+Virgin”&mdash;by Alonzo de Mendoza, who founded it in 1548. It is thirteen
+thousand feet above tide-water, and is surrounded by a group of gigantic
+mountains, the most notable of which is the volcano Illiniani,
+twenty-one thousand three hundred feet high. Through the city runs the
+river Chiquiapo, a noble mountain-stream, which is crossed by a number
+of fine old bridges. The streets are narrow, irregular, and uneven,
+being paved with stone, and having narrow sidewalks, scarcely broad
+enough for two people to pass. The town resembles all others of Spanish
+construction, except that the houses are mostly built of stone instead
+of adobe, the walls being massive and enduring, and in some instances
+ornamented with carved stone or stucco-work. The cathedral is large and
+grand, the front being handsomely carved, and in a niche over the
+entrance stands a marble image of the Virgin, which was presented to the
+city by Charles of Spain, and transported from the seaboard at an
+enormous cost. The cathedral is built entirely of stone, and was over
+forty years in course of erection, hundreds of men being constantly
+employed. No derricks or other machinery were used in its construction,
+but the walls were built in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_444" id="page_444"></a>{444}</span> curious way. As fast as a tier of stone
+was laid, the earth was banked up against it inside and outside, and
+upon this inclined plane the stones for the next tier were rolled into
+their places. Then more earth was thrown on, and the process repeated
+until, when the walls were finished, the whole building was immersed in
+a mountain of dirt. This was allowed to remain until the roof was laid,
+when the earth was carried away upon the backs of llamas and men. It is
+said to have taken thirteen years to clear out the inside of the
+building, as the earth could only be taken away through the narrow
+windows and doors. There are fourteen other churches of considerable
+size, and several large monasteries, which are now used for military
+barracks and schools. A university is sustained by the Government, and
+there is a nominal free-school system, but education is at a low ebb.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the city runs the Alameda, a public promenade which is
+frequented by all classes of citizens, and during the twilight hours is
+quite gay. The cemetery is very extensive, and one of the finest in
+South America. There are few stores or shops, most of the trading being
+done in the market-places, where all things are sold, and by peddlers
+who go through the city with baskets of provisions and notions upon
+their heads, crying their wares. The way customers call street-venders
+is worth noticing and imitating. They step to the door or open a window,
+and give utterance to a short sound resembling shir-r-r-r-r&mdash;something
+between a hiss and the exclamation used to chase away fowls&mdash;and it is
+singular what a distance it can be heard. If the peddler is in sight,
+his attention is at once arrested; he turns, and comes direct to the
+caller, now guided by a signal addressed to his eyes&mdash;closing the
+fingers of the right hand two or three times, with the palm downward, as
+if grasping something&mdash;a sign in universal use, and signifying “Come.”
+There is here no bawling after people in the streets, for in this quiet
+and ingenious way all classes communicate with passing friends or others
+with whom they wish to speak. The practice dates, I believe, from
+classical times. A curious custom is the peddling of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_445" id="page_445"></a>{445}</span> fuel through the
+streets. Llamas are loaded with their own excrement, which when dried in
+the sun is called <i>taquia</i>, and sold by the basketful. It is used by all
+classes for cooking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b445_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b445_sml.jpg" width="323" height="226" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN ANCIENT BRIDGE IN LA PAZ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mineral wealth of Bolivia has been proverbial almost from time
+immemorial. The silver-mines of Potosi have long been celebrated as
+perhaps the richest deposit of silver ore in the world. From the year
+1545, when they were discovered, to the year 1864, these mines,
+according to official data, produced the enormous sum of $2,904,902,690
+of our money. Besides Potosi there are other rich silver-mines, and many
+large deposits of gold. The great want of these mines is skilled labor
+and improved modern machinery. In early days the Indians were forced to
+work them against their will, and were treated with great harshness and
+cruelty. The historical student will call to mind the efforts of
+philanthropists to mitigate their sufferings. When their labor could no
+longer be controlled, the mines fell into comparative<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_446" id="page_446"></a>{446}</span> decay. The
+Indians will not work them with energy and industry to-day. They
+doubtless hold in memory through their traditions the wrongs inflicted
+on their ancestors by merciless taskmasters. If worked by experienced
+miners, with all the improved modern machinery, the gold and silver
+deposits would yield as abundant returns, perhaps, as in the days of
+their early history. Recently a party of Californians have gone into the
+country and taken charge of a gold-mine. If a good many others would
+follow them, mining in Bolivia would experience a renaissance that would
+remind the Bolivians of the El Dorado of the olden time.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b446_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b446_sml.jpg" width="168" height="311" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BOLIVIAN ELEVATOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most useful to mankind of all the natural products of South America
+was quinine, the drug made from the bark of the cinchona-tree, which was
+discovered in Bolivia by a Franciscan friar in the early days of the
+Conquest, and was called cinchona in honor of the Countess of Conchona,
+whose husband was the Viceroy of Peru. She introduced it into Spain as a
+remedy for fevers, and there is no drug in the catalogue that has been
+used in such quantities or with such success by suffering mankind. The
+entire supply formerly came from Peru and Bolivia, and it was known as
+Peruvian bark, but afterwards the forests along the entire chain of the
+Andes were found to contain it, and it furnished one of the chief
+articles of export from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_447" id="page_447"></a>{447}</span> South America for three centuries. The supply
+has been greatly diminished by the destruction of the trees, as it was
+the habit formerly to cut down the trunk, and strip it as well as the
+branches of the bark. Nowadays the forests are protected by law, and the
+trees are allowed to stand, a portion of the bark being stripped off
+each year, which nature replaces again.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b447_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b447_sml.jpg" width="320" height="342" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BOLIVIAN CAVALRYMAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>England, with that provident foresight which characterizes much of her
+political economy, several years ago sent agents into Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia, under the direction of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_448" id="page_448"></a>{448}</span> celebrated botanist Mr. Spruce, and
+made a collection of cinchona plants, which were taken to Java, Ceylon,
+and India, and there have been transplanted and cultivated with great
+success and profit. It is found that under proper treatment the tree
+produces a very much greater amount of quinine, of a much superior
+quality, and at less cost than the bark can be gathered in the mountains
+of South America, so that shipments have almost entirely ceased, and the
+market receives its supply from the British possessions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b448_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b448_sml.jpg" width="282" height="176" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A HOME IN THE ANDES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another plant is coming into prominence, and its export has very largely
+increased within the last few years. This is the coca, from which
+cocoaine and other medicinal and nerve stimulants are made. In the
+valleys of the Andes there are, and have been from time immemorial,
+extensive plantations of the coca shrub. It is indigenous in these
+regions, but the natives of Peru and Bolivia cultivate the plant in
+terraces which are likened to the vineyards of Tuscany and the Holy
+Land. <i>Erythroxylon coca</i> is allied to the common flax, and forms, says
+Dr. Johnston, a shrub of six or eight feet, resembling our blackthorn,
+with small white flowers and bright green leaves. The leaves, of which
+there may be three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_449" id="page_449"></a>{449}</span> four crops in the year, are collected by the
+women and children, and dried in the sun, after which they are ready for
+use, and form the usual money exchange in some districts, the workmen
+being paid in coca-leaves. Among the Peruvians and Bolivians the
+coca-leaves are rolled with a little unslaked lime into a ball
+(<i>acullico</i>) and chewed in the mouth. Coca-chewing resembles in some
+respects the smoking of opium. Both must be taken apart, and with
+deliberation. The coca chewer, three or four times in the day, retires
+to a secluded spot, lays down his burden, and stretches himself perhaps
+beneath a tree. Slowly from the <i>chuspa</i>, or little pouch, which is ever
+at his girdle, the leaves and the lime are brought forth. The ball is
+formed and chewed for perhaps fifteen or thirty minutes, and then the
+toiler rises refreshed as quietly as he lay down, and returns to that
+monotonous round of labor in which the coca is his only and much-prized
+distraction. Some take it to excess, and to these the name of <i>coquero</i>
+is given. This is particularly common among white Peruvians of good
+family, and hence the name “Blanco Coquero” in that country is a term of
+reproach equivalent to our “habitual drunkard.” The Indians regard the
+coca with extreme reverence. Von Tschudi, the Austrian scientist, who
+made the most thorough study of the ancient customs of the Incas, says,
+“During divine worship the priests chewed coca-leaves, and unless they
+were supplied with them it was believed that the favor of the gods could
+not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that the supplicator
+for Divine grace should approach the priests with an acullico in his
+mouth. It is believed that any business undertaken without the
+benediction of coca-leaves could not prosper, and to the shrub itself
+worship was rendered. During an interval of more than three hundred
+years Christianity has not been able to subdue this deep-rooted
+idolatry, for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious
+powers of this plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro del Pasco
+throw chewed coca upon hard veins of metal, in the belief that it
+softens the ore and renders it more easy to work. The Indians even at
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_450" id="page_450"></a>{450}</span> present time put coca-leaves into the mouths of dead persons, in
+order to secure them a favorable reception on their entrance into
+another world, and when a Peruvian on a journey falls in with a mummy,
+he, with timid reverence, presents to it some coca-leaves as his pious
+offering.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b450_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b450_sml.jpg" width="511" height="183" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>JUAN FERNANDEZ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coca-plant resembles tea and hops in the nature of its active
+principles, although differing entirely from them in its effects. In the
+coqueros the latter are not inviting. “They are,” says Dr. Von Tschudi,
+“a bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an
+ugly black mark at the angles of the mouth. The inveterate coquero is
+known at the first glance; his unsteady gait, his yellow skin, his dim
+and sunken<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_451" id="page_451"></a>{451}</span> eyes encircled by a purple ring, his quivering lips, and his
+general apathy all bear evidence of the baneful effect of the coca-juice
+when taken in excess.” The general influence of moderate doses is gently
+soothing and stimulating; but coca has in addition a special and
+remarkable power in enabling those who consume it to endure sustained
+labor in the absence of other food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b451_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b451_sml.jpg" width="266" height="220" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CUMBERLAND BAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Down the coast, just before reaching the city of Valparaiso, is an
+island which possesses an interest for every one who has been a boy.
+Occasionally an excursion visits the place, and the Englishmen, who
+constitute a large fraction of the population of Valparaiso, with what
+few Americans there are, go over to spend a day or two, and renew their
+youth. It is the island of Juan Fernandez, where Robinson Crusoe and his
+man Friday, “who kept things tidy,” had the experience that has given
+the world of boys as much enjoyment as any that ever came from a book.
+There was a Robinson Crusoe&mdash;there is not a doubt of it&mdash;and there was a
+man Friday too, and the island stands to-day exactly as it is described
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_452" id="page_452"></a>{452}</span> the narrative; but the surprising adventures of Mr. Crusoe as
+therein related do not correspond exactly with the local traditions of
+the story. The island was a favorite stopping-place for vessels in the
+South Seas, as it has good ship-timber, plenty of excellent water,
+abounds in fruits, goats, rabbits, and other flesh for food, and the
+rocks on the coast are covered with lobsters, shrimps, and crayfish. It
+was a popular resort for buccaneers also, who ran into a well-protected
+harbor to repair damages and get provisions. Juan Fernandez, a famous
+Spanish navigator, discovered it in 1563, and the King of Spain gave him
+a patent to the island, but as he never occupied it his title lapsed. In
+1709 the Scotchman Selkirk, or Selcraig, became mutinous on board the
+ship <i>Cinque Ports</i>, and had to choose between being hung at the
+yard-arm or put ashore at Juan Fernandez alone. He took the latter
+alternative, and was left on the rocks with his sailor’s kit and a small
+supply of provisions. To his surprise, after he had been on the island a
+few days, he found a companion in an Indian from the Mosquito Coast of
+Central America, who some years before had come down on the pirate
+<i>Damphier</i>, and going ashore on a hunting expedition, was lost and
+abandoned by his comrades. This was the man Friday. Some years after,
+Selkirk and the Indian were rescued by Captain Rogers, of an English
+merchant-ship, and taken to Southampton, where the Scotchman told his
+story to Daniel Defoe, and it got into print, with some romantic
+exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>The island is accurately described in the story, and the visitor who is
+familiar with “Robinson Crusoe” can find the cave, the mountain-paths,
+and other haunts of the hero without difficulty; but Defoe has located
+it in the wrong geographical position, having placed it on the other
+side of the continent, and mixed up Montevideo with Valparaiso. It is
+about twenty-three miles long and ten miles wide in the broadest part,
+and is covered with beautiful hills and lovely valleys, the highest peak
+reaching an elevation of nearly three thousand feet. A hundred years ago
+the Spaniards introduced blood-hounds to kill off the goats and rabbits,
+and to keep the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_453" id="page_453"></a>{453}</span> pirates away, but the scheme did not work. Upon her
+independence, in 1821, Chili made Juan Fernandez a penal colony, but
+thirty years after the prisoners mutinied, slaughtered the guards, and
+escaped. Then it was leased to a cattle company, which has now thirty
+thousand head of horned cattle and as many sheep grazing upon the hills.
+There are fifty or sixty inhabitants, mostly ranchmen and their
+families, who tend the herds and raise vegetables for the Valparaiso
+market.</p>
+
+<p>Great care has been taken to preserve the relics of Alexander Selkirk’s
+stay upon the island, and his cave and huts remain just as he left them.
+In 1868 the officers of the British man-of-war <i>Topaz</i> erected a marble
+tablet to mark the famous lookout from which Mr. Crusoe, like the
+Ancient Mariner, used to watch for a sail, “and yet no sail from day to
+day.” The inscription reads: “In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, a
+native of Largo, county of Fife, Scotland; who lived upon this island in
+complete solitude for four years and four months. He was landed from the
+<i>Cinque Ports</i> galley, 96 tons, 16 guns, <small>A.D.</small> 1704, and was taken off in
+the <i>Duke</i>, privateer, on February 12th, 1709. He died Lieutenant of
+H.B.M.S. <i>Weymouth</i>: 47 years. This tablet is erected upon Selkirk’s
+lookout by Commodore Powell and the officers of H.B.M.S. <i>Topaz</i>, <small>A.D.</small>
+1868.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b453_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b453_sml.jpg" width="133" height="157" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TABLET TO ALEXANDER SELKIRK.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>No one ever goes to Juan Fernandez without bringing away rocks and
+sticks as relics of the place. There is a very fine sort of wood
+peculiar to the island which makes beautiful canes, as it has a rare
+grain and polishes well.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_454" id="page_454"></a>{454}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="SANTIAGO" id="SANTIAGO"></a>SANTIAGO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF CHILI.</span></h2>
+
+<p>N<small>ATURE</small> never intended there should be a city where Valparaiso stands,
+but the enterprise of the Chillanos, aided by English and German
+capital, has built there the finest port on the west coast of South
+America, and the only one with all the modern improvements. The harbor
+is spacious and beautiful, and ten months in the year it is perfectly
+safe for shipping, but during the remaining two months, when northern
+gales are frequent, vessels are often driven from their anchorage, and
+compelled to cruise about to avoid being dashed upon the rocks on which
+the city is built. The harbor is circular in form, with an entrance a
+mile or so wide facing the north. A breakwater built across the entrance
+would give the shipping perfect protection, but the sea is so deep&mdash;more
+than a hundred fathoms&mdash;that such a work is considered impracticable. In
+this harbor, drawn up in lines like men-of-war ready for review, are
+hundreds of vessels, bearing the flags of almost every nation on the
+earth except that of our own. Occasionally the Stars and Stripes are
+seen, but so seldom that, as an American resident expressed it, “they
+cure all the sore eyes in town.” Trade is practically controlled by
+Englishmen, all commercial transactions are calculated in pounds
+sterling, and the English language is almost exclusively spoken upon the
+street and in the shops. An English paper is printed there, English
+goods are almost exclusively sold, and this city is nothing more than an
+English colony.</p>
+
+<p>In Valparaiso, as everywhere else in Chili, there is an intense
+prejudice against the United States, growing out of the attitude assumed
+by our Government during the late war<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_455" id="page_455"></a>{455}</span> with Peru. The prejudice has been
+aggravated and stimulated by the English residents. This, with the
+natural arrogance of the Chillanos, who think they have the finest
+country on earth, and that the United States is their only rival, makes
+it rather disagreeable sometimes for Americans who go there to reside.
+For this and other reasons our commerce with Chili has fallen off from
+millions to hundreds of thousands, and it will be difficult to increase
+it as long as the prejudice of the people exists, and lines of English,
+French, German, and Italian vessels connect Valparaiso with the markets
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b455_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b455_sml.jpg" width="324" height="305" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no steam communication with the United States,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_456" id="page_456"></a>{456}</span> and all freight
+is sent in sailing-vessels around the Horn or by way of Hamburg or
+Havre. The freight charges from Valparaiso to New York by way of the
+Isthmus are more than double those to the European ports, and it is
+about thirty per cent. cheaper to ship goods from New York to Europe,
+and from there to South America, than by way of Aspinwall and Panama.
+Passenger fares as well as freight are subject to this discrimination.
+One can go from Valparaiso to Europe <i>via</i> the Strait of Magellan&mdash;a
+voyage of forty-one days&mdash;cheaper than to Panama&mdash;a voyage of twenty
+days, which ought to be made in ten. It costs about ten cents per mile
+on a steamer from Valparaiso to the Isthmus, to California, or to New
+York, and about two cents a mile to Europe. As if this were not enough,
+the steamship company, a British corporation which controls navigation
+on the west coast, arranges its time-tables so as not to connect with
+the New York steamers at the Isthmus, and its steamers usually arrive at
+Panama the day after the Pacific Mail ship leaves Aspinwall, so as to
+subject the traveller to the expense and annoyance of ten days’ delay on
+the fever-haunted Chagres. Freight and mails receive the same treatment,
+and every possible obstacle is raised to divert trade from the United
+States to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Valparaiso means “the Vale of Paradise,” but somehow or other there was
+a misconception in this particular, for there is no vale and no symptoms
+of Paradise. An almost perpendicular mountain ridge forms a crescent
+around the bay, towards the shores of which descend steep, rocky
+escarpments. Here and there watercourses have furrowed ravines, or
+barancas, as they are called, which offer the only means of reaching the
+outer world. Along the narrow strip of sand which lies between the sea
+and the cliffs the town stretches three or four miles. In some places
+there is width enough for only a single street, at others for three or
+four running parallel to each other, but they only extend a few blocks.
+The one street, the only artery of commerce in Valparaiso, is “the Calle
+Victoria,” stretching around the entire harbor, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_457" id="page_457"></a>{457}</span> skirted by all the
+banks and hotels, the counting-houses of the wholesale firms, the shops
+of the retailers, the Government buildings, and the fine private
+residences. The rocky cliffs have been terraced as the town has grown,
+and the city now extends back upon the hills a long distance, one man’s
+house being above another’s, and reached by stairways, winding roads,
+and steam “lifts,” which carry passengers up inclined planes, like those
+at Niagara and Pittsburg. What roads there are were laid out by the
+goats that formerly fed upon the mountain side, and these twist about in
+the most confusing and circuitous fashion. One has to stop and pant for
+breath as he climbs them, and an alpenstock is needed in coming down.
+The hacks in Valparaiso have three horses attached to them, and the
+teaming is done in carts drawn by four oxen.</p>
+
+<p>An evening view of Valparaiso from a steamer in the bay is quite novel,
+as the lines of lights, one above the other, give the appearance of a
+city turned up on end. Electric lamps are placed upon the crests of the
+cliffs, throwing their rays over into the streets and upon the terraces
+below with the effect of moonlight. During the day, however, the
+irregular rows of houses, of different shapes and elevations, clinging
+to the precipices, look as if a strong wind might blow them overboard,
+or an earthquake shake them off into the bay.</p>
+
+<p>The business portion of Valparaiso along the beach shows some fine
+architecture, more elaborate than is to be seen elsewhere in Central and
+South America, there being a rivalry in handsomely carved façades and
+other adornments. The shops and stores are as large, and contain as
+complete an assortment of goods, as those in any city in the world.
+There is no city in the United States having the population of
+Valparaiso (125,000) with so many fine shops, and such a display of
+costly and luxurious articles. The people are wealthy and prosperous,
+the foreign element is large and rich, and the place is famous, as is
+Santiago, the capital, for the extravagance of its citizens. Some of the
+private residences are palatial in their proportions and equipments, and
+millions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_458" id="page_458"></a>{458}</span> dollars are represented under the roofs of bankers and
+merchants. There are clubs as fine as the average in New York or London,
+public reading-rooms, libraries, picture-galleries, and all the elements
+which go to make up modern civilization. The parks and plazas are filled
+with beautiful fountains, and with statuary of bronze and marble, much
+of which, to the shame of Chili, was stolen from the public and private
+gardens of Peru during the late war. The Custom-house is being torn away
+to give place to a magnificent monument to Arthur Pratt, an Irish hero
+of that struggle. Pratt’s reckless courage made him the ideal of all
+that is great and noble in the mind of the Chillanos, who have erected a
+monument to his memory in nearly every town. Streets and shops, saloons,
+mines, opera-houses, and even lotteries are named in his honor, and the
+greatest national tribute is to destroy the old custom-house in order to
+erect his monument in the most conspicuous place in the principal city.</p>
+
+<p>The oddest thing to be seen in Valparaiso is the female street-car
+conductors. The street-car managers of Chili have added another
+occupation to the list of those in which women may engage. The
+experiment was first tried during the war with Peru, when all the
+able-bodied men were sent to the army, and proved so successful that
+their employment has become permanent, to the advantage, it is said, of
+the companies, the women, and the public. The first impression one forms
+of a woman with a bell-punch taking up fares is not favorable, but the
+stranger soon becomes accustomed to this as to all other novelties, and
+concludes that it is not such a bad idea after all. The street-cars are
+double-deckers, with seats upon the roof as well as within, and the
+driver occupies a perch on the rear platform, taking the fare as the
+passenger enters. The Chillano is a rough individual; he is haughty,
+arrogant, impertinent, and abusive. There is more intemperance in Chili
+than in any other of the South American States, and consequently more
+quarrels and murders, but the female conductors are seldom disturbed in
+the discharge of their duties, and when they are, the rule is to call
+upon the policemen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_459" id="page_459"></a>{459}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b459_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b459_sml.jpg" width="324" height="500" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>VICTORIA STREET, VALPARAISO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_460" id="page_460"></a>{460}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_461" id="page_461"></a>{461}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">who stand at every corner, to eject the obstreperous passenger.</p>
+
+<p>Street-car riding is a popular amusement with the young men about town.
+Those who make a business of flirting with the conductors are called
+“mosquitoes” in local parlance, because they swarm so thickly around the
+cars, and are so great a nuisance. Not long ago a comic paper printed a
+cartoon in which some of the best-known faces of the swells of
+Valparaiso appeared on the bodies of mosquitoes swarming around the car
+of “Conductor 97,” who had the reputation of being the prettiest girl on
+the line. This put a stop to the practice for a while, and caused some
+of the fashionable young men to retire to the country, but it was soon
+resumed again. The conductors, or conductresses, are usually young, and
+sometimes quite pretty, being commonly of the mixed race&mdash;of Spanish and
+Indian blood. They wear a neat uniform of blue flannel, with a jaunty
+Panama hat, and a many-pocketed white pinafore, reaching from the breast
+to the ankles, and trimmed with dainty frills. In these pockets they
+carry small change and tickets, while hanging to a strap over their
+shoulders is a little shopping-bag, in which is a lunch, a
+pocket-handkerchief, and surplus money and tickets. Each passenger, when
+paying his fare, receives a yellow paper ticket, numbered, which he is
+expected to destroy. The girls are charged with so many tickets, and
+when they report at headquarters are expected to return money for all
+that are missing, any deficit being deducted from their wages, which are
+twenty-five dollars per month.</p>
+
+<p>The women of Chili are not so pretty as their sisters in Peru. They are
+generally larger in feature and figure, have not the dainty feet and
+supple grace of the Lima belles, and lack their voluptuous languor. In
+Valparaiso half the ladies are of the Saxon type, and blonde hair looks
+grateful when one has seen nothing but midnight tresses for months.
+Here, too, modern costumes are worn more generally than in other South
+American countries, and the shops are full of Paris bonnets. But the
+black manta, with its fringe of lace, is still<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_462" id="page_462"></a>{462}</span> common enough to be
+considered the costume of the country, and is always worn to mass in the
+morning. The manta is becoming to almost everybody. It hides the defects
+of homely forms and figures, and heightens grace and beauty. It makes an
+old woman look young, a stout woman appears more slender under its
+graceful folds, and even a skeleton would look coquettish when wrapped
+in the rich embroidery which some bear.</p>
+
+<p>In Chili mantas and skirts of white flannel are worn by
+<i>penitentas</i>&mdash;women who have committed sin, and thus advertise their
+penitence, or those who have taken some holy vow to get a measure nearer
+heaven, and who go about the street with downcast eyes, looking at
+nothing and recognizing no one. They hover around the churches, and sit
+for hours crouched before some saint or crucifix. In the great cathedral
+at Santiago and in the smaller churches everywhere these penitentas, in
+their snow-white garments, are always to be seen on their knees, or
+posing in other uncomfortable postures, looking like statues. They
+cluster in groups around the confessionals, waiting to receive
+absolution from some fat and burly father, that they may rid their
+bodies of the mark of penitence they carry, and their souls of sin.
+Ladies of high social position and great wealth are commonly found among
+the penitentas, as well as young girls of beauty and winning grace. The
+women of Chili are as pious as the men are proud, and this method of
+securing absolution is quite fashionable. Souls that cannot be purged by
+this penitential dress retire to a convent in the outskirts of the city,
+called the Convent of the Penitentes, where they scourge themselves with
+whips, mortify the flesh with sackcloth, sleep in ashes and upon stone
+floors, and feed themselves on mouldy crusts, until the priests by whose
+advice they go give them absolution. They are usually women who have
+been unfaithful to their marriage vows, or girls who have yielded to
+temptation. After the society season and the carnivals, at the end of
+the summer, when people return from the fashionable resorts, and at the
+beginning of Lent, these places are full. For those whose sins<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_463" id="page_463"></a>{463}</span> have
+been too great to be washed out by this process, whose shame has been
+published to the world, and who are unfitted under social laws to
+associate with the pure, other convents are open as a refuge. Young
+mothers without husbands are here cared for, and their babes are taken
+to an orphan asylum in the neighborhood, to be reared by the nuns for
+the priesthood and other religious orders.</p>
+
+<p>It was from one of these places that the famous Henry Meiggs got his
+second wife, and the adventure is still related with great gusto by the
+gossips of Chili. An American dentist named Robinson lived in the same
+block on which the convent was situated, and from the roof of his house
+the garden of the nuns was plainly visible. Boccaccio never told a more
+romantic tale, for it involved notes tied to stones and thrown into the
+garden, rope-ladders, excited nuns, infuriated parents, and an outraged
+Church. But the adventure was followed by forgiveness and marriage, and
+the widow now lives in Santiago, in the luxury which her legacy from the
+great railroad contractor provides.</p>
+
+<p>In the orphan asylum at Santiago there are said to be two thousand
+children of unknown parentage, supported by the Church, and this in a
+city of two hundred thousand people. There is a very convenient mode for
+the disposition of foundlings. In the rear wall surrounding the place is
+an aperture, with a wooden box or cradle which swings out and in. A
+mother who has no use for her baby goes there at night, places the
+little one in the cradle, swings it inside, and the nuns on guard
+hearing a bell that rings automatically, take the infant to the nursery.
+The next morning the mother, if she has no occupation to detain her,
+applies for employment as a wetnurse. However this plan may be regarded
+by stern moralists, it is certainly an improvement on infanticide, a
+crime almost unknown in Chili. But one may hunt the country over to find
+a house of correction for men. Sin, shame, and penitence appear to be
+the exclusive attributes of the weaker sex. Men are never seen at the
+confessional; they never wear white wrappings to advertise their guilt;
+and at mass in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_464" id="page_464"></a>{464}</span> morning the average attendance is about one man to
+every hundred women.</p>
+
+<p>Santiago is reached from Valparaiso by a railway which is run on the
+English plan, and is similar in its equipment and system of management
+to those of Europe. The scenery along the line is picturesque, the
+snow-caps of the Andean peaks being constantly in view, and Aconcagua,
+the highest mountain on this hemisphere, can be seen nearly the entire
+distance. A few miles from Valparaiso, and the first station on the
+road, is Vin del Mar, the Long Branch of Chili, where many of the
+wealthy residents of the country have fine establishments, and usually
+spend the summer. It is by far the most modern and elegant fashionable
+resort in South America, and reminds one of the popular haunts along the
+Mediterranean. The journey to Santiago is made in about five hours, and
+one is agreeably surprised when he arrives to find in the capital of
+Chili one of the finest cities on the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Although the climate of Santiago is similar to that of Washington or St.
+Louis, the people have a notion that fires in their houses are
+unhealthful, and, except in those built by English or American
+residents, there is nothing like a grate or a stove to be found.
+Everybody wears the warmest sort of underclothing, and heavy wraps
+in-doors and out. The people spend six months of the year in a perpetual
+shiver, and the remainder in a perpetual perspiration. It looks rather
+odd to see civilized people sitting in a parlor, surrounded by every
+possible luxury that wealth can bring (except fire) wrapped in furs and
+rugs, with blue noses and chattering teeth, when coal is cheap, and the
+mountains are covered with timber. But nothing can convince a Chillano
+that artificial heat is healthful, and during the winter, which is the
+rainy season, he has not the wit to warm his chilled body. It is odd,
+too, to see in the streets men wearing fur caps, and with their throats
+wrapped in heavy mufflers, while the women who walk beside them have
+nothing on their heads at all. During the morning, while on the way from
+mass, or while shopping, the women wear the manta, as they do in Peru,
+but in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_465" id="page_465"></a>{465}</span> afternoons, on the promenade, or when riding, they go
+bareheaded. Although the prevailing diseases are pneumonia and other
+throat and lung complaints, and during the winter the mortality from
+these causes is immense, the Chillano persists in believing that
+artificial heat poisons the atmosphere; and when he visits the home of a
+foreigner, and finds a fire, he will ask that the door be left ajar, so
+that he may be as chilly as usual. At fashionable gatherings,
+dinner-parties, and that sort of thing, I have seen women in full
+evening-dress with bare arms and shoulders, with the temperature of the
+room between forty and fifty Fahrenheit. They often carry into the
+<i>salon</i> or dining-room their fur wraps, and wear them at the table,
+while at every chair is a foot-warmer of thick llama wool, into which
+they poke their dainty slippered toes. These foot-warmers are ornamental
+as well as useful, have embroidered cases, and are manufactured at home,
+or can be purchased of the nuns, who spend much of their time in
+needle-work.</p>
+
+<p>Every lady seen on the street in the morning carries a prayer-rug, often
+handsomely embroidered, which she kneels upon at mass to protect her
+limbs from the damp stone floors of the churches, in which there are
+never any pews. It used to be the proper thing to have a servant follow
+my lady, bearing her rug and prayer-book, but that fashion has now
+become obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>The shops do not open until nine or ten o’clock in the morning, close
+from five to seven to allow the proprietors and clerks to dine, and are
+then open again until midnight, as between eight and eleven o’clock at
+night most of the retail trading is done. The finest shops are in the
+arcades or <i>portales</i>, like the Palais Royal in Paris, and are
+brilliantly lighted with electricity. Here the ladies gather, swarming
+around the pretty goods like bees around the flowers, and of course the
+haughty and impertinent dons come also to stare at them. It seems to be
+considered a compliment, a mark of admiration, to stare at a woman, for
+she never turns away. To these nightly gatherings come all who have
+nothing serious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_466" id="page_466"></a>{466}</span> to detain them, and the flirtations begun at the
+portales are the curse of the women of Santiago. It is not rude to
+address a lady who has returned your glance, and while she may repulse
+her admirer, she will nevertheless boast of the attention as a
+pronounced form of flattery.</p>
+
+<p>The shops are full of the prettiest sorts of goods, the most expensive
+diamonds, jewellery, and laces. The Santiagoans boast that everything
+that can be found in Paris can be purchased there, and one easily
+believes it to be true. There is plenty of money in Chili; the people
+have a refined taste and luxurious habits. Many of the private houses
+are palatial, and the toilets of the women are superb. The equipages to
+be seen in Santiago are equal to those of New York or London, and the
+Alameda, on pleasant afternoons, is crowded with handsome carriages,
+with liveried coachmen and footmen, like Central Park or Rotten Row.</p>
+
+<p>The Alameda is six hundred feet in width, broken by four rows of
+poplar-trees, and stretches the full length of the city&mdash;four
+miles&mdash;from “Santa Lucia” to the Exposition Park and Horticultural
+Gardens. In the centre is a promenade, while on either side is a
+drive-way one hundred feet wide. The promenade is dotted with a line of
+statues representing the famous men or commemorating the famous events
+in the history of Chili, a country which has assassinated or sent into
+exile some of her noblest sons, but never fails to perpetuate their
+memory in bronze or marble. On the Alameda, from three to five o’clock
+every afternoon during the season, several military bands are placed at
+intervals of half a mile or so, and the music calls out all the
+population to walk or drive. During the summer the music is given in the
+evening instead of the afternoon, when the portales are deserted for the
+out-door promenade.</p>
+
+<p>Fronting the Alameda are the finest palaces in the city, magnificent
+dwellings of carved sandstone often one or two hundred feet square, with
+the invariable patio and its fountains and flowers in the centre. Houses
+which cost half a million dollars to build and a quarter of a million to
+furnish<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_467" id="page_467"></a>{467}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b467_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b467_sml.jpg" width="322" height="397" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SANTA LUCIA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">are common; and there are some even more expensive. The former residence
+of the late Henry Meiggs, surrounded by a forest of foliage and a
+beautiful garden, stands in the centre of a park eight hundred feet
+square. It is a conspicuous example of extravagance, having cost a mint
+of money, every timber and brick and tile being imported at enormous
+expense. It is at present unoccupied, and in a state of decay, there
+being no one, since the death of Meiggs, with the courage or the means
+to sustain such grandeur. But though<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_468" id="page_468"></a>{468}</span> the nabobs seek the boulevard of
+the city to display their wealth and architectural taste, some of the
+side streets have residences quite as grand, and even more aristocratic.
+These more retired quarters have an air of gentility which the Alameda
+has not acquired&mdash;a sort of established aristocratic repose&mdash;a riper,
+richer, and more honorable quiet, that suggests something of social
+distinction and haughty exclusiveness, venerable solitude and commercial
+solidity. Another monument to the extravagance of men is known as
+“O’Brien’s Folly.” It is a magnificent structure, modelled after a
+Turkish palace, and its cost was fabulous. The owner was an Irish
+adventurer, who discovered one of the richest silver mines in Chili, and
+who lived like a prince until his money was gone. His castle is now
+unoccupied, and he is again in the mountains prospecting for another
+fortune.</p>
+
+<p>“Santa Lucia” is the most beautiful place I have seen in South America.
+It is a pile of rocks six hundred feet high, cast by some volcanic
+agency into the centre of the great plain on which the city stands. It
+was here that the United States Astronomical Expedition of 1852, under
+Lieutenant Gillis, made observations. Before that time, and as far back
+as the Spanish Invasion, it was a magnificent fortress, commanding the
+entire valley with its guns. Tradition has it that the King of the
+Araucanians had a stronghold here before the Spaniards came. After the
+departure of the United States expedition Vicunæ McCenna, a
+public-spirited man of wealth in Santiago, undertook the work of
+beautifying the place. By the aid of private subscriptions, and much of
+his own means, he sought all the resources that taste could suggest and
+money reach to improve on nature’s grandeur. His success was complete.
+Winding walks and stairways, parapets and balconies, grottoes and
+flower-beds, groves of trees and vine-hung arbors, follow one another
+from the base to the summit; while upon the west, at the edge of a
+precipice eight hundred feet high, are a miniature castle and a lovely
+little chapel, in whose crypt Vicunæ McCenna has asked that his bones be
+laid. Below the chapel, three or four hundred feet on the opposite side
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_469" id="page_469"></a>{469}</span> the hill, is a level place on which a restaurant and an out-door
+theatre have been erected. Here, on summer nights, come the population
+of the city to eat ices, drink beer, and laugh at the farces played upon
+the stage, while bands of music and dancing make the people merry. This
+is the resort of the aristocracy. The poor people go to Cousino Park, at
+the other end of the Alameda, drink <i>chicha</i>, and dance the <i>cuaca</i>
+(pronounced <i>quaker</i>), the Chillano national dance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b469_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b469_sml.jpg" width="264" height="242" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE ZAMA-CUACA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cuaca is a sort of can-can, except that it is decent, and the men
+instead of the girls do the high kicking. But when the dancers are under
+the influence of chicha&mdash;that liquor which tastes like hard cider, but
+is ninety per cent. alcohol&mdash;skirts and modesty are no impediments to
+the success of the dance. The couples pair off and face each other,
+while on benches near by are women thrumming guitars and singing a wild
+barbaric air in polka time. Each woman and man has a handkerchief which
+he or she waves in the air, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_470" id="page_470"></a>{470}</span> sway around in postures that are
+intended to show the grace and suppleness of the performer, and often
+do. The dance usually ends with a wild carousal, in which men and women
+mingle promiscuously, embrace each other, and then go off to the chicha
+bars to get stimulants for the next. It is common in fashionable society
+to end the tertulias with the cuaca, as in the United States with the
+ancient “Virginia reel;” and if the young people are unusually
+hilarious, scenes occur which watchful dowagers desire to prevent.
+School-girls at the convents dance the cuaca when the nuns will allow
+them; and although in its ordinary form it is not nearly so immodest as
+some of our dances, license has been taken so often as to bring it into
+disrepute. One evening at the opera a pretty married woman was pointed
+out as the most graceful and agile cuaca dancer in Chili, and it was
+asserted that she could throw her heels higher than her head.</p>
+
+<p>At the other end of the Alameda are the Exposition grounds and
+Horticultural gardens, laid out in good style, and improved to the
+highest degree of landscape architecture. There is a fine stone and
+glass building, a miniature copy of the Crystal Palace in London, used
+as the National Museum of Chili, whose contents were mostly stolen from
+Peru during the late war. A zoological garden has been added, to exhibit
+the animals brought from Peru, like the curiosities of the museum, as
+contraband of war. The elephant died from the severity of the climate,
+two of the lions are missing from the same cause, and the rest of the
+menagerie are suffering from exposure and cold to which they are
+unaccustomed.</p>
+
+<p>The opera-house at Santiago is owned by the city, and is claimed to be
+the finest structure of the sort in all America. It certainly surpasses
+in size, arrangement, and gorgeousness any we have in the United States.
+It is built upon the European plan, with four balconies, three of which
+are divided off into boxes upholstered in the most luxurious manner. The
+balconies are supported by brackets, so that there are no pillars to
+obstruct the view. Under the direction of the mayor, each year, the
+boxes are sold at auction for the season, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_471" id="page_471"></a>{471}</span> the receipts given, in
+whole or in part, as a subsidy to the opera management.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b471_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b471_sml.jpg" width="314" height="172" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>EXPOSITION BUILDING, SANTIAGO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Everywhere one goes in Santiago and other cities in Chili are to be seen
+the ornaments of which Peru was so mercilessly plundered&mdash;statuary and
+fountains, ornamental street-lamps, benches of carved stone in the parks
+and the Alameda, and almost everything that beautifies the streets.
+Transports that were sent up to Callao with troops brought back cargoes
+of pianos, pictures, furniture, books, and articles of household
+decoration stolen from the homes of the Peruvians. Lampposts torn up
+from their foundations, pretty iron fences and images from the
+cemeteries, altar equipments of silver from the churches, statuary from
+the parks and streets, and everything that the hands of thieves and
+vandals could reach, were stolen. Clocks&mdash;one of which now gives time to
+the marketplace of Santiago&mdash;were taken from the steeples of the
+churches, and even the effigies of saints were lifted from the altars
+and stripped of the embroideries and jewels they had received from their
+devotees. In the courtyard of the post-office at Santiago are two
+statues of marble which cause the American tourist to start in surprise,
+for George Washington and Abraham<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_472" id="page_472"></a>{472}</span> Lincoln stand like unexpected ghosts
+before him. Their presence is not announced in any of the guide-books,
+which is accounted for by the fact that they, like most everything else
+of the kind in Chili, were brought from Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The new hotel, in the eyes of foreigners who have been compelled to stop
+at the old ones, is the finest ornament in Santiago. It is a magnificent
+structure, with three hundred thousand dollars’ worth of furniture from
+Paris, and a five thousand dollar cook from the same place. All the
+rooms have grates for fires&mdash;which is an innovation&mdash;and are furnished
+as handsomely as any of the hotels in New York, while the restaurant is
+as good as Delmonico’s. Of course there must be some oddity about the
+place&mdash;it would not be suited to the country if there were not&mdash;and here
+it is that the bar is placed in the café where the ladies lunch. It is
+the only hotel bar in South America; and the proprietor, who wanted to
+introduce all the modern improvements, was rather bewildered in
+selecting the location of this one. It is a gorgeous affair of silver
+and crystal, and the ladies admire it as much as do the men. At first
+they were disposed to walk up and say, “The same for me, if you please,”
+with their brothers and husbands, but have been convinced that the
+proper form is to sit at the tables and take their drinks there. To see
+a lady drinking a cocktail in the bar-room of the Grand Central of
+Santiago may startle the prohibitionist who goes there, but it is quite
+as much the fashion as is the sucking of mint-juleps through a straw on
+the balconies of a Long Branch hotel.</p>
+
+<p>The Chillano is the Yankee of South America&mdash;the most active,
+enterprising, ingenious, and thrifty of the Spanish-American
+race&mdash;aggressive, audacious, and arrogant, quick to perceive, quick to
+resent, fierce in disposition, cold-blooded, and cruel as a cannibal. He
+dreams of conquest. He has only a strip of country along the Pacific
+coast, so narrow that there is scarcely room enough to write its name
+upon the map, hemmed in on the one side by the eternal snows that crown
+the Cordilleras, and on the other side by six thousand miles of sea. He
+has been stretching himself northward<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_473" id="page_473"></a>{473}</span> until he has stolen all the
+sea-coast of Bolivia, with her valuable nitrate deposits, all the guano
+that belonged to Peru, and contemplates soon taking actual possession of
+both those republics. He has been reaching southward by diplomacy as he
+did northward by war; and under a recent treaty with the Argentine
+Republic he has divided Patagonia with that nation, taking to himself
+the control of that valuable international highway, the Strait of
+Magellan, and the unexplored country between the Andes and the ocean,
+with thousands of islands along the Pacific coast whose resources are
+unknown. By securing the strait, Chili acquired control of steam
+navigation in the South Pacific, and has established a colony and
+fortress at Punta Arenas by which all vessels must pass.</p>
+
+<p>Reposing tranquilly now in the enjoyment of the newly acquired territory
+along the Bolivian and Peruvian border, and deriving an enormous revenue
+from the export tax upon nitrate, the Chillano contemplates the internal
+dissensions of Peru, and waits anxiously for the time when he can step
+in as arbitrator and, like the lawyer, take the estate that the heirs
+are silly enough to quarrel over. It is but a question of years when not
+only Peru but Bolivia will become a part of Chili; when the aggressive
+nation will want to push her eastern boundary back of the Andes, and
+secure control of the sources of the Amazon, as she has of the
+navigation of the strait.</p>
+
+<p>On the beautiful Alameda of Santiago stands a marble monument erected
+several years ago, after the partition of Patagonia, to commemorate the
+generosity of the Argentine Republic. That statue will some day be
+pulled down by a mob. The people are already regretting the impulsive
+cordiality which suggested it, and are looking with jealous eyes at the
+progress and prosperity of their eastern neighbor. But Chili will find
+in the Argentines a more formidable foe than the nation has yet met, and
+her generals will have some of the conceit taken out of them if the
+armies of the two ever come into collision. Although the Argentine
+Republic is making more rapid strides towards national greatness, there
+is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_474" id="page_474"></a>{474}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b474_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b474_sml.jpg" width="324" height="311" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STATUE OF BERNARD O’HIGGINS, SANTIAGO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">doubt that at present, in all the conditions of modern civilization,
+Chili leads the Southern Continent, and is the most powerful of all the
+republics in America except our own. Her statesmen are wise and able,
+her people are industrious and progressive, and have that strength of
+mind and muscle which is given only to the men of temperate zones. There
+is a strong similarity between the Chillanos and the Irish. Both have
+the same wit and reckless courage, the same love of country and
+patriotic pride; and wherever a Chillano goes he carries his opinion
+that there never was and never can be a better land than that in which
+he was born; and although he may be a refugee or an exile, he will fight
+in defence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_475" id="page_475"></a>{475}</span> Chili at the drop of the hat. There is something
+refreshing in his patriotism, even if it be the most arrogant vanity.
+Our people are becoming ashamed of their Fourth of July, and the
+Declaration of Independence is the butt of professional jokers. The
+Chillano will cut the throat of a man who will not celebrate with him
+the 18th of September, his Independence Day; and there is a law in the
+country requiring every house to have a flag-staff, and every flag-staff
+to bear the national colors&mdash;a banner by day and a lantern by night&mdash;on
+the anniversaries of the republic. All the schools must use text-books
+by native authors, all the bands play the compositions of native
+composers, and visiting opera and concert singers are compelled to vary
+their performances by introducing the songs of the country. It is said
+that a Frenchman can never be denationalized. The same is true of the
+Chillano. There has not been a successful revolution in Chili since
+1839; and although there is nowhere a more unruly and discordant people,
+nowhere so much murder and other serious crimes, in their love of
+country the haughty don and the patient peon, the hunted bandit and the
+cruel soldier, are one.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b475_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b475_sml.jpg" width="184" height="236" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PATRICK LYNCH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the leading men of Chili are and have been of Irish descent.
+Barney O’Higgins was the liberator, the George Washington of the
+republic, and Patrick Lynch was the foremost soldier of Chili in the
+late war. The O’Learys and McGarrys and other Chillano-Irish families
+are prominent in politics<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_476" id="page_476"></a>{476}</span> and war and trade. There is a sympathetic
+bond between the shamrock and the condor, and nowhere in South America
+does the Irish emigrant so prosperously thrive. Chillano wit is
+proverbial. The jolly, care-for-nothing peasant is the same there as
+upon the old sod, and the turgid, grandiloquent style of literature
+which prevails in other portions of Spanish-America in Chili finds a
+substitute in the soul-stirring, fervid oratory which is one of the
+gifts of the Irish race. A Chillano driver who was beating a mule was
+remonstrated with. The man looked up and remarked that it was the most
+obstinate animal he ever drove. “The beast thinks he ought to have been
+a bishop,” he said.</p>
+
+<p>The vanity of the Chillano passes all comprehension. The officers of the
+army and navy actually offered their services, through the British
+minister, to England when there was a rumor of war with Russia; and with
+the slightest encouragement they would be willing to take the domestic
+as well as the international complications off the hands of the British
+cabinet. One day the English paper at Valparaiso published a satire,
+announcing that the Lords of the Admiralty had selected three leading
+Chillano naval officers to command the Bosporus, the Baltic, and the
+North Atlantic fleets. The officers as well as the people would not
+accept the bogus cablegram as a joke until the next issue of the paper,
+in which it was explained; and the former were actually polishing up
+their swords and uniforms to take their new commands.</p>
+
+<p>The Chillano is not only vain but cruel&mdash;as cruel as death. He carries a
+long curved knife, called a <i>curvo</i>, as the Italian carries a stiletto
+and the negro a razor, and uses it to cut throats. He never fights with
+his fists, and knows not the use of the shillalah; he never carries a
+revolver, and is nothing of a thug; but as a robber or bandit, in a
+private quarrel or a public mob, he always uses this deadly knife, and
+springs at the throat of his enemy like a blood-hound. There is scarcely
+an issue of a daily paper without one or two throat-cutting incidents,
+and in the publications succeeding feast-days or carnivals their bloody
+annals fill columns.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_477" id="page_477"></a>{477}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 506px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b477_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b477_sml.jpg" width="506" height="316" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PEONS OF CHILI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_478" id="page_478"></a>{478}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_479" id="page_479"></a>{479}</span></p>
+
+<p>As a soldier the Chillano is brave to recklessness, and a sense of fear
+is unknown to him. He will not endure a siege, nor can he be made to
+fight at long range; but as soon as he sees the enemy he fires one
+volley, drops his gun, and rushes in with his curvo. His endurance is as
+great as his courage, and no North American Indian can travel so far
+without rest or go so long without food and water as the Chillano peon,
+or <i>roto</i>, as the mixed race is called. As the cholo in Peru is the
+descendant of the Spaniards and the Incas, so is the roto in Chili the
+child of the Spaniards and the Araucanian Indians, the race of giants
+with which the early explorers reported that Patagonia was
+peopled&mdash;“Menne of that bigginess,” as Sir Francis Drake reported, “that
+it seemed the trees of the forests were uprooted and were moving away.”
+They have the Spanish tenacity of purpose, the Indian endurance, and the
+cruelty of both. Each soldier, in the mountains or the desert, carries
+on his breast two buckskin bags. In one are the leaves of the
+coca-plant, in the other powdered lime made of the ashes of
+potato-skins. The coca is the strongest sort of a tonic, and by chewing
+it the Chillano soldier can abstain from food or drink for a week or ten
+days at a stretch. He takes a bunch of leaves as big as a quid of
+tobacco in his mouth, and occasionally mixes the potato-ashes with the
+saliva to give the juice a relish. Canon Kingsley, in that remarkable
+novel, “Westward Ho!” describes two of the band of Amyas Leigh as
+deserting their companions at the sources of the Amazon, and takes them
+into a beautiful bower with two Dianas of the Indian type. There they
+chew coca-leaves with the girls, sink into a voluptuous stupor, and give
+themselves up to love, like the lotos-eaters, until Amyas comes to
+remonstrate. The men recommend him to follow their example with the
+Venus who has been found in an Indian queen and admires the young
+commander; and the Puritan is on the point of yielding to the
+fascination of the scene, when a reptile comes, strangles one of the
+girls, and revives the moral instincts of the men. The reverend
+word-painter was misinformed as to the peculiar influence of the drug,
+as it does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_480" id="page_480"></a>{480}</span> produce a stupor in those who use it. It is not a
+narcotic, but a stimulant.</p>
+
+<p>The Chillano soldier is not easily subjected to discipline, and
+outvandals the Vandals in the destruction of property, as the present
+condition of Peru will prove. He burns and destroys everything within
+his reach that has sheltered an enemy. No authority can restrain his
+hand. The awful scenes of devastation that took place have nothing to
+parallel them in the annals of modern warfare. On the battle-fields
+nine-tenths of the dead were found with their throats cut, and the
+Chillanos took no prisoners except when a whole army capitulated. They
+ask no quarter and give none. The knowledge of this characteristic, and
+the fear of the Chillano knife, were powerful factors in the subjugation
+of the more humane Peruvians.</p>
+
+<p>The Chillanos are cruel to beasts as well as to men. Horses are very
+cheap in Chili. A good native broncho can be purchased for five dollars,
+and his owner knows no mercy. The beasts are driven until they drop, and
+then new ones are sought and subjected to the same treatment. No care is
+taken to protect or make the animals comfortable. Although the weather
+is usually cold, stables for horses or cattle are almost unknown. When
+their labor is over they are turned into a corral, or a pasture, or the
+street, to seek their own food.</p>
+
+<p>The Chillanos are also careless of machinery. While they are quick to
+learn, and have much native mechanical ingenuity, they cannot be trusted
+as machinists. The magnificent cruiser <i>Esmeralda</i>, one of the finest
+ships-of-war afloat, was built in England for the Chillian Government at
+a cost of one and a half million dollars, but she had not been in the
+hands of native engineers six weeks before her engines needed repairs
+and her boilers were ruined. In 1885, during the troubles between
+England and Russia, she was chartered by the British Government, but
+afterwards returned to Chili. The Chillanos have a line of steamers
+running from Valparaiso up and down the coast. They are the finest ships
+on the Pacific, built on the Clyde, with all modern improvements,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_481" id="page_481"></a>{481}</span> but
+the engineers and captains are Englishmen or Scotchmen. The Government
+owns and manages the railroads in the republic, but the locomotive
+drivers are foreigners. Every three or four years&mdash;usually before a
+Presidential election&mdash;these men are discharged and natives employed in
+their stead; but until election is over, and the old engineers are
+restored to their places, there is a carnival of accidents, and
+passenger travel is practically suspended. On all railroads are heavy
+grades and dangerous curves, requiring the greatest care on the part of
+locomotive drivers. The reckless Chillano thinks it great fun to run a
+train down a grade at full speed, and a collision is his delight. He
+enjoys seeing things smashed up, and knows nothing of the necessity of
+operating trains on schedule time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b481_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b481_sml.jpg" width="349" height="186" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE “ESMERALDA.”</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In trade the Chillano is a Yankee. At market or in the native shops the
+buyer is not expected to pay the price first asked. He is expected to
+enter into a <i>negotio</i>, and the seller is disappointed if he loses an
+opportunity to show his shrewdness in the barter. There is no regularly
+established price for any article. A market-woman will ask two dollars
+for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_482" id="page_482"></a>{482}</span> basket of fruit for which she expects to get fifty cents. She
+will haggle and chatter, plead and remonstrate, and if you start towards
+another stall, will abandon half a dozen other customers and follow you
+around, until she finally “splits the difference,” and goes away smiling
+at her success. The traveller meets with this experience everywhere,
+particularly at the posadas; and the only safe way to avoid being
+mercilessly swindled is to make a bargain in writing beforehand.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the hotel-keepers are women, whose husbands are engaged in other
+occupations; but all the servants, including the cooks and
+chamber-“maids,” are men. There are better cooks and better classes of
+food than in other South American countries, and one seldom fails to
+find a good inn even in the country villages. The markets of Chili, too,
+are better. The beef, mutton, and other meats have the flavor that is
+found only in temperate climates; the fish are not so rank and coarse as
+those caught in tropical waters; and while vegetation is not so
+prolific, the fruits of the earth have a finer taste. There are oysters
+equal to those of New Orleans or Mobile, clams and lobsters, and plenty
+of shrimps, called <i>camarons</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another oddity is the milk stations. At distances of a few blocks on all
+but the principal business streets is a platform where a cow is tied,
+which is milked to order by a dairy-maid whenever a customer calls. On a
+table near by are found measures, cans, and glasses, and often a bottle
+of brandy, so that a thirsty man can mix a glass of punch if he chooses.
+In the morning these stands are surrounded by servants from the
+aristocratic houses, women and children, with cups and buckets, awaiting
+their turn; and as fast as one cow is exhausted another is driven upon
+the platform.</p>
+
+<p>The scarcity of lumber has caused the poorer classes to use corrugated
+sheet-iron as a building material, while the rich use stone for exterior
+walls, and sun-dried brick or adobe for partitions. There are whole
+blocks in Valparaiso in which nothing but corrugated-iron houses can be
+seen, both roof and walls being of the same material. It is said to bear
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_483" id="page_483"></a>{483}</span> effects of earthquakes well. People expect an earthquake about once
+in ten days the year round, and more frequently during the changes of
+season; but great damage is seldom done. There are two kinds of
+earthquake, the <i>terremoto</i> and the <i>temblor</i>. The latter is only a
+quivering or shaking of the ground, and is quite common; the other
+describes the convulsions of the earth when it cracks and rolls like the
+swell of the sea, overthrows cities, and buries towns in their own
+ruins. Valparaiso and Santiago have never known any of the latter sort,
+which are confined to the mountain districts and the neighborhood of
+volcanoes.</p>
+
+<p>There are more comforts among the people than elsewhere upon the
+continent, and a higher degree of taste, as is shown by the articles
+offered for sale in the shops as well as in the houses of the residents,
+which is owing in a great degree to the example of the large foreign
+population. The Rev. Dr. Trumbull, who has been in Chili forty-five
+years, says that he has noticed a marked change in this respect within
+the last decade, and has seen a gradual and permanent growth in
+refinement and honesty.</p>
+
+<p>In Chili, as in all the Spanish-American countries, every man and woman
+is named after the saint whose anniversary is nearest the day on which
+he or she was born, and that saint is expected to look after the welfare
+of those christened in his or her honor. These names sound well in
+Spanish, but when they come to be translated into unpoetic English there
+is an oddity, and often something comical, about them. For example, the
+name of the recent President of Chili is Domingo Santa Maria&mdash;which,
+being interpreted, means Sunday St. Mary. The name of the President of
+Ecuador is Jesus Mary Caamaño (apple), and that of the Governor of the
+Province of Valparaiso is Domingo Torres (Sunday Bull). A waiter at the
+hotel happened to be a Christmas gift to his parents, whose family name
+was Vaca (cow), and in honor of the day they called him Jesu Christo
+Vaca. Such blasphemy would not be tolerated in any other country; but
+the use of the Saviour’s name is very common, even upon the signs of
+stores and saloons<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_484" id="page_484"></a>{484}</span> in cities, and in the nomenclature of the streets. I
+met a girl once whose name was Dolores Digerier (sorrowful stomach).</p>
+
+<p>In Chili women are employed not only as street-car conductors, but they
+do all the street-cleaning, and gangs of them with willow brooms
+sweeping the dirt into the ditches can be seen by any one who has
+curiosity enough to get up at daylight. They occupy the markets, too,
+selling meats as well as vegetables. On the streets they keep
+fruit-stands, and have canvas awnings under which, if you choose, you
+can sit and eat watermelons, a fruit much esteemed in Chili. Outside of
+the cities the women keep the shops and the drinking-places, and do all
+the garden work. The laundry work is done at public fountains, as in
+other of the Spanish-American countries; but the washer-women of Chili
+do not go almost naked, as some of their neighbors do.</p>
+
+<p>The native Peruvian, the descendant of the ancient Incas, has learned
+nothing since the Conquest, and has forgotten most of the arts his
+fathers knew, among them being the process by which the ancient race
+rendered copper as hard as steel. Thousands of dollars have been offered
+for that secret by modern bidders, but it is lost forever, and the
+ingenuity and knowledge of modern chemists cannot discover the process.
+The modern Inca wears the same blanket, or poncho, made of vicuña hair,
+that his fathers did, and the same shoes made of raw hide. He has
+rougher roads to travel than has the native of Central America, hence
+his shoe is made to curl over on the sides and behind, so as to protect
+the toes and the heel from contact with the rocks. It is cut in a single
+piece from hide when green, and is made to curl by stretching it over a
+primitive sort of last and keeping it in position until dry. The shoe is
+attached to the foot by a thong, which passes along the entire top of
+the shoe, laced through holes cut in the hide, and ending at the heel in
+two strips, which are secured around the ankle. The evolution of the
+native shoe is found in Chili; and although it lacks the maturity and
+sanctity of age, which the Peruvian article enjoys, is a rather more
+nobby<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_485" id="page_485"></a>{485}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b485_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b485_sml.jpg" width="323" height="474" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INCA QUEEN AND PRINCESS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_486" id="page_486"></a>{486}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_487" id="page_487"></a>{487}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">affair. The sole is made of wood, rudely cut by hand with a knife, and
+over the instep passes a piece of patent leather reaching from the toes
+to the ankle, which is nailed to the sole by rows of brass-headed tacks.
+The toes and heel are entirely without protection, and it requires a
+great deal of experience to keep the shoe on. It is worn in the coldest
+weather, over a very heavy and thick stocking knit of llama wool, and an
+uglier pair of feet and legs than are shown by the short-skirted peasant
+women of Chili were never seen. The men wear the same sort of shoe&mdash;not
+quite so fancy in design nor of such fine materials, however; but as
+they spend most of their time in the saddle it is not so bad.</p>
+
+<p>The Crœsus of South America is a woman, Donna Isadora Cousino, of
+Santiago, Chili, and there are few men or women in the world richer than
+she. There is no end to her money and no limit to her extravagance, and
+the people call her the Countess of Monte Cristo. She traces her
+ancestry back to the days of the Conquest, and has the record of the
+first of her fathers who landed early on the shores of the New World.
+His family was already famous, for his sire fought under the ensign of
+the Arragons before the alliance with Castile. But the branch of the
+family that remained in Spain was lost in the world’s great shuffle two
+or three centuries ago, and none of them distinguished themselves
+sufficiently to get their portraits into the collection which Señora
+Cousino has made of the lineage she claims.</p>
+
+<p>Like her own, the ancestors of her late husband came over in the early
+days, and in the partition of the lands and spoils of the Conquest both
+got a large share, which they kept and increased by adding the portions
+given to their less thrifty and less enterprising associates, until the
+two estates became the largest, most productive, and most valuable of
+all the haciendas of Chili, and were finally united into one by the
+marriage, twenty-four years ago, of the late Don and his surviving
+widow. While he lived he was considered the richest man in Chili, and
+she the richest woman, for their property was kept separate, the husband
+managing his estate and the wife her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_488" id="page_488"></a>{488}</span> own, and the people say that she
+was altogether the better “administrator” of the two. This fact he
+acknowledged in his will when he bequeathed all of his possessions to
+her, and piled his Pelion upon her Ossa; so that she has millions of
+acres of land, millions of money; flocks and herds that are numbered by
+the hundreds of thousands; coal, copper, and silver mines; acres of real
+estate in the cities of Santiago and Valparaiso; a fleet of iron
+steamships, smelting-works, a railroad, and various other trifles in the
+way of productive property, which yield her an income of several
+millions a year that she tries very hard to spend, and under the
+circumstances succeeds as well as could be expected. From her coal-mines
+alone Señora Cousino has an income of eighty thousand dollars a month;
+and there is no reason why this should not be perpetual, as they are the
+only source in all South America from which fuel can be obtained, and
+those who do not buy of her have to import their coal from Great
+Britain. She has a fleet of eight iron steamships, of capacities varying
+from two thousand to three thousand six hundred tons, which were built
+in England, and are used to carry the coal up the coast as far as
+Panama, and around the Strait of Magellan to Buenos Ayres and
+Montevideo. At Lota she has copper and silver smelting-works, besides
+coal-mines, and her coaling ships bring ore down the coast as a return
+cargo from upper Chili, Peru, and Ecuador; while those that go to Buenos
+Ayres bring back beef and flour and merchandise for the consumption of
+her people.</p>
+
+<p>Although Lota is only a mining town, as dirty and smoky as any of its
+counterparts in Pennsylvania, it is the widow’s favorite place of
+residence, and she is now building a mansion that will cost at least a
+million dollars. The architect and the chief builder are Frenchmen, whom
+she imported from Paris, and much of the material is also imported. Not
+long ago she shipped a cargo of hides and wool in one of her own
+steamers to Bordeaux, and it is to return laden with building supplies
+for this mansion. She herself has no time to go across the sea, but the
+captain of her ship will bring with him decorators<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_489" id="page_489"></a>{489}</span> and designers and
+upholstery men, who will finish the interior of her mansion regardless
+of expense.</p>
+
+<p>The structure stands in the centre of what is undoubtedly the finest
+private park in the world&mdash;an area of two hundred and fifty acres of
+land laid out in the most elaborate manner, containing statuary,
+fountains, caves, cascades, and no end of beautiful trees and plants.
+The improvement of the natural beauty of the place is said to have cost
+Señora Cousino nearly a million dollars, and she has a force of thirty
+gardeners constantly at work. The superintendent is a Scotchman, and he
+informed me that his orders were to make the place a paradise, without
+regard to cost. In this park there are many wild animals and
+domesticated pets, some of which are natives of the country, others
+imported; and the flowers are something wonderful.</p>
+
+<p>Señora Cousino has another park and palace an hour’s drive from
+Santiago, the finest estancia in Chili, perhaps in all South America;
+nor do I know of one in North America or Europe that will equal it. This
+is “Macul,” and the estate stretches from the boundaries of the city of
+Santiago far into the Cordilleras, whose glittering caps of everlasting
+snow mark the limit of her lands. In the valleys are her fields of
+grain, her orchards, and her vineyards, while in the foot-hills of the
+mountains her flocks of sheep and herds of cattle feed. Here she gives
+employment to three or four hundred men, all organized under the
+direction of superintendents, most of whom are Scotchmen. She has in her
+employ at “Macul” one American, whose business is that of a general
+farmer; but his time is mostly occupied in teaching the natives how to
+operate labor-saving agricultural machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Farming in Chili is conducted very much as it was in Europe in old
+feudal times, each estate having its retainers, who are given houses or
+tenements, and are paid for the amount of labor they perform. It is said
+that Señora Cousino can marshal a thousand men from her two farms if she
+needs them. The vineyard of “Macul” supplies nearly all the markets of
+Chili with claret and sherry wines, and the cellar of the place,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_490" id="page_490"></a>{490}</span> an
+enormous building five hundred feet long by one hundred wide, is kept
+constantly full. Señora Cousino makes her own bottles, but imports her
+labels from France. On this farm she has some very valuable imported
+stock, both cattle and horses, and her racing stable is the most
+extensive and successful in South America. She takes great interest in
+the turf, attends every racing meeting in Chili, and always bets very
+heavily on her own horses. At the last meeting her winnings are reported
+to have been over one hundred thousand dollars outside of the purses won
+by her horses, which are always divided among the employés of the
+stables.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to “Macul” Señora Cousino has another large estate about
+thirty miles from Santiago; but she gives it very little attention, and
+has not been there for a number of years. In the city she has two large
+and fine houses, one of them being the former residence of Henry
+Meiggs&mdash;the finest in Santiago at the time it was built. All the timber
+and other materials used in its erection was brought from California. It
+is built mostly of red cedar. The construction and architecture are
+after the American plan, and in appearance and arrangement it resembles
+the villas of Newport.</p>
+
+<p>The other city residence of Señora Cousino is a stone mansion erected on
+the Spanish plan, with a court in the centre, and is ornamented with
+some very elaborate carving. The interior was decorated and furnished
+many years ago by Parisian artists at an enormous cost, and the house is
+fitting for a king. There is no more elaborate or extensive residence in
+America, and the money expended upon it would build as fine a house as
+that of W. H. Vanderbilt in New York. The widow, however, spends but
+very little time within its walls, as she prefers her home at Lota,
+where most of her business is.</p>
+
+<p>Her ability as a manager is remarkable, and she directs every detail,
+receiving weekly reports from ten or twelve superintendents who have
+immediate charge of affairs. While she is generous to profligacy, she
+requires a strict account of every dollar earned or spent upon her vast
+estates, and is very sharp at driving a bargain. One of her Scotch
+superintendents<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_491" id="page_491"></a>{491}</span> told me that there was no use in trying to get ahead of
+the señora. “You cannot move a stone or a stick but she knows it,” he
+said. In addition to her landed property and her mines she owns much
+city real estate, from which her rentals amount to several hundred
+thousand dollars a year. She is also the principal stockholder in the
+largest bank in Santiago. Not long ago she presented the people of that
+city with a park of one hundred acres, and a race-course adjoining it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b491_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b491_sml.jpg" width="220" height="347" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SEÑORA COUSINO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_492" id="page_492"></a>{492}</span></p>
+
+<p>Fabulous stories of the señora’s extravagance are told. A million of
+dollars is a trifle to a woman whose income is so enormous, and there is
+nothing in the world that she will not buy if she happens to want it.
+She does not care much for art, but has a collection of diamonds that is
+very large and valuable, and she sometimes appears loaded down with
+them. Usually she looks quite shabby, as she has no taste or ambition
+for dress, and her party toilets, which are ordered from Paris, are
+seldom worn. Of late she has been a sufferer from sciatica, which has
+not only destroyed the señora’s own pleasure, but has seriously impaired
+the comfort of those who have relations with her. Although a
+comparatively young woman, being somewhere between forty-five and fifty
+years of age, she declares that she will never marry again; and there is
+not a man in Chili who has the courage to ask her. Not long since she
+took a fancy to a young German with a very blond beard and hair, and
+insisted that he should give up his business and make his home with her.
+The inducements she offered were sufficient, and for several months the
+young man has been tied to her apron-strings, having the ostensible
+employment of a private secretary. But the señora is very fickle, and
+will probably throw him overboard, as she has many others, when the whim
+seizes her.</p>
+
+<p>Señora Cousino has two daughters and one son. Neither of the girls
+inherits her mother’s business ability, or at least has not developed
+it; but they are very popular in society. Señorita Isadora, the elder,
+has a great deal of musical talent, and performs on the violin and
+piano. Both are bright and pretty. One is about seventeen, and the other
+nineteen years of age. Their brother, a young man of twenty-three or
+twenty-four, will share the property with them. It is quite an unusual
+thing for a youth with so much money to develop the business capacity
+and industry which he shows. He looks after the estancia at “Macul,” and
+spends from six to eight hours a day in the saddle, riding about the
+place. He seldom joins in the festivities that his mother enjoys so
+much, and is quite pronounced in his disapproval of her extravagance.
+He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_493" id="page_493"></a>{493}</span> is to marry a young lady of rather humble station, and it is
+expected that the Meiggs mansion, which has been previously described,
+will be presented to the bride by his mother as a wedding-gift.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle between the Catholic Church and the liberal progressive
+element in Chili, which has been going on for a number of years, is now
+at its height. In all of the nations of Central and South America a
+similar struggle has occurred. In Mexico and all Central America, in
+Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chili, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay
+the Liberals are uppermost, and have control of the State. Ecuador and
+Bolivia are still in the hands of the priests, and are ruled at Rome.
+But even in these republics there is a growing tendency towards
+liberalism, and the day will soon arrive when the power of the Church in
+politics will be overcome, and its authority over temporal affairs
+denied. The Clerical party is growing in Peru. It has revived during the
+prostration of that republic, and although the liberal element is still
+in power, the Government is so weak that it cannot defy the Church as it
+once could. Therefore, the priests and monks and Jesuits, who were
+driven out years ago, are returning in large numbers to resume their
+authority over the common people and intrigue for an administration
+favorable to them.</p>
+
+<p>In Chili there has been no confiscation of church property, as in some
+of the other States, and at the capital there are still over two
+thousand monks and as many nuns. The Jesuits have been expelled for
+engaging in conspiracy against the Government, but the outer orders of
+friars are permitted to remain. A dispute between the archbishop and the
+President some years ago caused the former to retire from Chili, and the
+Pope sent over a nuncio to try and arrange matters; but this legate
+criticised the Government so severely from the pulpit that he was given
+a passport and an escort of military, and now there are no relations
+whatever between the Pope and Chili, although the Catholic faith is
+still recognized by the Constitution as the established religion of the
+republic. The radical element of the Liberal party favors extreme
+measures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_494" id="page_494"></a>{494}</span> but the Conservative faction, of which Ex-President Santa
+Maria is the leader, wisely prefers to take steps slowly, and avoid
+revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberal party has a majority in Congress, and has passed several
+laws by which the authority and influence of the Church has been greatly
+crippled. The Liberal majority in Congress has placed the appointment of
+bishops in the hands of the President of the republic instead of the
+Pope; it has declared civil marriage to be the only legal one; it has
+opened the cemeteries to Jew and Gentile; taken the registers of births,
+marriages, and deaths out of the hands of the Church, and given them to
+civil magistrates; established non-sectarian schools, and passed a
+compulsory education law, under which all citizens who send their
+children to the priests and nuns to be taught have to pay a tax or fine
+to the State. These measures have all been bitterly fought by the
+clergy, but they have been compelled to yield in every instance. Just
+now the last act of Congress in this direction, establishing civil
+marriage, and recognizing the legitimacy of only those children born of
+parents wedded in this way, is the bone of contention, and has caused
+the bitterest struggle which the State has seen.</p>
+
+<p>It formerly cost twenty-five dollars to be married by the Church, and a
+large part of its revenues came from that source. The peons, who
+scarcely ever are able to accumulate so much money, therefore lived in a
+state of concubinage, and more than half the children born in Chili were
+illegitimate. Now a marriage certificate can be secured from a civil
+magistrate for twenty-five cents, and persons cohabiting without it are
+subject to fine and imprisonment. The archbishop has issued a decree
+excommunicating from the Church all persons who are married by the civil
+right, and the Catholics of the country, comprising ninety-nine per
+cent. of the population, are in a serious dilemma. They are compelled to
+choose between excommunication and imprisonment, and therefore in the
+upper classes weddings are no longer fashionable. Some people go first
+to the church and then to the magistrate, and run the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_495" id="page_495"></a>{495}</span> risk of
+excommunication; but the more conscientious prefer to remain single.</p>
+
+<p>Just now in Santiago there is a young man of brilliant attainments, a
+member of Congress and a leader of the Liberal party, who wants to marry
+the daughter of a prominent merchant. The engagement has been existing
+for several years, and both parties are willing to fulfil it according
+to a civil law; but the girl’s mother is a devout Catholic, and will not
+consent to a wedding without the blessing of a priest. The young man is
+willing to go to the church as well as to the magistrate, but the
+archbishop has forbidden any priest to marry him without a full
+retraction by him of his political record. This he refuses to make, and
+the couple are preparing to go to the United States or some European
+country to have the ceremony performed.</p>
+
+<p>Not long ago there was a marriage in high life in one of the southern
+provinces of Chili, which attracted wide attention from the fact that it
+was the first defiance of the Church in that part of the country. On the
+Sunday following the wedding the couple were denounced by the bishop
+from the pulpit of the cathedral, and the Catholic newspaper published
+some brutal comments to the effect that the young couple had placed
+themselves on the level of beasts by cohabiting without the blessing of
+the Church. The bride’s brother belabored the editor so that he will be
+a cripple for life, and would have given the bishop a similar
+chastisement had not the latter kept out of the way.</p>
+
+<p>At the last Presidential election, which occurred in June, 1886, Señor
+Balmaceda, the Liberal candidate, was elected to succeed President Santa
+Maria, who had served his full term of four years. He was bitterly
+opposed by the priests, who realized that his success would be their
+permanent discomfiture, and there were several serious riots, in which
+many were killed and wounded. But Balmaceda was peacefully inaugurated
+in September, and the Congress which assembled at the same time has an
+overwhelming majority in sympathy with the Administration. The issue at
+the election was the enforcement<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_496" id="page_496"></a>{496}</span> of the civil marriage statute, and
+some measures will be taken to reduce the Church to subjection. A law to
+expel from the country priests who intimidate citizens from obeying the
+civil marriage act has already been proposed. This will be open war; but
+priests who threaten to excommunicate will be sent into exile, where
+they will shortly be followed by the monks and nuns, and a general
+confiscation of church property will be the next step. It is estimated
+that one-third of the entire property in Chili is owned by the Church.
+Much of this property is held in trust for certain saints, to whom it
+has been bequeathed by devout persons, or purchased by the gifts of the
+people. Saint Dominic, for example, is one of the largest
+property-holders in South America, and has an income of more than a
+million dollars a year from his estates, which are ably managed by the
+Dominican friars. It is proposed to assess a tax upon these estates,
+which now pay nothing towards the support of the Government; and if the
+monks refuse to pay, the property will be confiscated.</p>
+
+<p>Protestantism is making rapid progress in Chili. There are several
+missions under the care of the Presbyterian Board of the United States,
+and a number of self-supporting churches and schools. There is also a
+Presbyterian College and Theological Seminary, and a Young Ladies’
+Seminary with about one hundred and fifty boarding scholars; but the
+common people still cling to the superstitions and practices of the
+past. Crucifixes upon which the bodies of bleeding Christs are
+displayed, with all the symbols of the Crucifixion&mdash;the sponge, hammer,
+nails, spear, and other implements&mdash;are erected in the public streets.
+They are accompanied by an announcement from the archbishop that whoever
+says a certain number of prayers at these places will receive total
+absolution for all past sins.</p>
+
+<p>A beautiful marble monument has been erected on the site of the church
+which was burned about twenty years ago on the Feast of the Virgins. As
+usual on that day, high mass was celebrated by the bishop, and at this
+particular church, which was that of the patron saint of maidens, there
+was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_497" id="page_497"></a>{497}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b497_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b497_sml.jpg" width="254" height="437" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BELLE OF CHILI DRESSED FOR MORNING MASS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">very large attendance of girls from all classes of society. The church
+was handsomely draped, and cords to which candles were hung were
+stretched between the pillars. Being<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_498" id="page_498"></a>{498}</span> insecurely placed, these burning
+candles fell into the crowd below and set the clothing of the girls on
+fire. There was a panic, and the entire crowd became jammed against the
+doors, which, folding inward, could not be opened. The roof caught fire
+and, burning, fell with crushing destruction upon the heads of those
+below. The priests took no means to rescue the worshippers, but managed
+to get out unharmed themselves, carrying with them all the plate and
+other valuable contents of the altar. Their cowardice and neglect were
+universally condemned, and they were compelled to leave the country.</p>
+
+<p>It is not known how many lives were lost, and the inscription upon the
+monument&mdash;which stands in the centre of a plaza occupying the site of
+the church&mdash;gives no clew; but it is estimated that at least three
+thousand young ladies perished, and there was mourning in almost every
+house in Santiago. After the fire the bodies were found packed in a
+solid mass of flesh, the heads and upper portions of the forms being
+destroyed, while the limbs and lower portions of the bodies were
+uninjured. Since that calamity the Feast of the Virgins has been
+celebrated with mourning in Chili.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the rules of the Church that no women shall participate in
+the services except as silent worshippers. All the music and singing is
+given by men, usually monks, who are well trained. Sometimes, as on
+Easter or Christmas, when mass is celebrated with more than usual
+magnificence, opera-singers of both sexes are introduced into the choir
+to assist in the performance; but the women are compelled to dress in
+the clothes of men, for fear of offending St. Paul or some other
+anti-woman’s rights potentate by wearing petticoats.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the fishing season at Valparaiso it is customary to
+take the image of St. Peter, the patron of fishermen, in a boat and row
+it over the bay, in order to bless the fish; and those who expect to
+reap the reward of this patronage are highly taxed to pay for this
+performance. Every method by which money may be extorted from the
+people, every pretence which their ingenuity can invent, is practised by
+the priests to enrich the Church, and the funds are wasted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_499" id="page_499"></a>{499}</span> them in
+riotous living. Their looks are sufficient to convict them of the
+gluttony and libertinism of which they are accused, and it is a common
+thing to see them reeling through the streets in a state of
+intoxication.</p>
+
+<p>In the wall of one of the handsomest residences, by the side of the main
+entrance, is a niche in which a statue of the Mother of Christ has been
+placed&mdash;a gaudy, tinsel-covered figure, with a halo of gas-jets and a
+mantle of gilt-embroidered satin. An iron grating protects the image
+from the street, but through the bars have been thrust garlands of
+flowers and gifts of various sorts&mdash;votive offerings from people in
+bodily distress or mental disorder. The lady who lives in this house,
+the wife of a wealthy native merchant, some years ago became very ill,
+and made a vow to the Virgin that if her health was restored she would
+show her gratitude in this manner; and there the statue stands to
+illustrate the woman’s piety. Almost daily people who are ill, as its
+owner was, and others in distress of mind from some cause or another,
+come to it with such offerings as their condition permits them to make,
+and trustfully appeal to the Holy Mother for relief. It is said that
+many miraculous cures have resulted from faith in the power of this
+image, and people always lift their hats and reverently cross themselves
+as they pass it by.</p>
+
+<p>The 13th of May is the anniversary of the most destructive earthquake
+Santiago has ever seen, which occurred about forty years ago. The
+responsibility for the calamity lay with a woman who had a private
+saint, a household idol, to whom she offered prayers. This image deemed
+fit to withhold from her some favor she had asked, and she, angry, cast
+it violently into the street. This caused the earthquake! and it did not
+cease until the fear-stricken people took the image to the Church of St.
+Augustine, near by, where it was placed in a niche of honor, and has
+since been devoutly worshipped by them as the patron or preventer of
+earthquakes. For the lack of a better name, and because the image bears
+no resemblance to any saint that was ever known or told of, the people
+call him “Señor May.” Originally he was “Señor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_500" id="page_500"></a>{500}</span> Thirteenth of May,” but
+now plain “Señor May,” for short. Each year, as the 13th of May comes
+round&mdash;the anniversary of his “martyrdom,” as the people call it&mdash;the
+entire population assemble to pay honor to the saint, and appeal for his
+intercession in preventing a recurrence of the earthquake, and, as
+everybody knows, these appeals have never been denied. “Señor May”
+protects the city at least one day in the year. As the church is not
+large enough to accommodate the multitude, the saint is taken out into
+the street and carried at the head of a procession, in which the bishop,
+the municipal authorities, companies of military, religious orders, and
+others march. The occasion is recognized by the Government and the
+municipality, and by commercial circles. Business houses are closed, and
+factories dismiss their workmen to take part in the ceremonies. The day
+is celebrated as universally as Thanksgiving Day in the United States,
+and the saint receives rich gifts from people who are grateful that
+their houses have not been shaken to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>I was present at the celebration in 1885. First in the procession came a
+squad of policemen to clear the way, for the entire population was
+jammed into the streets; and in the windows and upon the roofs of houses
+the nobility and gentry of the city stood, watching the performance as
+eagerly as the gamins of the streets, and throwing garlands and bunches
+of flowers into the path over which “Señor May” was to pass. Men fought
+and cursed, struck and stabbed each other in the struggle to do homage
+to the image, and all the police in the city were present to preserve
+order and arrest disturbers of the solemn scene. The Government offices
+were closed, and the President himself, the leader of the anti-Church
+party, did not go to the palace.</p>
+
+<p>Following the policemen came a line of monks in cowls and frocks of all
+colors. There were monks in white, monks in black, monks in gray, and
+monks in brown&mdash;Carmelites, Capuchins, Franciscans, and every order
+being represented. Then came a procession of priests in their vestments,
+with novitiates, each bearing a lighted candle and chanting some
+monotonous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_501" id="page_501"></a>{501}</span> service. Behind them were a dozen altar-boys, some with
+incense-lamps which perfumed the air, and others with trays of flowers,
+which were scattered in the street for the bishop, who came next, to
+tread upon. He walked under a crimson canopy, wearing his most
+resplendent vestments, and bearing in his hands the Host&mdash;the Holy
+Sacrament&mdash;the body and blood of the Redeemer. Behind him were other
+incense-burners, and more boys with flowers. Then came, borne upon the
+shoulders of twenty men, the image of “Señor May”&mdash;an ugly and
+repulsive-looking effigy, draped with the most fantastic garments, rich
+embroideries, and much gold lace. Upon the pedestal were packages and
+caskets containing the offerings received that day; and as he passed
+along one and another would be added, handed from the houses or the
+crowd to the priests of St. Augustine’s Church, who surrounded the image
+to collect them.</p>
+
+<p>The crowd fell upon their knees as this ghastly feature of fanaticism
+passed by. Every head was uncovered, and every reverent tongue murmured
+a prayer. Men pushed and struggled, women screamed, and the policemen
+struck forward and backward with their swords to prevent the people from
+surging into the streets. Then came more chanting priests, and another
+battalion of monks, then more incense-bearers, and a spectacle of even
+greater repulsiveness&mdash;an image of a bleeding Christ upon a crucifix,
+naked, with the drapery of a ballet-dancer about his loins! More priests
+and more monks, and then a band of music and a regiment of infantry in
+parade uniforms, followed by a long line of bareheaded men, each with a
+lighted candle in his hand. This part of the procession received large
+and continual additions. People from the crowd fell into line at the
+rear, and were furnished with candles by attendants, who carried boxes
+of them in a cart, until the line reached out for a mile or more. After
+the parade the images were returned to the Church of St. Augustine,
+where high mass was celebrated by the bishop, to which admission was
+secured only by ticket.</p>
+
+<p>The next morning the newspapers contained long descriptions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_502" id="page_502"></a>{502}</span> of the
+procession. The contest then, as now, going on between the Liberal party
+and the clerical element for political control gives the utterances of
+the official organ of the Government (Liberal) peculiar significance. I
+quote the brief paragraphs in which reference was made to the event of
+the month:</p>
+
+<p>“The procession of ‘Señor May’ took place yesterday, accompanied by many
+religious festivities in the temple of St. Augustine. The people and the
+municipality joined with the church to give a transcendent recognition
+in a most solemn and impressive manner of the historic ‘Señor May.’ From
+the early hours of the day the surroundings of the temple of St.
+Augustine were occupied by great throngs of the faithful, who awaited
+the inauguration of the parade. A little before four o’clock there
+arrived the forces of the army, with the national band at their head,
+and took position in front of the church in accordance with the orders
+from the commander-in-chief of the army.</p>
+
+<p>“Having been put in motion, the procession filed with difficulty through
+the great number of people who crowded the streets and followed with
+many prayers and significant rejoicing. The pedestals of the saints were
+beautifully adorned and covered with many valuable and votive offerings,
+the tender gifts of piety from the faithful. A committee from the
+municipal authorities, appointed to contribute to the solemnity of the
+occasion, participated in the ceremonies. The bands of music played
+various sentimental airs during the march.</p>
+
+<p>“To resume, the acts of recognition to the most potent ‘Señor May,’ made
+in compliance with the vows of the year 1847, after the terrible
+catastrophe of the 13th of the present month, have been perfectly
+carried out by the Catholic capital of Chili.”</p>
+
+<p>Farming in Chili is conducted on the old feudal system, very much as it
+is in Ireland. The country is divided into great estates owned by people
+who live in the cities, and seldom visit the haciendas. There are only
+two classes of people, the very rich and the very poor, the landlords
+and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_503" id="page_503"></a>{503}</span> tenants. On each estate are a number of cottages with garden
+patches around them, which are occupied by the tenants, and in payment
+for which the landlord is entitled to so many days’ labor each year at
+his option. Should more labor than is due be required of the tenant, he
+is paid for it, not in money, but in orders upon the supply store or
+commissary of the estate, where he can get clothing or food or
+rum&mdash;especially rum. Tenants are usually given small credits at these
+stores, and are kept in debt to the landlords. As the law prohibits them
+from leaving a landlord to whom they owe money, the poor are kept in
+perpetual slavery, like the party in mythology who was always rolling a
+stone uphill. Even under this cruel system of peonage master and slave
+usually get along pretty well together, but old-fashioned feudal wars
+are kept up between estates, as was the case in England centuries ago.
+The peon will always fight for his landlord, and bloody encounters are
+constantly occurring. There are in Chili to-day the same old family
+feuds that existed in the Middle Ages of Europe between the Montagues
+and the Capulets. Somebody stepped upon the coat-tails of somebody else,
+or kicked his poodle dog, away back in the early history of the country,
+and the two families have been slashing and hacking at each other ever
+since, while nobody can explain what it is all about. The tenant will
+always cut a throat in his master’s honor, but he can never get any
+richer in Chili than he is to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody goes on horseback; even the beggars ride. The gear of the
+Chili saddle-horse&mdash;and horses are seldom broken to harness, all the
+teaming being done with oxen&mdash;is a most curious and complicated affair.
+The bit is a long, heavy, flat piece of iron, which rests on the horse’s
+tongue, and presses against the roof of his mouth. At each end is a
+hole, through which is passed a large iron ring about four inches in
+diameter, which encircles the lower jaw. At each side of the mouth is
+placed another iron ring to which the reins are fastened. The whole
+affair weighs about five pounds, and is sufficiently powerful to break a
+horse’s jaw if suddenly jerked. The reins<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_504" id="page_504"></a>{504}</span> are made of fine-plaited hide
+or horse-hair, about the thickness of the forefinger, and are joined
+together when they reach the pommel of the saddle, terminating in a long
+lash called a <i>chicote</i>, at the end of which is either a handsome tassel
+or a small piece of lead. When not in use the chicote hangs down the
+flank of the horse, often dragging on the ground. Sometimes the load of
+lead is heavy, and furnishes a weapon of offence and defence as
+formidable as a slung-shot, and the poor horse is often beaten with it
+without mercy. Fancy bits are made of plated or solid silver, and
+bridles plated with gold, with reins made of golden wire, can be found
+in the larger cities. I saw a bridle in Chili, belonging to Señora
+Cousino, that is said to have cost two thousand five hundred dollars;
+and one often hears of gifts of this sort that are worth one thousand
+dollars or more.</p>
+
+<p>The Chili saddle is even more queer and complicated than the bridle.
+First, six or seven sheepskins are placed upon the horse’s back, one on
+top of the other; a leather strap is passed around them and firmly
+secured; a skeleton saddle, or rather a piece of wood cut in the shape
+of a saddle-tree, with a cantle at each end, comes next, and on top of
+this any number of sheepskins; or, if the owner is rich, rare furs
+furnish a seat, which is called the <i>montura</i>. The four corners are
+fastened down by broad leather straps, ornamented with silver or brass
+buckles, to enable the rider to wedge himself in, and the whole is bound
+around the horse’s belly with a broad band of leather or canvas.
+Sometimes aristocratic and wealthy riders have a high pommel like that
+of the Mexican saddle, which is covered with silver, and stamped on the
+top with his family coat of arms. The amount of silver on a man’s riding
+equipment is understood to indicate his wealth and station in life, and
+there is a great deal of competition in this direction among the swell
+caballeros. The stirrups of the ordinary citizen are made of two huge
+pieces of wood, with a hole cut through for the foot, while those of the
+aristocrat are brass or silver slippers. The wooden affair, the poor
+man’s stirrup, is rudely cut out of oak, or other hard wood, by hand,
+and usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_505" id="page_505"></a>{505}</span> weighs as much as four or five pounds. The brass one is
+quite as heavy, but much more ornamental.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b505_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b505_sml.jpg" width="152" height="156" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A SOLID SILVER SPUR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the rider is seated in the saddle his legs are entirely concealed
+by the furs and sheepskins, which add to his warmth, and on his back he
+wears the <i>poncho</i> of the country, which is the most comfortable and
+convenient garment that human ingenuity has ever produced. It is about
+the size of the rubber poncho used in the United States, but is woven of
+vicuña hair or lamb’s-wool, and keeps the wearer cool by day, as the
+rays of the sun cannot penetrate it, and warm by night. It answers as
+well for an umbrella as for an overcoat, and sheds the rain better than
+rubber, for the oil is not extracted from the wool of which it is made.
+The vicuña is the mountain-goat of the Andes, but is becoming scarce,
+and nowadays a vicuña poncho is as rare and expensive as a camel’s-hair
+shawl, which it very much resembles, being worth from one hundred and
+fifty to five hundred dollars. A fully equipped saddle-horse of a
+caballero, or gentleman, with vicuña poncho and spurs of silver, with
+saddle and bridle mounted with the same metal, often represents an
+investment of four or five thousand dollars. Very often the stirrup is
+made of solid silver, beautifully chased, and those used by ladies are
+generally so. The English manufacturers are able to produce the
+ornaments and stirrups so much cheaper than the native workmen, who have
+no labor-saving machinery, that nearly all are now imported, and they
+have succeeded in imitating the poncho very well too. But among the
+aristocrats it is considered the height of vulgarity to use modern
+English saddlery or the imitation poncho, for these articles have been
+handed down from generation to generation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_506" id="page_506"></a>{506}</span> and the older they are the
+more valuable, no sort of usage wearing them out.</p>
+
+<p>In Guatemala I was presented with a pair of stirrups which had been worn
+by the cavalry of Cortez when they made their raid into Central America
+and conquered that continent in 1535. This pair was handed down from
+generation to generation, in the family of Mr. Sanchez, the “Minister of
+Hacienda,” or Finance, of the Guatemala Government: they are made of
+iron, with wide flanges to protect the feet and legs of the cavalier
+from the high grass and brambles of the country through which he had to
+ride. This style was long ago abandoned, and is now only seen in
+museums.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 187px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b506_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b506_sml.jpg" width="187" height="380" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>OVER THE ANDES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>He who wishes to make the journey from the Chilian to the Argentine
+Republic and the east coast of South America has a choice of routes. He
+may go by sea, around through the Strait of Magellan, which will cost
+him fifteen days’ time and two hundred dollars in money, or he may climb
+over the Andes on the back of a mule, a journey of five days, three of
+which only are spent in the saddle amid some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_507" id="page_507"></a>{507}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b507_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b507_sml.jpg" width="509" height="313" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MOUNT ACONCAGUA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_508" id="page_508"></a>{508}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_509" id="page_509"></a>{509}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b509_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b509_sml.jpg" width="320" height="399" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>USPALLATA PASS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">of the grandest scenery in the world. The highest mountain in the
+Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua, which rises 22,415 feet above the sea
+to the northward from Valparaiso and Santiago, and in plain view from
+both cities when the weather is clear. Chimborazo was for a long time
+supposed to be the king of the Andes, and in the geographies published
+twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_510" id="page_510"></a>{510}</span> years ago it is described as the highest summit in the world. No
+one has ever reached the peak of either mountain, owing to the depth of
+snow and impassable gorges, but recent measurements, taken by means of
+triangulation, give Aconcagua an excess of about 2000 feet over old
+“Chimbo.” Scientists have reached an altitude higher than the summit of
+either in the Himalaya Mountains of India, where Mount Everest is
+claimed to rise between 27,000 and 30,000 feet. Humboldt made Chimborazo
+famous, and very few travellers have gone beyond the point he reached;
+but no serious attempt has ever been made to explore the summit of
+Aconcagua, as the Chillanos do not often go where their horses cannot
+carry them. In mountain gloom and glory Chimborazo is said to surpass
+all rivals, standing as it does within sight of the sea, and surrounded
+by a cluster of twenty peaks, like a king and his counsellors. But
+Aconcagua is grand enough, and has nothing near it to dwarf its size.
+The latitude in which it stands brings the snow line much lower than
+upon Chimborazo and the other peaks of Ecuador, which are almost upon
+the line of the equator, and the purity of the atmosphere gives the
+spectator an opportunity to see its picturesqueness at a long distance.</p>
+
+<p>From Santiago, Chili, there is a Government railway as far as the town
+of Santa Rosa, which passes around the base of Aconcagua, and furnishes
+the traveller with a most sublime panorama of mountain scenery. There
+mules and men are hired for the ride over the Cumbre Pass to Mendoza, on
+the eastern slope of the Andes, to which a railroad has been recently
+opened by the Argentine Government. Here one can take a Pullman sleeper,
+and ride to Buenos Ayres as comfortably as he can go from New York to
+St. Louis, the distance being about the same.</p>
+
+<p>This railroad was opened in May, 1885, with a grand celebration, in
+which the Presidents of Chili and the Argentine Republic, with retinues
+of officials, participated. The event was as important to the commercial
+development of Argentine as was the first Pacific Railway to the United
+States, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_511" id="page_511"></a>{511}</span> it opened to settlement millions of square miles of the best
+territory in the republic, and furnished a highway between the two seas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b511_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b511_sml.jpg" width="315" height="282" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CAUGHT IN THE SNOW.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The people of the United States have very little conception of what is
+going on down in that part of the world. They do not realize that there
+is in Argentine a republic which some day is to rival our own&mdash;a country
+with immense resources, similar to those of the United States, situated
+in a corresponding latitude, prepared to furnish the world with beef and
+mutton and bread, and stretching a net-work of railways over its area
+that will bring the products of the pampas to market. Geographers do not
+keep pace with the development of this part of South America, and to
+present<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_512" id="page_512"></a>{512}</span> accurate accounts of its condition should be rewritten every
+year. Who knows, for instance, except those who have been there, that a
+man can ride from Buenos Ayres across the pampas to the foot-hills of
+the Andes in a Pullman car?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 308px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b512_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b512_sml.jpg" width="308" height="271" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ROAD CUT IN THE ROCKS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The late war between Peru and Chili robbed Bolivia of all her sea-coast,
+and the ports from which her produce was shipped, and at which her
+imports were received, now belong to the Chillanos, who charge heavy
+export and import duties. The opening of this railroad has caused the
+trade of Bolivia to be diverted to the Atlantic, and the extension of
+the line to the northward, which is already in progress, will make
+Buenos Ayres and other cities on the river La Plata the <i>entrepots</i> for
+Bolivian commerce. It is not much farther now from the centre of Bolivia
+to the Argentine Railway than to the Pacific coast, and the feeling of
+resentment towards Chili<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_513" id="page_513"></a>{513}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b513_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b513_sml.jpg" width="322" height="278" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A STATION IN THE MOUNTAINS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">makes the difference exceeding small. Long trains of mules are passing
+up and down the mountains, and their numbers will constantly increase
+until the Pacific sea-ports will see nothing that is grown or used in
+the country which Chili so ruthlessly robbed. One great difficulty,
+however, lies in the fact that from April to November the mountain
+passes are blockaded with snow, and it is always dangerous, and often
+impossible, to make the journey. Native couriers, who use snow-shoes,
+and find refuge in “casuchas,” or hollows of the rocks, during storms,
+cross them the year round, carrying the mails. Sometimes, indeed often,
+they perish from exposure or starvation, or perhaps are buried under
+avalanches. The passes are about thirteen thousand feet high, and are
+swept by winds that human endurance cannot survive. During the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_514" id="page_514"></a>{514}</span> summer
+the journey is delightful, and though attended by many discomforts, has
+its compensations to those who are willing to rough it, and who are fond
+of mountain scenery. Ladies often venture, and enjoy it. Not long since
+a party of thirteen school-ma’ams from the United States, who are
+teaching under contract with the Argentine Government, crossed the
+mountains to Chili, and had “a lovely time.” Plenty of mules and good
+guides can be secured at the termini of the railways, but travellers
+have to carry their own food and bedding. There are no hotels on the
+way, but only “schacks,” or log houses, which furnish nothing but
+shelter. Very often people who are not accustomed to high altitudes are
+attacked with sirroche, from which they sometimes suffer severely.</p>
+
+<p>The road over the mountains is always dangerous, clinging as it does to
+the edge of mighty precipices and upon the sides of mountain cliffs, and
+only trained mules can be used on the journey. During the winter season
+the winds are often so strong as to blow the mules with their burdens
+over the precipices, and leave them as food for the condors that are
+always soaring around. These birds know the dangerous passes, and keep
+guard with the expectation of seeing some traveller or mule go tumbling
+over the cliffs. Cowhide bridges, the construction of which is not
+satisfactory to nervous men, stretch across the ravines after the manner
+of modern suspension-bridges, and a floor or path, made of the branches
+of trees lashed together with hides, and just wide enough for a mule to
+pass, is laid. Travellers usually dismount and lead their mules when
+they cross these fragile structures, for the hide ropes which are
+intended to keep people from stepping off do not look very secure. The
+oscillation of these bridges is very great, and a man who is accustomed
+to giddiness will want to lie down before he gets half-way over. It is
+remarkable that so few accidents happen, and when they do occur it is
+usually because a traveller is reckless or a mule is green. The foxes
+sometimes gnaw the hides, but no accidents have occurred from this cause
+for many years.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_515" id="page_515"></a>{515}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 208px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b515_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b515_sml.jpg" width="208" height="224" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CONDOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The journey on mule-back usually takes five days of travel, at the rate
+of twenty or thirty miles a day, but good riders, with relays of mules,
+often make it in three days. The whole route is historical, as it has
+been in use for centuries. There is scarcely a mile without some
+romantic association, not a rock without its incident; and tradition,
+incident, and romance line the path from end to end. The Incas used the
+path before the Spaniards conquered the country, and Don Diego de
+Almagro crossed it in 1535 as he passed southward to Chili after the
+conquest of Peru.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_516" id="page_516"></a>{516}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="PATAGONIA" id="PATAGONIA"></a>PATAGONIA.</h2>
+
+<p>T<small>HE</small> spinal column of the hemisphere, extending from the Arctic to the
+Antarctic Sea, and called the Cordilleras, breaks suddenly at the foot
+of the Southern continent, and is divided by a narrow and deep ravine
+called the Strait of Magellan. Before the strait is reached, along the
+western coast of South America are numberless islands, cast into the sea
+by some convulsion of nature, like sparks flung from hammered iron. Few
+of these islands have ever been explored, but they all bear a close
+resemblance to the main-land in their geological formation, and it is
+believed that deposits of copper, silver, and other minerals, as well as
+coal, exist under their surfaces. On Chiloe, the largest of the Chili
+archipelago, mining companies are already operating to a small extent,
+but of the resources of the other islands little or nothing is known.
+They rise in picturesque outlines from the water, some of them to an
+elevation of several thousand feet, and the panorama presented to
+voyagers in what is known as Smythe’s Channel is beautiful and grand.
+This is a narrow fiord, named from its first explorer, scooped out, the
+geologists say, by the action of ice during the glacial epoch, running
+along the main coast, and protected against the violence of the ocean by
+the numerous fragmentary formations that line the shore. A glance at the
+map of Patagonia will show how many of these islands there are, and how
+slender is the thread of sea which separates them from the continent.</p>
+
+<p>The water in the channel is deep and smooth, but the passage is avoided
+by navigators because of the powerful currents and the frequency of
+snow-storms, which prevail at all seasons of the year. Vessels that take
+this course are compelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_517" id="page_517"></a>{517}</span> to anchor at night, unless there is a very
+bright moon, and always lie up when the snow falls, because of the
+circuitous turns, and the danger of collisions with ships and icebergs.
+Smythe’s Channel is so narrow in places that two steamers cannot pass
+between the mighty rocks which rise on either side. Most of the
+steamships prefer to risk the storms which rage outside, where they can
+have plenty of sea-room, and shorten their voyages by sailing at night
+as well as by day. There is no more dangerous sailing in the world than
+off the west coast of Patagonia and around the Horn, and vessels bound
+southward from Valparaiso are very lucky if they enter the Strait of
+Magellan without catching a gale of wind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b517_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b517_sml.jpg" width="309" height="236" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CAPE FROWARD (PATAGONIA), STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The glaciers of Switzerland and Norway are insignificant beside those
+which can be seen from ships passing the Strait of Magellan. Mountains
+of green and blue ice, with crests of the purest snow, stretch fifteen
+and twenty miles along the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_518" id="page_518"></a>{518}</span> channel in some parts of the strait. They
+are by no means as lofty as those of Europe, but appear more grand,
+rising as they do from the surface of the water in a land where winter
+always lingers, and where the sun sets at three o’clock in the
+afternoon. The line of perpetual snow begins at an elevation of only two
+thousand feet, and water always freezes at night, even in the
+summer-time. The highest mountains in Terra del Fuego are supposed to
+reach an altitude of seven thousand or eight thousand feet, but the eye
+of man has seldom seen them, covered as they are with an almost
+perpetual haze or mist, and presenting difficulties which the most
+ardent and experienced climber cannot surmount. The highest mountain
+known in this region is Mount Sarmiento, one of the most imposing of the
+Andean peaks, which rears a cone of spotless snow nearly seven thousand
+feet, almost abruptly from the water at its feet. It stands in what is
+known as Cockburn Channel, not far from the Pacific, and on clear days
+its summit can be distinguished from the decks of passing ships. The
+beauty of this peak is much enhanced by numerous blue-tinted glaciers,
+which descend from the snowy cap to the sea, and look, as Darwin the
+naturalist, who once saw it, said, “Like a hundred frozen Niagaras.”
+There are other mountains quite as beautiful, but they sit in an
+atmosphere which is seldom so clear as that which surrounds Sarmiento,
+and cannot often be seen by voyagers.</p>
+
+<p>The Terra del Fuego Indians, the ugliest mortals that ever breathed, are
+always on the lookout for passing vessels, and come out in canoes to beg
+and to trade skins for whiskey and tobacco. The Fuegians, or “Canoe
+Indians,” as they are commonly called, to distinguish them from the
+Patagonians, who dislike the water, and prefer to navigate on horseback,
+have no settled habitation. They have a dirty and bloated appearance,
+and faces that would scare a mule&mdash;broad features, low foreheads, over
+which the hair hangs in tangled lumps, high cheek-bones, flat noses,
+enormous chins and jaws, and mouths like crocodiles’, with teeth that
+add to their repulsiveness. Their skin is said to be of a copper color,
+but is seldom seen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_519" id="page_519"></a>{519}</span> as they consider it unhealthy to bathe. They are
+short in stature, round-shouldered, squatty, and swelled, a physical
+deformity said to be due to the fact that most of their lives is spent
+in canoes. The women are even more repulsive in their appearance than
+the men, and the children, who are uncommonly numerous, look like young
+baboons. Their intelligence seems to be confined to a knowledge of
+boating and fishing, and they exercise great skill in both pursuits.
+Scientists who have investigated them say that they are of the very
+lowest order of the human kind, many degrees below the Digger Indians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b519_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b519_sml.jpg" width="321" height="275" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>FUEGIANS VISITING A MAN-OF-WAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although these people are in a perpetual winter, where it freezes every
+night, and always snows when the clouds shed moisture, they go almost
+stark naked! The skins of the otter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_520" id="page_520"></a>{520}</span> and guanaco are used for blankets,
+which are worn about the shoulders and afford some protection; but under
+these neither women nor men wear anything whatever except shoes and
+leggings made of the same material, which protect the feet from the
+rocks. There is some little attempt at adornment made by both sexes in
+the way of necklaces, bracelets, and ear-rings made of fish-bones and
+sea-shells, which are often ingeniously joined together. The women will
+sell the skin blankets that cover their backs for tobacco, standing
+meantime as nude as a statue of Venus!</p>
+
+<p>Their food consists of mussels, fish, sea animals, and similar sorts,
+which they catch with the rudest kind of implements. Their fishing-lines
+are made of grass, and their hooks of fish-bones. For weapons they have
+bows and spears, the former having strings made of the entrails of
+animals, and the latter being long, slender poles, with tips of
+sharpened bone. They also use slings with great dexterity, which are
+made of woven grass, and are said to bring down animals at long range.
+During the day they are always on the water in canoes or dugouts made of
+the trunks of trees, the whole family going together, and usually
+consisting of a man, two or three wives, and as many urchins as can be
+crowded into the boat. When night falls they go ashore and build a fire
+upon the rocks, to temper the frigid atmosphere. Around this fire they
+cuddle in a most affectionate way. The name of the islands upon which
+they live came from these fires. The early navigators, when passing
+through the strait, were amazed to see them spring up as if by magic all
+over the islands every night at sundown, and so they called them Terra
+del Fuego, or the Land of Fire. The English shorten the appellation, and
+thus the place is known as “Fireland.”</p>
+
+<p>No one has ever been able to ascertain whether these people possess any
+sort of religious belief or have religious ceremonies. Across the strait
+the Patagonians, or Horse Indians, are of a higher order of creation,
+and perform sacred rites to propitiate the evil and good spirits, in
+which, like the North<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_521" id="page_521"></a>{521}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b521_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b521_sml.jpg" width="313" height="263" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A FUEGIAN FEAST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>American savages, they believe; but the Fuegians are too degraded to
+contemplate anything but the necessity of ministering to their passions
+and appetites. They eat fish and flesh uncooked, and appreciate as
+dainties the least attractive morsels. Their language is an irregular
+and meaningless jargon, apparently derived from the Patagonians, with
+whom they were, some time in the distant past, connected. Bishop
+Sterling, of the Church of England, a devoted and energetic man, who has
+charge of missionary work in South America, with headquarters on the
+Falkland Islands, has made some attempt to benefit these creatures, but
+with no great success. He has a little schooner in which he sails
+around, and has succeeded in ingratiating himself among the Fuegians by
+giving them presents of beads and twine, blankets and clothing. They use
+the first for ornaments, the second for fishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_522" id="page_522"></a>{522}</span> gear, but trade off the
+other things for rum and tobacco the first chance they get. As long as
+his gifts hold out he will be kindly received, no doubt, and his
+devotion will meet with encouragement, but if he should land among them
+without the usual plunder they would probably kill him at breakfasttime
+and pick his ribs for lunch. Towards the Atlantic coast the savages are
+of a higher order, and the bishop has established a missionary station
+in a little town in which they live. His assistants have succeeded in
+persuading the inhabitants of this village to wear clothing, and they
+run a primary school from which much good may come.</p>
+
+<p>The Falkland Islands lie off the coast of Terra del Fuego about two
+hundred and fifty miles, and belong to the British crown. There is a
+town of about eight hundred inhabitants called St. Louis, where the
+Governor lives, and a coaling station is maintained for the benefit of
+English men-of-war. The chief use of the islands otherwise is
+sheep-raising, and the wool exports are becoming quite large. Nothing
+else grows there, however, because of the low temperature and the
+barrenness of the soil. One line of steamers touches at the Falklands
+once a month or so, carrying provisions to the colony and bringing away
+the wool.</p>
+
+<p>One of the curious things about the Strait of Magellan is the
+Post-office. In a sheltered place, easy of access from the channel, but
+secluded from the Indians, is a tin box, known to every seaman who
+navigates this part of the world. Every passing skipper places in this
+box letters and newspapers for other vessels that are expected this way,
+and takes out whatever is found to belong to him or his men. All the
+newspapers and books that seamen are done with are deposited here, and
+are afterwards picked up by the next vessel to arrive, and replaced with
+a new lot. It is a sort of international postal clearing-house, and
+sailors say that the advantages it offers have never been abused during
+the half century the system has existed.</p>
+
+<p>Every time a vessel passes through the strait the Fuegian Indians come
+out in their canoes to show their sociability,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_523" id="page_523"></a>{523}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 253px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b523_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b523_sml.jpg" width="253" height="245" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE SIGNS OF CIVILIZATION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and trade what property they are fortunate enough to be possessed of for
+tobacco and rum. The steamer we were on ran through several fleets of
+dugouts, greatly to the danger of those who occupied them, as they
+paddled across our course in the most reckless manner. In each of the
+frail canoes were three or four people and several children, who
+screamed and gesticulated in the most violent manner. They came so near
+the ship that we could distinguish their features and hear their words,
+which were clamors for <i>tabac</i> (tobacco) and <i>galleta</i> (food). In one
+canoe stood an old hag with long gray hair, and a face that reminded me
+of Meg Merriles. A more weird and witchlike being never presented itself
+to human eye, and she did not have a thread upon her dirty skin from
+head to foot. Stark, staring naked she stood in the group around her,
+with the thermometer about forty degrees above zero, and, as she saw the
+vessel did not propose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_524" id="page_524"></a>{524}</span> to stop, shook her wrinkled arms at us, and
+uttered curses loud and deep. There was a fire in the boat in which she
+stood, and around it huddled another woman, naked, but with a guanaco
+robe over her shoulders, and several children, while the father sat in
+the stern and paddled his own canoe, leaving the wife or mother,
+whichever she was, to do all the talking.</p>
+
+<p>In another canoe stood a repulsive-looking man, who had taken off his
+guanaco robe, and stood naked, flapping it at us, and yelling like a
+lunatic. His companions were two naked women and several youngsters, and
+they all joined in the chorus with a vigor that we expected would split
+their throats, leaving the canoe to drift as it would, finally coming
+into collision with another, at which there was a good deal of
+scrambling, and an exchange of Fuegian compliments, the nature of which
+we could not understand. What they wanted was rum and tobacco, having
+acquired a taste for this pernicious weed from the sailors. For a plug
+of “Navy” they would exchange a guanaco blanket that could not be bought
+in New York for seventy-five dollars, as the guanaco is one of the
+rarest and finest of skins. The anger and disgust that was pictured upon
+the faces of these creatures when they found that the vessel was not
+slackening her speed would have furnished a model for the expressions on
+the souls that are lost. The passengers were about as much disappointed
+as the Fuegians, for having all read and heard of them, we anticipated
+much gusto, as the Spaniards say, in making their acquaintance.</p>
+
+<p>Scientists have long differed as to whether the Firelanders were
+cannibals, but this point has been recently settled by a practical
+demonstration, and there is no doubt that they actually eat human flesh
+when they can get it, and pick the bones very clean. In October, 1884,
+during a snow-storm, the steamer <i>Cordillera</i>, of the Pacific Steam
+Navigation Company’s line, struck a rock in the Strait of Magellan,
+about forty miles west of Punta Arenas, and to save as much as possible
+of the ship and cargo the captain drove her upon the beach, where she
+now lies, almost within a stone’s-throw of passing vessels.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_525" id="page_525"></a>{525}</span> The wreck
+was soon after abandoned by all but two men, who were left in charge
+until wrecking machinery could be brought from Valparaiso. One of these
+men was William Taylor, a quartermaster or petty officer of the ship,
+and his companion, an ordinary seaman. They were well armed, and it was
+supposed were capable of protecting themselves, but it turned out that
+they were not. One night I was sitting upon the rickety old dock at
+Punta Arenas, waiting for the purser of our ship to take me on board,
+when Taylor was introduced to me, and told his story in a most graphic
+way.</p>
+
+<p>He said that when he and his partner were left in charge of the vessel,
+it was with the understanding that they were to be relieved on the 21st
+of December, and they were given food enough to last until that time.
+After the captain and crew had gone, and the two men were alone on the
+ship, the Indians made their appearance nearly every day, and bits of
+food were thrown over the side of the vessel into their canoes. Taylor
+and his companion each carried two revolvers, and were not at all
+alarmed, as the vessel lay very high on the sand, and it did not seem
+possible that the Indians could climb up its iron sides. Although
+several canoes hovered around the place daily, the savages made no
+unfriendly demonstrations, and no notice was taken of them further than
+to exchange salutations, and give them meat and bread now and then. One
+day the Indians traded them a string of fresh fish for a plug of
+tobacco, and at other times gave them furs for the same consideration.
+About noon on the 15th of December, while the sailor was cooking dinner
+in the galley, Taylor, who was at work below, heard several shots fired
+from a revolver on deck, with shrieks and other sounds, which proved
+that a fight was going on there. He drew both of his pistols, and
+rushing up-stairs, saw the bleeding body of his companion lying upon the
+deck, and one of the savages hacking at it with the cook’s knife. About
+twenty or twenty-five others were performing a war-dance around one of
+their number who lay dead, and a single glance at the scene convinced
+Mr. Taylor that he could find no pleasure in attending the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_526" id="page_526"></a>{526}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b526_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b526_sml.jpg" width="276" height="171" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PORT FAMINE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">circus. The Indians did not see him, and he crept quickly below and
+stowed himself in a large coil of rope in the forward part of the hold.
+The space in the centre of the coil was large enough to contain his body
+in a stooping position, and making the hatchway as fast as he could, he
+piled bags of beans around the sides and on the top of the rope, so as
+to entirely conceal it. For two days he hid himself here, feeding upon
+dry uncooked beans and a box of sea-biscuits, which he fortunately found
+in the hold; but he was entirely without water. The third day, fearing
+that he would die of thirst, he crept out and drew a bucket of water
+from a cask on the second deck, which he carried back to his place of
+concealment. On this excursion he neither heard nor saw signs of the
+Indians, and after two days more had passed, screwed his courage up to
+the point of making an exploration. Arranging everything so that he
+could make a hasty retreat if necessary, and using bean-bags to make a
+rifle-pit from which he could defend himself if pursued, he crept
+quietly into the saloon of the vessel, where he found that the Indians
+had been indulging in “a high old time.” Glasses and crockery were
+smashed, mattresses were dragged from the cabin, and everything<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_527" id="page_527"></a>{527}</span> that
+was movable lay scattered helter-skelter over the dining-tables and
+floor. It was evident that a search had been made for him, as doors
+which were locked had been broken open, although no attempt had been
+made to remove the coverings from the hatchways which led into the hold.
+Only one deck presented signs of a search, and above all was perfectly
+quiet. Going up-stairs, Taylor found human bones, picked clean,
+scattered around the galley. He did not touch them, because to look at
+them gave him the “shivers,” he said, but he saw enough to convince him
+that not only had the body of his companion been eaten, but also that of
+the savage who had been killed in the fray. It was evident that the
+savages had enjoyed a long and lively picnic, for there were several
+places on the deck where fires had been built. It was a wonder to him
+that the vessel had not been burned to the water’s edge. While hunting
+around for food, he found the head of his companion with the neck
+chopped off close to the jaws, the eyes punched out, and the fleshy part
+of the cheeks cut off. The sight of this was so horrible that he
+abandoned further exploration, and returned to his place of confinement
+so faint and bewildered that he could scarcely find his way. That night
+he crept out again, and finding some canned meat and fruit, lowered
+himself overboard and swam ashore, concluding that the Indians would
+return to the vessel, and that he would be safer in the rocks and
+bushes. Here he concealed himself for several days, awaiting the vessel
+that was to arrive from Valparaiso on the 21st of the month. The 25th
+passed without any sign of relief, and on the morning of the 26th he
+started on foot for Punta Arenas, where he arrived two days after. Here
+he told his story, and instead of being welcomed with hospitality, was
+arrested and thrown into jail, charged with the murder of his companion.
+A boat was sent down to the wreck, and such evidence was found there as
+to convince every one of the truth of his statement; whereupon he was
+released, and is now at Punta Arenas, in the employment of the Steamship
+Company, on an old hulk which lies in the harbor and is used for the
+storage of coal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_528" id="page_528"></a>{528}</span></p>
+
+<p>I have not told the story in as graphic a manner as it was related to me
+by William Taylor that night under the antarctic stars, but have given
+only the facts of his narrative, without embellishment of sailors’ slang
+and oaths. He lives in the hope of “steering within hailing distance of
+some of the savages, when he proposes to give them something worse than
+a rope’s-end.”</p>
+
+<p>It is believed there is much gold in Terra del Fuego, as nuggets have
+been discovered by the missionaries in the streams. The Argentine
+Government proposes to make an exploration soon, and sanguine people
+think the time is not far distant when the islands of the archipelago
+will be filled with successful prospectors. Seals and other fur-bearing
+animals are plenty, but many skins are not sent to market for the reason
+that supplies can be obtained cheaper elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>There used to be a State called Patagonia, and one can still find it
+referred to in old geographies, but by the combined efforts of Chili and
+the Argentine Republic it has been wiped off the modern maps of the
+world. The United States ministers at the capitals of the two republics
+named assisted in dissecting the territory, and were presented with
+beautiful and costly testimonials as tokens of the artistic manner in
+which it was done. It was agreed that the boundary-line of Chili should
+be extended down the coast and then run eastward, just north of the
+Strait of Magellan, so that the Argentines should have the pampas, or
+prairies, and Chili the strait and the islands. The map of Chili now
+looks like the leg of a tall man, long and lean, with a very high instep
+and several conspicuous bunions.</p>
+
+<p>It was a diplomatic stroke on the part of Chili to get control of the
+Strait of Magellan, that great international highway through which all
+steamers must go; and the archipelago along the western coast,
+comprising thousands of islands which have never been explored, and
+which are believed to be rich in what the world holds valuable, also
+fell to her share; but the Argentines got the best of the bargain in
+broad plains, rich in agricultural resources, rising in regular terraces
+from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_529" id="page_529"></a>{529}</span> the Atlantic seaboard to the summits of the Cordilleras, whose
+snowy crests stand like an army of silent sentinels, marking the line
+upon which the two republics divide&mdash;plains as broad and useful as those
+which stretch between the Mississippi River and the ranges of Colorado,
+and as good for cattle as they are for corn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b529_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b529_sml.jpg" width="330" height="282" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STARVATION BEACH.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was a rather unusual proceeding, this partition of the Patagonian
+estates. It is commonly the custom to divide property after the owner’s
+death; but in this instance the inheritance was first shared by the
+heirs, and then the owner was mercilessly slaughtered. They called it a
+grand triumph of the genius of civilization over the barbarians, and the
+success of the scheme certainly deserved such a designation; but in this
+case as in many others the impediment to civilization<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_530" id="page_530"></a>{530}</span> was swept away in
+a cataract of blood. General Roca, the recent President of the Argentine
+Republic, was the author and executor of the plan of civilizing
+Patagonia, and he did it as the early Spanish Conquistadors introduced
+Christianity into America, with the keen edge of a sword. His success
+won him military glory and political honors, and made him what he is
+to-day, the greatest of the Argentinians.</p>
+
+<p>There were originally two great nations of Indians in what was known as
+Patagonia, but the Spaniards called them all Patagonians, because of the
+enormous footprints they found upon the sand. The early explorers
+reported them to be a race of giants. The first white man that
+interviewed these people was Magellan, the great navigator who
+discovered the strait which bears his name, and who was the first to
+enter the Pacific Ocean. He had with him a romancer by the name of
+Pigafetta, who gave the world a great amount of interesting information
+without regard to accuracy. All the navigators who followed Magellan
+felt in duty bound to see and describe as amazing things as their
+predecessor had witnessed, and even went much further in their endeavors
+to keep up the European interest in the New World. Hence, in the
+sixteenth century, fables which are still repeated, but have no more
+foundation than the tales of the warrior woman who gave a name to the
+greatest stream on earth, found their way into history.</p>
+
+<p>This man Pigafetta, for example, says that the Patagonia Indians “were
+of that biggeness that our menne of meane stature could reach up to
+their waysts, and they had bigg voyces, so that their talk seemed lyke
+unto the roar of a beaste.” In order to secure credit for courage, the
+early navigators told astonishing yarns about the fierceness of these
+Indians, who still have a reputation for fighting which, no doubt, is
+well founded. Rum and disease have, however, made sad work among the
+race, which is in its decadence; and the ambition of the Patagonian now
+is only equal to that of the North American Indian&mdash;that is, to get
+enough to eat with the least possible labor. They hang around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_531" id="page_531"></a>{531}</span>
+ranches to pick up what is thrown to them in the way of food, stealing
+and begging, and occasionally they bring in skins to the settlements to
+exchange for fire-water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b531_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b531_sml.jpg" width="324" height="360" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>USE OF LASSO AND BOLAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Later explorers discovered that there were two distinct races among the
+aborigines: first, the canoe Indians of the coast; and, second, the
+hunters of the interior, who are expert horsemen, raise cattle, and
+resemble the Sioux of the United States or the Apaches of the Mexican
+border. The two nations spoke languages entirely different, and had no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_532" id="page_532"></a>{532}</span>
+resemblance in their manner or habits of life. Those of the south, who
+extended over into the curious islands of Terra del Fuego, are uglier in
+appearance, fiercer in disposition, and are believed to be cannibals. In
+fact, there is a recent instance of man-eating in the Strait of Magellan
+which appears to be authentically reported. The canoe Indians are called
+<i>Tehueiche</i>, and the horsemen of the north&mdash;the plains or pampa
+Indians&mdash;are called <i>Chenna</i>. The latter appear to be closely allied to
+the Araucanians of Chili, a race which the Spaniards were never able to
+subdue, but with which they have intermarried extensively, and produced
+the present peon of Chili, who has all the vivacity and impulsiveness of
+the Spaniard united with the muscular development, the courage, and the
+endurance of the Indian. The frontier of the Argentine Republic, until a
+few years since, was constantly harassed by the Chennas&mdash;murder, arson,
+and pillage were the rule&mdash;and the development of the nation was
+seriously checked, until General Roca was sent out with an army to
+exterminate them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b532_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b532_sml.jpg" width="182" height="256" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THEIR OSTRICH ROBES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dividing line between the Argentine Republic and what was known as
+Patagonia was the river Negro, which flows along the forty-first
+parallel, about nine hundred miles north of the Strait of Magellan. The
+greater portion of this country is well-watered pampas, or prairies,
+that extend in plainly marked terraces, rising one after the other from
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_533" id="page_533"></a>{533}</span> Atlantic to the Andes; but towards the south the land becomes more
+bleak and barren, the soil being a bed of shale, with thorny shrubs and
+tufts of coarse grass, upon which nothing but the ostrich can exist. The
+winters are very severe, fierce winds sweeping from the mountains to the
+sea, with nothing to obstruct their course. These winds are called
+<i>pamperos</i>, and are the dread of those who navigate the South Atlantic.
+During the winter months the Indians were in the habit of driving their
+cattle northward into the foot-hills of the Andes for protection; and,
+leaving them there, they made raids upon the settlements on the
+Argentine frontier, killing, burning, and stealing cattle and horses.
+Terror-stricken, the ranchmen fled to the cities for protection; so that
+year by year the frontier line receded towards Buenos Ayres, instead of
+extending farther upon the plains.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b533_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b533_sml.jpg" width="178" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PATAGONIAN BELLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>President Roca was then a general of cavalry, and had won renown in the
+war against Lopez, the tyrant of Paraguay. He was sent with two or three
+regiments to discipline the Indians, and he did it in a way that was as
+effective as it was novel. While the Indians were in the mountains with
+their cattle he set his soldiers at work, several thousands of them, and
+dug a great ditch, twelve feet wide and fifteen feet deep, from the
+mountains to the Rio Negro, scattering the earth from the excavation
+over the ground with such care as to leave nothing to excite the
+savages’ suspicions. Then, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_534" id="page_534"></a>{534}</span> the ditch was completed, he flanked the
+Indians with his cavalry and drove them southward on the run. Being
+ignorant of the trap set for them, the savages galloped carelessly along
+until thousands of them were piled into the ditch, one on top of the
+other&mdash;a maimed, struggling, screaming mass of men, women, children, and
+horses. Many were killed by the fall, others were crushed by those who
+fell upon them, while those who crawled out were despatched by the
+sabres of the cavalrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Those who were not driven into the ditch fled to the eastward hunting
+for a crossing, which the soldiers allowed them no time to make, even if
+they had had the tools. Shovels and picks and spades were unknown among
+the Patagonians, and as they are the wards of no nation, muskets and
+ammunition had never been furnished them to do their fighting with. It
+was very much such a chase as Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces gave
+General Howard in the North-west a few years ago, and finally ended in
+General Roca’s driving the Indians into a corner, with the impassable
+Rio Negro behind them, where the slaughter was continued until most of
+the warriors fell. The remainder were made prisoners and distributed
+around among the several regiments of the Argentine army, in which they
+have proven excellent soldiers. The women and children were sent to the
+Argentine cities, where they have since been held in a state of
+semi-slavery by families of officials and men of influence. The dead
+were never counted, but were buried in the ditch which encompassed their
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Northern Patagonia was thus cleared of savages, and civilization
+stretched out its arms to embrace the pampas, which are now being
+rapidly populated with ranchmen. The grass is very similar to that of
+our own great plains, but water is more plentiful and regular than in
+the South-west Territories of the United States. Towards the Andes there
+is some timber, and the foot-hills are well wooded. Grazing land in this
+country is sold at a nominal price by the Argentine Government, or is
+leased to tenants for a term of eight years, in lots<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_535" id="page_535"></a>{535}</span> of six thousand
+acres, at a rental of one hundred dollars per year. Locations nearer the
+cities, of course, cost more money, and are hard to get, as they are
+already occupied by people who secured titles to the land years ago by
+“concessions” from Congress or other means.</p>
+
+<p>Not long ago the United States Consul at Buenos Ayres received a letter
+from a New York capitalist, in which the latter proposed that they
+should pool their issues and secure a “concession” from the Argentine
+Government to gather up the wild cattle on the pampas. The capitalist,
+who had been overhauling his geography, discovered that “immense herds
+of wild horses and cattle are roaming ownerless upon the pampas of the
+Argentine Republic and Patagonia,” and thought it would be a good scheme
+to take a lot of Texas cow-boys down and corral them, if the permission
+of the Government could be obtained. He proposed that the consul should
+obtain such permission, while he would furnish the cow-boys and the
+necessary capital, and the two would become partners in the Patagonia
+cattle trade on an extensive scale.</p>
+
+<p>The astonished consul did not answer the letter. It was a tempting
+scheme, but there were several obstacles in the way of its success, the
+first being that there were no wild cattle on the pampas, and never had
+been. The Indians had large herds, which were “absorbed” by prominent
+officials when General Roca concluded his scheme of extermination; but
+it would be quite as reasonable to make such a proposition to the
+Governor of Colorado. There are about thirty million cows, five million
+horses, and one hundred million sheep grazing on the pampas of the
+Argentine Republic and Patagonia, but they are all properly branded, and
+valued at something like four hundred millions of dollars. The annual
+number of beeves slaughtered reaches nearly four millions, and about ten
+million sheep are turned into mutton each year.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentinians think that their country is to be the greatest of all
+the world in cattle and wool production, and the figures loom up very
+much like it, as the increase within the last twenty years has been
+about four hundred per cent. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_536" id="page_536"></a>{536}</span> present the Argentine Republic has more
+sheep than any other nation, but the value of the wool product is less
+by one-third than that of Australia, because the fleece is so much
+lighter. The clip per animal in Australia is worth about one dollar,
+while in the Argentine Republic it sells for about fifty cents.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of Patagonia, if the territory of that name may be said to
+have a capital, as there is only one town within its limits, is Punta
+Arenas, or Sandy Point, located about one-third of the distance from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific, in the Strait of Magellan. It belongs to Chili,
+and was formerly a penal colony; but one look at it is enough to
+convince the most incredulous that whoever located it did not intend the
+convict’s life to be a happy one. It lies on a long spit which stretches
+out into the strait, and the English call it Sandy Point, but a better
+name would be Cape Desolation. Convicts are sent there no longer, but
+some of those who were sent thither when Chili kept the seeds and
+harvests of her revolutions still remain there. There used to be a
+military guard, but that was withdrawn during the war with Peru, and all
+the prisoners who would consent to enter the army got a ticket of leave.
+The Governor resides in what was once the barracks, and horses are kept
+in what was used as a stockade. Hunger, decay, and dreariness are
+inscribed upon everything&mdash;on the faces of the men as well as on the
+houses they live in&mdash;and the people look as discouraging as the mud.</p>
+
+<p>They say it rains in Punta Arenas every day. That is a
+mistake&mdash;sometimes it snows. Another misrepresentation is the published
+announcement that ships passing the strait always touch there. Doubtless
+they desire to, and it is one of the delusions of the owners that they
+do; but as the wind never ceases except for a few hours at a time, and
+the bay on which the place is located is shallow, it is only about once
+a week or so that a boat can land, because of the violent surf. Our
+arrival happened to be opportune, for the water was smooth, and we
+landed without great difficulty, the only drawbacks being a pouring rain
+and mud that seemed bottomless.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_537" id="page_537"></a>{537}</span></p>
+
+<p>The town is interesting, because it is the only settlement in Patagonia,
+and of course the only one in the strait. It is about four thousand
+miles from the southernmost town on the west coast of South America to
+the first port on the eastern coast&mdash;a voyage which ordinarily requires
+fifteen days; and as Punta Arenas is in about the middle of the way, it
+possesses some attractions. Spread out in the mud are two hundred and
+fifty houses, more or less, which shelter from the ceaseless storms a
+community of eight hundred or one thousand people, representing all
+sorts and conditions of men, from the primeval Indian type to the pure
+Caucasian&mdash;convicts, traders, fugitives, wrecked seamen, deserters from
+all the navies in the world, Chinamen, negroes, Poles, Italians,
+Sandwich Islanders, wandering Jews, and human drift-wood of every tongue
+and clime cast up by the sea and absorbed in a community scarcely one of
+which would be willing to tell why he came there, or would stay if he
+could get away. It is said that in Punta Arenas an interpreter for every
+language known to the modern world can be found, but although the place
+belongs to Chili, English is most generally spoken. There are a few
+women in the settlement, some of them faithful mothers and wives, no
+doubt, but the most of them have defective antecedents, and are noted
+for a disregard of matrimonial obligations.</p>
+
+<p>There are some decent people here&mdash;ship agents and traders who came for
+business reasons, a consul or two, and among others an Irish physician,
+Dr. Fenton, who is the host and oracle sought for by every stranger who
+arrives. Occasionally some yachting party stops here on a voyage around
+the world, or a man-of-war cruising from one ocean to the other, and
+steamers bound from Europe to the South Pacific ports, or returning
+thence, pass every day or two; so that communication is kept up with the
+rest of the universe, and the people who live at this antipodes, where
+the sun is seen in the north, and the Fourth of July comes in the depth
+of winter, are pretty well informed as to affairs at the other end of
+the globe. The latitude corresponds to about that of Greenland,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_538" id="page_538"></a>{538}</span> and if
+you tip the globe over you will see that it is the southernmost town in
+the world, farther south than the Cape of Good Hope or any of the
+inhabited islands. The emotions that come with the contemplation of the
+fact that you are about as far away from anywhere as one can go are
+quite novel; but in the midst of them you are summoned to confront the
+fact that the world is not as large as it looks to be, for here is a man
+who used to live where you came from, and another who once worked in an
+office where you are employed. There is a news-stand where you can
+purchase London and New York papers, often three or four months old, but
+still fresh to the long voyager, and shops at which Paris confectionery
+and the luxuries of life can be had at Patagonia prices.</p>
+
+<p>There is a curiosity-shop near the landing, which is kept by an old
+fellow who was once a sailor in the United States navy, and fought under
+Admiral Farragut at Mobile&mdash;at least he says he did, and he speaks like
+a truthful man. Here are to be purchased many interesting relics; and
+passengers who are fortunate enough to get ashore, go back to their ship
+loaded down with Indian trifles, shells and flying fish, tusks of
+sea-lions, serpent-skins, agates from Cape Horn, turtle-shells, and the
+curious tails of the armadillo, in which the Indians carry their
+war-paint. But the prettiest things to be bought at Punta Arenas are the
+ostrich rugs, which are made of the breasts of the young birds, and are
+as soft as down and as beautiful as plumage can be.</p>
+
+<p>The plumes of the ostrich are plucked from the wings and tail while the
+bird is alive, but to make a rug the little ones are killed and skinned,
+and the soft fluffy breasts are sewed together until they reach the size
+of a blanket. Those of a brown color and those of the purest white are
+alternated, and the combination produces a very fine artistic effect.
+They are too dainty and beautiful to be spread upon the floor, but can
+be used as carriage robes, or to throw over the back of a couch or
+chair. Sometimes ladies use them as panels for the front of dress
+skirts, and thus they are more striking than any fabric<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_539" id="page_539"></a>{539}</span> a loom can
+produce. Opera cloaks have been made of them also, to the gratification
+of the æsthetic. They are too rare to be common, and too beautiful to
+ever tire the eye.</p>
+
+<p>This town of Sandy Point is quite a market for other sorts of furs,
+which are brought in by the Indians of Patagonia from the mountains.
+Several large houses in Valparaiso and Buenos Ayres have agents there,
+and the shipments to Europe are quite large. The chief articles of
+export in this line are ostrich feathers and guanaco (pronounced
+<i>wanacko</i>) skins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b539_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b539_sml.jpg" width="281" height="182" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE GUANACO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fur-bearing animals of South America are numerous, and some of them
+are very fine. The mountains of the lower half of the continent abound
+with vicuñas, guanacos, alpacas, and chinchillas, while the archipelago
+of Chili and Terra del Fuego, with its thousands of islands, fairly
+swarm with seals. Very many furs are shipped to Europe, but the seals
+are seldom touched except by the native Indians, who use their flesh for
+food and their skins for garments. The supply of seals is practically
+inexhaustible. They are found in large numbers as far north as
+Guayaquil, on the west coast, and the passengers on the steamships
+passing up and down are entertained<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_540" id="page_540"></a>{540}</span> by their antics. The seals have
+helped the sea-birds to create the supply of guano upon the Peruvian
+coast, and this valuable fertilizing material is largely composed of
+decayed seal flesh and bones, as well as the remnants of the fishes they
+have dined upon for thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>The skins of the northern seals are worthless, but farther south, as the
+archipelago is reached, a colder climate exists, the fur is thicker, and
+the skins have value. If the reader will take the map of South America,
+and examine the configuration of the continent south of the fortieth
+parallel, he will see how numerous these islands are, and every one of
+them is swarming with seals. There have been some attempts at
+seal-fishing in Terra del Fuego, but the Indians are so fierce as to
+make it dangerous for small parties to visit the islands, and only a few
+skins are shipped from Punta Arenas.</p>
+
+<p>The guanaco skins are considered very fine. These are the wearing
+apparel of the Indians, and with the ostrich rugs constitute the chief
+results of their chase. In Patagonia ostriches are not bred, as at the
+Cape of Good Hope, but run wild, and are getting exterminated rapidly.
+The Indians chase them on horseback, and catch them with <i>bolas</i>&mdash;two
+heavy balls attached to the ends of a rope. Galloping after the ostrich,
+they grasp one ball in the hand, and whirl the other around their heads
+like a lasso coil. When near enough to the bird, they let go, and the
+two balls, still revolving in the air if skilfully directed, will wind
+around the long legs of the ostrich, and send him turning somersaults
+upon the sand. The Indians then leap from the saddle, and if scarce of
+meat they will cut the throat of the bird and carry the carcass to camp.
+If they have no need of food, they will pull the long plumes from the
+tail and wings, and let him go again to gather fresh plumage for the
+coming season.</p>
+
+<p>The bolas are handled very dexterously, and well trained Indians are
+said to be able to bring down an ostrich at a range of two or three
+hundred yards. But it is not often necessary to draw at that distance.
+Horses accustomed to the chase can overtake a bird on an unobstructed
+plain; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_541" id="page_541"></a>{541}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b541_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b541_sml.jpg" width="309" height="284" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PATAGONIAN INDIANS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">birds have the advantage of being “artful dodgers,” and as they carry so
+much less weight, can turn and reverse quite suddenly. The usual mode of
+hunting them is for a dozen or so Indians to surround a herd and charge
+upon it suddenly. In this way several are usually brought down before
+they can scatter, and those that get away are pursued. As they dodge
+from one hunter they usually run afoul of another, and before they are
+aware they are tripped by the entangling bolas. People who are passing
+through the strait often stop over and await another steamer at Punta
+Arenas to enjoy an ostrich chase. They can secure trained horses and
+guides at moderate rates. One who has never thrown the bolas will be
+amazed, the first time he tries it, to find how difficult it is to do a
+trick that looks so easy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_542" id="page_542"></a>{542}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BUENOS_AYRES" id="BUENOS_AYRES"></a>BUENOS AYRES.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">CAPITAL OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b542_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b542_sml.jpg" width="317" height="122" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE HARBOR, BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chillanos claim to be the Yankees of South America, and it is their
+proudest boast, but the Argentinians are more entitled to that
+distinction. Chili, commercially and in her political affinities, is to
+all intents and purposes an English colony. She reckons her transactions
+in pounds, shillings, and pence, and her statute-books bear the law of
+entail. There is no democracy outside her constitution, and a peon can
+never be anything else. The poor may not acquire land, but must be the
+retainers of the rich and the tenants of the great estates which are
+tied up forever from them. In the Argentine Republic, on the contrary,
+the pampas are divided like the prairies of our own great West. Any man
+may acquire an estancia by location upon the public lands and the
+payment of a nominal price per acre; so the country is settling up with
+those who have fled from the conditions that exist in Chili, free
+thought, free speech, free air, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_543" id="page_543"></a>{543}</span> free land being their inducement.
+The city of Buenos Ayres is the only one of the South American capitals
+in which modern ideas and manners of life prevail. The town is of
+mushroom growth, like Chicago. There were no old prejudices to uproot,
+no antiquated bigotry to tear down. It looks less like Spain than any of
+the other capitals, and more like a modern American community.</p>
+
+<p>The first impressions of the traveller are unfavorable, and you wonder
+what possessed the Spaniards to locate this capital where it stands. But
+Buenos Ayres is like Topsy&mdash;it simply “growed.” The first man who came
+was Juan Diaz de Solis, in 1515. He discovered the Rio de la Plata, and
+was murdered by the Indians. Then came the famous Sebastian Cabot, who
+explored the country as far up the river as Paraguay ten years later,
+and was followed by Pedro de Mendoza in 1535, who obtained permission
+from the Spanish Government to equip an expedition to subdue the
+country, provided&mdash;as was always the rule in the Pickwick Club&mdash;he did
+the same at his own expense. Mendoza came with eleven hundred men, went
+ashore where he first saw land, established a camp as a basis of
+operations, and from the purity of the atmosphere called it Buenos
+Ayres, or “good air.” He had no intention of founding a city at this
+location; his purpose was to rest there a while and keep a base of
+supplies, until he had found a path to the mythical El Dorado, which was
+supposed to lie somewhere in the interior of South America.</p>
+
+<p>The approach to Buenos Ayres, which stands about one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Rio Plata&mdash;or “the river Plate,” as it is more commonly
+called by English writers&mdash;is perplexing to navigators, as the mouth of
+the river is beset with mud-banks and sand-bars&mdash;accumulations that come
+down from the interior of the continent upon the swift waters, and, like
+the shoals in the Mississippi, are constantly shifting. The voyage from
+the Strait of Magellan to the place is not a comfortable one, and the
+captain is always glum and anxious. When it is calm weather he is
+nervous, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_544" id="page_544"></a>{544}</span> keeps his eye on the barometer for fear of a gale; and
+when the gale comes, as it does about three or four days in a week, the
+jokes of the passengers do not appear to entertain him. These gales are
+called <i>pamperos</i>, and sweep across the pampas of Patagonia with the
+violence of a tornado. Many a brave ship has gone down a victim of their
+fierceness, and the sailors are as much afraid of them as of the
+tempests which haunt Cape Horn.</p>
+
+<p>Our captain was unusually anxious, because we had a priest on board.
+Ever since the days of Jonah there has been a superstition among sailors
+that clergymen always bring bad luck, particularly a Catholic priest. In
+trying to discover why the forebodings over a priest should be greater
+than those over a Protestant parson, the conclusion is reached that it
+is because the priest wears the sign of his office in his apparel, and
+is thus more conspicuous. Many captains of sailing-vessels will not take
+clergymen as passengers under any circumstances, always protesting, of
+course, that they do not share the common superstition, but basing their
+objections upon the ground that it would demoralize the sailors. A
+missionary to one of the South American countries waited in New York for
+over three months to get passage by a sailing-vessel, and although
+several started in the mean time for the port he wanted to reach, he was
+finally obliged to go on a steamer by way of England. The steamer was
+lost in a storm off the coast of British Guiana. He and other of the
+passengers were saved in the life-boats, but the chief mate and several
+of the seamen were drowned. This superstition prevails among sailors of
+all races, but the Spaniards are the most sensitive to it, as they are
+to omens of all kinds. The Spanish seamen believe that if the decks are
+wet by the sea the first day out, they will have fine weather for the
+rest of the voyage, and for this reason they often leave their moorings
+in a storm when skippers of other countries would wait for fair weather.
+There is scarcely a tar in the Spanish service who cannot find some
+significance in every incident.</p>
+
+<p>Through the Strait of Magellan and up the east coast of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_545" id="page_545"></a>{545}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b545_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b545_sml.jpg" width="511" height="306" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CITY OF BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_546" id="page_546"></a>{546}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_547" id="page_547"></a>{547}</span></p>
+
+<p>South America vessels are followed by myriads of sea-birds&mdash;albatrosses,
+Mother Carey’s chickens, and a beautiful species of the gull variety not
+found elsewhere, known as the “cape pigeon.” Their plumage is beautiful,
+of the purest white, mixed with the most intense black, and nature has
+clothed them so warmly for the severe climate in which they live that
+their skin is as thick as fur, and is used for the manufacture of robes
+and rugs. More than a hundred breasts of these birds are needed for an
+ordinary sized robe, however, so that they are a luxury few can afford.
+I saw in Montevideo a mass of tiny feathers, black and white, as fine
+and soft as eider-down, that was lined with scarlet silk, and cost two
+hundred and fifty dollars. Nothing more beautiful could be imagined.
+Robes made of the breasts of ostriches are lovely enough, but one of
+cape-pigeons’ breasts is passing lovely.</p>
+
+<p>The sailors catch them by throwing overboard a long piece of coarse
+twine and trailing it in the wake of the ship. As hundreds of the birds
+are constantly sailing along the surface of the water, they get tangled
+in the cord and are drawn in, but it requires as much dexterity to get
+them aboard as to land a lively trout. Sometimes brass or tin tags are
+tied to their necks, with names and dates scratched upon them, when they
+are released. The officers of our ship reported that upon a previous
+voyage they got a bird with one of these tags on, bearing inscriptions
+showing that it had been caught twice before. They gave the little
+stranger another indorsement and let him go. The albatrosses of the
+southern hemisphere are very large, sometimes measuring ten and twelve
+feet from wing to wing; but they are worthless, and are stupid, awkward
+birds, that often dash themselves against the side of a ship from pure
+stupidity.</p>
+
+<p>There is no port of importance between Punta Arenas, in the Strait, and
+the river Plate except Bahia Blanca (White Bay), near where the United
+States astronomical expedition made its observations at the last transit
+of Venus. The entire coast for fifteen hundred miles is barren of
+civilization, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_548" id="page_548"></a>{548}</span> the cabin of some hardy frontiersman, who has set
+up a ranch and is waiting for the country to grow down to him.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b548_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b548_sml.jpg" width="200" height="97" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LOADING CARGO AT BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, lies a few miles below Buenos Ayres,
+on the other side of the river, and vessels usually touch there, for it
+is a place of great commercial importance, more accessible to shipping
+and more favorably located in every respect than the latter city, which
+lies stretched along a low sandy bank seven or eight miles beyond the
+anchorage of ships. There is no harbor at Buenos Ayres&mdash;not even an
+excuse for one&mdash;and it is beyond the power of human genius to give
+vessels direct access to the city. The water is so shallow that they
+anchor seven, eight, and ten miles out, and are loaded and unloaded by
+means of flat-bottomed lighters, which are towed back and forth. Two or
+three times a week during the winter, when a pampero is blowing, the
+water is carried out to sea by force of the wind, and these lighters are
+left high and dry upon a beach over which they were floating a few hours
+before. Then they have to be unloaded by means of carts on wheels eight
+to ten feet in diameter, which are driven into the water until nothing
+can be seen of the mules that draw them but their indignant noses and
+nodding ears. It is amusing to see the heads of these mules sticking out
+of the water at an elevation which must be very uncomfortable, but one
+they are used to. Passengers who arrive on these occasions are
+transferred from the ship to a lighter, then to a mule-cart, and
+sometimes are carried ashore on the back of a stormy Italian, who never
+fails to swear by all the saints and the Virgin that the man on his back
+is the heaviest he has ever carried, and demands more than the regular
+fee for extra baggage, so to speak. Lacking confidence in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_549" id="page_549"></a>{549}</span> the sincerity
+of the cargador, the passenger will promise him heaven and earth and the
+sea if he will not drop him into the water, and then fights it out when
+he gets safely ashore.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b549_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b549_sml.jpg" width="146" height="150" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GOING ASHORE AT BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the commercial disadvantages of Buenos Ayres, it is the
+most enterprising, prosperous, and wealthy city in South America&mdash;a
+regular Chicago&mdash;the only place on the whole continent where people seem
+to be in a hurry, and where everybody you meet appears to be trying to
+overtake the man ahead of him. It is all bustle and life night and day,
+and is so different from the rest of South America that the traveller is
+more impressed than he would be if he came direct from the United
+States. Elsewhere people always put off till to-morrow what they are
+absolutely not compelled to do to-day. In the other countries mañana
+(manyana) is king, and mañana means to-morrow, but in Buenos Ayres the
+idea seems to be that the liveliest turkey gets the most grasshoppers,
+and everybody is trying to get as many as he can. Merchants do not shut
+up shop to go to dinner, as is the rule elsewhere in Spanish-America,
+and morning newspapers are not printed on the afternoon of the previous
+day. To do as much as possible this week, and a good deal more, is the
+motto, and that accounts for the progress of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>And it is a republic, not only in name but in fact. There is no bossism
+there, as in other Spanish-American countries. Every man is a sovereign,
+and he will not permit the soldiers to count the votes. There is always
+a good deal of a rumpus during election times, and the defeated party
+often raises a revolution, but since the tyrant Rosas was overthrown, no
+man has attempted to bully or oppress the Argentine people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_550" id="page_550"></a>{550}</span></p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the Argentine Republic amounts to little more than we
+know of the Congo State, and the man who goes there from the United
+States is kept in a state of astonishment until he leaves. Then, as he
+sits on shipboard and reflects over what he has seen, he cannot find an
+exclamation point big enough to do justice to his description of the
+country. The Argentinians think it is wicked indifference on our part to
+know so little about them, for the surprise of the few American visitors
+wounds their self-esteem. They are a proud people, like all the rest of
+the Spanish race, and, unlike some nations, have many things to be proud
+of. They know all about us. There are many men in the Argentine Republic
+who can tell you the percentage of increase in population, industry, and
+progress in the United States, as shown by the latest statistics, but
+how many people in the United States are aware that that country is
+growing twice as fast as ours? How many members of the Senate or the
+House of Representatives at Washington, how many members of the Cabinet
+or Justices of the Supreme Court, know that the increase of population
+in the Argentine Republic during the last twenty-five years has been one
+hundred and fifty-four per cent., while in the United States it has been
+only seventy-nine per cent., and that Buenos Ayres is growing as fast as
+Denver or Minneapolis?</p>
+
+<p>The people are right when they assert that their country is the United
+States of South America, and there is nothing else that they are so
+proud of. They study and imitate our institutions and our methods, and
+in some cases improve upon them. You can buy the New York dailies and
+illustrated papers at any of the news-stands in Buenos Ayres, although
+they are six weeks old, and the people purchase and read them. They
+understand the significance of the cartoons in <i>Puck</i>, and read
+<i>Harper’s Magazine</i> and the <i>Century</i>. Blaine’s book and Grant’s Memoirs
+are on sale, and the issues of our Presidential campaigns are as well
+understood as their own local squabbles.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest benefit to be derived by a traveller in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_551" id="page_551"></a>{551}</span> countries of
+South America is to make him think well of his own; but, nevertheless,
+his vanity receives a severe shock when he comes to the Argentine
+Republic, and discovers how little he knows of what is going on in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>The succession of surprises that greet one on either hand keep him
+reminded of his own ignorance. It is perfectly natural, however, because
+we have no communication with the Argentine Republic, and have not had
+since the day when steam was substituted for canvas as a motive power on
+the sea. There was a time when we almost monopolized the commerce of
+that country, but during our civil war the ships were withdrawn, and the
+sailors went into the navy. Then when peace came all hands were called
+to the development of our own resources, and we were so busily engaged
+in building railroads, opening up farms, establishing ranches, working
+mines, and erecting new towns and cities in the great West, that we
+forgot that there was anybody to be looked after in South America.
+Twenty-five years ago our knowledge of the continent was pretty good,
+but we have learned nothing since. Our geographies read as they did
+then, our histories have not been rewritten, and our maps remain
+unaltered. But in the mean time mighty changes have been taking place
+among our neighbors that have escaped our attention. They have been
+growing as we have grown, and instead of a few half-civilized,
+ill-governed people upon the pampas of the Argentine Republic, a great
+nation has sprung up, as enterprising, progressive, and intelligent as
+ours, with “all the modern improvements,” as house agents say, and an
+ambition to stand beside the United States in the front rank of modern
+civilization. While we have been occupied with our own internal
+development, the European nations have gone in and taken the commerce to
+which we by the logic of political and geographical considerations are
+entitled.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-three lines of steamships connect the Argentine Republic with the
+markets of Europe, and from forty to sixty vessels are sailing back and
+forth each month. In the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or in what they call
+the harbor, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_552" id="page_552"></a>{552}</span> dozens of steamships and scores of sailing-vessels,
+showing every flag but that of the United States; for an American
+steamer never goes there, and only occasionally a bark or brigantine,
+chartered at New York or Philadelphia, with a cargo of lumber or railway
+supplies. Nearly all the goods these people buy of us are sent by way of
+Europe, as mails and passengers usually go, and very little is bought in
+the United States that can be purchased elsewhere. The reason for this
+is very plain&mdash;we have no transportation facilities, while those
+afforded for trade in Europe are as regular and convenient as exist
+between Liverpool and New York.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b552_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b552_sml.jpg" width="322" height="263" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PRIVATE RESIDENCE IN BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And this trade is worth having. The Argentine Republic imports nearly
+one hundred million dollars’ worth of manufactured merchandise every
+year, of which about one-third is from England, one-fifth from France,
+one-fifth from Germany,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_553" id="page_553"></a>{553}</span> while the United States comes in at the
+tail-end of the list, along with Sweden, Denmark, and Chili. While
+England sent $35,375,628 worth there in 1885, we sent $7,000,000 worth,
+mostly lumber, railway locomotives and cars, and agricultural
+implements. While she sent $7,000,000 worth of cotton goods, we sent
+$600,000 worth; while she sent nearly $7,000,000 worth of hardware and
+other manufactures of iron and steel, we sent about $500,000 worth; and
+so on, down through the list of manufactured articles in which we, with
+equal transportation facilities, can compete with any nation on the
+globe. Our goods are more popular there, as everywhere in South America,
+so popular that the manufacturers at Manchester and Birmingham imitate
+our trade-marks, and send cargoes of merchandise which appears to have
+been produced in the United States, but never got nearer to Yankeeland
+than Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>There is not a country in all the world so deserving of attention as
+this, and particularly of our attention, for the time is drawing near
+when we must confront the results of its enterprise in the markets of
+the world. In its resources as well as in the character of its people it
+resembles the United States. Here are found pampas like our prairies,
+rich and fertile in the lowlands, and covered with fine ranges as they
+rise in mighty terraces from the Atlantic to the Andes; while in the
+foot-hills of the mountains are deposits of gold and silver similar to
+those of Colorado, whose wealth is yet untold. In the north is a soil
+that will produce cotton, rice, and sugar, like Louisiana and Texas;
+then come tobacco lands, like those of Virginia and Tennessee; then, as
+the temperature grows colder towards the south, are wheat and corn
+fields, as yet a tithe of them untilled, but suggesting Iowa, Nebraska,
+and Kansas. This vast area, as vast as that which lies between Indiana
+and the Rocky Mountains, is furnished with natural highways even more
+tempting to navigation than the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Missouri
+rivers, and which find their sources in forests as extensive as those
+that shelter our great lakes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_554" id="page_554"></a>{554}</span></p>
+
+<p>Already the pampas produce wheat enough for domestic consumption and
+9,000,000 bushels for export, and the production is increasing with the
+greatest rapidity. Nearly 100,000,000 sheep&mdash;more than are owned in any
+country of the world&mdash;are grazing on the ranges, and producing
+200,000,000 pounds of wool for export; already beef and mutton are sent
+to England in refrigerator ships at prices cheaper than we can compete
+with, and few of our people know it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b554_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b554_sml.jpg" width="321" height="247" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE COLON THEATRE, BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A mistaken notion prevails everywhere among the American people about
+the social and political condition of the Argentine Republic, as well as
+about its commerce. There are banks at Buenos Ayres with capital greater
+than any in the United States, and occupying buildings finer than any
+banking-house in New York, palaces of marble and glass and iron. The
+Provincial Bank has a capital of $33,000,000, and $67,000,000 of
+deposits. It does more business than any one of our banks, and more than
+the Imperial Bank of Germany, being exceeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_555" id="page_555"></a>{555}</span> by but two banks in the
+world. The National Bank has a capital of $40,000,000, another has
+$8,000,000, another has $7,000,000, and several have $5,000,000. If we
+compare the banking capital and deposits of the Argentine Republic with
+those of the United States we find that they amount to $64 per capita of
+population there, and only $49 per capita with us. They have a Board of
+Trade and a Stock Exchange, where business is conducted upon the same
+plan as in New York or Chicago, and with as great an amount of
+excitement.</p>
+
+<p>There are more daily papers in Buenos Ayres than in New York or
+London&mdash;twenty-three in all. Two of the dailies are published in the
+English language, one in French, one in German, and one in Italian; the
+rest are in Spanish. There are two illustrated weeklies, one of them
+comic, and three monthly literary magazines. The leading daily, <i>La
+Nacion</i>, is a great blanket-sheet larger than the New York <i>Evening
+Post</i>, and has a circulation of thirty thousand copies. The expression
+of opinion in the newspapers is as free as with us, and the editors are
+not under such restrictions as in other of the South American republics.
+There is a peculiar law of libel, and editors charged with this offence
+are tried by what is called a jury of honor, a sort of arbitrating
+committee, who decide upon the justice of the facts stated. Sometimes
+they compel the publisher to apologize, but more often console the
+complainant with advice “to grin and bear it.” The telephone and
+electric light are used extensively as in the United States, there being
+two telephone companies, and the manager of one told me that the number
+of instruments engaged is larger in proportion to population than any
+city in the world.</p>
+
+<p>There are nine prominent theatres in Buenos Ayres, giving performances
+every night in the week, including Sunday, a permanent Italian opera,
+and a permanent French opera bouffe. One of the theatres is English,
+with all the plays given in that language, another is French, and a
+third is Italian; the rest are Spanish. There is a curious innovation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_556" id="page_556"></a>{556}</span>
+in theatre and opera management in Buenos Ayres, which might be imitated
+by managers in the United States. The first gallery, or what we call the
+“dress circle,” is reserved exclusively for ladies, and no gentlemen are
+admitted. There is a separate box-office and entrance, and ladies who
+desire to attend but have no escorts are thus given an opportunity
+without being subjected to the annoyances suffered if they go in the
+usual way. They can ride to the private entrance in street-car or cab,
+and be as safe from the impertinence of loafers as if they had a dozen
+brothers or husbands around them. These galleries are almost always
+filled, which is the best evidence of their popularity and the success
+of the system.</p>
+
+<p>Buenos Ayres has its parks, boulevards, and race-courses, like other
+modern cities; in fact, there is nothing in the line of civilized
+amusements that it is without. Everybody keeps a carriage and nearly
+everybody rides. Nowhere in the world are horses so cheap, and the stock
+as well as the equipages are very fine. A good pair of carriage-horses,
+the very best, can be had for one hundred and fifty dollars, and
+saddle-horses that are equal to any in the world can be purchased for
+thirty or forty dollars. The Argentine horseman invests his money in
+silver-mounted saddles and bridles, and a riding-gear with solid-silver
+stirrups, heavily mounted saddle, etc., is worth between four and five
+hundred dollars. All the swells have them, and the ladies who ride are
+similarly mounted, having a beautiful stirrup in the form of a slipper,
+often of solid silver. The parks and boulevards are crowded with haughty
+dons and ravishing señoritas during driving hours, and present a very
+brilliant and attractive scene.</p>
+
+<p>The two Argentine Universities, under the patronage of the Government,
+are among the best in America, and rank with Yale or Harvard in
+curriculum and standard of education. They have large and able
+faculties, many of them Germans, with four branches, namely, law,
+medicine, engineering, and scientific, and the ordinary classical
+course. The library has about sixty thousand volumes, representing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_557" id="page_557"></a>{557}</span>
+literature of all languages, and the museum is quite extensive. The
+public-school system is also under the patronage of the Government,
+under a compulsory education law, and includes all grades from the
+kindergarten to the normal school. The distinguished ex-President of the
+Republic, Dr. Sarmiento, who was formerly Minister to the United States,
+is the especial patron of education, and it is his ambition to make the
+school system of the Argentine Republic the finest in the world. He
+studied the educational systems of all our States, and finally adopted
+that of Michigan for his own country.</p>
+
+<p>Ex-President Sarmiento is the leading advocate of the higher education
+of women in South America, having gained his advanced ideas while
+Minister to the United States. He was an intimate friend and regular
+correspondent of Mrs. Horace Mann, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, Mrs. Elizabeth
+Cady Stanton, and other prominent women in the United States, and
+imbibed from them the theories of the equality of the sex which their
+lives have been spent in demonstrating. Through his instrumentality some
+forty American girls, graduates of Vassar, Wellesley, Mount Holyoke, and
+Western institutions, have been employed under liberal contracts by the
+Argentine Government in the normal schools and female seminaries of the
+country, and their success has been phenomenal. These teachers receive
+salaries varying from one hundred to one hundred and sixty dollars per
+month, and are placed in positions, social as well as professional,
+which they could not hope to acquire at home. In every instance they
+have conducted themselves with the most commendable dignity; and
+although some of the economists in Congress and in the newspapers are
+grumbling over the large salaries they receive, they are treated with
+the greatest distinction, and are entertained by the Government in a
+manner that our own educational authorities might well imitate.</p>
+
+<p>One of them had a misunderstanding with the Papal Nuncio not long ago,
+which caused an immense amount of excitement. He attempted to interfere
+with the management of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_558" id="page_558"></a>{558}</span> her school, on the ground that she was
+proselyting the children to Protestantism. She gave the envoy of his
+Holiness the Pope to understand that she was running that institution,
+and when he brought the case to the attention of the Government she
+defended herself with such success that the President of the Argentine
+Republic sent him his passport and advised him to take the next steamer
+for Rome. The archbishop interfered, and he was summarily banished also.
+Since then the Pope has been without an ambassador in the republic, but
+the Yankee school-ma’am is solid with the Government and the people, and
+goes on teaching heresy.</p>
+
+<p>A Brazilian who went to Cornell University for an education married an
+Ithaca girl, and took her back to Brazil, where he is engaged as a civil
+engineer. There are a good many young Spanish-Americans with English
+wives. More of the men go to England than to the United States for
+collegiate training, for the reason that the English universities
+advertise down there, while the American colleges do not. There is no
+necessity for the Argentinians to send their sons away for learning, as
+their educational system is as good as our own, and the most expensive
+in the world, with the exception of Australia. The amount expended by
+the Government for educational purposes is $10.20 per pupil annually,
+while in the United States it averages only $8.70, in Germany $6.00, and
+in England $9.10. There are thirty colleges and normal schools for the
+higher education of men and women in the republic, with 430 teachers and
+6710 students, and 2726 public schools with 6214 teachers and 201,329
+pupils, in a total population of less than 4,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of Chili, which attempts a close competition with the
+Argentine Republic in matters of education as well as other modern
+improvements, has contracted with fifty young ladies from Germany to
+manage its female seminaries and normal schools at much lower salaries
+than the Yankee school-ma’ams receive.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentinians have made as rapid advancement in the way of charity
+and philanthropy as in education, and one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_559" id="page_559"></a>{559}</span> finds throughout the country
+as many benevolent institutions as in New York or other cities of the
+United States in proportion to the population. There are hospitals,
+dispensaries, homes for the indigent aged, orphan asylums, blind, and
+deaf and dumb asylums, insane asylums, public libraries, free art
+schools, and all sorts of institutions founded by benevolence and
+liberally endowed. There is a Board of Health enforcing strict sanitary
+regulations, the streets are swept every night, the police are admirably
+organized, the public buildings and parks are lighted by electricity,
+and all the features of modern civilization have been introduced into
+the political and domestic economy. The plantation owners mostly reside
+in Buenos Ayres, and have telephonic wires between their offices and
+estancias. Instead of yelling “ Hello!” into a telephone, they say
+“Oyez, oyez!” as our bailiffs do when they open court.</p>
+
+<p>The post-office of Buenos Ayres handled 20,000,000 packages in 1885,
+which is pretty good for a city of 434,000 inhabitants, and its progress
+is no better illustrated than by the increase of mails. In 1865 only
+1,000,000 pieces were handled by this office, and in 1875 only
+7,000,000, while during the first six months of 1887 over 16,000,000
+pieces passed through the office. There is a mail leaving and arriving
+for and from Europe nearly every day, but all mail for the United States
+goes and comes by way of Great Britain, because of the lack of direct
+steamship communication.</p>
+
+<p>There are three gas companies with 240 miles of pipe, lighting 26,000
+houses or stores, with 3300 street-lamps. There are 32 miles of paved
+streets, 40 miles of sewers, some of which are large enough for a
+railway-train to pass through. There are 1100 licensed hacks, and 2715
+licensed express-wagons; five street-railway companies, with 93 miles of
+track, carrying 1,850,000 passengers monthly. Between tramways and
+public carriages the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres spent an average of
+$8.00 per capita for city locomotion in 1885.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout South America all the dentists and many of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_560" id="page_560"></a>{560}</span> the photographers
+are immigrants from the United States, and if there is any one among
+them who is not getting rich he has nobody but himself to find fault
+with, because the natives give both professions plenty to do. Nowhere in
+the world is so large an amount of confectionery consumed in proportion
+to the population as in Spanish America, and as a natural consequence
+the teeth of the people require a great deal of attention. As a usual
+thing Spaniards have good teeth, as they always have beautiful eyes, and
+are very particular in keeping them in condition. Hence the dentists are
+kept busy, and as they charge twice as much as they do in the United
+States, the profits are very large. In these countries it is the custom
+to serve sweetmeats at every meal&mdash;dulces, as they are called&mdash;preserved
+fruits of the richest sort, jellies, and confections of every variety
+and description. Many of these are made by the nuns in the convents, and
+are sold to the public either through the confectionery stores or by
+private application. A South American housewife, instead of ordering
+jams and preserves and jellies from her grocer, or putting up a supply
+in her own kitchen during the fruit season, patronizes the nuns, and
+gets a better article at a lower price. The nuns are very ingenious in
+this work, and prepare forms of delicacies which are unknown to our
+table.</p>
+
+<p>At a dinner-party I attended dessert was brought in in a novel form. A
+tray which appeared to be filled with hard-boiled eggs was placed before
+the hostess, who gave each guest a couple, and poured over them some
+sort of a syrup or dressing. In a strange country the tourist is always
+on the lookout for odd things; but this seemed to cap the
+climax&mdash;hard-boiled eggs for dessert at a swell dinner-party. But it was
+soon discovered that the white of this bogus egg was <i>blanc-mange</i>, and
+the yolk was made of quince jelly, egg-shells being used for moulds.
+This was an idea of the nuns, and one of their ingenious fixings.</p>
+
+<p>The atmosphere is so clear as to be admirable for photography. The
+Spanish-American belle has her photograph taken every time she gets a
+new dress, and that is very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_561" id="page_561"></a>{561}</span> often. The Paris styles reach here as soon
+as they do the North American cities, and where the national costumes
+are not still worn there is a great deal of elaborate dressing. The
+Argentine Republic is one of the few countries in which photographs of
+ladies are not sold in the shops. Elsewhere there is a craze for
+portraits of reigning beauties, and the young men have their rooms
+filled with photographs of the girls they admire taken in all sorts of
+costumes and attitudes.</p>
+
+<p>There are in South America a great many physicians and surgeons from the
+United States, and they usually, if worthy, have a more extensive
+practice than the natives. There is an excellent field for female
+physicians here, and it is at present unoccupied. In most of the
+countries of South America a physician is not permitted to see a lady
+patient except in the presence of her husband, and many women die for
+lack of attention. The social laws are inflexible in this respect, and
+many women will suffer torments rather than expose themselves to
+criticism by receiving treatment from male practitioners. No woman,
+except she be of the common laboring class, will visit the office of a
+physician, and as fees for attendance at their homes are very high, many
+suffer and die from neglect based upon motives of modesty and economy.
+There is only one lady physician that I know of in South America, and
+she is practising with great success in Guatemala. Others might secure
+equal advantages in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Chili, the Argentine
+Republic, Uruguay, and Brazil; but it would be necessary for them to
+acquire a thorough knowledge of the Spanish language, and secure
+favorable introductions before hanging out their shingles. These
+introductions might be obtained through the American consuls and
+legations, or from merchants of social and commercial standing. There is
+a strong prejudice against the professional employment of native women,
+but the American ladies who have come to South America as teachers have
+not only been cordially received but in many cases have been lionized.
+In many of the aristocratic families American girls are employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_562" id="page_562"></a>{562}</span> as
+governesses, and are treated with great deference. Mrs. Barrios, the
+widow of the late President of Guatemala, had three New York ladies in
+her family&mdash;one as a companion for herself, and the other two employed
+in the nursery. In Peru, Chili, the Argentine Republic, and other
+countries French and English governesses are common, and in fact there
+are few others employed, as the native girls who would accept such
+positions lack the necessary education.</p>
+
+<p>There are two notable Boston men in Buenos Ayres&mdash;notable, however, for
+different reasons. One is Samuel B. Hale, the most prominent merchant
+and capitalist in the country; and the other is D. Warren Lowe, <i>alias</i>
+Winslow, editor of the <i>Buenos Ayres Daily Herald</i>. There is no man in
+all South America more respected and beloved, or who possesses the
+confidence of the people to a greater degree than Samuel B. Hale. He
+came in 1829 from Boston to do a little trading, and has since remained,
+amassing an immense fortune, and now, at the age of eighty-two, looks
+back upon such a career as few men are permitted to contemplate.</p>
+
+<p>Although we of the United States have very little to do with the
+Argentine Republic nowadays, the pioneers of that country were
+Americans. In 1826 William Wheelwright, of Pennsylvania, was wrecked
+upon this coast, and found his way to a small town named Quilmes,
+barefooted, hatless, and starving. He remained in the country, and forty
+years later built the first railroad in the Argentine Republic&mdash;from
+Buenos Ayres to Quilmes. But in the mean time he had done still greater
+service in establishing the first steamship line between Europe and
+South America&mdash;the Pacific Steam Navigation Company&mdash;which now has a
+monopoly of the traffic on the west coast, and sails vessels from Panama
+through the Strait of Magellan to Liverpool. In 1839 Mr. Wheelwright
+foresaw the immense trade these countries were capable of developing,
+and went to New York to present his scheme to Aspinwall, Garrison,
+Astor, Vanderbilt, and other capitalists, but they rejected it. He then
+went to England, where he secured the necessary capital, established his
+line, and turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_563" id="page_563"></a>{563}</span> the whole course of South American commerce from its
+natural channel. Every one connected with the company has made a
+fortune, and dividends of fourteen and fifteen per cent. are still paid.
+In 1852 there were in the harbor of Buenos Ayres six hundred vessels
+from the United States&mdash;more than double the number from all other
+nations combined. Now only two per cent. of the shipping annually
+reaching that harbor belongs to the United States. Both Chili and the
+Argentine Republic have erected fine monuments to Mr. Wheelwright, the
+father of their foreign commerce and their internal improvements, for he
+built the first railway in Chili as he did in the Argentine Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Another citizen of the United States, Thomas Lloyd Halsey of New Jersey,
+introduced sheep and cattle. The Spaniards had a few domestic animals
+before the independence of the republic, but Mr. Halsey established the
+first ranch. Now there are over ninety million sheep and thirty million
+cattle in the country. Both Wheelwright and Halsey are dead; but Mr.
+Hale, who was contemporary with them, and was the pioneer commission
+merchant and importer, still lives. His immense business interests are
+now in the hands of Mr. Pierson, his son-in-law, also a Boston man, who
+went out as a clerk thirty years ago; and the husband of another
+daughter represents the London banking-house of Baring Brothers in
+Buenos Ayres.</p>
+
+<p>In the old days Mr. Hale bought wool and hides and furs in the Argentine
+Republic and in Uruguay, and shipped them to Boston. The vessels
+returned loaded with cotton goods and Yankee notions of all sorts, which
+were exchanged for the produce; and this system of barter went on until
+the War of the Rebellion, when most of the vessels were withdrawn, and
+the tariff on wool made it unprofitable to ship the chief product of the
+republic to the United States. Then Mr. Hale turned his attention to the
+European trade, and did a very large business in exporting and importing
+until about 1880, when he sold out to Mr. C. S. Bowers, also a Boston
+man, and retired from the market. He still purchases large quantities<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_564" id="page_564"></a>{564}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b564_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b564_sml.jpg" width="282" height="280" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN ARGENTINE RANCHMAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">of wool and hides for shipment to Europe, but does not import any
+longer, and he devotes most of his attention to loaning money and
+dealing in standard securities. In addition to his commercial business,
+Mr. Hale owns and manages some of the largest estancias in the Argentine
+Republic, having several hundred thousand sheep and sixty thousand
+cattle. He is famous for his hospitality and generosity, and many of the
+philanthropic institutions of the country have enjoyed with him the
+financial results of his successful career. He has also been active in
+the promotion of public enterprises and in encouraging steamship lines,
+and is not only the oldest and most prominent merchant, but is regarded
+as the leading public benefactor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_565" id="page_565"></a>{565}</span></p>
+
+<p>The social condition of the Argentine Republic is as much advanced as
+its commerce, and the old customs are rapidly dying out. The education
+of girls has become popular, and the young ladies are no longer
+restricted in their association with men, as in other Spanish-American
+countries. Formerly, if a young man fell in love with a girl, he told
+her father or grandmother about it, which was about as satisfactory as
+kissing through a telephone. Under the new regime etiquette gives him
+the privilege of telling the old, old story into the girl’s own ear, and
+it appears to work just as well for all concerned.</p>
+
+<p>It is the only country in South America in which girls can go out riding
+with their lovers, or receive them at home as they do in the United
+States. The supposition that it is unsafe to leave a woman alone with
+any man but her husband or father does not exist in the Argentine
+Republic, except among some of the families of the ancient Spanish
+aristocracy which still adhere to the old tradition.</p>
+
+<p>One finds a good deal of club life in Buenos Ayres, there being as many
+as seven fine club-houses, most of which have all the modern
+improvements, with reading-rooms attached, in which are found newspapers
+from all parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Their restaurants and cafés are as good as the average in New York and
+London, and the people being epicurean in their tastes, caterers import
+delicacies from all parts of the world. Lobsters and Spanish mackerel
+are brought in refrigerator ships, and Southdown mutton from England,
+with all sorts of delicacies from France. One day I saw a negro going
+through the streets with a large tray on his head, containing a leg of
+mutton, a haunch of venison, Spanish mackerel, lobsters, shrimps, and
+oysters, and a printed placard upon his back announcing that dishes of
+this sort were served daily at the Maison de Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The hotels are not good. They are up to the average in South American
+cities, but do not correspond with the other evidences of advancement in
+Buenos Ayres. They have no regular rates, but charge each guest as much
+as his appearance<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_566" id="page_566"></a>{566}</span> and manners suggest he can afford to pay. When they
+get hold of an American, as citizens of the United States are always
+called, they bleed him to the last drop. “I thought you Americans never
+disputed a hotel-bill,” a Boniface said to me one day, when I had
+expressed my indignation at his charges. “We always expect Englishmen
+to, but Americans never,” and he shrugged his shoulders as if my conduct
+was a disgrace to my country.</p>
+
+<p>The steamers which run from Buenos Ayres to Montevideo and up the river
+to Paraguay are, to the surprise of every traveller, as fine and
+gorgeous as those on Long Island Sound&mdash;great, splendid palaces with no
+end of gilt and gingerbreadwork, with stewards and cabin-boys in livery,
+wine-rooms, smoking-rooms, bands of music, and all that sort of thing.
+There are two lines in active rivalry, and they are trying to see which
+can set the finer table. The bill of fare is as good as that of a
+first-class hotel in New York, and two kinds of wine, claret and Rhine
+wine, are served without extra charge. On each steamer are three or four
+swell cabins, called bridal chambers, each being fitted up without
+regard to expense, and containing all the flub-dubs that can be crowded
+into them, including pianos and sideboards, with well-filled bottles of
+wine and brandy in the rack, all included in the price of passage, which
+is double that of the ordinary cabin. The swells always take these
+cabins when they start off on a bridal tour.</p>
+
+<p>The finest church in Buenos Ayres is called the “Church of the
+Recolletta” (remembrance). It is of pure Roman architecture, in Italian
+marble, beautifully carved, and cost about $250,000. It is the property
+of Señor Don Carlos Guerrero, a wealthy citizen, who erected it as a
+memorial to his daughter, who was murdered by a rejected lover about ten
+years ago. She is buried under the altar, and the magnificent stained
+glass window imported from Florence represents incidents from her life.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral is a very large and costly building, but it looks more
+like a bank or Government palace than a church. Within the walls is the
+mausoleum of General Saint-Martin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_567" id="page_567"></a>{567}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b567_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b567_sml.jpg" width="331" height="289" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CATHEDRAL OF BUENOS AYRES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the George Washington of the Argentine Republic, who liberated the
+country from the Spanish yoke and was then turned out to die in exile
+and poverty. In 1880 the remains of the Liberator were brought with
+great pomp from France, where he had died in 1850, in banishment, and
+were entombed under a costly and imposing sepulchre, which, however,
+looks very little like a tomb, and is entirely without sacred emblems.
+Four statues in marble guard the grave; not Faith, Hope, and Charity,
+but “Agriculture,” “Industry,” “Justice,” and “Liberty.” It looks rather
+queer to see the emblem of Industry with hammer and saw over a tomb in a
+church, but the Argentines evidently have not noticed the incongruity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_568" id="page_568"></a>{568}</span></p>
+
+<p>Besides the twenty-four churches belonging to the Catholics, the
+Protestant community is pretty well supplied with religious advantages.
+There are a Church of England society, a Scotch Presbyterian, an
+American Presbyterian, a German Evangelical, three Methodist churches,
+and a Jewish synagogue&mdash;the only one in all Spanish America. Jews are
+not allowed to live in some of the countries; but in the Argentine
+Republic, where religious as well as civil liberty is protected, they
+are numerous, and worship every Saturday. In 1884 the Methodists
+celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of their missionary work in the
+country, and it was emphasized by an incident which attracted a great
+deal of comment, and was significant as showing the religious toleration
+that exists. Formal invitations were sent as a mark of courtesy to the
+President and all the prominent officials, but there was no expectation
+that they would attend, as the great majority of the people are
+Catholics and the public men are naturally politic. Just as the services
+were about to commence, however, the managers of the affair were
+astonished to see the President, followed by his Cabinet, walk into the
+church. Conspicuous seats were given them, and they seemed to take great
+interest in the exercises. After the Rev. Dr. Wood, the Superintendent
+of Missions, had concluded his address, in which he reviewed the history
+of Protestantism in the Argentine Republic, he invited President Roca to
+speak. The latter promptly responded; and as every one knew he had been
+born and reared in the Catholic Church, the audience were amazed at the
+eulogy he pronounced upon the Protestant missionaries, and the
+enthusiasm with which he complimented the work they had done. To their
+influence he attributed much of the progress of the republic, and urged
+them to enlarge their fields and increase their zeal. The President’s
+speech was commented upon in the newspapers the next day with a great
+deal of vigor, the Liberal press approving it, but the Conservative
+editors censuring what they considered an attack upon the prevailing
+religion of the people.</p>
+
+<p>There is a peculiar order of monks in the Argentine Republic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_569" id="page_569"></a>{569}</span> which is
+not found elsewhere. Its members are known as “Lazarists” (from
+Lazarus), and they live, as he is said to have done, on the crumbs that
+fall from the rich man’s table. They travel about the country like
+tramps, having no apparent aim or purpose, barefooted and bareheaded,
+eat what they beg from door to door, and sleep wherever night overtakes
+them. They are supposed to be members of the other orders of friars, who
+have sinned and are doing penance as Lazarists.</p>
+
+<p>There is a place called Washington and another called Lincoln in the
+Argentine Republic, but the newest thing in the way of towns is La
+Plata, the capital of the province of Buenos Ayres. Until within a few
+years that province, having more than half the population of the entire
+country, has considered itself entitled to rule the rest, as far as the
+Government was concerned, and the outlying provinces have had nothing to
+say about it, being regarded as insignificant dependencies of the city
+and State of Buenos Ayres. They tried to secede, but were whipped into
+the Union; but as immigration has come into the country the population
+of other provinces outnumbers Buenos Ayres, and often in Presidential
+campaigns the contest depends upon a geographical issue. Roca, the
+recent President, is an outside man, and the Buenos Ayrians determined
+to prevent his inauguration or overthrow his government; but to mollify
+them he announced a great scheme of building a new capital at Government
+expense. There was no time to lay out a town site and let it grow up in
+the ordinary way, so the President sent to the United States and had
+five hundred houses manufactured to order and shipped down here, like a
+box of toys, all ready to put up. A location was selected on the pampas,
+all the revolutionary leaders were let into the speculation, war was
+averted, and a brand-new city sprang up on the prairie, like a bed of
+mushrooms, almost in a single night. Two or three millions of dollars
+were spent by the Government, but the President considered that the cost
+of the town was much less than would have been the cost of the war that
+was averted; plenty of money was put into circulation, all the laboring
+men in the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_570" id="page_570"></a>{570}</span> got lucrative employment, and, as in the
+old-fashioned storybooks, everything came out happily in the end. These
+houses were made in Brooklyn and Chicago: a New York firm got the
+contract. There was so much haste and carelessness in their construction
+that they do not wear very well, and are no credit to their builders.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b570_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b570_sml.jpg" width="325" height="287" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE GAUCHO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gaucho (<i>gowcho</i>) of South America is the most interesting character
+on the continent, and if the writers of tales of adventure could get at
+him, he would afford them as much material as the Crusader of the Middle
+Ages or the North American savage. The Spanish colonies have produced no
+Fenimore Cooper or Mayne Reid, and such a writer as Ned Buntline is
+unknown to South American literature. Buffalo<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_571" id="page_571"></a>{571}</span> Bill and Texas Jack would
+die of mortification if their horsemanship and endurance were placed in
+comparison with that of the genuine gaucho of the pampas, and even the
+centaur of mythology would blush with envy.</p>
+
+<p>The gauchos are the descendants of the aristocratic Spanish dons and
+Indian women; for the grandees and hidalgos who once ruled these
+colonies did not hesitate to seek the society of the Pocahontases of the
+Guarani race. They are at once the most indolent and the most active of
+human beings; for when they are not in the saddle, devouring space on
+the back of a tireless broncho, they are sleeping in apathetic indolence
+among their mistresses or gambling with their chums. Half savage and
+half courtier, the gaucho is as polite as he is cruel, and will make a
+bow like a dancing-master or thrum an air on the native mandolin with
+the same ease and nonchalance as he will murder a fellow-being or
+slaughter a steer. He recognizes no law but his own will and the
+unwritten code of the cattle-range, and all violations of this code are
+punished by banishment or death. Whoever offends him must fight or fly,
+and his vengeance is as enduring as it is vigilant. The statute of
+limitations is not recognized by him, and he will kill an enemy he has
+not seen for a quarter of a century. He never shoots or strikes with his
+fist, and his only weapons are the short knife, which is never absent
+from his hand or his belt and is used at short range, and the lasso,
+which is not only an implement of his trade but an instrument offensive
+and defensive.</p>
+
+<p>A fight between gauchos always means murder, and it is the duty of him
+who kills to see that his victim is decently buried and the widow and
+orphans cared for. The widow, if she pleases him, becomes his wife or
+his mistress, and the orphans grow up to be gauchos under his tutelage.
+He is as superstitious as a Hindoo, and an inveterate gambler. When he
+is not asleep or in the saddle he is always engaged at quaint games of
+chance that are his own invention, and are known to no other race in the
+world. He is peaceable when sober, but a reckless dare-devil, regardless
+of God and man.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_572" id="page_572"></a>{572}</span> When he is drunk he is a fiend incarnate, for a howling
+savage is like a prattling child when compared to a drunken gaucho. As
+brave as a lion, as active as a panther, with an endurance equal to any
+test, faithful to his friends, as implacable as fate to any one who
+offends him, he has exercised a powerful influence upon the destiny of
+the Argentine Republic, and kept that nation back in civilization until
+his influence was overcome by an increased immigration of foreigners.
+The gaucho has never taken any part in politics except as a soldier, and
+as such, under a leader that he will obey, he is without an equal in
+either civilized or savage fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentinians once had a gaucho President, Don Manuel Rosas, who
+ruled the country with a despotism of iron and blood for twenty-two
+years (from 1830 to 1852), and even now is seldom referred to without a
+shudder, for the marks of his cruel hand are still visible, and the
+ancient aristocracy still feel the sting of blows he inflicted upon
+them. He was the son of a wealthy Spaniard of the same name, who
+exercised a patriarchal sway over the peons that looked after his flocks
+and herds; and as the young Rosas grew up, the old man gradually yielded
+to the stronger will of the son, until the latter became a sort of
+gaucho leader, and commanded a regiment of them in the war of 1829
+against the Indians. So powerful did he become that it was an easy step
+from the chieftainship of the gauchos to the Presidency of the
+Republic&mdash;a self-appointed Dictator, the head of an absolute despotism
+which existed for nearly a quarter of a century, in defiance of the
+constitution and the laws.</p>
+
+<p>Rosas was a compound of the arrogance and stubborn superstition of the
+Spanish race and the cruelty and craft of the Guarani Indians, whose
+blood he inherited through his mother. He maintained his power by the
+loyalty of the gauchos, of whom the people of the towns lived in terror.
+With an inflexible will, with the cunning of a fox and the courage of a
+lion, with egregious vanity and arrogance, and a perpetual distrust of
+every living being except his daughter Mannileta&mdash;the only person to
+whose influence he ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_573" id="page_573"></a>{573}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b573_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b573_sml.jpg" width="275" height="310" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GENERAL ROSAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">submitted or for whom he ever showed any affection&mdash;he ruled like a
+savage chieftain over the entire southern half of the continent, from
+Paraguay to the Strait of Magellan, relying solely upon the terror which
+his own cruelty and that of his gaucho lieutenants had inspired among
+the people. Blood flowed by his command as freely as water, and the
+extermination of those who opposed him was the policy under which he
+perpetuated his power. No citizen of the Argentine Republic or Uruguay
+felt himself safe. No man went to bed at night with any confidence that
+he would be alive in the morning; for neither friendship, relationship,
+nor even obscurity, was a shield from assassination. Rosas only ceased
+to murder<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_574" id="page_574"></a>{574}</span> when the great fear he had inspired paralyzed the people and
+rendered them absolutely prostrate to his will. He spared neither age
+nor sex. Even his oldest friend, a man who had been more than a father
+to him, and was supposed to be his confidential adviser, was murdered in
+cold blood by the <i>masorqueros</i>, the secret assassins or Danites on whom
+he relied to execute his atrocious designs. The official history of
+Buenos Ayres gives the following estimate of the numbers who died
+through the caprice or vengeance of the tyrant Rosas: poisoned, 4;
+executed by the sword, 3765; shot, 1393; assassinated, 722; total, 5884.
+Add to this the number slain in the constant struggle to overthrow his
+despotism, 16,520, and we have an aggregate of 22,404 victims to the
+ambition of a gaucho chief.</p>
+
+<p>An idea of the arrogance and conceit of the man can be formed from the
+fact that the money coined during his administration was stamped with
+his portrait and the inscription “Eternal Rosas.” But he was not
+eternal, and was overthrown in 1852 by General Urquiza, escaping from
+the country with his daughter at night, both in the disguise of English
+sailors, and finding refuge on board the <i>Centaur</i>, an English
+man-of-war.</p>
+
+<p>But the day of the gaucho is passing. Immigration and civilization have
+driven him to the extreme frontier, where nowadays he can only be found
+in his full glory. Like the North American Indian, he decays when
+domesticated, and a tame gaucho is always a drunkard, a loafer, and a
+thief. Civilization saps his vitality, quenches his spirit, and lowers
+his standard of morals. In his native element he will not steal nor do a
+mean act, but when he becomes a resident of a town he will rob a dog,
+and there is no end to his maliciousness. Few of the race have ever
+acquired land, and even at the present day he despises the <i>estanciaro</i>,
+who will not depend upon the public domain for pasturage. So the gaucho
+has to keep moving, faster and faster, to get out of the way of barbed
+wire fences and the restraints of civilization. A few years hence he
+will disappear or assume more of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_575" id="page_575"></a>{575}</span> character of the North American
+cow-boy. Even now, in the more settled portions of the country, the word
+gaucho has become a word of reproach, and is applied to worthless
+characters who live by cattle-stealing, and correspond to the rustlers
+of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b575_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b575_sml.jpg" width="316" height="151" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PALACE OF DON MANUEL ROSAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The language of the genuine gaucho is a mixture of Spanish and the
+Guarani Indian tongue, and his food is beef and <i>yerba mate</i>. At every
+<i>rodeo</i>, or “round up,” there is a great feast, at which many good
+things are set forth; but the ordinary diet of the race consists of ribs
+of beef roasted on a spit before the fire, and eaten without salt or
+bread, while the ordinary drink is the Paraguayan tea, which is sucked
+through a tube. The gaucho lives like the Indian&mdash;gorges himself when he
+has plenty of food, or goes for days without eating; but he always has
+his mate cup with him, and the yerba contains a great amount of
+nutrition. He usually has a habitation in a hut at the headquarters of
+the estancia upon which he is employed, and there he keeps his family
+and goes on feast-days, for he is enough of a Catholic to keep as close
+a reckoning of the ecclesiastical calendar as the archbishop himself. He
+has no regard for the Sabbath, but recognizes every religious
+anniversary of the Church by leaving his cattle on the range and going
+to headquarters, where he spends<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_576" id="page_576"></a>{576}</span> the day in drinking, dancing,
+gambling, confessing his sins to the padre, cock-fighting, and testing
+horsemanship with his companions. These feast-days never end without a
+murder, and often more than one.</p>
+
+<p>When dressed in his full regalia the gaucho’s appearance is picturesque;
+with his swarthy face, long hair, and long mustaches, he would create a
+sensation in any guise, for his physique is perfect, and his swagger as
+bold as that of a buccaneer or a bandit chief. The gaucho woman is said
+to be beautiful when young, but at twenty-five or thirty she is a dirty,
+unkempt slattern, with bleared eyes and tangled hair, and wears nothing
+but a soiled and faded gown, and perhaps a pair of brass or silver
+ear-rings. When she is a maiden the gauchos will kill each other out of
+jealousy, but when she becomes a wife or a mistress she is kicked about
+the camp, beaten, and abandoned at her master’s will.</p>
+
+<p>All the finery in the family goes on the husband’s back and saddle. In
+place of trousers he wears a chiropa and calconcillas. The former is a
+square piece of cloth, drawn about the thighs and fastened around the
+waist with a belt. It descends as far as the knee, from which the rest
+of the leg is covered with the calconcillas&mdash;a wide pair of cotton
+drawers, handsomely and gaudily embroidered, and ornamented with two or
+three wide frills. The feet are incased in a pair of <i>botas de potro</i>,
+made of the skin of the leg of a colt rubbed until it is as soft as
+buckskin. The heels are decorated with a pair of immense iron or silver
+spurs weighing a pound or so each.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of the sombrero and velvet jacket of the Mexican cavalier, the
+gaucho wears a hat of pita fibre&mdash;such as is commonly known as a Panama
+hat, and which may have cost him as much as would a dozen cattle&mdash;and a
+poncho. But in his saddle lies his wealth, for all his savings and
+gambling gains go to decorate that emblem of his trade. Silver ornaments
+for bridle and saddle are legal tender in exchange for anything salable
+wherever the gaucho goes, and what is his seat by day and his pillow by
+night he always uses as a sort<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_577" id="page_577"></a>{577}</span> of savings-bank. I have seen saddles
+worth a thousand dollars, with solid silver stirrups, pommels, and
+ornaments weighing as much as a man. A pair of silver spurs are worth
+anywhere from fifty to one hundred dollars, according to their size and
+the workmanship upon them. Stirrups of solid silver, made in the form of
+a heelless slipper, are very common, and the belles of the cities of the
+Argentine Republic consider them essential to a riding costume. Stirrups
+are often made of brass, and when highly polished add a unique feature
+to the accoutrements of an Argentine caballero. His belt is usually
+covered with a string of silver dollars, and all his buttons are of
+silver.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentine poncho is a great institution, and if some fashionable
+swell in New York would set the style by wearing one, it would add
+greatly to the comfort of our people, as well as to their convenience.
+There never was a garment better adapted for out-of-door use, and
+particularly for plainsmen or those who are much in the saddle. It is a
+blanket of ordinary size, with a slit in the centre through which the
+head goes. It rests upon the shoulders, and its folds hang down as far
+as the knee, allowing free use of the arms, but always furnishing them
+and the rest of the body with protection. In summer it shields the
+wearer from the heat of the sun, while in winter it is as warm as an
+ulster, and in rainy days takes the place of an umbrella. The native is
+never without it, summer or winter, afoot or on horseback, at home or
+abroad. It stays by him like his shadow, and serves him as an overcoat
+by day and as a blanket by night.</p>
+
+<p>Ponchos were formerly made of the hair of the vicuña, an animal which is
+a sort of cross between the camel and the antelope, and is found in the
+Bolivian Andes. Before the Conquest vicuña skin was the royal ermine of
+the Incas, and none but persons of princely blood were allowed to wear
+it. A vicuña poncho is as soft as velvet, and as durable as steel. You
+can find plenty of them in the Argentine Republic and in Chili that have
+been, like grandfather’s clock, in the old families for two centuries or
+more, and have been handed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_578" id="page_578"></a>{578}</span> down with the family jewels as heirlooms.
+They never wear out, and, like lace, improve with age. But genuine
+vicuña ponchos are hard to get, and very expensive, costing often as
+much as a camel’s-hair shawl, as the animal is becoming scarce. The
+color is a delicate fawn, and will not change when wet, which is a sure
+test of its genuineness. Most of the fine ponchos worn nowadays are made
+of lamb’s-wool in Manchester, England, and cannot be distinguished from
+vicuña except by experts; but tons after tons of a common sort, made of
+cotton and wool, of gaudy colors, are now imported annually, and answer
+the purpose of the gaucho just as well, while the bright tints please
+his taste better.</p>
+
+<p>The gaucho always carries tobacco, cigarette paper, flint, and steel. He
+is an inveterate smoker, but confines himself to cigarettes, which he
+rolls at full gallop. He does everything on horseback, when he
+chooses&mdash;eats and sleeps, catches fish, carries water from the well in a
+pitcher or urn on his head, and even attends mass on horseback&mdash;at
+least, the nearest he ever gets to the altar is to ride up to the door
+of a church and sit in the saddle while the service is being celebrated.</p>
+
+<p>A gaucho child is put into the saddle at as early an age as an American
+child is put into breeches. When he is eight or ten years old he will
+ride anything less than a tornado; and after he reaches his growth, if
+he is thrown from a horse he is disgraced forever; nothing he can do
+will recover for him the respect of the community. He is an ostracized
+and despised creature, as hopelessly lost as a fallen star.</p>
+
+<p>The animals the gauchos ride are splendid native stallions, as swift as
+the wind and as enduring as time. Fifty or sixty miles a day is a gentle
+jaunt, for a well-bred pampa horse will gallop from sunrise to sunset
+without throwing a fleck of foam. During the recent war against the
+Patagonian Indians a gaucho courier made six hundred miles in
+forty-eight hours with only four changes of horses.</p>
+
+<p>One of the sports of the gauchos is “breaking horses,” cruel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_579" id="page_579"></a>{579}</span> and
+dangerous, like all their amusements. Two gauchos mount, and taking
+positions forty or fifty yards apart, at a given signal start at a full
+run and come together breast to breast, like two battering-rams, with a
+shock that often kills the animals, and nearly always unseats one or
+both of the riders. Another is called “crowding horses.” Two mounted
+gauchos place their stallions side by side, and crowd them against each
+other to see which will yield. A third game is to place across the
+entrance to a corral or other enclosure a bar about as high as a horse’s
+head. The gaucho mounts, retires to a distance of forty rods or so,
+rushes to the entrance at full gallop, and, without checking the speed
+of his horse, leaps out of the saddle when the bar is reached, throws
+himself under it, and regains his seat, passing under the bar without
+touching the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The skill with which the gaucho handles the lasso is an everlasting
+source of wonder. While at full gallop he can throw a coil of raw-hide
+with as much accuracy as an expert rifleman can crack a glass ball, and
+will catch a running cow or sheep or hog, lassoing the horn or foot or
+head at will. Duels with the lasso are often fought, the contestants
+throwing nooses at the heads of each other, sparring and dodging like
+pugilists, until one or the other is caught and dragged out of the
+saddle. If the duel is an earnest one, as often occurs, and the gauchos
+are determined, the man who is caught is often dragged, with a noose
+around his neck, behind a galloping horse until the life is choked and
+pounded out of his body.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentine Republic will some day become a formidable rival of the
+United States. It has vast natural resources similar to ours, and is
+developing them rapidly. It has a magnificent fluvial system like that
+of the Mississippi, fertile plains like those of Illinois and Iowa,
+boundless pampas stretching for twelve hundred miles to the mountains,
+and affording pasturage for millions of cattle, horses, and sheep, like
+the prairies of Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska, and New Mexico. Towards the
+north, into Paraguay, which, although an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_580" id="page_580"></a>{580}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b580_lg.png">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" /></a>
+<a href="images/illus-b580_huge.png">
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="28"
+height="24" /></a>
+<br />
+<a href="images/illus-b580_lg.png">
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b580_sml.png" width="296" height="512" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MAP OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">independent State, is a tributary to the Argentine Republic, are lands
+that will produce sugar, cotton, rice, and other semi-tropical staples
+like those of our own sunny South. There is also an almost unlimited
+supply of timber, hard and soft woods, easy of access, within reach of
+mighty streams; and the forests are greater than man knows, for they
+have never been measured. The latitude of the Argentine Republic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_581" id="page_581"></a>{581}</span>
+corresponds with that of the United States; its climate is similar to
+that of our great West, and the people have an activity, an enterprise,
+and a patriotism that remind the North American of home.</p>
+
+<p>Where rivers do not run the people are pushing railroads, and in a few
+years they will have a railway system second only to that of the United
+States. They are offering tempting inducements to settlers, and
+immigration is very large. The increase in population during the last
+fifteen years was one hundred and fifty-four per cent., while that of
+the United States was seventy-nine per cent. From Germany, Norway, and
+Switzerland, but especially from Italy, come ship-loads of hardy,
+thrifty, industrious men every week, and the passenger mole at Buenos
+Ayres resembles Castle Garden. The Government aids and encourages
+immigration more than does ours. The immigrant vessel that arrives at
+New York is required to pay “head-money” on every passenger it brings.
+At Buenos Ayres the vessel receives “head-money” from the Government as
+an inducement to bring passengers. The fare from Europe to the river
+Plate, or the Rio Plata, that great stream which divides the continent,
+is about the same as to the United States; and although I do not believe
+that the class of immigrants which arrives there is equal in
+intelligence and the other qualities that constitute good citizens to
+that which comes to the United States, every family arriving means so
+many more acres developed and an increase of population. They do not at
+once become citizens, as in this country. This is particularly the case
+with the Italians, who seldom take out naturalization papers. Foreigners
+are allowed to vote at municipal elections, and therefore the temptation
+to citizenship is not so strong; but nevertheless they go to make up the
+body politic, and as they are exempt from military service, the country
+is always sure of having its fields tilled and its crops gathered,
+whether there is a war or not.</p>
+
+<p>In 1882, 51,503 immigrants arrived at Buenos Ayres from Europe; in 1883
+the number increased to 63,242; in 1884, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_582" id="page_582"></a>{582}</span> 92,700; in 1887, to
+138,000. In 1888 it was estimated that over 600,000 foreigners had
+settled in the country during the preceding ten years, and it is known
+that the population of the city of Buenos Ayres has doubled since 1872.</p>
+
+<p>The greater portion of these immigrants are Italians, who go directly
+into the agricultural regions, take up land, and cultivate small but
+increasing farms. Some are Germans and Scandinavians, but more are
+French. The latter usually settle in the cities, and become small
+tradesmen or servants. Large numbers of English, Scotch, and Irish
+capitalists are securing estancias, and raising sheep and cattle upon a
+large scale. It is estimated that ten million dollars have been invested
+in this way within the last three years, and one Englishman alone has
+expended a million. The usual plan, as in the United States, is to
+organize companies, with headquarters in London, Glasgow, and other
+large cities, and send out capable superintendents. The cattle interests
+of the Argentine Republic, like those in our country, will ultimately be
+controlled by a few large corporations.</p>
+
+<p>The colonization plan is popular there, and so far quite successful.
+Within the last five years 1,126,000 acres of land have been taken up by
+colonies, representing a population of 82,000 souls, mostly Italians and
+Swiss. The English and German immigrants will not colonize. The railroad
+development of the country is very rapid, and lines are now being
+constructed in various directions from Buenos Ayres and other commercial
+centres.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the internal improvements made under this policy is plain
+to be seen. Within the last five years the cattle have been driven back
+gradually upon the pampas, towns have sprung up, and farms have been
+opened in territory that was inaccessible before the railroad
+improvements began. There is a natural tendency to overbuild, as has
+been the case in this country; but so far only the needs of the present
+have been met, and the roads have become at once self-sustaining. The
+prospective roads, however, are very numerous, and concessions for
+thousands of miles have already<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_583" id="page_583"></a>{583}</span> been granted on the most liberal terms.
+Two of these concessions are held by citizens of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Five years ago the Argentine Republic was importing wheat and flour from
+Chili and the United States, and Uruguay only raised enough for her own
+consumption. The wheat crop of Uruguay in 1878 was 2,000,000 bushels; in
+1880, 2,600,000 bushels; in 1882, 3,000,000 bushels; in 1884, 4,000,000
+bushels; and the increase in the corn product was equally rapid. In 1854
+only 375,000 acres were under cultivation in the Argentine Republic; in
+1864 the cultivated area was 506,000 acres; in 1874 it was 825,000
+acres. In 1879 the boom commenced, and in 1884 there were 4,260,000
+acres under cultivation&mdash;an increase of 3,435,000 acres in ten years. In
+1874 there were 271,000 acres in wheat; in 1884, 1,717,000 acres&mdash;an
+increase of 533 per cent. In 1874 there were 554,000 acres in other
+crops; in 1884 the area jumped to 2,543,000 acres&mdash;an increase of 360
+per cent. The average yield of wheat throughout the republic in 1884 was
+eight and one-half bushels to the acre, and the total crop was nearly
+eleven million bushels. It was in 1880 that the importation of wheat
+ceased, the amount purchased of Chili that year being 11,330 bushels. It
+is estimated that the area in wheat the present year is as large as
+5,000,000 acres, but no official returns have been received.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat and flour are not the only agricultural products exported by the
+Argentine Republic. In 1884 the exports of corn were 1,160,000 bushels;
+of barley, 70,000 bushels; of baled hay, 11,460,000 kilograms; of
+linseed, 23,061,000 kilograms; of peanuts, 2,617,292 kilograms; of
+potatoes, 100,000 bushels. The production of sugar is becoming a very
+important industry, and is now almost sufficient to supply the domestic
+demand, the yield last year amounting to nearly 50,000,000 pounds. The
+increased area under cultivation and the improved methods of reducing
+the cane will soon make sugar an article of export. There are a number
+of Cuban exiles in the northern provinces and in Paraguay cultivating
+sugar and tobacco on the Cuban system with marked success.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_584" id="page_584"></a>{584}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b584_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b584_sml.jpg" width="319" height="244" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COUNTRY SCENE IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is estimated that the extent of agricultural land in the Argentine
+Republic equals six hundred thousand square miles&mdash;an area equal to
+Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky,
+Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and capable of
+producing every crop in those States; and if the increase of population
+continues at its present rate they will hold a population of seven
+millions by the close of the century. The market which we shall first
+lose by Argentine competition in breadstuffs will be Brazil, where we
+now sell about $5,000,000 worth of flour annually. The Argentine
+Republic will also become our rival in the West India trade, which now
+absorbs most of its meat product; and we will soon feel the effect of
+the cheapness of Argentine products in the European market, where
+considerable beef, mutton, and grain, is now sent in exchange for
+manufactured merchandise. But in pork, lard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_585" id="page_585"></a>{585}</span> and dairy products the
+Argentinians cannot compete with us. The country does not seem to be
+adapted to hog-raising, and while there is always fresh pork to be had,
+the supply of bacon, hams, and lard is included in the imports. Nearly
+all the cured pork comes from the United States, but most of the hams
+and bacons are disguised under English trade-marks. The merchants here
+say that American packers do not prepare their meats in a proper way to
+get this market, and that our cured pork first goes to England, and
+there receives some treatment and a particular style of wrapping which
+make it salable in the River Plate country. There is some native butter
+made, but none is exported, the climate not being suitable to the dairy
+business. Most of the imported butter, as well as the cheese, comes from
+Holland and Copenhagen. The butter is packed in one-pound tins,
+hermetically sealed, and will keep any length of time if properly
+handled. There is no American butter or cheese to be had there, not even
+oleomargarine, an article that is unknown to the people. A comparatively
+small amount of lard and butter is consumed, however, as oil is commonly
+used for cooking. Most of the cooks are French and Italian, in both
+private and public houses, and use the same methods they were accustomed
+to in their respective countries.</p>
+
+<p>The wool product of the Argentine Republic is not so valuable as that of
+Australia, although larger, because it is coarser, and contains a much
+greater percentage of dirt and grease. The people complain that our duty
+on wool, being levied by weight, is an unjust discrimination against
+their product, and in favor of the product of Australia, which is true.
+The only shipments to this country are of the coarser varieties, to be
+used in the manufacture of carpets, and we take annually about a million
+dollars’ worth. The great bulk of the product goes to Belgium, and is
+consumed in the Brussels carpet mills, the export to that country in
+1883 amounting to $12,148,000. Some attempt is being made to improve the
+quality of the wool by grading up the flocks with imported bucks, but
+the judgment of the sheep-growers is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_586" id="page_586"></a>{586}</span> generally against it, as the
+present quality is in demand for carpet manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The sheepskins go to Germany and France, but many of the hides come to
+the United States, being our largest item of import from the Argentine
+Republic. The same objection that is made to improving the sheep is made
+against the improvement of the breeds of cattle, as the native hides are
+heavier, and command a better price than the Durhams, Herefords, and
+Jerseys that have been introduced. The imported breeds yield a better
+quality of beef, but a less valuable hide, leaving the profit from the
+animal about the same. The number of hides exported in 1885 was less
+than usual, because of the demand for stock for new ranches; and the
+amount of jerked beef was smaller.</p>
+
+<p>This jerked beef is the flesh of the animal cut into thin strips and
+dried in the sun, a weak brine being commonly used to hasten evaporation
+and arrest decay. It is packed in large bales, and sent to Brazil and
+the West Indies, where it is the staple food of the slaves and the
+laboring classes. We have nothing to compare with it in the United
+States except the jerked buffalo meat of the Indians, which is prepared
+in a similar manner. Of this product $1,710,000 worth was sent to Brazil
+last year, and $1,143,000 worth to Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>No attempt has ever been made by our beef-producers to compete with the
+Argentine Republic and Uruguay&mdash;the only exporters of jerked beef&mdash;and
+it would undoubtedly be difficult for them to do so, as the cost of the
+cattle is so much greater in this country. Their transportation
+facilities to the West Indies are better than ours, notwithstanding the
+difference in distance, and a steamer leaves Buenos Ayres for the
+Brazilian ports every day. Various endeavors to introduce jerked beef
+into Europe have proved unsuccessful, but the attempt has not been
+abandoned. Samples are prepared with more than ordinary care, and the
+article is sold for five cents a pound, but it does not seem to be
+popular.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentinians are beginning to ship large quantities of fresh beef to
+Europe in refrigerator ships, one or more leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_587" id="page_587"></a>{587}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b587_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b587_sml.jpg" width="296" height="366" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>JUAREZ CELMAN&mdash;PRESIDENT OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Buenos Ayres every week, and the new steamers of the English and French
+lines contain compartments built especially for this purpose. They do
+not use ice, but have a cooling process similar to that adopted on
+transatlantic steamers. Companies are already formed to slaughter and
+ship beef in this way, and the business is growing so rapidly that it
+will soon be felt by our exporters. The whole carcass is shipped, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_588" id="page_588"></a>{588}</span>
+only choice beef is selected. They cannot now compete with us in
+quality, but their cattle are so much cheaper, and are being graded up
+by the introduction of improved stock from England. Their cattle are not
+sold by weight, but by the head, being graded according to size and
+condition, prime steers bringing only fourteen or fifteen dollars, the
+next quality twelve dollars, and the poorest ones ten dollars per head.
+Within a radius of fifty miles from Buenos Ayres are ranches larger than
+any in Texas, and cattle can be driven almost on the steamers in the
+harbor, so that the cost of transportation and shrinkage is merely
+nominal, while our ranches are from two to four thousand miles from the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>Fat steers can be set down at the slaughter-houses, not fifty miles from
+the harbor of Buenos Ayres, at a maximum price of fifteen dollars a
+head, and they are high now because of the demand for cattle to stock
+new ranches. The cost of transportation from the ranches in the
+Argentine Republic to Covent Garden market in London is never greater,
+and often less, than from Kansas City to New York; so that our
+producers, in addition to the difference in the price of beef, will have
+the freight from New York to Liverpool against them.</p>
+
+<p>Sheep are also killed and frozen for exportation to Europe, a single
+<i>saldero</i> or slaughter-house, at Campana, fifty miles from Buenos Ayres,
+shipping five hundred carcasses daily. They are hung for an hour after
+killing, and then removed to a chilling-room, where the temperature is
+slightly above the freezing-point; from this they are taken to a still
+colder chamber, where they are left until as hard as stone. Then they
+are packed in canvas bags, and sent to the steamer in refrigerator cans.
+Live sheep in condition for killing are worth only three or four dollars
+for the best quality, and ordinary mutton is sold in the city market for
+seven cents a pound. In 1879 we exported ninety million pounds of
+dressed beef. In 1884 this total had been nearly doubled, with a fair
+prospect of continued increase. In 1884 the Argentine Republic exported
+sixty-five million pounds of dressed beef, with an increase quite as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_589" id="page_589"></a>{589}</span>
+rapid as ours. In 1884 there were 49,000,000 head of cattle in the
+United States, and 30,000,000 in the Argentine Republic. The single
+province of Buenos Ayres has just twice as many cattle as Texas, and as
+many as Texas and all the territories of the United States combined.
+Then across the River Plata is the little republic of Uruguay, about as
+large as Iowa, with 500,000 people and 8,000,000 cattle, and presenting
+about the same ratio of increase.</p>
+
+<p>The cattlemen of the Argentine Republic and Uruguay are going into the
+business of canning meats, and will soon compete with us in that line.
+It is not generally known that Liebig’s extract of beef, so largely used
+in hospitals as a tonic, is made in Uruguay, for the jars in which the
+tonic reaches the market bear trademarks to make it appear to come from
+England. The extract was invented by Dr. Liebig, the celebrated chemist,
+nearly half a century ago, but its process passed into the hands of an
+English company in 1866, which then removed the establishment from
+Antwerp to Fray Bentos, Uruguay. This company is now erecting buildings
+for the purpose of canning meats, and have Chicago men in charge of the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Although horses are very cheap, there is a good deal of profit in
+raising them, and the stock is being improved very rapidly by the
+introduction of thorough-bred English stallions. The native Argentine
+horse is almost the counterpart of the North American broncho, tough,
+swift, and enduring, and when crossed with better blood loses none of
+his good qualities, but improves in size and appearance. They are
+usually kept in droves of five hundred, and run wild the year round, the
+stallions being turned loose among them at the proper season&mdash;about one
+to twenty mares. When the colts are two years old they are taken from
+the drove and kept separate until three or four years old, when the
+fillies are turned back with the mares, and the stallions broken for
+service. Mares are never broken, but run wild on the range from the time
+they are foaled until they are driven to the saldero at the age of
+twelve or fifteen years. A three-year-old mare is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_590" id="page_590"></a>{590}</span> worth seven or eight
+dollars for breeding purposes&mdash;not as much as a heifer&mdash;while a
+fifteen-year-old brings three or four dollars at the saldero. Her hide
+is shipped to Europe, her bones turned into bone ash, and her hoofs sent
+to the glue factory.</p>
+
+<p>The best kind of an improved saddle-horse, such as would bring two
+hundred and fifty or three hundred dollars in the States, can be bought
+in the Argentine Republic for seventy-five dollars, fine carriage-horses
+for fifty dollars each, and work-horses for twenty or twenty-five
+dollars. The street-car companies pay about ten dollars a head for their
+stock. Everybody rides; even the old adage about a beggar on horseback
+is realized there.</p>
+
+<p>There is a curious story about an island in the River Plata which was a
+horse ranch in early Spanish times. The animals became so numerous that
+there was not grass enough to feed them, and no demand for their export.
+The owners decided to reduce their stock in a barbarous way, and when
+the grass was dry they set fire to it. Every horse on the island was
+burned to death except those that ran into the river and were drowned.
+The stench was so great that navigation was almost entirely suspended on
+the river. The result of this method of reducing stock was a little more
+complete than the owners anticipated, so when the grass grew up again
+they had to buy stallions and mares and start anew. Singularly enough,
+every animal placed on the island since that fire has died of a
+mysterious disease, and no colt has been foaled there for one hundred
+and fifty years. Various breeds of stock have been tried, but never a
+hoof has left the island alive. Three months there finishes them. The
+island was unoccupied for fifty or sixty years, but is now used as a
+cattle ranch, and horned stock do not appear to be subject to the
+mysterious malady.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_591" id="page_591"></a>{591}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="MONTEVIDEO" id="MONTEVIDEO"></a>MONTEVIDEO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF URUGUAY.</span></h2>
+
+<p>S<small>OON</small> after General Garfield became President, an ex-member of Congress,
+since the governor of a western State, came into a correspondent’s
+office in Washington, and sitting down with a discouraged and disgusted
+air, asked, “Where in Tophet is Uruguay? I have been offered the honor
+of representing the United States in that country, and before I accept I
+would like to find out where it is.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 301px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b591_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b591_sml.jpg" width="301" height="232" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CITY OF MONTEVIDEO, LOOKING TOWARDS THE HARBOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not three out of four men in the Congress of the United<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_592" id="page_592"></a>{592}</span> States could
+have answered the question correctly; and if the embryonic diplomatist
+had entered into an inquiry about the resources of the country, and the
+number and character of the people, he could not have found a man in our
+National Legislature, on the Supreme Bench, or in the Cabinet, who could
+have given him the information correctly, and he might have sought in
+vain for it in our modern school geographies. Yet Uruguay is one of the
+most enterprising, progressive, and prosperous nations on this
+hemisphere, growing faster in proportion to its area and population than
+the United States, and is beginning to be a formidable competitor of
+ours in the provision markets of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The country which appears on the map as Uruguay is known in South
+America as “the Banda Oriental,” with a strong accent upon the last
+syllable, which, being interpreted, means “the Eastern Strip,” as it was
+once a part of the Argentine Republic, which in those days was known as
+“the Banda Occidental.” Uruguay is the old Indian name, and the legal
+one, being recognized by the Constitution. The inhabitants are known as
+“Orientals,” with a strong accent on the “tals.” Uruguay is the smallest
+independent State in South America, and in its agricultural and pastoral
+resources the richest, with undiscovered possibilities in the mineral
+way. In the good old colony times the Viceroy of Spain and the Jesuits
+used to get a great deal of gold and silver&mdash;placer washings&mdash;from the
+interior of Uruguay, but during the long struggle for independence, and
+the sixty years of revolution that followed, the operation of the mines
+was suspended, and their localities forgotten or obliterated by the
+people, who were mercilessly robbed of the wealth they gathered in that
+way. They found it economical to do nothing, for as fast as they
+accumulated a few dollars they were robbed of it, and those who were
+suspected of knowing where the gold and silver came from were persecuted
+until they disclosed the secret, or else died with it concealed in their
+breasts.</p>
+
+<p>No country ever suffered more from war than Uruguay, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_593" id="page_593"></a>{593}</span> for almost a
+hundred years a struggle of arms, under one excuse or another, has been
+going on within her borders, and until the present despotism&mdash;which
+makes only a mask of the nominal democracy it pretends&mdash;came into power,
+there was a change of government, or an attempt to secure one, under
+almost every new moon. Although Uruguay is as much of an absolute
+monarchy to-day as exists on the face of the earth, her people have
+peace and prosperity, her development is being hastened by large works
+of internal improvement, her population is increasing rapidly, her
+commerce is assuming immense proportions, and she is making more rapid
+strides towards greatness than any other country in South America,
+except her neighbor across the River Plate. With a republican form of
+government guaranteed by the constitution, with civil and religious
+freedom as the foundation-stone of the nation, the will of the President
+has been usually as absolute as was that of the ex-King Thebaw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b593_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b593_sml.jpg" width="323" height="210" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HARBOR OF MONTEVIDEO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Maximo Santos, who was for many years to Uruguay what<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_594" id="page_594"></a>{594}</span> Guzman Blanco has
+been to Venezuela, and Rufino Barrios to Guatemala&mdash;its nominal
+President, but its <i>de facto</i> dictator&mdash;was a man of immense energy,
+broad views, and an ambition to lift his nation to the standard of
+modern civilization. Although an autocrat, to a certain degree he was a
+wise one, and as long as a citizen did not interfere with his management
+of the Government, nor criticise with too great freedom his disbursement
+of the public revenues, Santos gave him every encouragement and all
+reasonable concessions. His methods were rude, cruel, and arbitrary; his
+ministers were the instruments of his will, the Congress simply one of
+the fingers of his right hand, and the army his weapon of offence and
+defence, without regard to the Constitution, the laws, or the rights of
+the people, while the courts were puppets to perform at his pleasure.
+Occasionally he went through the form of holding an election, but the
+soldiers always had charge of the polls and counted the votes. No
+candidates but those favored of the President were ever elected in
+Uruguay, and whenever any public expression was called for by him the
+leaders of public opinion were always careful to discover his
+preferences and anticipate them. If a true and complete history of his
+administration, and his military career preceding his assumption of the
+Presidency, could be written, it would be as remarkable a document as
+the events of the nineteenth century in any land could justify.</p>
+
+<p>Santos was what they call “a barrack dog.” That is, his father was a
+soldier, his mother a rabona&mdash;one of that class of homeless women who
+are encouraged by the Government to follow the army&mdash;and he was born in
+a barracks. From birth until he was able to bear arms he was kicked
+about without care or education, generally housed and fed in a military
+garrison or camp. He entered the army as a private when not more than
+fourteen or fifteen years of age, and within twenty years, by reason of
+his brains and force of character, became its commander-in-chief. It was
+a short step to a dictatorship, during one of the revolutions that were
+epidemic in Uruguay, and then after a form of an election<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_595" id="page_595"></a>{595}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b595_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b595_sml.jpg" width="300" height="353" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MAXIMO SANTOS.</p>
+<p>(President of Uruguay from March 1, 1882, to November, 1886.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">he was declared “constitutional” President. When he came into power
+Uruguay was going backward, and had been for several years; the country
+was gradually becoming depopulated, property was greatly depreciated in
+value, everybody was living from hand to mouth, and there was no
+commerce of consequence. Although Santos was a brutal tyrant, the
+magnificent results of his progressive policy are to be seen on every
+hand, and he should be judged accordingly. The results<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_596" id="page_596"></a>{596}</span> he accomplished
+should be permitted to obscure his methods. It was in 1887 that Santos
+was finally overthrown, and to “let him down easy,” as the saying is,
+his successor in the Presidency gave him credentials as an Envoy
+Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to all the courts of Europe,
+where he has since remained. Twice he has attempted to return to
+Montevideo, and once got as far as the harbor, but was not permitted to
+land. After spending a few months in Buenos Ayres, he became convinced
+that his power was broken, and he returned to Europe to remain the rest
+of his days and draw a salary or pension that is paid him by the
+Government as the price of his absence.</p>
+
+<p>The President of Uruguay in 1889 is Gen. Maximo Tajes, a man of
+education, culture, and liberal tendencies, but not so much of an
+autocrat as Santos.</p>
+
+<p>The country is enjoying great prosperity and much-needed peace.
+Immigration is very large and increasing, the newcomers being mostly
+from Italy and the Basque provinces of Spain&mdash;a frugal, industrious, and
+law-abiding people. They bring a good deal of property with them; in
+fact, according to the statistics during the last ten years, only 1335
+people were lodged and fed at the expense of the Government even for a
+day. There are some German, Swedish, and Swiss colonies which are small
+but immensely prosperous; but the Government has not encouraged the
+formation of colonies, preferring individual immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that there is not an acre of unproductive land in all
+Uruguay, and that its area of seven thousand square leagues&mdash;a little
+more than that of England&mdash;is capable of sustaining as large a
+population as England, Scotland, and Wales together. The soil and
+climate are of such a character that any grain or fruit known in the
+list of the world’s product can be produced in abundance. Coffee will
+grow beside corn, and bananas and pineapples beside wheat; sugar and
+potatoes, apples and oranges, in fact all things that man requires for
+food or clothing, are capable of being raised within the boundaries of
+the republic at the minimum of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_597" id="page_597"></a>{597}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b597_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b597_sml.jpg" width="318" height="366" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ONE OF THE OLD STREETS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">labor. There are medicinal plants, and forests of useful timber, plenty
+of grass of the most nutritious quality for cattle, and so abundant that
+ten times more can be fed upon the same area than in the Argentine
+Republic. There is plenty of water for mechanical purposes, and the
+geologists say that much of the surface of the northern provinces is
+underlaid by coal-beds. Nearly all sections of the republic may be
+reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_598" id="page_598"></a>{598}</span> by navigable rivers, and natural harbors are frequent along the
+coast. Besides coal and silver and gold, there are said to be many other
+rich mineral deposits, and the report of a Geological Commission,
+recently intrusted with an examination of these resources, reads like a
+fable of Eldorado. Even if these glowing recitals are exaggerated, there
+is no doubt of the agricultural and pastoral possibilities of the
+country, and all Uruguay needs is permanent peace to become a rich and
+powerful nation. Her population has doubled within the last few years,
+not only by immigration, but from natural causes, and her statistics
+show a larger birth-rate and a smaller mortality than any country on the
+globe. The vital tables show a net increase of births over deaths of
+eighteen in a thousand of population, the birth-rate averaging
+forty-five and the death-rate twenty-seven per thousand during the last
+five years.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite remarkable, and the facts deserve the study of scientists,
+that the excess of males born in Uruguay is so great, the statistics
+showing that of every 1000 births 561 are males and only 439 are
+females. In the United States the ratio is 506 males to 494 females; in
+England, 485 to 515; and on the Continent of Europe, 402 to 508. Another
+remarkable fact, which is attributed to the climate, is that there is
+less insanity in Uruguay than in any other country, the ratio of insane
+being only 95 per 100,000 of population, while in the United States it
+is 329, in Great Britain 322, in France 248, and in other countries
+equally large in comparison.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, too, that living is cheaper in Uruguay than anywhere else.
+Beef is three to five cents a pound, mutton and other meats about the
+same price, fish five cents a pound, partridges and similar birds ten
+cents each, chickens and ducks fifteen cents each, and vegetables are
+sold at proportionate prices. Labor is scarce and wages are high,
+consequently the public wealth is increasing very rapidly, being
+estimated in 1884 at $580 per capita of population. Taking the foreign
+commerce of Montevideo alone, the statistics<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_599" id="page_599"></a>{599}</span> show a ratio of $240 for
+each citizen, and the increase is very rapid. But a still greater
+increase is shown in the agricultural and pastoral development of the
+country. With a population of 500,000 Uruguay produces 5,000,000 bushels
+of grain annually, or an average of ten bushels per inhabitant, and this
+with only 540,000 acres of ground under cultivation, including vegetable
+gardens as well as wheat and corn fields. It is claimed there that no
+other country can show so high an average.</p>
+
+<p>The increase in cattle, sheep, and horses is astonishing, there being
+now 7,000,000 cattle, 700,000 horses, and 11,000,000 sheep in Uruguay,
+valued at $86,000,000. This valuation is very small when considered by
+the side of the estimate placed upon such stock in the United States,
+being less than five dollars per head for sheep, horses, and cattle, all
+taken together. The horses alone, if estimated at the average value of
+$100, would be worth $70,000,000, and if the cattle were valued at only
+twelve dollars each, which is a low estimate in the United States, the
+7,000,000 head owned in Uruguay would be worth alone the amount at which
+the whole livestock interest of the country is valued.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of the wealth of Uruguay is in the hands of
+foreigners. The aborigines are totally exterminated. It is the only
+country in South America where “civilization” has been thorough and
+complete in this respect, and it might be searched from end to end
+without discovering a single representative of the Indian race which
+originally occupied the land. The descendants of the Spanish
+Conquistadors are called natives, or Orientals, while foreigners are
+those who were not born in the country. Of the 500,000 population,
+166,000 are said to be of foreign nativity, and most of them have come
+in within the last ten years. This class holds about $237,000,000 of
+property, or $1440 per capita.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of Uruguay is being rapidly developed by the construction
+of railways under the control of the Government, and representing an
+investment of about $12,000,000. Besides the lines already in operation,
+extensions are in progress<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_600" id="page_600"></a>{600}</span> which, when completed, will give the country
+a system of about 1500 miles of road, at a cost of something like
+$50,000,000! Railroad building is cheap in Uruguay, as grades are light
+and easy, and ties are plenty and accessible. The commerce of the
+country now amounts to $58,000,000 annually, with $29,500,000 of imports
+and $28,500,000 of exports. The imports are unusually large of late
+years, because of the vast amount of railway supplies and other
+merchandise used by the Government. The bulk of the trade is with
+England and France, the United States having but a very small share,
+which consists chiefly of lumber, kerosene-oil, and agricultural
+implements. Uruguay ships to Europe annually about $4,300,000 worth of
+hides, $7,000,000 in wool, and $6,000,000 in beef. There are twenty-one
+lines of steamers connecting Uruguay with Europe, and sending from forty
+to sixty vessels each way every month, while there is no direct
+communication with the United States except by occasional
+sailing-vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign commerce of the country is increasing with great rapidity.
+In 1875 it was $25,000,000; in 1878, $33,000,000; in 1880, $39,000,000;
+in 1881, $38,000,000; in 1882, $40,000,000; in 1883, $45,000,000; in
+1884, $51,000,000; in 1885, $52,000,000; in 1886, $55,000,000; and in
+1887, $58,000,000, having increased $33,000,000 in thirteen years,
+during which time the exports have run up from $12,000,000 to
+$28,500,000, and the imports from $12,000,000 to 29,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>The great wealth of Uruguay is at present in cattle and sheep, and its
+chief exports are wool and beef, but the agricultural resources of the
+country will be the basis of its future greatness, and it will enter
+into competition with the United States in supplying the world with
+breadstuffs and provisions. When a total population of only five hundred
+thousand, including men, women, and children, carries on a foreign
+commerce of nearly sixty million dollars annually, it can be inferred
+that there is energy and industry at work, and a productive field for it
+to engage in. It is claimed that Uruguay has greater natural resources
+than any other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_601" id="page_601"></a>{601}</span> South American country, and it is probably true. It is
+also claimed that the profits on labor and capital are greater there
+than elsewhere on the continent, which the statistics demonstrate.</p>
+
+<p>The largest export of Uruguay is wool, 20,000,000 sheep making a clip
+worth over $10,000,000 for exportation. The increase in sheep has been
+310 per cent. in ten years. The next article of export is beef, valued
+at about $6,000,000, being the product of about 8,000,000 cattle, which
+are also rapidly increasing. The third export in value is hides, of
+which $5,000,000 worth are annually shipped. Then come about $4,500,000
+worth of wheat, $1,000,000 worth of corn, and $2,500,000 worth of other
+agricultural products. All of these have more than doubled within the
+last ten years, and are now increasing like compound interest.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed to regard Uruguay as an obscure and insignificant
+country, worth not even a thought, but the commercial strides she is
+making show that she means competition with the United States in the
+near future. Chili has taken the flour market of the west coast of South
+America away from California, and Uruguay and the Argentine Republic are
+soon to meet our Dakota, Illinois, and Kansas wheat in the markets of
+Europe, while they threaten an even greater danger to our cattle
+interests. With 100,000,000 sheep in the Argentine Republic, and
+20,000,000 sheep in Uruguay; with 30,000,000 cattle in one country and
+8,000,000 in the other, and only about 4,000,000 people to furnish
+domestic consumers between them, it is easy to see what the supply of
+beef and wool and mutton will soon be for exportation. There is more
+cause for alarm in the ranches of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic
+than in the manufactures of England and Germany. We can compete with
+foreign industries in the quality and price of mechanical products, but
+we cannot compete with ranchmen who can put beef cattle into the market
+at ten and twelve dollars per head.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest advantages the cattle producers of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_602" id="page_602"></a>{602}</span> Uruguay and the
+Argentine Republic will always have over those of the United States is
+the nearness of their ranges to the sea. The present supply of beef in
+both these countries for the export market comes from within a radius of
+one hundred miles from an ocean harbor in which can be found the
+steamers of every maritime nation on earth except our own. Ocean vessels
+can go two thousand miles up the River Plate and five hundred miles up
+the Uruguay River into the heart of the cattle country, and almost tie
+up to the trees on the ranches, while our cattle have to be carried
+fifteen hundred to four thousand miles on the cars. The geographical and
+navigable conditions of these countries are such that ours would only
+equal them if ocean steamers could visit Denver and Fort Dodge. Any man
+of business can calculate the difference in the value of the product and
+the difference in profits. It is claimed that the cattle companies of
+the countries of which I have been speaking can sell marketable steers
+at ten and twelve dollars a head, and declare thirty per cent.
+dividends. We will not have the native Spanish population to compete
+with, but Englishmen, Irishmen, and Scotchmen, who are going in large
+numbers and with an immense amount of capital into the River Plate
+countries to establish ranches and raise beef for the European market.</p>
+
+<p>Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, lies upon a tongue of land which
+stretches out into the River Plate, nearly the shape of Manhattan
+Island, on which New York City stands, except that it has the Atlantic
+Ocean on one side and a river sixty-five miles wide on the other. This
+strip is of limestone formation, with very little soil on the surface,
+and rises in the centre to an apex like a whale’s back or the roof of a
+house, so that the streets running northward and southward are like a
+series of terraces rising one above the other, not only affording
+perfect natural drainage, but giving almost every house in town a vista
+of the river or the sea from the upper windows. As you approach
+Montevideo the city seems much larger than it really is, and Yankee
+Doodle could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_603" id="page_603"></a>{603}</span> complain of it as he did of Boston when he said he
+could not see the town because there were so many houses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b603_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b603_sml.jpg" width="528" height="167" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MONTEVIDEO&mdash;THE OCEAN SIDE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no city more delightfully situated than the capital of Uruguay,
+and viewed from any direction the prospect of Montevideo is a lovely
+one. Were it not for those dreadful pamperos, which during the winter
+season sweep the whole southern half of the continent from the Andes to
+the sea, searching every nook and crevice for dust to cast into the
+faces of the people, and parching the skin, this place might be made an
+earthly type of Paradise. But nothing can afford shelter from these
+searching winds, and even strawberries the year round are no
+compensation.</p>
+
+<p>The old Spaniards had a queer way of naming places. When the catalogue
+of saints was exhausted and duplicated and triplicated, and all the holy
+fasts and feasts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_604" id="page_604"></a>{604}</span> had served to christen colonies and towns, they
+“dropped into poetry,” as it were, and gave their imaginations a chance
+at nomenclature. For example, the Rio de la Plata means the “silver
+river,” so called, I suppose, because its waters have not the slightest
+resemblance to silver, but are of the color of weak chocolate, like our
+own Missouri. Then, again, the Argentine Republic means the “land of
+silver,” and was so called, not because mines were found there, but to
+attract colonists in the expectation of finding wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The real name of Montevideo is San Felipe de Montevideo, which does not
+sound quite so poetical when translated into English, for it means “I
+see the hill of St. Philip.” The name of the saint has been dropped, and
+now the place is known as “I see the Hill.” The hill which the
+discoverer saw used to be called after the Apostle, but now is called
+the “Cerro.” It has a picturesque old fortress on its crest, which is
+innocently supposed to afford protection to the capital and the harbor.
+If the place were ever attacked, the guns of the fort would furnish no
+more protection than so many pop-guns, as it stands back so far behind
+the city that half of the balls would fall on the roofs of the houses,
+and an assaulting force be landed under the shelter they would give. As
+the location of a light-house the Cerro does very well, and the fortress
+is useful now only as an arsenal and prison. The old city formerly
+surrounded the fortress, and it was closely besieged for nine years,
+from 1842 to 1851. In those hard years a new city sprung up around the
+besieging encampments, with shops and stores and churches and factories.
+After the coming of peace the intermediate space was laid out by French
+engineers, and the two cities rapidly grew into one, on the best ground
+and after the most approved models of modern times. This space is now
+the most beautiful and desirable part of the consolidated city.</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed that Montevideo is the most healthy city in the world, and
+there is no reason why it should not be, as the natural drainage is
+perfect, and the climate is about like that of Tennessee, the cold
+weather of winter being moderated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_605" id="page_605"></a>{605}</span> the Gulf Stream from the ocean,
+and the heat of summer by the sea-breeze that seldom fails to perform
+its grateful service. When it is not June in Uruguay, it is
+October&mdash;never too hot and never too cold. There is not such a thing as
+a stove in the whole country, but some of the foreigners have fireplaces
+in their houses, to temper the winds for the tender feet. What
+Montevideo most needs, like Buenos Ayres, is a harbor, for during a
+pampero the ships at anchor in the river are without protection, and at
+all times the landing and the shipping of merchandise are conducted with
+great difficulty in lighters, as at the latter place. A contract has
+been made with a French company to construct two breakwaters or piers in
+triangular form, and the work, already commenced, is expected to be
+completed in 1890.</p>
+
+<p>Around the curve of the bay, fronting the water, are a series of
+beautiful villas, or “quintas,” as they are called (pronounced
+<i>kintas</i>), the suburban residences of wealthy men, built in the ancient
+Italian style, with all the luxury and lavish display of modern
+extravagance, and reminding one of the Pompeian palaces, or the Roman
+villas in the golden age which Horace pictured in his Odes. These
+residences are of the most picturesque architecture, and would be
+attractive anywhere, but here they are surrounded by a perpetual garden,
+and by thousands of flowers which preserve their color and their
+fragrance winter and summer, and give the place an appearance of
+everlasting spring.</p>
+
+<p>One of these beautiful retreats belongs to a Philadelphian, Mr. W. D.
+Evans, who has a romantic history, and is the friend of every naval
+officer and every skipper that enters the port. Thirty years ago Mr.
+Evans shipped as mate on a sailing-vessel bound for Uruguay. She was
+wrecked off the coast by one of the ill winds which seamen meet, and he
+was cast ashore, penniless and friendless. All the property he had in
+the world were an ordinary ship’s boat, which he had saved from the
+wreck, and the clothing which he wore. But he had a strong reserve in
+the form of muscle, courage, and manliness, and with his boat he
+commenced life as a <i>cargador</i>&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_606" id="page_606"></a>{606}</span>that is, a longshoreman&mdash;and offered
+his services to the public to convey passengers and baggage to and from
+the ships in the harbor. About a week after he had entered his new
+employment he was caught in a gale outside the harbor. His boat was
+capsized, and he floated around for four hours clinging to her keel,
+until rescued by the crew of a steamer which happened to be coming in.
+He thanked his saviors graciously, but declined their invitation to go
+on board the steamer, only asking assistance to right his boat, in order
+that he might sail back to town. He was jeered at, and advised to let
+the old tub drift, as it was worthless; but he told the sailors that
+while it was not much of a boat, it was all the property he owned in the
+world, and he intended to make a fortune out of it yet. They liked the
+spirit of the man, and helped him put his boat in sailing trim, wishing
+him goodluck as he started back to Montevideo.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the finest private park in the River Plate country is a
+handsome bronze fountain which must have cost several thousand dollars.
+In its basin, casting a shadow over myriads of gold-fish and speckled
+trout, floats Mr. Evans’s old boat, the most precious piece of property
+he owns, and he is said to be worth millions. He never allows a day to
+pass without visiting the fountain, and no guest ever comes to the Evans
+<i>quinta</i> who is not brought to bow to the idol. There is something
+pathetic in the affection and reverence which the millionaire shows for
+the rotten old tub. “She has saved my life twice,” says Mr. Evans to
+everybody, “and when I was flat broke she was my only friend. You
+gentlemen may not notice anything pretty about her, but she is the most
+beautiful thing I ever saw.”</p>
+
+<p>There never comes to Montevideo a distressed seaman of any race, worthy
+or unworthy, who does not find a snug harbor through Mr. Evans’s
+bountiful generosity, and there is not a man in all the valley of the
+River Plate who does not feel a pleasure in grasping his hand.</p>
+
+<p>There are many beautiful residences and fine stores in Montevideo, and
+everything that can be bought in Paris can<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_607" id="page_607"></a>{607}</span> be found there. There are
+three theatres and an Italian opera, a race-course and any number of
+clubs, a university, a public library, a museum, and all the etceteras
+of modern civilization. The ladies dress in the most stylish of Paris
+fashions, and among the aristocracy the social life is very gay. The
+people are highly educated, are making money quickly, and spend it like
+princes. The Hotel Oriental is the best in South America, being built of
+Italian marble, and luxuriously furnished. There are hospitals, asylums,
+and other benevolent institutions supported by public and private
+charity; two Protestant churches, Protestant schools, fifty-five miles
+of street railways, carrying nine million passengers a year&mdash;which is a
+remarkably high average for a city of one hundred and twenty thousand
+population&mdash;boulevards and parks, gas and electric lights, telephones
+without number, and only now and then does something occur to remind a
+tourist that he is not in one of the most modern cities of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The vestibules of the tenement-houses, and the <i>patios</i>, or courts, in
+the centre of each, which invariably furnish a cool loafing-place, are
+commonly paved with the knuckle-bones of sheep, arranged in fantastic
+designs like mosaic-work. They always attract the attention of
+strangers, and it is a standing joke to tell the gullible that they are
+the knuckle-bones of human beings who were killed during the many
+revolutions which occurred in that country.</p>
+
+<p>The ladies of Uruguay are considered to rank next to their sisters of
+Peru in beauty, and there is something about the atmosphere which gives
+their complexion a purity and clearness that is not found among ladies
+of any other country. But, like all Spanish ladies, when they reach
+maturity they lose their grace and symmetry of form, and usually become
+very stout. This is undoubtedly owing in a great degree to their lack of
+exercise; for they never walk, but spend their entire lives in a
+carriage or a rocking-chair. Native ladies who have married foreigners,
+and gone abroad to France or England, and there adopted the custom of
+those countries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_608" id="page_608"></a>{608}</span> preserve their beauty much longer than their sisters
+who live indolent lives at home.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b608_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b608_sml.jpg" width="319" height="309" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SCENE IN MONTEVIDEO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Government offices occupy a rather plain and insignificant
+structure, which does not compare in architectural beauty with the
+private residences and business blocks. Most of the merchants reside in
+the upper floors of their business houses, so that there are but few
+exclusively residence streets. The best houses are three and four
+stories high, and are quite ornamental in their exterior decorations,
+resembling those of Italy, and naturally, as most of the architects and
+builders are Italians.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_609" id="page_609"></a>{609}</span></p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the city are two large public squares. One, the Plaza
+Constitution, is a military parade-ground, and upon it fronts the
+Government building and military barracks. The other is the Plaza
+Washington, named in honor of the Father of American Liberty. Crossing
+Calle de Washington, and going north a block, one comes to “Calle Veinte
+y Cinco de Mayo” (the Twenty-fifth of May Street). This seems odd at
+first, but it is sanctified in the minds of the Uruguayans by the story
+of their valor and patriotism. It commemorates the national
+independence. Turning west on this street towards the point of the
+promontory on which the city is built, the traveller stands before one
+of the best buildings in the city&mdash;the Hospital de Caridad (Charity
+Hospital). It is three stories high and three hundred feet long. It
+covers an acre of ground, and has accommodations, or beds, for three
+hundred patients. Of course the Sisters of Charity are supreme in these
+wards, and large numbers of patients are treated here every year.</p>
+
+<p>The Hospital de Caridad has become popular by the manner in which the
+money is raised for its maintenance. It is supported by a public
+lottery. This finds favor everywhere. One meets many men, women, and
+boys on the streets of South American cities selling lottery tickets, as
+he would see newsboys selling papers in North American cities. Not far
+from Charity Hospital is the British Hospital. It is a fine, substantial
+building, and worthy of the people who built it. It cost nearly forty
+thousand dollars, and can accommodate sixty patients.</p>
+
+<p>The cemetery is a long way off, around on the south side of the city,
+and is a place of beauty. The entrance is tasteful, and much more
+elaborate and expensive than any cemetery entrance in the United States.
+The chapel down the walk in front of the entrance, with its ornamental
+dome and marble floors and ornaments, is worth seeing. The ground is
+occupied with private or family vaults much more elaborate and expensive
+than those one sees in North America. There are individual tombs in
+North American cemeteries far more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_610" id="page_610"></a>{610}</span> elegant than any in Uruguay; but,
+taken as a whole, this city of the dead is of a higher order. The
+streets are too narrow, and the surface is nearly all utilized. It is
+common to have glass doors back of the iron gates, so one can look into
+the little rooms above the vaults. The walls of these are covered with
+pictures and curious wire and bead work ornaments. There are crucifixes
+and candles everywhere. In one tomb is to be seen a picture of Mary
+seated on an island or floating raft, pulling souls out of the flames of
+purgatory. The poor things are stretching up their hands pleading for
+help, and Mary is watching the prayers on earth and choosing
+accordingly. Back of these tombs, and forming a high wall twenty or
+twenty-five feet high, is a long series of vaults one above another,
+each with an opening large enough to receive a casket shoved in endwise.
+These vaults are either owned, or rented for a term of years, or as long
+as the friends pay the rent. In case of default, the remains are taken
+out and dropped into deep pits, and the vaults rented to the next comer.</p>
+
+<p>The standing army of Uruguay consists of five thousand men, mostly
+concentrated at the capital. Their uniform, with the exception of that
+of the President’s bodyguard&mdash;a battalion of three or four hundred men,
+dressed in a novel and striking costume of leopard-skins&mdash;is of the
+zouave pattern. There are connected with the army several fine bands,
+which on alternate evenings give concerts in the plazas. These concerts
+are attended by all classes of people, and furnish good opportunities
+for flirtation.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody rides; no one thinks of walking. Each family has its carriage,
+saddle, and other horses, and even the beggars go about the streets on
+horseback. It is a common thing for a person to be stopped on the street
+by a horseman and asked for a centavo, which is worth two and a half
+cents of our money. These incidents are somewhat alarming at first, and
+suggest highway robbery; but the appeal is made in such a humble,
+pitiful tone that the feeling of alarm soon vanishes. “For the love of
+Jesus, señor, give a poor sick man a centavo. I’ve had no bread or
+coffee to-day;” and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_611" id="page_611"></a>{611}</span> receiving the pittance, the beggar will gallop off
+like a cow-boy to the nearest drinking-place.</p>
+
+<p>The national drink is called <i>caña</i>, and is made of the fermented juice
+of the sugar-cane. It contains about ninety per cent. of alcohol, and is
+sold at two cents a goblet; so that a spree in Uruguay is within the
+reach of the poorest man. But there is very little intemperance in
+comparison with that in our own country. On ordinary days drunken men
+are seldom seen on the streets, but on the evening of a religious
+feast-day the common people usually engage in a glorious carousal.</p>
+
+<p>The policemen in Montevideo are detailed from the army, and carry sabres
+instead of clubs, which they use with telling effect upon offenders who
+resist arrest. A few years ago there was no safety for people who were
+out late at night either in the city or country; robberies and murders
+were of frequent occurrence, and yet the prisons were empty. But
+President Santos rules with an iron hand, and after a few highwaymen and
+murderers were hanged, there was a noticeable change in the condition of
+affairs, and now a woman or a child is as safe upon the streets or
+highways of the country as in their own homes.</p>
+
+<p>One of the curious customs of Uruguay is the method of making butter.
+The dairy-man pours the milk, warm from the cow, into an inflated pig or
+goat skin, hitches it to his saddle by a long lasso, and gallops five or
+six miles into town with the milk-sack pounding along on the road behind
+him. When he reaches the city his churning is over, the butter is made,
+and he peddles it from door to door, dipping out with a long wooden
+spoon the quantity desired by each family. Though all sorts of modern
+agricultural machinery are used on the farms of Uruguay, the natives
+cannot be induced to adopt the wooden churn. Some of the foreigners use
+it, but the butter is said to be not so good as that made in the curious
+primitive fashion. Fresh milk is sold by driving cows from door to door
+along the principal streets, and milking them into the jars of the
+customers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_612" id="page_612"></a>{612}</span></p>
+
+<p>During the last year religious and political circles have been in a
+state of the greatest agitation, owing to the resistance of the priests
+to the arbitrary policy of the Government. For several years the Church
+has seen itself stripped of its ancient prerogatives, and its occupation
+and income gradually restricted by the enactment of laws conferring upon
+the civil magistrates duties which were formerly within the jurisdiction
+of the priests alone. Under the constitution, the established religion
+of the country is the Roman Catholic, and the archbishop was formerly a
+greater man than the President, being the final authority in matters
+political as well as spiritual.</p>
+
+<p>The Romish Church, like the Spanish kings, ruled very unwisely in the
+South American dominions, and instead of keeping pace with the progress
+of the people, endeavored to enforce fifteenth century dogmas and
+practices in the nineteenth. The result is the same everywhere. The
+Liberal element, representing the progressive and educated, have denied
+the authority of the Church, and defied its mandates. The Liberals have
+been growing stronger and the Church growing weaker each year, until the
+former are in power everywhere except in Ecuador, and have given the
+priests repeated and bitter doses of their own medicine. Santos, the
+President of Uruguay, cares no more for the curse of Rome than for the
+bleating of the sheep upon his estancia, and has been arbitrary and
+merciless, carrying on a war in which the Clerical party has been driven
+to the wall, the parish schools closed, the monks and nuns expelled, and
+the pulpits silenced. The first step was to take the education of the
+children out of the hands of the Church by establishing free schools and
+a compulsory education law, under which the parish schools were not
+recognized in the national system of education. The money which formerly
+had been given to the Church is devoted to the school fund. Then the
+registration of births and deaths was taken from the parish clergy and
+placed in the hands of the civil officials. Formerly the legitimacy of a
+child could not be established without a certificate from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_613" id="page_613"></a>{613}</span> priest in
+whose parish it was born; and the cemeteries were closed to heretics.
+The next thing was the passage of the civil marriage law, similar to
+that of France, which required every couple to be married by a
+magistrate, in order that the legitimacy of their offspring might be
+established. This was a serious blow at the revenues of the Church, as
+its income from marriage fees was very large. It formerly cost
+twenty-five dollars to get married, and very few of the peons, or
+laboring classes, could afford the luxury. Now it costs but one dollar.
+The Church submitted to all assaults upon it until the marriage law was
+passed, and then it openly defied the civil authorities, and threatened
+to excommunicate all members who obeyed the statute.</p>
+
+<p>President Santos is not a man to quietly endure defiance of his
+authority. He ordered the police to arrest and imprison every priest who
+preached such doctrine. Three or four arrests were made, when the
+archbishop addressed a letter to the President declaring that the Church
+could not and would not recognize marriages formed without its
+benediction, and that the police authorities had no right to determine
+what subjects should be discussed in the pulpit. The President took no
+notice of the protest, further than to direct the police to carry out
+their previous orders. The Papal Nuncio, legate from the Holy See,
+interfered and entered his remonstrance, whereupon he was given
+forty-eight hours to leave the country. The archbishop then instructed
+the priests not to preach any sermons whatever, but to confine their
+spiritual offices to the celebration of the mass. Then a law was passed
+abolishing all houses of religious seclusion, and forbidding secret
+religious orders within the territory of Uruguay. The excuse for this
+was that the monasteries were the hot-beds of political conspiracy,
+which was probably true. An edict was issued expelling all monks and
+nuns from Uruguay, and many of them at once left the monasteries, some
+taking refuge in private families, others going into hospitals and
+almshouses, but more left the country.</p>
+
+<p>On the first of August, 1885, all the convents, except one,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_614" id="page_614"></a>{614}</span> were
+closed. This one had for its Mother Superior a sister of President Santa
+Maria, of Chili. She was a woman of pluck, and determined to defy the
+law. When the first of August arrived, the inspectors of police went to
+her place, called “The House of the Good Shepherd,” and being denied
+admittance, burst in the doors. The Mother Superior was found alone, and
+when asked what had become of the Sisters, refused to answer the
+question. A search was made, and forty-five terror-stricken women were
+discovered concealed in the loft of the chapel and under the altar. They
+cried pitifully, and falling before the cross of Christ, begged for His
+protection; but the police dragged them out and gave them orders to
+leave the country at once. Some of them took refuge in private houses,
+and the Mother Superior, who, it was supposed, would be imprisoned,
+found an asylum in the house of an Irish Roman Catholic named Jackson,
+who raised the English flag over his roof. They soon after disappeared,
+however, and quietly left the country.</p>
+
+<p>This ended the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church in Uruguay. The
+next movement of Santos towards its extermination will undoubtedly be
+the confiscation of its property; but as yet no steps have been taken in
+that direction. Except among the women, there is very little sympathy
+for the priests. Men are seldom seen in a church except on notable
+feast-days, but the women go to mass every morning, and perform the
+duties of their religion with ardent devotion. Protestantism is making
+considerable progress in Uruguay under the direction of the Rev. Thomas
+Wood, formerly of Indiana, who has been superintendent of Methodist
+missions in the River Plate valley for many years. There are in
+Montevideo two Protestant churches, and several schools for ordinary as
+well as religious instruction. One of the churches is under the care of
+the Established Church of England, and is the fashionable place of
+worship for foreigners. No mission work is done by it, but it has a
+Sabbath-school, and there is regular preaching on Sundays. The success
+of Mr. Wood’s labors is very marked, particularly among the natives. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_615" id="page_615"></a>{615}</span>
+receives encouragement, but no financial aid, from the Government. His
+work is supported by the Missionary Board of the Methodist Church of New
+York, and all he asks of the Government is its non-interference. This it
+agrees to, and gives him full protection besides. Mr. Wood is an active,
+energetic, and enthusiastic man, and the Methodists could not have
+placed their work under a better superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>Standing on the Plaza Constitution, one sees towering up, one hundred
+and thirty-three feet above, the great cathedral, a large, plain, and
+somewhat imposing structure. It was dedicated eighty-two years ago, but
+time and the fortunes of war have dealt kindly with it. On entering this
+building, at first the visitor wonders at its tawdriness; next he feels
+its coldness, and then he is impressed by the dominating importance
+given to the Virgin Mother, and the inferior position assigned to the
+Son. This is so in all the Catholic churches of South America. Over the
+great altars always may be seen some huge and coarse representation of
+Mary. She is dressed after the modern style, in some rich material and
+an abundance of lace. The stiff wax form and awkward wax hands would
+make a sad appearance in a collection of wax-figures like the moral show
+of Artemus Ward. The form of the Saviour is pushed away off to one side
+in some obscure alcove. The supremacy of Mary in these papal lands is
+wrought into all the life of the people. She has every sort of name.
+Every conceivable relation in the Virgin’s life is named, and that name
+bestowed upon men and women alike. There is “Maria Remedia”&mdash;that is,
+Mary of Remedies; “Maria Dolores,” Mary of Griefs; “Maria Angustos,”
+Mary of Anguish; “Maria Concepcion,” Mary of the Conception; “Maria
+Mercedes,” Mary of Mercy; “Maria Anunciacion,” Mary of Annunciation;
+“Maria Presentacion,” Mary of the Presentation; “Maria Carmen,” Mary of
+Blood; “Maria Purificacion,” Mary of Purification; “Maria Trinidad,”
+Mary of the Trinity; “Maria Asuncion,” Mary taken from earth; “Maria
+Transitu,” Mary going into heaven&mdash;and so on indefinitely. In the
+Montevideo cathedral, and in many others, stands a statue of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_616" id="page_616"></a>{616}</span> black
+saint&mdash;St. Baltazar&mdash;among many classes of people, one of the important
+saints of the catalogue.</p>
+
+<p>Montevideo, with a population of one hundred and twenty-five thousand,
+has twenty-three daily papers&mdash;more, in proportion to its population,
+than any other city in the world; three times as many as London, and
+nearly twice as many as New York. Buenos Ayres has twenty-one daily
+papers for a population of four hundred thousand. Other cities in South
+America are equally blessed; but in those of the republics of Ecuador,
+Bolivia, and Paraguay no daily papers are issued. The South American
+papers are not published so much for the dissemination of news as for
+the propagation of ideas. They give about six columns of editorial to
+one of intelligence, and publish all sorts of communications on
+political subjects, furnish a story in each issue, and often run
+histories and biographies as serials. One frequently takes up a daily
+paper and finds in it everything but the news, so that last week’s issue
+is just as good reading as yesterday’s.</p>
+
+<p>The principal reason and necessity for having so many newspapers is that
+every public man requires an organ in order to get his views before the
+people. The editors are ordinarily politicians or publicists, who devote
+their entire time to the discussion of political questions, and expect
+the party or faction to which they belong to furnish them with the means
+of living while they are so employed. Each of the papers has a director,
+who holds the relation of editor-in-chief, and a sub-editor, who is a
+man-of-all-work, edits copy, looks after the news, reads proof, and
+stays around the place to see that the printers are kept busy. There is
+never a staff of editors or reporters as in the United States, and
+seldom more than two men in an office. The director usually has some
+other occupation. He may be a lawyer, or a judge, or a member of
+Congress, and he expects his political sympathizers to assist him in
+furnishing editorials.</p>
+
+<p>At the capital of each of the republics in Central and South America
+there are usually one or more publications supported by the Government
+for the promulgation of decrees, decisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_617" id="page_617"></a>{617}</span> of the courts, laws of
+Congress, and official reports; and usually the paper which sustains the
+Administration that happens to be in power expects and receives
+financial assistance, or a “subvention,” as it is called, from the
+Government. This comes in the form of sinecures to the editors, who
+receive generous salaries from the public treasury for their political
+and professional services. Every president or cabinet minister, every
+political leader, every governor of a province, every <i>jefe politico</i>
+(mayor of a city), and often a collector of customs, has his organ, and,
+if he is not the editor himself, sees that whoever acts in that capacity
+is paid by the tax-payers.</p>
+
+<p>Except in Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, Santiago, Valparaiso, Rio de
+Janeiro, and other of the larger and more enterprising cities, there are
+no regular hours of publication; but papers are issued at any time, from
+eight o’clock in the morning until ten at night, whenever they happen to
+be ready to go to press. It seems odd to have yesterday’s paper
+delivered to you in the afternoon of to-day, but it often occurs. As
+soon as enough matter to fill the forms is in type, the edition goes to
+press. In the cities mentioned and some others there is a good deal of
+journalistic enterprise and ability; news is gathered by the
+editors&mdash;there is no reporter in all Spanish America. Telegraphic
+despatches are received and published, including cablegrams from Europe
+furnished by the Havas News Agency; news correspondence regarding
+current events comes from the interior towns and cities; meetings are
+reported, fights and frolics are written up in graphic style, and even
+interviews have been introduced to a limited extent. The newspapers of
+Valparaiso and Buenos Ayres are the most enterprising and ably
+conducted, <i>El Comercio</i>, of the former city, and <i>La Nacion</i>, of the
+latter, ranking well beside the provincial papers of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The editors of papers in the tropics are seldom called upon to report
+fires, as they are of rare occurrence. The houses are practically
+fire-proof, being built of adobe, and roofed with tiles. No stoves are
+used, and as there are no chimneys such a thing as a defective flue is
+unknown. All the cooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_618" id="page_618"></a>{618}</span> is done upon an arrangement like a
+blacksmith’s forge, and charcoal is the only fuel used. The delight of
+the South American editor is a street fight, and although an account of
+it may not appear for several days after the occurrence, the writer
+gives his whole soul to its description. It is always recorded in the
+most elaborate and flamboyant manner. The following is a literal
+translation of the opening of one of these articles:</p>
+
+<p>“A personal encounter of the most transcendent and painful interest
+occurred day before yesterday in the street of the Twenty-fifth of May,
+near the palatial residence of the most excellent and illustrious Señor
+Don Comana, member of the Chamber of Deputies, and was witnessed by a
+grand concourse of people, whose excitement and demonstrations it is
+impossible to adequately describe.”</p>
+
+<p>A dog-fight or any other event of interest would be treated in the same
+manner. Everything is “transcendent,” everything is “surpassing.” The
+grandiloquent style of writing, which appears everywhere, is not
+confined to newspapers, nor to orations, but you find it in the most
+unsuspected places. For example, in a bath-room at a hotel I once found
+an <i>aviso</i> which, literally translated, read as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“In consequence of the grand concourse of distinguished guests who
+entreat a bath in the morning, and with the profound consideration for
+the convenience of all, it is humbly and respectfully requested by the
+management that the gentlemen will be so courteous and urbane as to
+occupy the shortest possible time for their ablutions, and that they
+will be so condescending as to pull out the plug while they are resuming
+their garments.”</p>
+
+<p>Papers often quote from one another. They select their news as
+ship-builders select their timber&mdash;when it is old and tough. Compositors
+are not paid by the thousand ems, as in the United States, but receive
+weekly wages, which are seldom more than eight or ten dollars. Six or
+seven compositors are a sufficient force for the largest office, as the
+type used is seldom smaller than brevier, and more often long primer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_619" id="page_619"></a>{619}</span>
+The printers are mostly natives, although a few Germans are to be found.
+There are no typographical unions or trade organizations in South
+America. The laborers and mechanics are called peons, and are in a state
+of bondage, although not so recognized by law. In the larger cities the
+papers are delivered by carriers, and sold by newsboys on the streets;
+but in the smaller towns they are sent to the <i>correo</i>, or post-office,
+to be called for, like other mail, by the subscribers. The price of
+subscription is inordinately large, being seldom less than twelve
+dollars per year, and often double that amount; and single copies cost
+ten cents in native money, which will average about seven and a half
+cents in American gold. The paper which has the largest circulation in
+South America is <i>La Nacion</i>, of Buenos Ayres, which is said to
+circulate thirty thousand copies; but twelve or fifteen hundred copies
+is considered a fair circulation for the ordinary daily.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the offices are very cheaply fitted up. A dress of type lasts
+many years, and stereotyping is almost unknown. The presses used are the
+old-fashioned elbow-joint kind, such as were in vogue in the United
+States forty years ago. In Chili and the Argentine Republic there are
+some cylinder presses run by steam; but the people generally through the
+continent are very far behind the times in the typographic art. Modern
+equipments might be introduced very easily, but the printers down there
+know nothing about them, and when a perfecting press that cuts and folds
+is described to them, they are apt to accept the story as a North
+American exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>The advertising patronage is very good nearly everywhere, particularly
+that of the Government organs; but small rates are paid, and the rural
+system of “trading out” is practised to a considerable extent. The same
+patent medicine “ads.” that are familiar to the readers of the
+newspapers in the United States appear in the South American journals,
+and are eagerly scanned by homesick travellers, although they look very
+odd in Spanish, and usually can only be recognized by trademarks and
+other well-known signs. Most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_620" id="page_620"></a>{620}</span> advertising in South America is
+done through the newspapers. Very few posters or dodgers or almanacs are
+used, and the patent medicine fiend has not used his brush so
+extensively upon the fences and dead walls as in the United States. Not
+long ago the manufacturers of a popular specific sent their agent in
+Peru a box of handsomely illuminated advertising cards. The custom
+officers seized them, and the druggist to whom they were consigned was
+obliged to pay a heavy penalty for trying to smuggle in works of art.</p>
+
+<p>The South American editor is not allowed the same liberty to criticise
+public men that is enjoyed by his contemporary in the United States. He
+speaks with moderation during political excitement, and uses great
+precaution in his comments upon public affairs. Last winter the
+Secretary of the Treasury of one of the Spanish-American republics
+absconded with every dollar in the vaults at the expiration of his term
+of office. The Administration organs contained no allusion to the event,
+while the Opposition paper announced it in this innocent language: “The
+Treasury on Saturday last was the scene of a violent raid on the part of
+Minister Pena, of the Treasury Department. He entered the cashier’s
+office late in the afternoon, and demanded all the money that was in the
+vaults. In spite of the protest of the cashier, he carried away what is
+said to have amounted to nine thousand dollars. It was the last act of
+the retiring Minister of Finance. The motives that prompted the
+procedure are unknown, and the disposition of the money has not been
+explained.”</p>
+
+<p>In some of the republics there is a censor of the press, to whom a copy
+of each edition is submitted before it is published. This causes some
+inconvenience and delay at times, for if the censor happens to be out of
+town, or at a dinner-party, or otherwise engaged, the issue is withheld
+until his august signature and rubric are placed upon each page of the
+copy submitted to him. This copy is filed away for the protection of the
+editor, in case any article creates trouble. In 1885 the editor of <i>El
+Campeon</i>, of Lima, Peru, published an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_621" id="page_621"></a>{621}</span> attack upon the Congress of that
+republic, which was very mild compared with articles that are frequently
+directed at our law-makers; but it was considered a sufficient reason
+for his imprisonment for six months, and the confiscation of his
+machinery, type, etc., which were sold for the benefit of the
+Government.</p>
+
+<p>The most popular names for the newspapers in South America are <i>La
+Revista</i> (The Review), <i>La Nacion</i> (The Nation), <i>La Republica</i> (The
+Republic), <i>La Tribuna</i> (The Tribune), <i>La Libertad</i> (The Liberty), <i>La
+Voce</i> (The Voice), <i>La Union</i> (The Union), <i>El Tempo</i> (The Times), <i>El
+Diario</i> (The Diary), <i>El Eco</i> (The Echo), <i>El Correo</i> (The Post), <i>El
+Puebla</i> (The People), <i>La Verdad</i> (The Truth). There is a habit of
+naming streets and parks and towns in honor of great events, and this
+sometimes includes newspapers. For example, there is a daily in
+Montevideo called <i>The Twenty-fifth of May</i>, which corresponds to our
+Fourth of July&mdash;the Independence-day of that republic. There are only
+three dailies printed in the English language in all Central and South
+America. Two of them are published in Buenos Ayres&mdash;<i>The Herald</i> and
+<i>The Standard</i>&mdash;the other at Panama&mdash;<i>The Star and Herald</i>. There is a
+weekly printed in English at Valparaiso, and there was formerly one at
+Callao, Peru, but it was suspended during the war and its publication
+has not been resumed.</p>
+
+<p>It is not generally known that “Liebig’s Extract of Beef,” which, like
+quinine, is a standard tonic throughout the world, and is used by every
+physician, in every hospital, on every ship, and in every army, is a
+product of Uruguay. The cans in which it comes are labelled as if their
+contents were manufactured at Antwerp, where the original extract was
+invented by Professor Liebig, the famous German chemist, and the
+preparation was formerly made there; but in 1866, the patent having
+passed into the control of an English company, the works were removed to
+Uruguay, where cattle are cheaper than elsewhere, and the entire supply
+is now produced at a place called Fray Bentos, about one hundred and
+seventy miles above Montevideo, on the Uruguay River, whence it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_622" id="page_622"></a>{622}</span>
+shipped in bulk to London and Antwerp, where it is packed in small tins
+for the market. An attempt was made to do the packing in Uruguay, but
+the Government of that republic imposed so high a tariff upon the tins
+that the scheme was abandoned. The chemical process by which the juice
+of the beef is extracted and mixed with the blood of the animal is
+supposed to be a secret, but as the patent has long since expired, it
+could be easily discovered, and thus the manufacture of an almost
+necessary article would become general.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_623" id="page_623"></a>{623}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="ASUNCION" id="ASUNCION"></a>ASUNCION.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF PARAGUAY.</span></h2>
+
+<p>T<small>HE</small> population of Paraguay and its products to-day are less than they
+were one hundred years ago, when the present half-ruined city was the
+capital of the southern half of the continent, and from it had been
+issued the ecclesiastical and vice-regal edicts for over two centuries.
+Then Asuncion was a gay and busy capital, and Buenos Ayres, with the
+rest of the continent, paid tribute to the viceroy there. After the war
+of independence, a Jesuit by the name of Francia secured control of the
+Government, and nothing but death was ever able to loosen his grip.
+Although the constitution was republican, Francia established himself as
+“Perpetual President,” maintained a despotism as absolute and cruel as
+any that ever existed, and erected around the country a wall that
+prevented immigration and kept the people in ignorance. Foreign commerce
+was monopolized by the President, and he exacted in the shape of tribute
+from the people the products he shipped away. The revenues of the
+Government went into his pocket, and public expenditures were made at
+his will. His policy seemed to be to isolate Paraguay from the rest of
+the world, for the good of its people; and being a religious fanatic, he
+taught them nothing but obedience to the will of the Church. For
+thirty-two years he ruled peacefully, and when he died, in 1840, he was
+sincerely mourned.</p>
+
+<p>His successor was Lopez I., a man who had all the bad qualities of
+Francia, but none of his good ones. Selfish, lustful, brutal, his only
+motive was to perpetuate his power, and enjoy the opportunities it gave
+for the gratification of his passions. He continued the policy of
+exclusion which Francia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_624" id="page_624"></a>{624}</span> inaugurated, but for entirely different
+reasons, considering it necessary for his own safety that the people
+should be kept ignorant and isolated, lest they might learn that there
+were justice and liberty elsewhere in the world. He ruled twenty-two
+years, until death took the sceptre from him and gave it to his son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b624_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b624_sml.jpg" width="307" height="309" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>GASPAR FRANCIA,</p>
+
+<p>First President of Paraguay.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the father was bad, the son was worse, and Lopez II. seemed to be
+inspired with an ambition to excel his sire in every crime the latter
+had been guilty of. Filled with passion and lust, there was no form of
+cruelty he did not practise, and no act of brutality that he did not
+commit. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_625" id="page_625"></a>{625}</span> murdered his mother and brother, like King Thebaw, lest they
+might conspire against his authority. He had men pulled to pieces by
+horses, and invented a form of capital punishment before unknown to the
+catalogue of horrors. People who offended him were sewed up in green
+hides, which were hung up before a fire to dry. As the hides dried they
+shrunk, and the victim was slowly crushed to death by a pressure that
+human bones and flesh could not resist. The wives and daughters of his
+subjects were his playthings, and his agents were busy in all parts of
+the country collecting beautiful maidens to sacrifice to his lust. He
+resisted immigration, and, like his two predecessors, kept the foreign
+commerce of the country in his own hands. When steamers began to ascend
+the Parana River, he chained logs together and obstructed navigation,
+and when foreigners entered the country he drove them out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b625_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b625_sml.jpg" width="323" height="184" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STREET IN ASUNCION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The only outlet for the interior provinces of Southern Brazil is through
+Paraguay, and the people of Brazil resented the obstruction to their
+commerce. The Argentine Republic and Uruguay also had grievances, and in
+1868 the three great nations, representing about half the population of
+South America, called the tyrant Lopez to account. Then began a war<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_626" id="page_626"></a>{626}</span>
+which has no parallel in history. For six long years the little State of
+Paraguay held at bay the three combined nations whose territory
+surrounded it. The war did not end until the population of Paraguay was
+wellnigh exterminated, the country laid waste, and the tyrant Lopez
+driven to the mountains, where he was finally killed in a cave in which
+he sought refuge. The war cost Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and
+Uruguay two hundred and fifty million dollars and twenty thousand lives,
+while it cost Paraguay everything. There were scarcely enough survivors
+to bury the dead. The entire country was practically destroyed and
+depopulated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b626_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b626_sml.jpg" width="310" height="310" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>LOPEZ, THE TYRANT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_627" id="page_627"></a>{627}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 253px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b627_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b627_sml.jpg" width="253" height="191" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AFTER THE WAR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the reign of the two Lopezes, father and son, the most
+intelligent and the best men in the country were banished. Exile was the
+penalty of all whose views differed from those of the tyrant, and who
+would not submit to his exactions. More were murdered than banished, and
+their families fled from the country. On the downfall of the despot the
+exiles returned with enlarged intelligence, broader views, and an
+education received in foreign lands which fitted them to restore their
+almost ruined country, and to establish something like a liberal and
+wise government. After the death of Lopez and the occupation of the
+country by the allied armies, a junta was formed, consisting of three
+citizens of Paraguay, two of whom had returned from banishment, and had
+taken part in the war against the tyrant. Their powers were provisional,
+and similar to those of the consuls of old Rome. These men called a
+constitutional convention, which organized a permanent government, based
+upon the plan of that of the United States. The constitution guarantees
+religious and civil liberty, security of person and property, prohibits
+the re-election of Presidents, endows the Congress with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_628" id="page_628"></a>{628}</span> authority much
+more extended than that of ours, and in every possible manner provides
+against the repetition of the old dictatorships.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b628_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b628_sml.jpg" width="516" height="168" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ASUNCION, FROM THE WEST.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the first steps taken by Congress was to encourage immigration,
+and agents were sent to Europe to organize colonies and offer
+inducements to settlers. There was a strong effort made to secure German
+colonies, but it was difficult to divert them from the United States. In
+Italy and the Basque provinces of Spain the emigrant agents were more
+successful, and about twenty thousand people from these countries have
+settled in Paraguay during the last four years. Their prosperity and the
+treatment they have received have been so encouraging that a steady
+stream of immigration is now flowing from all the European States
+towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_629" id="page_629"></a>{629}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 506px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b629_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b629_sml.jpg" width="506" height="170" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ASUNCION&mdash;THE PALACE AND CATHEDRAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Paraguay; and the German Government has lately sent a commission to
+explore the territory and report upon its advantages for the
+establishment of colonies. Liberal inducements are offered to all
+immigrants. The lands of the republic have been resurveyed and divided
+into three classes&mdash;timber, pastoral, agricultural. At the end of five
+years’ residence, each adult immigrant is entitled to a deed of eighty
+acres of the latter class as a gift from the Government, and is
+reimbursed from the public revenues to an amount equal to the cost of
+his passage to Asuncion, the necessary farming implements, and a yoke of
+cattle. In addition to these he has also the right to purchase not more
+than four extra lots of agricultural lands of forty acres each. The
+grazing lands are not given<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_630" id="page_630"></a>{630}</span> away, but are sold by the Government at the
+price of eight, twelve, and fifteen hundred dollars per square league,
+according to location, or are leased for a term of years at a nominal
+rental. The timber lands are sold at higher rates, but as yet there is
+little demand for them. The emigrants from Continental Europe usually
+settle upon the agricultural lands, but large areas of the pampas are
+being taken up by English, Irish, and Scotch, some of whom purchase upon
+their own account, while others represent companies of considerable
+capital. The British will soon monopolize the pastoral industries of the
+La Plata countries, and Paraguay will be full of their cattle.</p>
+
+<p>An enumeration made of his subjects by Lopez in 1857 showed the
+population of Paraguay to be 1,337,439; at the close of the war in 1873,
+a census demonstrated that this number had been reduced to 221,079
+souls, of whom only 28,746 were men, 106,254 were women over fifteen
+years of age, and 86,079 were children, the enormous disproportion
+between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of population, telling
+the results of the war. In 1876 there were 293,844 inhabitants, showing
+an increase of 72,765 in three years; and in 1879 the total was
+increased to 318,018, two-thirds of the adults being women. It is said
+that there are but three citizens of the United States in Paraguay&mdash;one
+white man who keeps a drug store, and two negroes, both of whom are
+reported to be fugitives from justice.</p>
+
+<p>The Rio de la Plata, or the River Plate, as it is better known, is the
+widest stream in the world, and, with the exception of the Amazon,
+empties more water into the ocean than any other, draining a region of
+1,560,000 square miles. With its tributaries, it affords more miles of
+navigation than all the rivers of Europe combined, and more than the
+Mississippi and its branches. The tide from the Atlantic reaches up a
+distance of two hundred and fifty-eight miles, and there is a depth of
+water sufficient to carry vessels of twenty-four feet draught one
+thousand miles into the interior.</p>
+
+<p>Above the mouth of the Uruguay River, which forms the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_631" id="page_631"></a>{631}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b631_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b631_sml.jpg" width="319" height="402" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>WRECK OF THE OLD CATHEDRAL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">boundary line between the republic of that name and the Argentine
+Republic, the River Plate is known as the Parana, and is so called as
+far as its source, which lies not far from that of the Amazon in the
+interior of Brazil, and is fed through a thousand channels by the rains
+of the tropics and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_632" id="page_632"></a>{632}</span> the melting snows of the Cordilleras. The Parana
+flows for one thousand two hundred miles through a country&mdash;the interior
+of Brazil&mdash;that has never been explored, and is inhabited by a race of
+savages who have so far resisted all attempts to invade their domain. As
+far as the river has been explored it is deep enough for navigation,
+although at present the steamers only run to Cuyabá, a distance of 2500
+miles. At Corrientes the Paraguay River enters the Parana, and the two
+great streams form the western and eastern boundaries of the republic.
+At Asuncion the Paraguay divides again, the main stream flowing through
+the centre of the State, and the Pilcomayo continuing as its western
+boundary. The Paraguay River is navigable for 1200 miles, and the
+Pilcomayo for nearly as great a distance, almost to the mountains of
+Bolivia. The chief affluents of the Pilcomayo are the Pilaya and
+Paspaya; and the only city on its banks is Chuquisaca. With the removal
+of obstructions which offer no obstacles to engineering skill, it is
+said that the Pilcomayo might be put in such shape as to afford an easy
+and convenient outlet for the products of Bolivia to the Atlantic ports,
+and investigations are already in progress looking to that end.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever obtains control of these natural lines of communication, and
+supplements them by railways, will hold the key to the treasures of the
+heart of South America, whose value has furnished food for three
+centuries of fable. A section of country as large as that which lies
+between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains lies there
+practically unexplored. On its borders are rich agricultural lands, fine
+ranges, unmeasured resources of timber, the diamond-fields of Brazil,
+and the gold and silver mines of Bolivia and Peru. What exists in the
+unknown region is a matter of speculation, but the farther man has gone
+the greater has been his wonder. The tales of explorers who have
+attempted to penetrate it sound like a recital of the old romances of
+Golconda and El Dorado; but the swamps and the mountains, the rivers
+that cannot be forded, and the jungles which forbid its search, the
+absence of food, and the difficulty of carrying supplies, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_633" id="page_633"></a>{633}</span> the
+other obstacles which now prevent exploration, will be overcome
+eventually, and the secret which has tantalized the world for three
+centuries will be disclosed by scientists. Almost every year expeditions
+are sent into the wilderness by the Government of the Argentine
+Republic, and each one goes farther than the last, so that the prospect
+of a thorough exploration is encouraging.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b633_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b633_sml.jpg" width="316" height="230" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STATION ON THE ASUNCION RAILWAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The commerce of Paraguay is small, although rapidly increasing, and at
+present is absorbed in that of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic. There
+is one railroad in the country, which was built by Lopez II. for the
+transportation of troops, and runs a distance of forty-five miles, from
+Asuncion to Paraguay, an interior town of some importance. In 1877 the
+railroad was sold to an English corporation for a million dollars, but
+has not been well maintained. A street-car line connects the
+railway-station with the steamboat landing at Asuncion. There are two
+lines of steamers to Asuncion, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_634" id="page_634"></a>{634}</span> from Buenos Ayres and one from
+Montevideo. It is a journey of 1700 miles, and usually requires about
+fifteen days, as the stops along the route are numerous, and a great
+deal of time is taken up in loading and unloading. The steamers on this
+route are as good as any that ever floated upon the Mississippi River,
+and are fitted up in the most elegant style. They compete actively for
+passengers and furnish excellent meals and accommodations. One line
+sails under the French flag, and the other belongs to an Argentine
+company.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b634_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b634_sml.jpg" width="176" height="241" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A VISIT TO THE SPRING.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Government is making an honest and patient effort to educate and
+enlighten the people, and in comparison with its poverty and scanty
+revenues, is expending a large amount of money in maintaining a system
+of free schools; but until teachers are imported from abroad little
+progress will be made, as the native instructors are incompetent.</p>
+
+<p>The change from the tyranny of Lopez to the present liberal,
+enlightened, and progressive administration was as sudden and radical as
+a change from darkness to light. The people have accepted the blessings
+with a genuine appreciation of their value, and have devoted themselves
+assiduously to the restoration of their country, and are happy in the
+enjoyment of peace.</p>
+
+<p>The President of the republic is Dr. Caballaro, a man of education and
+broad intellect. He has travelled in Europe, and during the reign of
+Lopez II. was an exile, spending most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_635" id="page_635"></a>{635}</span> of his time in the Argentine
+Republic. He has a Cabinet of three ministers, and his Secretary of
+State was educated in the Methodist Mission at Buenos Ayres. The latter
+gentleman is a Protestant, understands English well, and is a man of the
+most progressive ideas. It is largely owing to his efforts that Paraguay
+is making such rapid progress; and as he is the ruling spirit of the
+Government, he will probably be the next President.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b635_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b635_sml.jpg" width="317" height="278" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p class="c">THE PARAGUAYANS AT HOME.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The people are quiet, submissive, and industrious, having a mixture of
+Spanish blood and that of the Guarani Indians, who were the aboriginal
+settlers of the country. Their kinsmen across the Paraguay River, in the
+Argentine Republic, were a nomadic, savage tribe; but the tyranny of
+Lopez,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_636" id="page_636"></a>{636}</span> father and son, took the spirit out of the Paraguay Indians, and
+they are now domesticated, and live in bamboo huts, cultivate the soil,
+and raise cattle. There is said to be less crime in Paraguay than in any
+other of the South American countries, and in 1883 there were but one
+hundred and twenty-five criminal trials in the entire republic,
+twenty-one of the defendants being foreigners. But for the tyranny of
+its rulers in past years Paraguay might have been an Arcadia, for the
+simple habits, the few wants, and the peaceable disposition of the
+people made them contented and well disposed towards each other. As
+nature has provided for all their wants, they have no great incentive to
+labor, and the enterprise and thrift of the country is generally found
+among the foreigners, from whom the people are, however, rapidly
+learning the ways of the world and the value of money. The men and women
+are of small stature, and the latter are usually very pretty when young,
+but lose their beauty of feature and figure after maternity. They are
+innocent, and childish in their amusements, are fond of dancing and
+singing, and have native dances that are as graceful, and native songs
+that are as melodious, as are the dances and music of the negroes of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 158px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b636_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b636_sml.jpg" width="158" height="239" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PARAGUAY FLOWER-GIRL.</p><p>PARAGUAY FLOWER-GIRL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Asuncion, the capital of the republic, is the oldest settlement in what
+is known as the valley of the River Plate. There were a considerable
+number of people there, and it was the seat of civil and religious
+authority, before the city of Buenos Ayres or the city of Rio de Janeiro
+was founded.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_637" id="page_637"></a>{637}</span> There was a time when Asuncion was the greatest city in
+that part of the world, being the seat of the viceroys of Spain and the
+centre of a great commercial business. But after the independence of the
+republic, and during the reign of the despots Francia and Lopez, father
+and son, who for sixty years exercised despotic sway over the country,
+all immigration was shut out, and the people of the country were not
+permitted to leave it lest they should learn ideas of civilization and
+liberty that would excite them to revolution. At that time Asuncion was
+a city of seventy-five thousand inhabitants, but during the war it was
+almost depopulated, and three-fourths of the buildings are now in ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b637_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b637_sml.jpg" width="316" height="244" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>REMAINS OF THE PALACE OF LOPEZ.</p><p>REMAINS OF THE PALACE OF LOPEZ.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all tropical countries nature soon repairs or conceals the traces of
+man’s wanton devastation. Fields corpse-strewn and blood-bathed,
+blackened with fire and trampled by the hoofs of cavalry horses, within
+six months’ time wave in the golden luxuriance of a harvest; and the
+villages of the peasants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_638" id="page_638"></a>{638}</span> built of bamboo and palm-leaves, are quite as
+soon restored. Paraguay’s rural territory shows no signs of the nine
+years’ war and devastation; but in Asuncion and other cities the case is
+different. Its spacious edifices, costly churches, and public buildings
+are in ruins. Some which still stand are disused and deserted, more are
+only partially occupied, and are in a state of half neglect, too large
+for the shrunken populace; others, sad monuments of the vanity of the
+Dictators, are shattered and shamefully defaced. Whole streets are lined
+by empty shells of what were once costly dwellings, with here and there
+open gaps that tell of the pillage and devastation that follow war.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous object in Asuncion is the immense palace of Lopez,
+which covered four acres, and was completed at an enormous cost of money
+and labor, wrung from an unwilling people shortly before the fall of the
+tyrant. It is now an empty, roofless shell, towering, like one of the
+ruined castles in Europe, over the river. With its long rows of
+dismantled windows and black, ragged holes, it is as ghastly as the
+eye-sockets in a decaying skull. Its shattered towers, shivering
+cornices, and broken parapets disclose the results of a three weeks’
+bombardment, and the destruction that followed its capture. The
+Brazilian plunderers carried off all that was portable; what they could
+not take away was burned, and what fire would not consume was defaced.
+The palace is said to have cost two million dollars, and was built
+exclusively by native workmen. The men are very skilful in the use of
+tools, and in the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments, and the
+women make a very fine lace which is called <i>nanduty</i>. The lace-making
+art was taught the women by the Spanish nuns. They do not use cotton
+thread, but the very fine fibres of a native tree, which are as soft and
+lustrous as silk. Some of their designs are very beautiful, and the
+fabric is indestructible. Lopez had his chamber walls hung with this
+lace, on a background of crimson satin, and the pattern was an imitation
+of the finest cobweb. It is said to have required the work of two
+hundred women for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_639" id="page_639"></a>{639}</span> several years to cover the walls, and that every one
+of those women was a discarded mistress of the despot. The lace is
+fastened to the wall by clamps of solid gold of the most unique
+workmanship. There are four hundred of these clamps, each worth from
+twelve to fifteen dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b639_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b639_sml.jpg" width="287" height="286" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>INTERIOR OF THE LOPEZ PALACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Near by the palace are the roofless walls of a spacious unfinished
+theatre, an example of Lopez’s extravagance. The cathedral, and the
+Church of the Incarnacion, where Francia sought, but did not find, a
+final resting-place, are heavy, ungraceful constructions of Spanish
+times. Nor have the Government buildings&mdash;many of which sheltered the
+terrible Dictator, for he continually shifted from one to another, for
+fear, it is said, of assassination&mdash;any pretension to beauty. Neither
+are the remains of the old Jesuit college, now converted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_640" id="page_640"></a>{640}</span> into a
+barrack, anyway remarkable. The streets, wide and regular, are ill paved
+and deep in sand, while the public squares are undecorated and bare. On
+the other hand, the dwelling-houses&mdash;at least such of them as are
+constructed on the old Spanish plan, so admirably adapted to the
+requirements of the climate&mdash;are solidly built and not devoid of beauty.
+They have cool courts, thick walls, deeply recessed doors and windows,
+projecting eaves, and heavy, protected roofs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b640_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b640_sml.jpg" width="312" height="262" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CATHEDRAL, ASUNCION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The furniture of the dwelling-houses is of native wood-work, solid, and
+tastefully carved. The pavement is generally of marble local or
+imported. The hard woods of the native forests are susceptible of high
+polish and delicate work, and the marbles, of various kinds and colors,
+are not inferior in beauty to any that Italy herself can boast of;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_641" id="page_641"></a>{641}</span> and
+these will, when Paraguay is herself once more, take a high place on the
+list of her productions and merchandise.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b641_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b641_sml.jpg" width="314" height="388" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MARKET-PLACE AT ASUNCION.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The majority of the houses are one-storied; but in some localities,
+where a mania for European imitation, encouraged by Lopez, prevailed,
+some uncomfortable and ill-seeming dwellings of two or three stories,
+flimsy, pretentious, and at variance alike with the climate and the
+habits of the people of Paraguay, have been erected.</p>
+
+<p>The most cheerful, and almost the only active part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_642" id="page_642"></a>{642}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b642_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b642_sml.jpg" width="188" height="273" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PARAGUAY HORSEMAN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Asuncion is the market-place, which is situated near the centre of the
+town. It is a large square block of open arcades and pillared roofs, to
+which the natives from the suburbs daily bring their produce, intermixed
+with other wares of cheap price and of every-day consumption, the
+vendors being almost exclusively women. Maize, watermelons, gourds,
+pumpkins, oranges, mandioca flour, sweet potatoes, half-baked bread,
+cakes, biscuits, and sweets&mdash;the chief articles of food&mdash;are here
+offered for sale, together with tobacco of dark color and strong flavor,
+and yerba, the dried and pulverized leaf of the Paraguayan tea.
+Alongside of these are displayed a medley of cheap articles, for use or
+ornament, mostly of European manufacture; and here may be found matches,
+combs, cigarette paper, pots and pans, water-jars, rope, knives,
+hatchets, small looking-glasses, handkerchiefs, ponchos, and native
+saddles much resembling Turkish ones, which are very comfortable for
+riding, and are loaded with coarse silver ornaments. But the chief
+interest of the scene is the study of the buyers and sellers themselves.
+The men, who mostly belong to the former class, are from the villages
+round about, and come mounted on small, rough-coated horses, which are
+unclipped of mane or tail. The rider’s dress consists of a pair of loose
+cotton drawers, coarsely embroidered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_643" id="page_643"></a>{643}</span> or fringed with lace, and over
+them and around the waist are many-folded loin-cloths, generally of
+white; or it may consist of a pair of loose, baggy trousers, much like
+those worn by the Turkish peasants, and girt by a leather belt of
+generous width. These, with a white shirt often loaded with lace, and
+over all a striped or flowered poncho, complete the dress. Boots are
+rarely worn, and the bare feet are sometimes equipped with immense
+silver-plated spurs. The features and build of the riders present every
+variety of type, from the light-complexioned, brown-haired, red-bearded,
+honest manliness of the ancestral Basque, to the copper-hued, straight
+black-haired, narrow dark eyed, beardless chinned, flattened nosed, and
+small wiry framed aboriginal Guarani.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b643_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b643_sml.jpg" width="182" height="203" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PARAGUAY BELLES.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The women are scantily, and in more civilized countries would be
+considered immodestly, clad, wearing nothing but a white tunic of native
+cotton, tied around the waist with a girdle of some gay color, often
+handsomely embroidered. These tunics are usually fringed at the top and
+bottom with native lace, and are always scrupulously clean. Cleanliness
+is the rule in Paraguay, and it extends to everything&mdash;dwellings,
+furniture, clothes, and person. Each house in the country has behind it
+a garden, small or large, as the case may be, in which flowers are
+sedulously cultivated. Flowers are a decoration that a Paraguayan girl
+or woman is rarely without. The women are pretty and often handsome.
+Dark eyes, long, wavy, dark hair, and a brunette complexion most
+prevail; but the blond<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_644" id="page_644"></a>{644}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b644_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b644_sml.jpg" width="317" height="363" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COSTUMES OF THE INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">type, with blue eyes and golden curls, indicative of Basque descent, is
+by no means rare. Their hands and feet are almost universally delicate
+and small, and their forms, at least till frequent maternity has
+sacrificed beauty to usefulness, are simply perfect. The people seem to
+be always good-natured, the women particularly, who laugh, chat, and
+joke among themselves and with their customers, and are courteous and
+generous. Unlike many of their South American neighbors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_645" id="page_645"></a>{645}</span> they are as
+honest as they are gentle. A brighter, kinder, truer, more affectionate,
+and more devotedly faithful person than the Paraguayan girl exists
+nowhere. The women are more regardful of their beauty than in other
+countries, and the Paraguayan girl is never without a bit of decoration,
+ear-rings, a necklace, a bunch of flowers, or something of that sort;
+but they all smoke, young and old.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b645_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b645_sml.jpg" width="311" height="172" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN INTERIOR TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the native ceremonies are peculiar and beautiful. When a couple
+are married, the bridal bed is always covered with flowers, and each
+neighbor contributes something towards giving them an outfit, even if it
+is nothing but a wooden spoon or a gourd cup. Their funerals are
+conducted after the ordinary formula of the Roman Catholic Church, but
+it is customary to hold a sort of wake over the dead, as in Ireland.
+Their market-days occur twice a week, and on Sunday there is the largest
+gathering and the greatest display, the people coming together after
+mass in the morning, and remaining about the plaza all day, enjoying a
+sort of festival which invariably closes in the evening with a dance.
+The dances are usually of the European kind&mdash;quadrilles, waltzes,
+polkas, mazourkas, and lanciers, interspersed with Paraguayan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_646" id="page_646"></a>{646}</span>
+figures&mdash;the <i>cielo</i>, the <i>media caña</i> (a great favorite, and very
+lively), the <i>Montenero</i>, and some variations which were inherited from
+the aboriginal races. Cigars, cigarettes, sweets, refreshments,
+drinks&mdash;among which last <i>caña</i>, the rum of the country, comes
+foremost&mdash;are freely distributed in the intervals of the dances, and the
+ball is kept up till morning light. The women, seated around the room,
+each waiting her turn to dance, while the men gossip in groups outside
+the door, are dressed in Paraguayan fashion, with the long white
+<i>tupoi</i>, or tunic, which is deeply embroidered around the borders, and
+is often fringed with the beautiful home-made lace of the country;
+sometimes with silk skirts or brightly colored petticoats, and a broad
+colored sash; some of them wearing slippers, others barefooted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b646_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b646_sml.jpg" width="318" height="282" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>HOME, SWEET HOME.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_647" id="page_647"></a>{647}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b647_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b647_sml.jpg" width="214" height="305" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE MANDIOCA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The country about Asuncion is the very perfection of quiet rural beauty.
+The scenery resembles the prettiest parts of New England, enhanced by
+the richness of the verdure of the palm-trees with which the whole
+country is studded. The cultivated land is divided into fenced fields,
+wherein grow maize, mandioca, and sugar-cane, and the cottages dotted
+about complete the pleasantness of the picture. There are roads in every
+direction&mdash;not kept in first-rate condition, but still good; the
+cross-roads, which are not so much worked, are beautiful green lanes of
+considerable width, and for the most part perfectly straight. In some
+places the country presents the appearance of a splendid park.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_648" id="page_648"></a>{648}</span></p>
+
+<p>The attractions of Paraguay are its agricultural and pastoral resources;
+and the timber-lands are said to be the finest in the world, the forests
+being situated in the northern part of the republic, and reaching an
+unmeasured distance into the heart of Brazil&mdash;as far as the Amazon River
+to the northward, and far into the mountain regions of Bolivia to the
+eastward.</p>
+
+<p>Between Paraguay and the Andes stretches a vast country known as “El
+Gran Chaco,” a region almost unexplored, and which offers fine grazing
+land and excellent pasture for cattle, besides the timber along the
+streams which water it profusely. Several enterprising colonists,
+English and German, have gone in there and opened sugar plantations,
+producing enormous crops; and the time will soon come when a large
+portion of the sugar supply of South America will be derived from this
+source. The land of Paraguay is said to be unusually good for sugar, but
+the chief products nowadays are mandioca, mate, and fruit. During the
+war with Uruguay, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic, nearly all the
+cattle were slaughtered; but new stock has been introduced, and very
+large droves are now being pastured upon the ranges. The fruits comprise
+nearly everything that is grown in the tropical or semi-tropical zones.
+The oranges are said to be the finest in the world, and the pineapples
+compare with those of Ecuador, which surpass anything raised upon the
+western coast of South America. There are other very rich and wholesome
+fruits, but the country is so far inland that they will never be
+exported.</p>
+
+<p>The mandioca is a root resembling the yam, from which is produced the
+tapioca of commerce. Life and death are blended in the plant, but every
+part of it is useful if properly treated, and is as essential to the
+domestic economy of Brazil and Paraguay as rice is to China, or as
+potatoes are to Ireland. It is served at every meal, from that taken
+from the dinner-pail of the laborer to the banquet of the grandees, just
+as bread is with us, and is made into as many forms of food as our
+flour. There are four species of mandioca, but they differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_649" id="page_649"></a>{649}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b649_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b649_sml.jpg" width="315" height="273" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>OX CART ON THE PAMPAS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">only as one kind of apple differs from another, all serving the same
+general purpose. The plant grows about four feet in height, and
+resembles the tomato in its foliage. The stalk and leaves are excellent
+fodder for cattle, and are often dried and used for their medicinal
+properties by the old women of Paraguay. When eaten raw the root is a
+deadly poison. Thirty-five drops of the juice were once administered as
+an experiment to a negro who was under sentence of death, causing speedy
+dissolution after five minutes of horrible convulsions. This poison is
+mysteriously removed or neutralized by the application of heat, and the
+root can be boiled or baked like a yam or sweet-potato. When cooked it
+is almost pure starch, and contains ninety-five per cent. of nutritious
+properties, being in fact as well as in fancy the staff of life of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_650" id="page_650"></a>{650}</span>
+people. The roots are boiled, and are then ground in rude mills,
+producing a powder about the color of buckwheat flour. Tapioca is a
+refined mandioca, and is produced by a modern process, the flour being
+reduced to a paste by boiling, and then allowed to crystallize. Very
+little tapioca is manufactured in the country, but the raw product is
+shipped to other parts of the world where the tapioca of commerce is
+manufactured.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b650_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b650_sml.jpg" width="315" height="258" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CURING YERBA MATE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A drink called <i>chicha</i> is also made of mandioca by soaking the flour in
+water and letting it ferment. It has a taste very much like malt or
+yeast, and one glassful of it will last a lifetime for an American,
+although the native will drink it by the quart without injury. It is a
+rapid intoxicant, but leaves no deleterious effect, and the man who goes
+upon a chicha spree will not wake up with a headache the next morning.
+The chicha of Peru is made of the juice of the sugar-cane, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_651" id="page_651"></a>{651}</span>
+chicha of Chili of the juice of the grape. All these drinks have a
+similar taste and a similar effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b651_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b651_sml.jpg" width="187" height="270" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A SIESTA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the Paraguayans use considerable chicha, they are not an
+intemperate people. This is largely due to their excessive fondness for
+their native tea, the yerba mate, which they prefer to any alcoholic
+drink, usually taking from ten to fifteen cups of it daily. It is a mild
+stimulant, but is not intoxicating. The yerba mate is drunk all over the
+southern half of South America, and is well adapted to the climate and
+the requirements of the people, having a cool effect in the warm
+weather, and a warm effect in the cold. The taste is very much like that
+of catnip tea, as it has a bitter herbal flavor that is disagreeable at
+first, but one comes to like it very soon. The South American would no
+more refuse a cup of yerba mate than a German would a glass of beer.
+Whenever he travels in foreign countries he always takes a supply along,
+for it cannot be obtained in the United States or in Europe. In the
+markets, by the road-side, in the gardens, and in the door-ways of their
+homes, as commonly as the Cuban with his cigarette or the Irishman with
+his dudeen, men and women can be seen at all hours of the day and night
+with a mate cup in their hands. Instead of having beer-gardens or
+wine-rooms, the people sit around the public places in Paraguay
+drinking<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_652" id="page_652"></a>{652}</span> mate; and it is one of the few cases in existence where a
+national habit of drinking improves the mental and physical condition of
+the people.</p>
+
+<p>Yerba mate grows wild in Paraguay in great copses, like hazel or
+cranberries, but its quality improves under cultivation. Its uses were
+originally discovered by the Jesuits, those inquisitive fellows who were
+always prying into the secrets of nature as well as the secrets of State
+and the souls of men. They were the best mining prospectors in South
+America, and were constantly exercising their botanical and chemical
+knowledge for the advantage of the people. The sappy twigs are picked
+from the bushes, and are hung on frames over a fire to dry. When they
+become crisp they are reduced to powder by being rubbed between the
+hands. This powder is packed for export in green hides, which shrink
+when exposed to the sun, and press the mate into a compact, solid mass.
+Everybody carries a mate-cup and a tube called a <i>bombilla</i>. The cups
+are usually ordinary gourds, but they are often made of cocoa-nut shells
+and the shells of other nuts, and are sometimes beautifully carved. The
+bombillas of the common people are bamboo stems with the pith punched
+out; but the wealthy people have them made of silver, and often of gold.
+The bamboo tubes are the most agreeable to use, as they do not conduct
+the heat so rapidly, and never scald the lips, as the silver ones do.
+The cups are half filled with powdered yerba mate, then boiling water is
+poured in. Delicate drinkers always throw away this water, and fill the
+cup again, as it is too bitter for their taste; but the habitual users
+of the weed consider the first water as the best, and keep pouring in
+water and sucking it through the tube until the strength of the powder
+is exhausted, when the refuse is thrown out and the cup is refilled.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>yerbales</i>, or mate fields, of Paraguay are said to cover three
+million acres in their present state, and to produce an annual crop of
+thirty thousand tons. During the reign of the tyrants Francia and Lopez
+the exportation of mate was monopolized by the Government, and every
+citizen was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_653" id="page_653"></a>{653}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b653_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b653_sml.jpg" width="317" height="356" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A PARAGUAY HOTEL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">compelled to pay as tribute-money a certain amount each year for the
+benefit of the despots, being driven to it by taskmasters, as were the
+children of Israel to the making of bricks in Egypt. But under the new
+regime the tea-forests have been leased to an Argentine firm, which pays
+a royalty of one dollar a ton to the Government. This concession was
+given when the Treasury was empty and the Government was greatly in need
+of money, so that what might have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_654" id="page_654"></a>{654}</span> a very productive source of
+income was sacrificed for a little cash in hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b654_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b654_sml.jpg" width="230" height="159" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>NATIVE PAPPOOSE AND CRADLE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The export goes to the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and Chili. Several
+attempts have been made to send it to Europe, but they were not
+successful. During early times the Queen of Spain prohibited the
+importation of yerba mate by her subjects, on the ground that it was
+productive of barrenness in women, but the rapidly increasing population
+of the River Plate countries, where it is used to the greatest extent,
+seems to prove the fallacy of her Majesty’s theory. In Uruguay, where
+the women are scarcely ever seen without a mate-cup in their hands, the
+vital statistics show a larger percentage of births than in any other
+country in the world; and there is something curious in the fact
+before-mentioned, that the number of males born in that country is so
+much greater than the number of females. No attempt has ever been made
+to introduce mate into this country, and the consumption of the article
+will probably always be confined to South America.</p>
+
+<p>Paraguay tobacco is used all over South America. It is rank, black, and
+full of nicotine, but it makes a very good cigarette, being about as
+strong as the blackest Turkish tobacco, or “perique.” Everybody in
+Paraguay smokes&mdash;men,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_655" id="page_655"></a>{655}</span> women, and children&mdash;and their cigarettes are
+made of the native tobacco and corn-husks. During the last few years
+several political refugees from Cuba have found a resting-place in
+Paraguay, and have experimented with native tobacco on the Cuban plan.
+These experiments have shown that, where properly cultivated and
+properly cured, this tobacco is as good as any raised in the West
+Indies; but the natives let it grow wild, and take no pains either in
+its cultivation or in the treatment of the leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b655_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b655_sml.jpg" width="319" height="287" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A HACIENDA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The timber of Paraguay is very fine, and includes almost every variety
+known to arboriculture, from the finest light woods that may replace
+those of China and Japan to the heavy and tough varieties that sink in
+water like iron, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_656" id="page_656"></a>{656}</span> are indestructible. For lack of energy and
+saw-mills, the forests, so far, are almost untouched. The dwellings and
+other buildings of the country are made of adobe, and the small quantity
+of dressed lumber used there comes from Canada or from the United
+States. Two American saw-mills have recently been introduced, and the
+water-power is sufficient to operate them at a small expense. The timber
+regions are full of streams, which can be utilized for floating logs and
+rafts, and nature seems to have provided every facility for the
+development of their extensive resources.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b656_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b656_sml.jpg" width="326" height="265" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PEOPLE OF “EL GRAN CHACO.”</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Along the western border of Paraguay lies an immense territory, in some
+parts reported to be arid and waste for want of water, but in others
+filled with a succession of rivers, and destined in time to be one of
+the most valuable portions of the Argentine Republic. It is called “El
+Gran<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_657" id="page_657"></a>{657}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b657_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b657_sml.jpg" width="181" height="124" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AN ARMADILLO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Chaco.” It extends from the Parana River to Bolivia, and is separated on
+the east from Paraguay by the river of the same name. It is divided by
+the river Vermijo into two almost equal parts, one called the “Chaco
+Austral” and the other “Chaco Boreal,” the latter extending to latitude
+20° south, and bounded on the north by the Bolivian province of
+Chiquitos. The “Chaco Boreal” is an uninterrupted plain, elevated about
+four thousand feet above the level of the sea, and divided into the most
+beautiful forests, with intervening meadows, as if made purposely for
+the raising of cattle. The Austral or Southern Chaco lies between the
+Vermijo on the north, the Parana on the east, and the province of Santa
+Fé on the south. It is completely level, and is richly endowed by
+nature, not only with a deep soil, but with most magnificent forests. As
+yet these vast regions are almost exclusively occupied by wild Indians.
+A large portion has never been explored, and hence but little is yet
+known of the interior, or of its treasures of vegetable wealth. Only
+where it skirts along the Parana and Paraguay rivers, with here and
+there a small clearing and settlement, the nucleus of a number of
+agricultural colonies, has anything been scientifically determined in
+reference to its timber resources. The region possesses an immense
+advantage in great water-courses flowing along its eastern borders, and
+the smaller streams which penetrate its interior, and are navigable for
+many hundreds of miles. Thus all its vast wealth of precious woods and
+valuable timber is rendered accessible not only to Buenos Ayres, but as
+ocean ships can load along its banks, it is also accessible to the
+markets of the world, without the necessity of transshipment. The
+wood-choppers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_658" id="page_658"></a>{658}</span> are at work, and the quantities of all kinds of precious
+woods shipped down the rivers are becoming greater and greater every
+year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b658_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b658_sml.jpg" width="325" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A RANCH ON EL GRAN CHACO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of horned cattle in Paraguay is now estimated at six hundred
+thousand, and there is said to be pasturage for several million within
+the limits of the republic, and an unlimited area in El Gran Chaco
+beyond the timber regions on a plain similar to New Mexico, rising in
+great terraces or steppes to the foot-hills of the Andes. The elevation
+of this area above the sea is from four to eight thousand feet, and
+although it borders upon the tropics, it is said to be an excellent
+range, and the ranchmen of the Argentine Republic are contemplating it
+with covetous eyes. No industry pays so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_659" id="page_659"></a>{659}</span> well in Paraguay as
+cattle-raising. The severe frosts and droughts which at times annoy the
+ranchmen of the Argentine Republic are unknown there; the streams are
+numerous and perennial, the cattle fatten quicker, attain greater
+weight, and afford a better quality of beef, owing to the nutritious
+grass and abundance of water. Young cattle, as before stated, may be
+bought in the Argentine Republic and transported by river steamer to
+Paraguay for twelve or thirteen dollars per head, and land can be
+purchased at about twenty cents an acre from the Government.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_660" id="page_660"></a>{660}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="RIO_DE_JANEIRO" id="RIO_DE_JANEIRO"></a>RIO DE JANEIRO.<br /><br />
+<span class="capt">THE CAPITAL OF BRAZIL.</span></h2>
+
+<p>T<small>HE</small> name of the capital of Brazil means “River of January,” and in the
+native tongue is pronounced <i>Reeo-day-Hay-nay-ray-oh</i>. When the ancient
+mariners who discovered the Brazilian coast passed through the narrow
+gate-way to the harbor, and saw the beautiful bay in the amphitheatre of
+mountains surrounded by eternal verdure, they supposed they were
+entering the mouth of a river that would lead them to the Enchanted
+Land; and when they found out their mistake they despised the place so
+much that they did not even have the good-nature to christen it after a
+saint, but marked it on their charts simply the river discovered in
+January.</p>
+
+<p>The bay around which the city lies is famous for its beauty, and rivals
+that of Naples or the Golden Horn. The panorama is ever changing with
+the shifting clouds, and in this country everything is intense. Nowhere
+is the contrast between sunshine and shadow so strong, and the outlines
+of the clouds lie distinctly upon the landscape where their shadows
+fall, changing the tint of the foliage and flowers. The mountains, which
+furnish a noble background for the picture, are so steep, so rugged, and
+so high as to exaggerate the peace of the water, and furnish another
+striking contrast in their dark and frowning lines to the white
+buildings of the city and its countless towers. These mountains seem to
+enclose the town and the bay like a wall, and leave no passage in or out
+except at the entrance to the harbor, which is scarcely wide enough for
+two vessels to pass. Along their base lies the city, like a lazy white
+monster, sleeping under the shade of imperial palms in a garden of
+never-failing colors and eternal loveliness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_661" id="page_661"></a>{661}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b661_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b661_sml.jpg" width="321" height="261" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>BAY OF RIO DE JANEIRO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Viewed from the deck of a ship in the harbor, the city of Rio looks like
+a fragment of fairy-land&mdash;a cluster of alabaster castles decorated with
+vines; but the illusion is instantly dispelled upon landing, for the
+streets are narrow, damp, dirty, reeking with repulsive odors, and
+filled with vermin-covered beggars and wolfish-looking dogs. The whole
+town seems to be in a continual perspiration, and the atmosphere is so
+enervating that the stranger feels an almost irresistible tendency to
+lie down. There is now and then a lovely little spot where Nature has
+displayed her beauties unhindered, and the environs of the city are
+filled with the luxury of tropical vegetation; but there are only a few
+fine residences, a few pleasant promenades, and a few clusters of regal
+palms, which look down upon the filth and squalor of the town with
+dainty indifference. The palm is the peacock of trees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_662" id="page_662"></a>{662}</span> Nothing can
+degrade it, and the filth in which it often grows only serves to
+heighten its beauty. Behind some of the residences of the better classes
+are gardens in which grow flowers that baffle the painter’s skill, and
+foliage that is the ideal of luxuriance and gracefulness. They are
+little glimpses of green and gold in a desert of misery and dirt. A few
+years ago there was not even a sewer in Rio, and all the garbage and
+offal of the city was carried through the streets on the heads of men,
+and dumped into the sea. Now there are drains under the principal
+streets, but they seem to be of little use, as the main thoroughfares
+are abominable, and one wonders what the less pretentious ones may be.
+The pavements are of the roughest cobble-stone, the streets are so
+narrow that scarcely a breath of air can enter them, and the sunshine
+cannot reach the pools of filth that steam and fester in the gutters,
+breeding plagues.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b662_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b662_sml.jpg" width="321" height="250" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A STREET IN RIO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The city is in the shape of a narrow crescent, lying between the
+mountains and the bay, nowhere more than half a mile wide, and
+stretching for a distance of nine or ten miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_663" id="page_663"></a>{663}</span> It can never be any
+wider, but grows at either end. The chief residence street lies along
+the edge of the water, but the business houses are crowded into the
+lower portion of the town, damp, gloomy, and dismal, the streets being
+so narrow that carriages are forbidden to enter them during the busy
+hours of the day. A fire that would burn out the older portion of the
+city would be a blessing, and might redeem Rio from some of its filth
+and ugliness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b663_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b663_sml.jpg" width="322" height="349" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE CITY OF RIO FROM THE BAY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The public buildings are quite as ugly and unpretentious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_664" id="page_664"></a>{664}</span> as the
+commercial houses. The city palace of the Emperor fronts the
+market-place, in which donkeys and carts are unloaded daily, and where
+the fish-boats land. It is impregnated by the stench of decaying
+vegetation, and has an ancient and fish-like smell. The structure looks
+more like a warehouse than the shelter of imperial power, and Dom Pedro
+will not live in it. He has two beautiful palaces in the country, in
+which he resides, and only comes to the city palace on occasions of
+public importance. The only presentable Government buildings are the
+post-office and printing-house, and many of the private residences are
+superior in every respect to anything the Government owns. The building
+in which Congress sits is a gloomy old pile, without a single redeeming
+feature, and a great empire like Brazil ought to be ashamed to house its
+Parliament in such a place.</p>
+
+<p>The Rue Dineta is the Wall Street of Rio de Janeiro, and during the
+morning hours, while the Coffee Exchange is open, presents quite an
+animated appearance. Brokers and commission men, merchants, planters,
+agents of transportation lines, speculators, men of all ages and
+nationalities, assemble there to trade and gamble; and one can hear a
+dozen different languages in half as many groups. Most of the
+speculation is done in coffee, and in the buying and selling of exchange
+on London.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing in Rio strikes an American as more singular than the
+nomenclature of the streets. Many of them, such as the “Seventh of
+September” and the “First of March,” are named after days on which
+something (no one seems to know exactly what) has taken place. There is
+one thoroughfare called the “Street of Good Jesus,” and the names of the
+saints are freely used. It seems a trifle queer to be directed to “No.
+20 First of March Street,” or for a man to live at the corner of “St.
+John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist Streets,” but the
+Brazilians do not mind it.</p>
+
+<p>The principal street in Rio is the celebrated Rua do Ouvidor. It is a
+narrow little alley-way, in which two carriages could not pass each
+other. In fact I never saw a carriage in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_665" id="page_665"></a>{665}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b665_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b665_sml.jpg" width="314" height="281" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>AQUEDUCT AT RIO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the street, and doubt if a driver would be bold enough to venture there.
+Here are the shops of the principal merchants, and the gorgeous stores
+of the artificers of feather flowers, and the dealers in gold and silver
+and precious stones. The street, from one end to the other, is filled at
+night with people, not on the narrow sidewalks only, but completely
+filling the thoroughfare from wall to wall. Officers of the army and
+navy, and soldiers and sailors, all in uniform, mingle with the crowd,
+and flash their gold lace in the bright light that floods the street.
+Everywhere, too, are the elaborate mulatto gendarmes, the police of the
+city. From the <i>cafés chantants</i> come the sounds of music and the
+clinking of glasses. At little tables in the cafés the Brazilians sit,
+drinking strong coffee or other beverages, talking, gesticulating, and
+never for a moment completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_666" id="page_666"></a>{666}</span> at rest. Catching a weasel asleep is easy
+compared with that of catching a Brazilian when some portion of his body
+is not in motion. This is owing to the amount of strong black coffee
+they drink. A Brazilian proverb says that coffee, to be good, must be
+“black as night, as bitter as death, and hot as sheol.”</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b666_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b666_sml.jpg" width="182" height="377" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE AVENUE OF ROYAL PALMS&mdash;RIO.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The total abstinence cause has few if any supporters in Brazil.
+Everybody drinks&mdash;men, women, and children. The police records show that
+men do get drunk here, but they are very seldom seen. The laboring
+classes drink a vile beverage called <i>casasch</i>, which is made of the
+juice of the sugar-cane in the regular distillery fashion. But moderate
+as the Brazilians are in the use of liquors, they are decidedly
+immoderate in the use of coffee. It is coffee the first thing in the
+morning and the last thing at night, coffee at meals and coffee between
+meals, and all of it made according to the proverb.</p>
+
+<p>Rio is a succession of disappointments. The only really pretty place is
+the Botanical Garden, which serves to illustrate what the whole city
+might be with the exercise of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_667" id="page_667"></a>{667}</span> little taste and the expenditure of a
+trifling sum of money. Here are colonnades of palms which surpass
+anything on the globe, and which are worth a journey to Brazil to see.
+Here are all the plants and trees that the country produces, and no land
+is so rich in vegetation as Brazil. Flowers of the most gorgeous hues,
+orchids that are wonders of color, and a representation of the virgin
+forests of the Amazon, a tangled mass of wild, luxuriant vegetation,
+full of birds of the most brilliant plumage, bugs that look like
+animated gems, and flowers of scarlet, purple, and yellow, that make the
+forest appear as if it were ablaze. Every color is intense.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b667_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b667_sml.jpg" width="293" height="372" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE PRETTIEST THINGS IN BRAZIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are no delicate tints and no gentle hues. The flowers have no
+perfume, and the birds no songs. The whole country seems to be painted
+yellow and red.</p>
+
+<p>Strangers always visit the fish-market, where all sorts of shiny
+creatures are to be found, most of them peculiar to the waters of
+Brazil. The whole business is conducted by auction, and the fish are
+sold by the basket to the highest-bidder men, who have retail places
+throughout the city, or who peddle them in the streets.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_668" id="page_668"></a>{668}</span> All varieties
+of food are peddled about the town, and the venders attract attention by
+clapping pieces of wood together and uttering peculiar cries. There are
+drinking-booths along the street at which all sorts of beverages can be
+obtained, from goats’ milk to brandy, and casasch is sold by the
+bucketful. There are plenty of street-car lines, and all the population
+ride. The cars are always crowded, and everybody reads a morning paper
+as he goes down-town, and an evening paper on his way home.</p>
+
+<p>Foreigners are generally puzzled to know why the horse-cars in Rio are
+called “bonds.” It happened in this way: When the first horse railroad
+was built in Rio bonds were issued to pay for it. There was a great talk
+about these bonds, and the uneducated were at a loss to know what the
+English word meant. When they saw the first car they thought they had
+found a solution of the question, and all exclaimed, “There is one of
+those much-talked-of bonds.” So all over Brazil a horse-car is a “bond”
+to this day.</p>
+
+<p>It is noticed that every ox-cart in Brazil creaks with the most
+soul-reaching sounds. I asked a cartman why he did not grease its
+wheels. He replied that the creaking stimulated the animals, and they
+would not work without it.</p>
+
+<p>Humming-birds are plenty as flies about Rio, and the natives call them
+<i>be aflores</i> (kiss flowers). At night the air is full of myriads of
+fire-flies that look like a shower of stars. To one who makes a tour of
+South America before going to Brazil, it seems as if all of the homely
+women on the continent had emigrated there, for pretty ones are
+extremely scarce. Their complexions are sallow, and they all have a
+bilious look. Another oddity is that the women are invariably fat and
+the men are invariably lean. Their complexions are ruined by the
+climate, and the lives of indolence they lead give them a tendency to
+obesity, which is augmented by the excessive use of sweetmeats. The
+women are munching confectionery from morning till night, and scarcely
+eat anything else, and their time is divided between dozing in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_669" id="page_669"></a>{669}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b669_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b669_sml.jpg" width="323" height="427" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BRAZILIAN HACIENDA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">rocking-chair or peeking through the blinds to see the people on the
+streets. One can ride about Rio all day without seeing a Brazilian lady,
+and the only glimpse a man ever gets of them is during the evenings at
+the cafés or at the playhouses, unless<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_670" id="page_670"></a>{670}</span> he gets out early in the morning
+and sees them on the way to mass.</p>
+
+<p>At six o’clock every morning the streets are full of women on their way
+to church, at seven o’clock they are on their way to their homes, and at
+half-past seven there is not one to be seen. In the evening, when the
+gas is lighted, they pour from the houses into the streets, the parks,
+the ice-cream booths, and the theatres. There they appear in their Paris
+finery, overloaded with jewellery, munching candy, nibbling ices, and
+gossiping.</p>
+
+<p>Next to her complexion, the ugliest thing about a Brazilian woman is her
+voice. It sounds as if the parrots had taught her to speak, and when you
+hear it behind the blinds, as one often does, it is always a matter of
+doubt whether “Polly” or her mistress is talking. But the Brazilians do
+not call their parrots Polly, as we do. The common name is “Loreta.”</p>
+
+<p>A Brazilian woman never goes shopping. Servants are sent for samples;
+and if it is a bonnet the señorita wants to buy, a box or basket
+containing all the latest Parisian styles is sent up for her inspection.
+Most of the purchasing is done in this way, and a woman is seldom seen
+in a shop. But in all of these remarks the negroes are excepted. The
+streets swarm day and night with gorgeously dressed Dinahs, wearing
+turbans that would shame a passion-flower for color, and usually yellow
+or red gowns. They chatter like magpies, and seldom seem to be going
+anywhere or to have any object in life beyond gossiping with the friends
+they meet.</p>
+
+<p>More attention is now paid to female education in Brazil than formerly.
+At one time it was only necessary for a señorita to know how to read her
+prayer-book and to embroider, but of late seminaries for females have
+been established, and the nuns compelled to enlarge the curriculum of
+convent study. The Brazilian woman is now beginning to receive the
+respect that modern civilization demands for her, and is no longer kept
+as a plaything for man. She is intelligent, learns readily, and has
+considerable wit, but never reads anything except the fashion papers and
+translations of French<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_671" id="page_671"></a>{671}</span> novels. A bookseller told me that the demand for
+the last named was increasing largely, and that where he sold only one
+ten years ago he sells a hundred nowadays. Education in music and the
+lighter arts is also becoming popular, as the increased sales in music
+and painting and drawing materials show. The Brazilian woman has always
+been famous for her embroidery, and her house is full of the most
+beautiful work, the doing of which she has learned from the nuns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b671_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b671_sml.jpg" width="316" height="237" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE OLD CITY PALACE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Rio social restrictions are being removed, the two sexes are allowed
+to mingle with greater freedom than formerly, and society is beginning
+to assume a new phase. Occasionally grand balls are given, and within
+the last few years the natives have acquired the habit of occasionally
+visiting one another’s houses socially with their wives&mdash;something that
+was unknown a few years ago. The etiquette of modern society was
+reversed in Brazil not many years ago. If a man bowed to a female
+acquaintance, or addressed her, except in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_672" id="page_672"></a>{672}</span> the presence of her husband,
+father, or brother, it was considered an insult, to be punished with a
+blow, but now it is considered entirely proper for ladies and gentlemen
+to converse together. There remains, however, the old system of formal
+calling or exchanging visits. Ladies never go out alone to call on their
+friends, and no gentleman will be received at a house when the husband
+or father is absent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b672_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b672_sml.jpg" width="284" height="192" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>IN THE SUBURBS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The theatres of Rio are numerous and well attended, but are neither
+handsome nor well arranged. There are French, Spanish, and Portuguese
+performances, and during the winter season an Italian opera two or three
+times a week, which is liberally patronized by the upper classes. The
+performances at the opera as well as at the theatres are considered only
+an adjunct to social conversation, however, and because of the talking
+going on around him during the play, one can scarcely hear what is said
+by the performers. Connected with every theatre is a garden and café,
+and between the acts the people repair to these places. Ice-cream and
+all sorts of beverages are served, and confectionery of course. They
+have recently built the great Theatre Dom Pedro Segundo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_673" id="page_673"></a>{673}</span> larger than La
+Scala or San Carlo, and said to have a seating capacity of eleven
+thousand. In building this theatre the matter of size has rather been
+overdone, for a large portion of the audience is unable to hear the
+opera. The Emperor has two boxes in the opera-house&mdash;one a small private
+box, and one a great and gorgeous box of state. When the venerable
+gentleman is out spending the evening somewhere, and wishes to visit the
+opera quietly for a moment, he goes into his private box, and sits there
+without causing unusual attention; but when he goes in state he occupies
+the large box. Then he dashes up to the theatre with his guards,
+equerries, and gentlemen-in-waiting. As he enters the box the orchestra
+strikes up the stirring imperial hymn, the people rise, and shout, “Viva
+Dom Pedro Segundo!” the Emperor bows, smiles, takes his seat, and the
+opera proceeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b673_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b673_sml.jpg" width="326" height="246" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>COTTAGES IN THE INTERIOR.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hotels in Brazil are very bad. There are two or three<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_674" id="page_674"></a>{674}</span> small ones,
+which furnish tolerably good rooms and good living, but they are usually
+crowded, and a stranger coming to the city finds it difficult to procure
+rooms. The city might support a very fine hotel, such as is found in
+Montevideo and Santiago, but at present there is nothing to compare with
+the accommodations found in those cities. Rio is about as badly off for
+hotels as any city in the world. The meats and fish served are usually
+of a poor quality, but the fruits are excellent. There is no such fruit
+to be found anywhere, either for variety or for deliciousness of flavor,
+and the wines are usually good. Good wine can always be procured
+throughout Spanish America. If a Spaniard were limited to a crumb of
+bread and a drop of water per day, he would always expect a bottle of
+wine to go with it. The strawberries and grapes of Brazil are unusually
+fine, and are grown the whole year round. The peaches are also very
+good; but the principal fruits are bananas, oranges, pineapples,
+chirimoyas, sapotes, and some other things that we do not find in
+temperate climates.</p>
+
+<p>So far it has been found impossible to raise good cattle in Brazil,
+although the province of Rio Grande de Sul, being the most southerly,
+has a cooler temperature, and ranchmen have been utilizing the ranches
+to be found in the interior on the border of Uruguay. Cattle-breeding is
+chiefly in the hands of the natives, and the horses come over the
+Uruguay border. The stock cattle sell for from five to six dollars a
+head, while fat cattle are worth about twelve dollars. The larger amount
+of the beef and mutton supply of Rio de Janeiro comes by steamer from
+the Argentine Republic.</p>
+
+<p>The native dishes are peculiar, and are not palatable to those who do
+not care for an unlimited amount of garlic. In fact, a stranger going
+into the interior cannot find anything to eat but boiled eggs, for these
+are the only articles the native Brazilian cook cannot spoil. Grease and
+garlic do not penetrate the shells; but even eggs are unreliable, for
+the natives seem to have no idea of any difference in them, and use them
+in all conditions of age, and often in the transition stage of being.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_675" id="page_675"></a>{675}</span></p>
+
+<p>Among the important articles used for the table is jerked beef. Immense
+quantities of it are imported from the Argentine Republic and Uruguay,
+and it is shipped here by the ton. It is said that thirty thousand tons
+of it are annually imported into Brazil, and it furnishes the staple
+food for the slaves on the plantations and the common people in the
+cities. Jerked beef and beans are always to be found on the table, and
+both mixed in a stew with plenty of garlic compose the omnipresent
+national dish. <i>Bacalao</i>, or codfish, is considered a great delicacy,
+and about seventy-five thousand tubs are annually imported from Nova
+Scotia and the United States. The people in Brazil are so fond of it
+that they will use it at any time in preference to the fresh fish of
+their own waters; but the Yankee would not recognize either the codfish
+or the beans in this country, mixed up as they usually are in an <i>olla
+podrida</i> of yam, cabbage, and garlic.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b675_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b675_sml.jpg" width="204" height="157" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE IGUANA.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foreign commerce of Brazil is in the hands of the English, and the
+retail commerce in the hands of the French and German. In fact, nearly
+nine-tenths of the commercial community of Rio de Janeiro is composed of
+foreigners. There are very few Americans there, however, and that is one
+reason why our trade with that country is so small. The native
+Portuguese are usually the land-owners, the planters, and professional
+men; and there is a very large body of officials, composed to a great
+extent of the decayed aristocracy.</p>
+
+<p>At all the public gatherings in Rio these people appear<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_676" id="page_676"></a>{676}</span> in uniforms or
+court dresses, decorated with stars and crosses so numerously and
+inappropriately bestowed as to border on the ridiculous. Many boys,
+apparently not more than fourteen or fifteen years of age, can be seen
+at these gatherings, wearing tawdry silk and velvet dresses, and stars
+which have been obtained by inheritance or by purchase. There used to be
+a custom under which patents of nobility, with stars and crosses, and
+“the insignia of the order of Christ,” which was the highest decoration,
+could be obtained by purchase, and the rage for these decorations
+attained a greater height in Brazil probably than in any other country.
+At one time almost every petty shopkeeper in the empire might be seen on
+the streets on holidays with a “habito de Christo” on his breast. These
+purchased honors were worn by the dignitaries of the Church as well as
+by civilians of all degrees, and being handed down from the generation
+that lived when such</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b676_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b676_sml.jpg" width="314" height="245" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A BRAZILIAN LAUNDRY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_677" id="page_677"></a>{677}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">things could be procured by purchase, still exist in great numbers among
+the people of the country. In the present generation the decorations of
+the empire are given to those only who have performed some service for
+the State, and cannot be secured by purchase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b677_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b677_sml.jpg" width="283" height="228" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>A COUNTRY SCHOOL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The prevailing costume of the people in the country is just as it was a
+hundred years ago. They wear broad-brimmed hats with low crowns, tied
+with a ribbon under the chin; velveteen jackets, and waistcoats of gay
+colors, with metal buttons; linen or cotton drawers; high black gaiters
+buttoning up to the knee, and a sort of mantle similar to that used in
+Portugal, generally lined with red, thrown negligently over the
+shoulders; but on the sea-coast people dress in the European style. In
+Rio there is a great deal of rivalry in toilets among the ladies. As in
+other cities of South America, the gentlemen usually dress in broadcloth
+suits, patent-leather boots, and black silk hats, or in white duck or
+linen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_678" id="page_678"></a>{678}</span></p>
+
+<p>The school system is very meagre, but is improving. There are in the
+empire 2000 public schools for a population of 12,000,000 people, and
+the State expends annually $8,000,000 for public instruction. During the
+last few years, at nearly every session of Parliament, the Government
+introduced a compulsory education bill; but the bill has never become a
+law. The upper classes have an inclination for education; but nothing is
+ever done by the Government towards educating the slaves. The little
+learning which they acquire is received from the priests.</p>
+
+<p>There are several institutions for higher education, several schools of
+medicine, of law, civil engineering, and mining; a normal school for the
+education of teachers, a conservatory of music, a school of fine arts,
+an institute for the blind, and another for the deaf and dumb, several
+reformatory schools, and an Imperial Industrial School founded by Dom
+Pedro upon the plan of the Cooper Institute of New York, the suggestion
+for it having been derived from his visit to that place while in the
+United States. There is also a bureau of colonization and immigration in
+the Department of Agriculture, and as an inducement to settlers, the
+Government offers them free subsistence and shelter at the
+boarding-house in Rio de Janeiro during the time that it is necessary
+for them to wait, as well as free transportation for themselves and
+baggage from Rio to any part of the country. They can purchase land on
+credit, the first payment to be made at the end of the second year, and
+four payments during the succeeding four years, and for cash they
+receive a discount of twenty per cent. For the first season the
+Agricultural Department gives them a donation of necessary implements
+and seeds, and an allowance of twenty-five cents a day for each adult,
+and ten cents for each child, during the first six months after
+settlement, until the land they occupy can be made to produce. The cost
+of the land is now from eight to sixteen dollars an acre. There are
+under the care of the Department of Agriculture twelve colonies,
+comprising a population of sixty-two thousand people, mostly German. The
+number of immigrants arriving<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_679" id="page_679"></a>{679}</span> in the country amounts to from forty to
+fifty thousand a year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b679_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b679_sml.jpg" width="302" height="344" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>BRAZILIAN COUNTRY-HOUSE.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The immense area of Brazil, stretching as it does from 4° 30´ north to
+33° south latitude, and from the thirty-fifth to the seventy-third
+degree of west longitude, affords almost as great a variety of climate
+and soil as can be found in the United States, and the two countries are
+of very nearly the same area. A glance at the map will show the
+extensive fluvial system of Brazil. The many large rivers that traverse<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_680" id="page_680"></a>{680}</span>
+the interior in all directions are navigable, and afford unequalled
+facilities for commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Independent of the agricultural resources which the climate, situation,
+and productiveness of the soil afford, the mineral treasures which
+nature has stored in the interior are very abundant. Gold, together with
+diamonds and various other precious stones, is found in many localities,
+and the resources of the interior of the country, which has never been
+explored, are only a subject of speculation. The population now consists
+of about twelve million people; and it has not increased any during the
+last twenty-five years. Of this population there are about two million
+slaves and five hundred thousand Indians; but neither the moral
+character, social habits, nor intellectual attainments of this class
+afford material of value wherewith to build up an enlightened and
+progressive government. The natives are neither enterprising, thrifty,
+nor industrious. The system of slavery has taught them idleness, and the
+fact that they have gained their living without work has taught them
+habits of extravagance. There are a few men of wealth among them who
+have earned by their own efforts the money which they have, but nearly
+all have either inherited it or secured it as the result of slave labor.
+Brazil will never be a great or prosperous country until its population
+is increased by immigration.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable progress has been made, and great interest taken, in
+railroad development. There are now about 2500 miles in operation, 800
+of which are owned and operated by the Government, and 1700 by private
+corporations. In addition to this, about 1400 miles are under
+construction, and there are many prospective enterprises. The Government
+guarantees an annual income of seven per cent. upon the construction
+bonds of all railroads, and has so far paid this guarantee promptly.
+Recently a loan of thirty-four million dollars has been made in London
+for the construction of additional railways, and this is also secured by
+the Government. The rails are all imported from England, but a part of
+the rolling stock is brought from the United States. The roads are
+surveyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_681" id="page_681"></a>{681}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b681_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b681_sml.jpg" width="284" height="350" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>UP THE RIVER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and built by Brazilian engineers, but the principal machinists and
+locomotive drivers are Scotchmen. The principal railroad in Brazil is
+the one named in honor of the present Emperor, Dom Pedro II., and it is
+familiarly known as the “Pedro Segundo” road. This line runs from Rio
+Janeiro to the most important towns, and through a country which
+produces coffee, corn, and cattle. There are now about 500 miles of
+track in operation. It is a favorite route for tourists, and affords a
+view of the finest mountain scenery in the empire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_682" id="page_682"></a>{682}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b682_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b682_sml.jpg" width="286" height="367" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DOM PEDRO II.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The prevailing opinion among the practical men of Brazil is that Dom
+Pedro II. is a lovable old humbug. Everybody regards the Emperor with a
+feeling of reverence, and his character and motives are universally
+respected; but he leaves the cares of State entirely to the direction of
+his ministers and his half-brother, the Baron de Capanema, who has more
+influence with the Cabinet than the Emperor himself. The old man is
+wrapped up in philanthropic movements, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_683" id="page_683"></a>{683}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b683_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b683_sml.jpg" width="317" height="422" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ON THE WAY TO PETROPOLIS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">constantly engaged in doing something for the amelioration of his
+fellow-men; but he is so easily imposed upon, and his ideas are so
+impracticable, that not only are his efforts wasted, but a large amount
+of money with which a great deal of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_684" id="page_684"></a>{684}</span> good might be accomplished is
+expended upon chimerical projects; and the only result is the
+gratification that the Emperor enjoys in performing what he considers to
+be a duty. He is credulous, ingenuous, and trustful, and no matter what
+the reputation of the men who come to him with schemes is, he never
+fails to be interested in anything that will tend to the improvement or
+welfare of his people. He devotes almost his entire time to entertaining
+impostors and developing schemes that are suggested to him by the people
+who take advantage of his philanthropic disposition to accomplish their
+own ends.</p>
+
+<p>A little beyond the city of Petropolis is the imperial hacienda, which
+is known as Santa Cruz. Here Dom Pedro II. used to live, but his
+first-born and only son died in the palace, and since that time, which
+was many years ago, neither he nor the Empress has ever entered its
+walls. Some twenty years ago he devoted this hacienda, as he does almost
+everything else, to philanthropy, and attempted a grand philanthropic
+experiment which has demonstrated nothing but the Emperor’s own lack of
+ability as a manager.</p>
+
+<p>The Princess of Brazil has three children, two sons and a daughter; and
+besides these the Emperor has three other grandchildren, orphans of a
+deceased daughter, who live with their grandparents and are a great
+source of comfort to the Emperor, who is very fond of children.</p>
+
+<p>The Empress is a woman of rare traits, being noted for her womanliness,
+her charity, and her lovely character; and those who became acquainted
+with her while she was in the United States will remember her with the
+greatest affection. There is nowhere in the world a couple more devoted
+to each other, or with a kindlier disposition towards their
+fellow-creatures, or having a more earnest desire to accomplish
+something for the good of mankind, than Dom Pedro and the Empress. She
+is much more practical in her charity than he, and it is said that she
+frequently chides the Emperor for being so easily humbugged. The Empress
+is a fine-looking old lady, with white hair and a kindly face. She has
+not the force<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_685" id="page_685"></a>{685}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b685_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b685_sml.jpg" width="277" height="386" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE EMPRESS OF BRAZIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">and energy of her daughter, but is of a more retiring disposition, and
+prefers to interest herself in the affairs of the household rather than
+in matters of State. Every week or so the Emperor gives a reception,
+which is attended by all the nobility and by such strangers of
+sufficient dignity to receive royal attention as happen to be in the
+country. The Emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_686" id="page_686"></a>{686}</span> is particularly fond of Americans, and he
+considers the United States the model country of the world. He has
+introduced into Brazil a great many ideas that he received during his
+visit to this country, and has organized an Agricultural Department and
+a Geological Survey, and several other branches of the Government, in
+imitation of what he found in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor had a great friend in Dr. Gunning, who left a high place in
+the medical college in Edinburgh about twenty years ago, and came to
+Brazil for his health. He had an ample fortune, and determined to devote
+his time and money to the abolition of slavery. With this object in view
+he bought thirty-five or forty slaves and a tract of land. The negroes
+for miles around him were earning large wages for their owners, but the
+doctor had a theory that they would pay for themselves, and buy their
+own emancipation, if they had an opportunity. So he commenced a system
+of bookkeeping, charging each slave with his original cost and the
+expense of his maintenance, and crediting him with the amount of labor
+he performed. When the accounts balanced, the slave was to be set free.
+But they never balanced.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Gunning impressed the Emperor with the great benefits of this
+system, and succeeded in inducing him to adopt it on his plantation. But
+the negroes are not fools. They understand very well that they are
+better off with such masters as Dr. Gunning and the Emperor than they
+would be in the condition of freedom, and they work so unprofitably, and
+make the expenses of their maintenance so great, that they never yet
+made enough in any one year to pay for their keeping.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor spends most of his time at Petropolis, and the only thing
+that can induce him to visit the city of Rio is a debate in Congress on
+the slavery question. It is nearly four centuries since Brazil was
+discovered, and it has always been governed by the same family. This
+part of the continent was given to the Portuguese by the Pope. When they
+began to quarrel with the Spaniards over the possession of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_687" id="page_687"></a>{687}</span> the
+discoveries in America, the Pope drew a line along the sixty-fifth
+parallel of longitude and decided that the Portuguese should have all
+that part of the world lying east, and the Spaniards all that part lying
+west of it. Therefore Brazil became a viceroyalty of Portugal, and
+remained so until 1807, when the two countries changed relations, Brazil
+becoming the seat of government and Portugal becoming a colony. Portugal
+temporized with Napoleon, and when he made a raid upon that nation the
+royal family of Briganza took a step which astonished all Europe. In
+order to save the nation from the bloodshed and devastation that
+followed Napoleon’s avarice, Dom Joao fled from Lisbon to Rio, and left
+Napoleon in peaceable possession of Portugal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b687_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b687_sml.jpg" width="324" height="283" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DOM PEDRO’S PALACE AT PETROPOLIS.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_688" id="page_688"></a>{688}</span></p>
+
+<p>For many years Joao preferred to remain in Rio de Janeiro, and govern
+his subjects with delegated power. Finally, Napoleon having vanished
+from the face of Europe, the Emperor returned to Lisbon, leaving his
+son, Dom Pedro I., upon the throne of Brazil; but the people were ill
+satisfied with this, and a bloodless revolution soon after occurred, in
+which Dom Pedro I. was compelled to abdicate, and in 1831 he fled to
+Portugal, leaving his son, Dom Pedro II., then a boy of fifteen, as
+Emperor, who governed through a regency until he became of age. His
+authority has been recognized in Brazil ever since, and he is loved by
+the people as few monarchs have ever been.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor’s power is limited, and is infinitely less than that of any
+of the Presidents of the South American republics. He has the right to
+veto acts of the national legislature, but it requires only a majority
+vote to override it, so that it practically amounts to nothing. The
+senators are elected for life, are endowed with titles, and their duties
+are similar to those of the peers of Great Britain. The Emperor receives
+from the State an income of four hundred thousand dollars per annum, but
+he is a poor economist, and spends it all, the greater part in mistaken
+charity.</p>
+
+<p>There is a small party called Republican, which proposes to unseat the
+Emperor, do away with all the titles and all insignia of royalty and
+nobility, and to take, as the rest of the South Americans have done,
+“the great republic of the north” for its example. In theory they are
+for upsetting the throne and tumbling the Emperor off, but they
+recognize his goodness and benevolence, and have the wisdom to see that
+they are a great deal better off under the administration of such a man
+than under a President who would be an autocrat. When the Emperor dies
+Brazil will become a republic. The Liberal party believe in republican
+principles; and the ideas of civil and religious liberty have so
+permeated the people, from the nobles to the slaves, that it will be
+impossible to continue the empire under the daughter of Dom Pedro when
+she comes to inherit the throne.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_689" id="page_689"></a>{689}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Emperor had but one son, and his only living child is the Princess
+Isabella, wife of the Count D’Eu, a grandson of Louis Philippe, a cousin
+of the Count of Paris, and a Prince of the House of Orleans. This French
+husband of the Brazilian princess is said to be an uncommonly good
+fellow, and a man of considerable ability. He holds the rank of
+major-general in the army, and is an aide-de-camp, or grand marshall,
+under the Emperor. The princess and her husband live in the city of Rio
+de Janeiro in a very ordinary way, the palace they occupy and their
+style of living being a great deal inferior to that of many merchants
+and foreign residents of the country. They have a plantation near
+Petropolis, and spend the unhealthy seasons of the year at that place.</p>
+
+<p>The princess is now about thirty-five or forty years of age, and takes a
+great deal more interest in the affairs of State than her distinguished
+father. She is far from being good-looking, and is rather masculine in
+disposition. She has intelligence and firmness, and is often compared to
+Queen Elizabeth. During the absence of the Emperor in the United States
+and Europe in 1876 and 1877, she assumed his authority, and upset
+matters so generally that she brought on a revolution that would have
+overturned the empire entirely had it not been suppressed in time.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with this outbreak she showed an ability and determination
+that gave her a great reputation among political leaders; but the
+condition of Brazil is changing so rapidly that by the time the princess
+comes to the throne by the death of her father, the Liberal element will
+be so large and powerful that they will prevent her from assuming
+authority. If her character and disposition were other than they are she
+might be tolerated on the throne; but their experience with her during
+her father’s absence has taught the people that she is not such a ruler
+as they want, and the contrast between her rigorous rule and the
+political indifference of the Emperor is so great as to aggravate the
+dislike of the people for her. In addition to this, the princess is a
+great Church-woman, and attends mass every morning in her house, spends<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_690" id="page_690"></a>{690}</span>
+a great deal of time in religious devotion, supports a large retinue of
+priests and friars, who are said to be the only people who have any
+influence with her, and does a great deal to strengthen the Catholic
+Church in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor does not seem to know of the unpopularity of his daughter.
+He does not seem to be aware that she possesses traits and a disposition
+in striking contrast with his own. With that generous charity with which
+he regards all human beings, he believes that she is as liberal-minded
+and as philanthropic as himself, and his dreams are never disturbed by
+any thought of what may occur after his death.</p>
+
+<p>As everywhere else in South America, the Liberal element in Brazil has
+been making an active war against the Roman Catholic Church, and as long
+ago as 1870 a law was passed abolishing monastic institutions in the
+empire; but that legislation was more liberal than that passed and
+carried out in other South American countries, for it gave the religious
+orders ten years in which to dispose of their property and close up
+their affairs. This period expired in 1880, and very little has been
+done by the monks and nuns towards complying with the law. In 1881 an
+attempt was made to forcibly close their institutions, but an appeal was
+made to the courts, and it was only recently that a decision was
+rendered sustaining the constitutionality of the act of Congress and
+imposing a tax upon all real estate owned by the religious orders, and
+proceedings were commenced to confiscate and sell their property for the
+non-payment of taxes.</p>
+
+<p>The religious orders refused to recognize the right of the civil power
+to dispose of their property. They claim that the Pope alone has
+authority over it; and their writers fill the papers with thrilling
+accounts of what terrible visitations have fallen upon all those who
+have taken the property of the Church, or in any way acquired real
+estate which once belonged to it, in other lands.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, however, that the general public takes very little
+interest in the dispute. There is no affection or respect felt for the
+monastic orders, which are in a condition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_691" id="page_691"></a>{691}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 217px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b691_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b691_sml.jpg" width="217" height="340" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE COLORED SAINT.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">decay, and their approaching extinction by the death of the few monks
+and nuns remaining is viewed with indifference; but the clergy take a
+different view of the case. They expect to inherit the revenues derived
+from the Church property, and they do not want to see it pass into the
+hands of private parties. Until ten or twelve years ago the political
+leaders encouraged the superstitious observances of the Church in order
+to secure the loyalty of the priesthood, but the growth of Liberal
+sentiment has been so great that the Church has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_692" id="page_692"></a>{692}</span> robbed of the
+terror it formerly inspired and of the influence which it possessed, and
+there has been much encouragement given to Protestants who have come
+into the country and engaged in missionary work.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great holidays in Brazil is the feast of St. George, the
+patron of the empire. Each city and province has a sort of deputy
+patron, whose worship is duly celebrated on a particular day. Saint
+Sebastian has charge of the city of Rio de Janeiro, and in his honor a
+celebration is held once a year; but when the annual feast of St. George
+returns, every town and village from the northern to the southern
+boundary of the country has the grandest procession and demonstration of
+the season. This is not the same St. George who is supposed to have
+formerly had England under his protection, but an entirely different
+individual. Formerly this saint held the rank of colonel in the army,
+and was entitled to a yearly pay of thirty-five thousand dollars, which
+the priests drew for him and pretended to invest in jewels and dresses.
+A few years ago he used to be taken through the streets on horseback on
+his anniversary day, surrounded by a bodyguard&mdash;a regiment composed of
+the greatest swells of Rio de Janeiro, who acknowledged him as their
+commander, and were known as the “Imperial Order of St. George.” An old
+resident told me about an instance that occurred some years ago, when
+the attendant who had charge of the image buckled Colonel St. George’s
+sword on so carelessly that it dropped from his belt and wounded a
+priest. The aide-de-camp and the saint were both tried for the offence,
+and both found guilty. The officer was punished with imprisonment, and
+the saint fined a large portion of his salary.</p>
+
+<p>The anniversary of Corpus Christi is always celebrated with great pomp
+in Rio, and with a procession which marches through the principal
+streets. At its head is usually carried an effigy of the Saviour,
+preceded by bands of singing priests and bearers of incense, and covered
+with a canopy carried by the Emperor and the Count D’Eu, his son-in-law,
+and the principal ministers of state. The participation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_693" id="page_693"></a>{693}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b693_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b693_sml.jpg" width="319" height="531" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>STATUE OF DOM PEDRO I.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_694" id="page_694"></a>{694}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_695" id="page_695"></a>{695}</span></p>
+
+<p>Emperor in this ceremony has existed from time immemorial, and is
+supposed to illustrate the obedience of the civil to the ecclesiastical
+power; but Dom Pedro hates the nonsense, and last year he declined to
+participate.</p>
+
+<p>The money used in Brazil is liable to give a stranger the nightmare.
+Imagine yourself presented with a bill for thirty thousand reis after
+eating a dinner and drinking a bottle of wine at a café. One is apt to
+indulge in some expressions of astonishment, even if he is too honest to
+attempt an escape by the back door. But composure is restored when it is
+discovered that a “reis” is worth only the twentieth part of a cent, and
+at the present discount of Brazilian money such a bill amounts only to
+about seven dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The book-keepers of Brazil have a hard time of it, however, as the reis
+is the standard value, and the long lines of figures which represent the
+commercial transactions of the ordinary mercantile or banking house each
+day are a severe tax upon the mathematical accuracy and ability of the
+people. For example, $1,000,000 equals about 4,000,000,000 reis, and the
+paper currency of Brazil represents 488,000,000,000 reis. The commercial
+statistics of Brazil look very formidable; but the people simplify
+matters somewhat by using the term millreis, which means a thousand
+reis.</p>
+
+<p>The currency of the country consists of irredeemable paper shinplasters,
+the smallest denomination being five hundred reis, which is equal to
+about thirteen cents in gold. Nickel and copper coins are used for
+change below that sum, the reis being a very minute disk of copper.
+There is no gold or silver in circulation; and as the balance of trade
+has been largely against Brazil of recent years, there is not coin
+enough in the country to pay the interest on the public debt, and the
+bondholders are given bills on London.</p>
+
+<p>There is no wharfage at any of the Brazilian ports; vessels are
+compelled to anchor out in the harbors, which are usually good, and be
+loaded and unloaded by means of lighters. Passengers are carried to and
+fro in <i>bongoes</i>, managed by a noisy and naked boatman, who inspires
+alarm in the breast<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_696" id="page_696"></a>{696}</span> of the nervous passenger, who imagines this gang of
+savage-looking maniacs are cannibals howling for his blood. The wardrobe
+of a bongo usually consists of a dilapidated straw hat and a pair of
+cotton drawers amputated at the thighs. These drawers are a degree
+farther from decency than the bathing-trunks small boys wear at the
+sea-side. The bongoes are shrewd fellows, and make bargains easily, but
+are hard to settle with when the work is done. They agree to take you
+and your trunk ashore for a dollar, but when you reach the custom-house
+they demand twice as much, with an additional dollar for Pippo, who
+helped carry the trunk down the gangway. People who remain on the vessel
+amuse themselves by throwing small coins into the water for the boatmen
+to dive after. If you toss a silver quarter overboard, a dozen or more
+will plunge after it, and one of them will have it in his mouth before
+it reaches the bottom.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b696_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b696_sml.jpg" width="313" height="254" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CARRYING COFFEE TO THE STEAMER.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_697" id="page_697"></a>{697}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b697_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b697_sml.jpg" width="270" height="236" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MARKET-PLACE IN COUNTRY TOWN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most noticeable thing that strikes one when he lands at one of the
+Brazilian ports is the extraordinary economy observed in the matter of
+wearing apparel. The children in the streets up to eight or ten years
+are usually entirely naked, playing in groups around the door-ways, and
+in the corners sheltered from the sun. Nearly every woman you meet has a
+big basket of something or other on her head, or a naked baby in her
+arms; the number of babies to be seen at the windows or in the streets
+is astonishing. The yellow-fever and other epidemics carry off a large
+percentage of the population every summer, but the increase from natural
+causes more than keeps pace with the mortality. When the girls get to be
+eight or ten years of age they put on a white cotton tunic, which hangs
+loosely from the shoulders, and the women wear a plain white chemise,
+with the arms and shoulders bare. The boys and men have cotton trousers
+or drawers, and, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_698" id="page_698"></a>{698}</span> they are prosperous, add a speckled shirt to their
+wardrobe, which hangs loosely over the pantaloons, and flaps in the
+breeze with cheerful <i>négligé</i>. A society for the encouragement of
+modesty among the men, women, and children of Brazil would find a
+fruitful field for missionary work. They act and live like animals; but
+the younger women show some sense of shame, and gather their scanty
+drapery around them as the stranger passes. Among their own kind they
+are as regardless of the proprieties of civilization as the mangy dogs
+which stretch out in the sun at their feet. The priests, under whose
+control they yield an absolute submission, and whose authority here is
+even greater than in Rome, are said to teach no lessons of chastity or
+modesty, but to practise a licentiousness which makes one shudder when
+he hears common anecdotes told.</p>
+
+<p>The sun always rises and sets very suddenly in the tropics. There is no
+“rosy blush of morn to herald the coming of a newborn day,” and so on,
+nor is there a gorgeous glow in the west when the twilight comes; but
+old Sol gets up in the morning and goes to bed at night without any
+ceremony, and with a startling suddenness. You awaken at the noise of
+carts in the street, find it dark as midnight, with the stars more
+brilliant than you ever saw them at home, turn over, doze a little, and
+in a few moments jump up, supposing it to be noonday. The sun jumps into
+the air out of the darkness and drops below the horizon as if he had
+been shot. There are only two periods in the twenty-four hours&mdash;midnight
+and high noon. There is gas in most of the large towns, but it is seldom
+used in any except the finest modern residences. Candles or kerosene
+lamps throw light upon domestic circles, but there are always plenty of
+gas-lamps in the streets, and they light them in an odd way. One fellow
+goes ahead with a long stick and turns on the gas; another follows him
+with a torch and gives it light. Sometimes the latter stops to gossip on
+the corner, and the consequence is a strong odor of gas all over the
+town.</p>
+
+<p>On every block is a policeman or watchman, whose business<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_699" id="page_699"></a>{699}</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b699_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b699_sml.jpg" width="324" height="501" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>“SERENO-O-O-O-O-O! SERENO-O-O-O-O-O!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_700" id="page_700"></a>{700}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_701" id="page_701"></a>{701}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">is to sing out at certain intervals to inform the inhabitants what
+o’clock it is, and that all is well. Like the fakirs in the streets
+during the day, they have a most melancholy tone in their voices, and to
+the stranger their announcements sound like the cry of a lost
+soul&mdash;“Sereno-o-o-o-o-o; Sereno-o-o-o-o-o; Las diez y media y
+Sereno-o-o-o-o-o!”</p>
+
+<p>The text-books on oratory that were used in old times gave the statement
+that Demosthenes could make an audience weep or laugh at will by simply
+uttering “Mesopotamia,” but he could not have put more pathos, more
+lingering agony, than the tropical policemen in these simple
+words&mdash;“All’s serene; all’s serene! It is a day and a half-midnight, and
+all’s serene!”</p>
+
+<p>The stranger never fails to hear these announcements, for two very good
+reasons; first, because his bed is as hard as the racks upon which the
+Roman tyrants used to torture early Christians; and, second, it is
+always occupied by a colony of the most vigorous pests that ever drank
+human blood. At the hotels all the servants are men. They do the work of
+chamber-maids, cooks, porters, and dining-room waiters, wash the dishes,
+and everything but washing and ironing.</p>
+
+<p>The Brazilian rises early in the morning, to do the greater part of his
+work in the cool of the day. He drinks a cup of strong coffee, eats a
+roll, and perhaps an egg, and then goes to his store or office, from
+which he returns at twelve to his breakfast&mdash;the most elaborate meal of
+the day. It begins with soup and ends with cheese, dulces, and coffee,
+like the dinner of the temperate zone. He has a fish, a chop or steak,
+an omelette, and a salad, but no vegetables. Then he lies down for a
+nap, after which, about four o’clock, he returns to business, and
+remains often as late as eight or nine o’clock. His dinner is a
+repetition of his breakfast, except that he has vegetables and a roast
+or fowl. He takes a walk in the plaza with his family after dinner and
+retires early, if he does not go to the club or gaming-table. The people
+are inveterate gamblers. There is no more disgrace attached to
+attendance upon the faro-table or the roulette-board than attends<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_702" id="page_702"></a>{702}</span> stock
+gambling in New York. He calls upon the Holy Mother when he tosses his
+chips upon the cards, and says an “Ave Maria” when he wins a stake. At
+every religious festival the cathedrals and churches are surrounded by
+gambling-booths, and the priests always go to the cock-fights after high
+mass on Sunday. Some of them breed game chickens, and carry them to the
+pit under their priestly robes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b702_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b702_sml.jpg" width="313" height="207" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SLAVE QUARTERS IN THE COUNTRY.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The great problem for Brazil to solve in the future is that of labor.
+With the gradual emancipation of the slave the labor system of the
+country is becoming disorganized and demoralized. It has been
+demonstrated beyond a doubt, even in the minds of the most radical
+abolitionists, that the emancipated negroes are neither disposed nor
+competent to take care of themselves. They are different in this respect
+from the freedmen of the United States because their ignorance is much
+greater. Their dependence is much more absolute, and they never received
+the kind treatment and instruction that was enjoyed by so many of the
+slaves in the United States. From one end of Brazil to the other there
+is scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_703" id="page_703"></a>{703}</span> a negro slave, or one who has ever been enslaved, that can
+read and write. Their ignorance is so dense that they scarcely know
+anything of the work outside of the cabin in which they live; and the
+policy of the slave-holders, aided by the priests, has been to keep them
+in this condition as far as possible. As long as they have attended
+mass, and said so many prayers a day, the priests have been satisfied
+with their condition, and their owners and masters have never thought of
+anything but to get as much work out of them as was consistent with
+their strength.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b703_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b703_sml.jpg" width="170" height="227" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>THE POLITICAL ISSUE IN BRAZIL.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The political issue in Brazil to-day, as has been the case for many
+years, is the abolition of slavery. Ten years ago the two political
+parties were as wide apart on this question as the Abolitionists and
+Democrats were in the United States in 1860; but the emancipation policy
+has been rapidly growing in favor, the necessity and justness of the
+movement have become almost universally recognized, and the two
+political parties differ only upon the measures by which the result
+shall be accomplished. There are very few people in Brazil to-day who,
+when asked the direct question, will advocate the perpetuation of human
+slavery; but those who have property in slaves naturally resist any
+movement that will deprive them of its value without some compensation.</p>
+
+<p>A law was passed in 1881 which declared free all negroes and their
+children who should be imported into the empire<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_704" id="page_704"></a>{704}</span> after that date; but it
+was never executed, and in spite of it the slave-trade increased,
+reaching prior to 1851 enormous proportions. Fifty thousand negro slaves
+were imported in a single year when the trade was at its height. The
+effective intervention of the British Government in 1851 broke up the
+foreign trade, and from that time the friends of the slave in Brazil
+were able to make some headway against their opponents.</p>
+
+<p>The first legislation enforced towards the abolition of slavery was
+enacted in 1871, in what was known as the “Free Birth Law,” which was
+framed by the Emperor himself, and adopted by Congress largely through
+his own personal efforts. This laid the axe at the root of the tree, and
+provided that human bondage in Brazil should end with the present
+generation. Every child born since the passage of the act is free, but
+the owner of its mother is required to educate and support it until
+twenty-one years old, being entitled to the results of its labor during
+the same time. The law also provided that slaves should be credited with
+their labor, and all service performed over and above a given maximum
+should be considered as a surplus and credited against the value of the
+slave, in order that those who had energy and ambition might in this
+manner earn or purchase their own freedom; and by a further provision
+all slaves reaching the age of sixty-five were free, but could look to
+their old masters for support in case they were in a condition of
+disability.</p>
+
+<p>This law, however well intended, proved impracticable, and could not be
+generally enforced. Forgeries were committed upon the records of birth,
+both by the slaves and their masters. The latter refused, or fixed so
+high a valuation that very few were able to earn their freedom; they
+neglected to educate the children as required by law, so that even if a
+young man gained his freedom he was not fitted to enjoy it or exercise
+the right of citizenship. The old men and women were turned off the
+plantations to beg or find refuge in the public almshouses; and the
+planters, feeling no longer any interest in the health and welfare of
+their slaves, neglected their sanitary condition and ill-treated them.
+The result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_705" id="page_705"></a>{705}</span> the law was to demoralize the laboring element. It proved
+a disaster to the slaves as well as to their masters, and disturbed the
+political condition of the country.</p>
+
+<p>There is no slave-market in Rio Janeiro, nor has there been one for
+several years, all the transactions in human flesh being conducted
+privately; but there are agents who buy and sell on commission, like the
+real estate or cattle dealers of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/illus-b705_lg.jpg">
+<br />
+<img class="enlargeimage"
+src="images/enlarge-image.jpg"
+alt=""
+width="18"
+height="14" />
+<br />
+<img src="images/illus-b705_sml.jpg" width="317" height="226" alt="" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MILITARY MEN.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a small number of negroes in Brazil from Minas, a territory on
+the west coast of Africa, who differ from all other blacks. They are of
+immense frame, capable of great endurance, display a remarkable degree
+of intelligence, are very clannish, speaking a language among themselves
+unintelligible to others, and practising religious rites similar to
+those of Mohammedanism, from which they have never been allured by the
+tempting ceremonies of the Catholic Church.</p>
+
+<p>As slaves the Minas natives are valued at more than double the price of
+ordinary negroes, and as freedmen they are useful,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_706" id="page_706"></a>{706}</span> industrious, and
+excellent citizens, and will work of their own accord. No other blacks
+exercise the regular Yankee thrift in saving their earnings and in
+economizing their resources. They are ingenious as well as intelligent,
+and make first-class mechanics as well as laborers. These Minas have
+frequently purchased their freedom and returned to Africa, but those
+that go invariably come back to Brazil. Several instances are reported
+in which they have chartered vessels for this purpose, and have even
+brought over friends and kinsmen of their own across the Atlantic to
+settle in Brazil. The wisest thinkers of the country advocate the
+organization of immigration companies for the purpose of bringing
+cargoes of these people from Africa, not as slaves, but as freemen, to
+supply the demand for labor in the country. They are much preferable to
+the Chinese or the coolies as laborers, and are particularly adapted to
+the Brazilian climate.</p>
+
+<p>There are a great many Germans going into the country, forming colonies
+in the interior, opening up sugar plantations, planting coffee,
+gathering rubber, and engaging in all sorts of agricultural employment;
+but the climate is so enervating that after an experience of two years
+the German colonist will be found by his Portuguese predecessor sitting
+in the shade of the fig-tree and hiring a negro to do his work.
+Everywhere in hot climates the people become enervated, and Brazil will
+scarcely form an exception to other countries in the same latitude. In
+the more southern provinces and on the higher levels white colonists may
+succeed if there is nothing but climatic differences to oppose them.
+There has been a small number of immigrants from the United States to
+the southern provinces of Brazil; and after the war a great many
+Confederates flooded in there for the purpose of establishing
+plantations and raising sugar and coffee, but their success has not been
+great. Most of the colonies have broken up, and the members have been
+scattered over different parts of the country. Some engage in one
+undertaking, some in another, but many have succumbed to the influences
+of the climate and died of fever.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_707" id="page_707"></a>{707}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#Q">Q</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>,
+<a href="#Y">Y</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+<span class="letra"><a name="A" id="A"></a>A.</span><br />
+
+Aconcagua Mountain, Chili, <a href="#page_509">509</a>.<br />
+
+Agua Volcano, Guatemala, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.<br />
+
+Alpaca, the, <a href="#page_427">427</a>.<br />
+
+Alvarado, Conqueror of Guatemala, <a href="#page_064">64</a>.<br />
+
+Alvarado, George, founder of the city of San Salvador, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br />
+
+Andes, bridges in the, <a href="#page_441">441</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explorations in the, <a href="#page_438">438</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">over the, <a href="#page_506">506</a>, <a href="#page_510">510</a>, <a href="#page_513">513</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scenery in the, <a href="#page_409">409</a>.</span><br />
+
+Antigua, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.<br />
+
+Arequipa, <a href="#page_420">420</a>.<br />
+
+Argentine Republic, agricultural area of, <a href="#page_584">584</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Americans in, <a href="#page_562">562</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">beef exports of, <a href="#page_586">586</a>, <a href="#page_587">587</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholic Church in, <a href="#page_558">558</a>, <a href="#page_568">568</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle in, <a href="#page_579">579</a>, <a href="#page_582">582</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle ranges in, <a href="#page_534">534</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_552">552</a>, <a href="#page_583">583</a>, <a href="#page_586">586</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decay of Romanism in, <a href="#page_558">558</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of, <a href="#page_543">543</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">educational system of, <a href="#page_557">557</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England’s trade with, <a href="#page_553">553</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreigners in, <a href="#page_581">581</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France’s trade with, <a href="#page_552">552</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">geographies incorrect concerning, <a href="#page_551">551</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of, <a href="#page_550">550</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horsemen of, <a href="#page_556">556</a>, <a href="#page_570">570</a>, <a href="#page_574">574</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horses in, <a href="#page_589">589</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration to, <a href="#page_581">581</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian population of, <a href="#page_582">582</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">land leasing in, <a href="#page_534">534</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">libel laws of, <a href="#page_555">555</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">map of, <a href="#page_580">580</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pamperos in, <a href="#page_544">544</a>, <a href="#page_548">548</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar customs of, <a href="#page_544">544</a>, <a href="#page_547">547</a>, <a href="#page_548">548</a>, <a href="#page_555">555</a>, <a href="#page_556">556</a>, <a href="#page_559">559</a>, <a href="#page_560">560</a>, <a href="#page_565">565</a>, <a href="#page_569">569-571</a>, <a href="#page_576">576</a>, <a href="#page_578">578</a>, <a href="#page_590">590</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant work in, <a href="#page_558">558</a>, <a href="#page_568">568</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad system of, <a href="#page_581">581</a>, <a href="#page_582">582</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ranches in, <a href="#page_579">579</a>, <a href="#page_582">582</a>, <a href="#page_588">588</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resources of, <a href="#page_553">553</a>, <a href="#page_579">579</a>, <a href="#page_583">583</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roca, President of, <a href="#page_568">568</a>, <a href="#page_569">569</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rosas, the tyrant, President of, <a href="#page_549">549</a>, <a href="#page_572">572</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sarmiento, ex-President of, <a href="#page_557">557</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social conditions in, <a href="#page_565">565</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamers to Paraguay from, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamship facilities of, <a href="#page_551">551</a>, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suffrage in, <a href="#page_581">581</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States’ trade with, <a href="#page_553">553</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universities of, <a href="#page_556">556</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wheat product of, <a href="#page_554">554</a>, <a href="#page_583">583</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women physicians of, <a href="#page_561">561</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool product of the, <a href="#page_585">585</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yankee school-teachers in, <a href="#page_557">557</a>.</span><br />
+
+Arica, battle of, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.<br />
+
+Aristocracy, Mexican, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.<br />
+
+Army, Costa Rican, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.<br />
+
+Asuncion, architecture in, <a href="#page_640">640</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market-place of, <a href="#page_642">642</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">palace of Lopez in, <a href="#page_638">638</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruins in, <a href="#page_637">637</a>.</span><br />
+
+Aztecs, religion of, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="B" id="B"></a>B.</span><br />
+
+Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page_547">547</a>.<br />
+
+Balmaceda, President of Chili, <a href="#page_495">495</a>.<br />
+
+Bananas, shipment of from Costa Rica, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br />
+
+Banda Occidental, <a href="#page_592">592</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental, <i>ibid.</i></span><br />
+
+Banner, Pizarro’s, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br />
+
+Barillas, President of Guatemala, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.<br />
+
+Barranquilla, port of, <a href="#page_231">231</a>.<br />
+
+Barrios, appeals for approval to foreign nations, <a href="#page_107">107</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes President of Guatemala, <a href="#page_081">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>coup-d’état</i> of, <a href="#page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and will, his, <a href="#page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal character of, <a href="#page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive policy of, <a href="#page_082">82</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant work in Guatemala, his, <a href="#page_086">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tragedy at theatre through banner bearing name of, <a href="#page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits the United States, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+
+Barrios, Mrs., residence in New York, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.<br />
+
+Blanco, Guzman, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">statues of, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_708" id="page_708"></a>{708}</span></span><br />
+
+Bogota, altitude of, <a href="#page_244">244</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journalism in, <a href="#page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey to, <a href="#page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">merchants of, <a href="#page_250">250</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">miraculous image of, <a href="#page_254">254</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policemen in, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">society in, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.</span><br />
+
+Bogran, President of Honduras, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.<br />
+
+Bolivar, Simon, Venezuela, <a href="#page_266">266</a>.<br />
+
+Bolivia, mineral wealth of, <a href="#page_445">445</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad to, <a href="#page_419">419</a>, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.</span><br />
+
+Boulevard, Mexican, <a href="#page_039">39</a>.<br />
+
+Boulton, Bliss &amp; Dallett, steamers of to Venezuela, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br />
+
+Brazil, commerce of, <a href="#page_675">675</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_664">664</a>, <a href="#page_668">668</a>, <a href="#page_670">670</a>, <a href="#page_672">672</a>, <a href="#page_674">674</a>, <a href="#page_676">676</a>, <a href="#page_692">692</a>, <a href="#page_696">696</a>, <a href="#page_701">701</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of, <a href="#page_687">687</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation in, <a href="#page_704">704</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empress of, <a href="#page_684">684</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ex-Confederates in, <a href="#page_706">706</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fight against the Catholic Church in, <a href="#page_690">690</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German immigration to, <a href="#page_706">706</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habits of the people of, <a href="#page_701">701</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#page_687">687</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">holidays in, <a href="#page_692">692</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels of, <a href="#page_673">673</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">humming-birds of, <a href="#page_668">668</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperial family of, <a href="#page_689">689</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intemperance in, <a href="#page_666">666</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella, Princess of, <a href="#page_689">689</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">natives of Minas in, <a href="#page_705">705</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negroes in, <i>ibid.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nobility of, <a href="#page_676">676</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policemen of, <a href="#page_698">698</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politics in, <a href="#page_688">688</a>, <a href="#page_703">703</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad system of, <a href="#page_680">680</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">school system of, <a href="#page_678">678</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery problem in, <a href="#page_702">702</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sunrise in, <a href="#page_698">698</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sunset in, <i>ibid.</i></span><br />
+
+Buenos Ayres, American dentists in, <a href="#page_560">560</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banks of, <a href="#page_554">554</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathedral of, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial disadvantages of, <a href="#page_549">549</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enterprise in, <a href="#page_549">549</a>, <a href="#page_559">559</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hale, Samuel B., merchant of, <a href="#page_562">562</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Halsey, Thomas Lloyd, introducer of sheep and cattle into, <a href="#page_563">563</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbor of, <a href="#page_548">548</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels of, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">landing at, <a href="#page_548">548</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">municipal statistics of, <a href="#page_559">559</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">newspapers of, <a href="#page_555">555</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of, <a href="#page_543">543</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographers in, <a href="#page_560">560</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">post-office of, <a href="#page_559">559</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theatres of, <a href="#page_555">555</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tomb of Saint-Martin in, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voyage to, <a href="#page_543">543</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheelwright, Wm., builder of first railroad in, <a href="#page_562">562</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Winslow, the forger, in, <a href="#page_562">562</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="C" id="C"></a>C.</span><br />
+
+Caceres, General, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_395">395</a>.<br />
+
+Callao, city of, <a href="#page_417">417</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painter, the, <a href="#page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">port of, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.</span><br />
+
+Camino Real (Royal Highway), Colombia, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br />
+
+Caracas, Americans in, <a href="#page_282">282</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_265">265</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad to, <a href="#page_261">261</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">situation of, <a href="#page_265">265</a>.</span><br />
+
+Carera, Dictator of Guatemala, <a href="#page_080">80</a>.<br />
+
+Carriages, Mexican, <a href="#page_039">39</a>.<br />
+
+Cartago, Costa Rica, destruction of, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br />
+
+Carthagena, city of, <a href="#page_226">226</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathedral of, <a href="#page_228">228</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortifications of, <a href="#page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inquisition in, <a href="#page_227">227</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kingsley’s (Charles) description of, <a href="#page_226">226</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">miraculous pulpit of, <a href="#page_228">228</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preserved saint of, <a href="#page_229">229</a>.</span><br />
+
+Carts, peculiar, Nicaragua, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.<br />
+
+Castro, Don Jesus Maria, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.<br />
+
+Central America, cable telegraph in, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.<br />
+
+Cerro del Pasco, mines of, <a href="#page_404">404</a>.<br />
+
+Chamber of Deputies, Mexican, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br />
+
+Chapultepec, castle of, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>.<br />
+
+Charity, Mexican, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.<br />
+
+Chasquis, vocation of, <a href="#page_440">440</a>.<br />
+
+Chili, army of Peru in, <a href="#page_392">392</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balmaceda, President of, <a href="#page_495">495</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of the people of, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coal-mines in, <a href="#page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_457">457</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#page_464">464</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coca-chewing in, <a href="#page_479">479</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461-464</a>, <a href="#page_469">469</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>, <a href="#page_483">483</a>, <a href="#page_484">484</a>, <a href="#page_498">498</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_483">483</a>, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English colony, an, <a href="#page_542">542</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farming in, <a href="#page_489">489</a>, <a href="#page_502">502</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">female street-car conductors of, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horseback-riding in, <a href="#page_503">503</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels of, <a href="#page_472">472</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intemperance in, <a href="#page_458">458</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irish characteristics of the people of, <a href="#page_474">474</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey from, to Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_506">506</a>, <a href="#page_510">510</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberal party in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage in, <a href="#page_494">494</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meiggs, Henry, in, <a href="#page_463">463</a>, <a href="#page_467">467</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nomenclature peculiar to, <a href="#page_483">483</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">penitentas of, <a href="#page_462">462</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peonage in, <a href="#page_489">489</a>, <a href="#page_502">502</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plunder from Peru in, <a href="#page_471">471</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political struggle in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential election in, <a href="#page_495">495</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#page_496">496</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railway facilities of, <a href="#page_464">464</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanism in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rotos of, <a href="#page_479">479</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saddle of, <a href="#page_504">504</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scenery in, <a href="#page_509">509</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“Señor May” in, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shoes of natives of, <a href="#page_484">484</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shops of, <a href="#page_465">465</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">soldiers of, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_479">479</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stars and Stripes in, <a href="#page_454">454</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_709" id="page_709"></a>{709}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamship communication with, <a href="#page_456">456</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>, <a href="#page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">superstition in, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vanity of people of, <a href="#page_476">476</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_484">484</a>, <a href="#page_487">487</a>, <a href="#page_498">498</a>.</span><br />
+
+Chimborazo, Mount, Ecuador, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br />
+
+Coca-leaves, use of among rabonas of Peru, <a href="#page_349">349</a>.<br />
+
+Colombia, aborigines of, <a href="#page_244">244</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of, <a href="#page_248">248</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mines of, <a href="#page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuñez, President of, <a href="#page_256">256</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">orchids in, <a href="#page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar customs of, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romish superstitions in, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamship line to, <a href="#page_225">225</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation in, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.</span><br />
+
+Comayagua, city of, Honduras, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+Congress, Mexican, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br />
+
+“Cordillera,” steamship, wreck of, <a href="#page_524">524</a>.<br />
+
+Corinto, port of, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br />
+
+Cortez, descendants of, <a href="#page_006">6</a>.<br />
+
+“Costa del Balsimo,” forest of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br />
+
+Costa Rica, archbishop expelled from, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banana-trade of, <a href="#page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_221">221</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruising along, <a href="#page_196">196</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death processions in, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">educational system of, <a href="#page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ex-Confederates in, <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fernandez, President of, <a href="#page_221">221</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flowers peculiar to, <a href="#page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">funeral customs in, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government of, <a href="#page_221">221</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guardia, President of, <a href="#page_205">205</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intelligence of the people of, <a href="#page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">morals of the people of, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">national musical instruments of, <a href="#page_214">214</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ox-carts in, <a href="#page_212">212</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar customs of, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_212">212-214</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politeness of the people of, <a href="#page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant work in, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad building in, <a href="#page_205">205</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious condition of, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resources of, <a href="#page_223">223</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#page_207">207</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soto, De, Don Bernardo, President of, <a href="#page_222">222</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation facilities in, <a href="#page_212">212</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.</span><br />
+
+Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br />
+
+Cousino, Donna Isadora, Crœsus of Chili, <a href="#page_487">487</a>.<br />
+
+Crosses by the way-side, Nicaragua, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br />
+
+Cuaca dance, the, <a href="#page_469">469</a>.<br />
+
+Curaçoa, Island of, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="D" id="D"></a>D.</span><br />
+
+Dahlgren, Mrs., anecdote of, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br />
+
+“Deck trading” in Peru, <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br />
+
+Delgrado, General, leader of revolution in Honduras, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+
+Dentists, American, in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_560">560</a>.<br />
+
+Deputies, Chamber of, Mexican, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br />
+
+Desert of Peru, <a href="#page_417">417</a>.<br />
+
+Destruction of Cartago, Costa Rica, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br />
+
+Devastation of Lima, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_391">391</a>.<br />
+
+Diaz, career of, <a href="#page_030">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inauguration of as President of Mexico, <a href="#page_021">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious tolerance in Mexico, his, <a href="#page_059">59</a>.</span><br />
+
+Diplomatic complication in Guatemala, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.<br />
+
+Discovery of Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_543">543</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brazil, <a href="#page_687">687</a>.</span><br />
+
+Dom Pedro II., love of the people for, <a href="#page_682">682</a>.<br />
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, sacks Caracas, Venezuela, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="E" id="E"></a>E.</span><br />
+
+Earthquakes in Chili, <a href="#page_483">483</a>, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Guatemala, <a href="#page_073">73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Nicaragua, <a href="#page_164">164</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in San Salvador, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.</span><br />
+
+Easter Sunday in Mexico, <a href="#page_050">50</a>.<br />
+
+Ecuador, army of, <a href="#page_319">319</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caamaño, President of, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chandny (wind) in, <a href="#page_309">309</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiarities of people of, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peddlers in, <a href="#page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal facilities in, <a href="#page_316">316</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutions in, <a href="#page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romish Church in, <a href="#page_306">306</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social condition of, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">telegraph in, <a href="#page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation in, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.</span><br />
+
+Educational system of Costa Rica, <a href="#page_218">218</a>.<br />
+
+El Gran Chaco, description of, <a href="#page_657">657</a>.<br />
+
+Emancipation in Brazil, <a href="#page_704">704</a>.<br />
+
+Empress of Brazil, charity of, <a href="#page_684">684</a>.<br />
+
+Enterprise in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_549">549</a>, <a href="#page_559">559</a>.<br />
+
+Evans, W. D., Montevideo, story of, <a href="#page_605">605</a>.<br />
+
+Exposition buildings in Santiago, <a href="#page_470">470</a>.<br />
+
+Eyes of Inca mummies, <a href="#page_415">415</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_710" id="page_710"></a>{710}</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="F" id="F"></a>F.</span><br />
+
+Falkland Islands, chief use of land in the, <a href="#page_522">522</a>.<br />
+
+Farming in Chili, <a href="#page_489">489</a>, <a href="#page_502">502</a>.<br />
+
+Fenton, Doctor, in Patagonia, <a href="#page_537">537</a>.<br />
+
+Fernandez, President of Costa Rica, <a href="#page_221">221</a>.<br />
+
+Filth of Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page_662">662</a>.<br />
+
+First capital of Guatemala, <a href="#page_064">64</a>.<br />
+
+Fleas in the tropics, <a href="#page_260">260</a>.<br />
+
+Flowers, peculiar, in Costa Rica, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br />
+
+Foreigners in Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_581">581</a>.<br />
+
+Fortifications of Carthagena, Colombia, condition of, <a href="#page_231">231</a>.<br />
+
+Founding of Guayaquil, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.<br />
+
+France, her trade with Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_552">552</a>.<br />
+
+Francia, “Perpetual President” of Paraguay, <a href="#page_623">623</a>.<br />
+
+Fuego Volcano, Guatemala, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.<br />
+
+Funeral customs in Costa Rica, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico, <a href="#page_034">34</a>.</span><br />
+
+Fur-bearing animals in Patagonia, <a href="#page_539">539</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="G" id="G"></a>G.</span><br />
+
+Gaucho, the, <a href="#page_570">570</a>, <a href="#page_574">574</a>.<br />
+
+Gonzalez, Gil, Conqueror of Nicaragua, <a href="#page_154">154</a>.<br />
+
+Gonzalez, President of Mexico, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>.<br />
+
+Good Friday, celebration of in Mexico, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.<br />
+
+Government of Nicaragua, <a href="#page_169">169</a>.<br />
+
+Grace, M. P., his Peruvian contracts, <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href="#page_403">403</a>.<br />
+
+Grau, Admiral, in Peru, <a href="#page_437">437</a>.<br />
+
+Grenada, city of, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br />
+
+Guadalupe, cathedral of, <a href="#page_018">18</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legend of, <i>ibid.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty at, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.</span><br />
+
+Guanaco, the, <a href="#page_427">427</a>, <a href="#page_540">540</a>.<br />
+
+Guatemala, assassination plots in, <a href="#page_088">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barrios, President of, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carera, Dictator of, <a href="#page_080">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church domination in, <a href="#page_079">79</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church overthrown in, <a href="#page_081">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cochineal cultivation in, <a href="#page_075">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial condition of, <a href="#page_098">98</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">costumes of natives of, <a href="#page_089">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">couriers in, <a href="#page_092">92</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_097">97-99</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diplomatic complication in, <a href="#page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_073">73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first capital of, <a href="#page_064">64</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hill, Rev. John C., missionary in, <a href="#page_085">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels in, <a href="#page_096">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military law in, <a href="#page_095">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monasteries in, <a href="#page_074">74</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morazan, Dictator of, <a href="#page_080">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Old, <a href="#page_063">63</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peasants’ costumes in, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographers in, <a href="#page_098">98</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policemen in, <a href="#page_095">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant work in, <a href="#page_084">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad system of, <a href="#page_099">99</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruins in, <a href="#page_067">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools in, <a href="#page_082">82</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second city of, <a href="#page_070">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the city of, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanic eruption in, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.</span><br />
+
+Guayaquil, appearance of, <a href="#page_300">300</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_330">330</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreigners in, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founding of, <a href="#page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey to Quito from, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">latitude and longitude of, <a href="#page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">street-cars in, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tropical vegetation near, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.</span><br />
+
+Gunning, Doctor, in Brazil, <a href="#page_686">686</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="H" id="H"></a>H.</span><br />
+
+Hacks, Mexican, <a href="#page_040">40</a>.<br />
+
+Hale, Samuel B., Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_562">562</a>.<br />
+
+Hall, Henry C., U. S. Minister to Guatemala, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.<br />
+
+Halsey, Thomas Lloyd, Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_563">563</a>.<br />
+
+Harbor of Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_548">548</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Valparaiso, <a href="#page_454">454</a>.</span><br />
+
+Hats, Panama, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br />
+
+Highest town in the world, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br />
+
+Hill, Rev. John C., missionary in Guatemala, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.<br />
+
+Honda, port of, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>.<br />
+
+Honduras, agriculture in, <a href="#page_122">122</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bogran, President of, <a href="#page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial condition of, <a href="#page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of, <a href="#page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to reach, <a href="#page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Interoceanic Railway in, <a href="#page_118">118</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manufacture of chocolate in, <a href="#page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">medicinal plants in, <a href="#page_123">123</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral wealth of, <a href="#page_127">127</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morazan, President of, <a href="#page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rivers of, <a href="#page_124">124</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools in, <a href="#page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping in, <a href="#page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soto’s (Marco A.) flight from, <a href="#page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">telegraph in, <a href="#page_125">125</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation facilities in, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.</span><br />
+
+Horseback-riding in Chili, <a href="#page_503">503</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico, <a href="#page_037">37</a>.</span><br />
+
+Horsemen of Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_556">556</a>, <a href="#page_570">570</a>.<br />
+
+“Huascar,” Peruvian gun-boat, <a href="#page_437">437</a>.<br />
+
+Humboldt in Venezuela, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_711" id="page_711"></a>{711}</span><br />
+
+Hurlbut, General, and the Peruvian-Chilian war, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a>I.<br />
+
+Ice in Mexico, <a href="#page_042">42</a>.<br />
+
+Iglesias, Don Miguel, <a href="#page_396">396</a>.<br />
+
+Illiniani Volcano, Bolivia, <a href="#page_443">443</a>.<br />
+
+Immigration resisted in Nicaragua, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.<br />
+
+Inca Empire, origin of the, <a href="#page_429">429</a>.<br />
+
+Incas, ancient highways of the, <a href="#page_439">439</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cemeteries of the, <a href="#page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devotion of to their king, <a href="#page_328">328</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold buried by the, <a href="#page_326">326</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mummies of the, <a href="#page_414">414</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiarities of the, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relics of the, <a href="#page_411">411</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riches of the, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of the, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</span><br />
+
+“Inca’s Head,” the, <a href="#page_323">323</a>.<br />
+
+Indians of Patagonia, <a href="#page_518">518</a>, <a href="#page_530">530</a>.<br />
+
+Iodine, how made in Peru, <a href="#page_434">434</a>.<br />
+
+Isabella, Princess of Brazil, <a href="#page_689">689</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="J" id="J"></a>J.</span><br />
+
+Journalism in Bogata, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br />
+
+Journey from Santiago to Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_506">506</a>, <a href="#page_510">510</a>.<br />
+
+Juan Fernandez, Island of, <a href="#page_451">451</a>.<br />
+
+Juarez, birthplace of, <a href="#page_030">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">family in Mexico, <a href="#page_017">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Mexico, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="K" id="K"></a>K.</span><br />
+
+Kingsley, Charles, on Carthagena, Colombia, <a href="#page_226">226</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on South American scenery, <a href="#page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on effect of coca-leaves, <a href="#page_479">479</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="L" id="L"></a>L.</span><br />
+
+Ladies, Mexican, <a href="#page_038">38</a>.<br />
+
+La Guayra, city of, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br />
+
+La Libertad, port of, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br />
+
+La Paz, Alameda of, <a href="#page_444">444</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathedral of, <a href="#page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, <a href="#page_442">442</a>.</span><br />
+
+La Plata, city of, <a href="#page_569">569</a>.<br />
+
+La Silla Mountain, Venezuela, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.<br />
+
+Leon, city of, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>.<br />
+
+Lerdo, President of Mexico, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.<br />
+
+Liberal party, success of, in Mexico, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br />
+
+Liebig, Doctor, <a href="#page_589">589</a>.<br />
+
+Lima, architecture of, <a href="#page_386">386</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">benevolent institutions of, <a href="#page_385">385</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bull-fighting in, <a href="#page_382">382</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">churches and monasteries in, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, founded, <a href="#page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devastation of by the Chilians, <a href="#page_365">365</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca women of, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manta of the women of, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">milk peddlers in, <a href="#page_382">382</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">newspapers of, <a href="#page_386">386</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pawnshops of, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">residence of Henry Meiggs in, <a href="#page_368">368</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Rosa of, <a href="#page_357">357</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shops in, <a href="#page_385">385</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social condition of, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_368">368</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.</span><br />
+
+Limon, port of, <a href="#page_197">197</a>.<br />
+
+Lincoln, town of, <a href="#page_569">569</a>.<br />
+
+Lopez I., II., Presidents of Paraguay, <a href="#page_623">623</a>, <a href="#page_624">624</a>.<br />
+
+Lota, town of, <a href="#page_488">488</a>, <a href="#page_490">490</a>.<br />
+
+Love-making, Mexican, <a href="#page_034">34</a>.<br />
+
+Lynch, Admiral, of Chili, <a href="#page_392">392</a>.<br />
+
+Lynch, Patrick, of Chili, <a href="#page_475">475</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="M" id="M"></a>M.</span><br />
+
+Macuto, the Newport of Venezuela, <a href="#page_291">291</a>.<br />
+
+Magdalena River, the, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>.<br />
+
+Magellan, Strait of, glaciers in the, <a href="#page_517">517</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">post-office of, <a href="#page_522">522</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wreck of steamship “Cordillera” in, <a href="#page_524">524</a>.</span><br />
+
+Managua, city of, <a href="#page_166">166</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lake, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.</span><br />
+
+Mandioca root, the, <a href="#page_648">648</a>.<br />
+
+Manta of Peru, romance of the, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br />
+
+Marimba, the, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.<br />
+
+Marriages, civil, in Mexico, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.<br />
+
+Maximilian in Mexico, <a href="#page_010">10</a>.<br />
+
+Meiggs, Henry, career of in Chili, <a href="#page_463">463</a>, <a href="#page_467">467</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">in Peru, <a href="#page_402">402</a>.</span><br />
+
+Mexico, aristocracy of, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aztec civilization in, <a href="#page_005">5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bull-fighting in, <a href="#page_043">43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholic prejudices in <a href="#page_058">58</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church restrictions in, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_022">22</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">curious customs in, <a href="#page_001">1</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decay of Catholicism in, <a href="#page_003">3</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Easter Sunday in, <a href="#page_050">50</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">former rulers of, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">funeral customs in, <a href="#page_034">34</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gonzales, President of, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horseback riding in, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ice in, <a href="#page_042">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intemperance in, <a href="#page_040">40</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage in, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missionary work in, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of streets in, <a href="#page_036">36</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_712" id="page_712"></a>{712}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pawn-shops in, <a href="#page_054">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">police system of, <a href="#page_042">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political struggles in, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">post-offices of, <a href="#page_002">2</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">priests of, <a href="#page_004">4</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestant work in, <a href="#page_057">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pulque-drinking in, <a href="#page_040">40</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious festivities in, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious struggles in, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious superstitions in, <a href="#page_018">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of students in, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Senate of, <a href="#page_021">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping in, <a href="#page_039">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smoking in, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social customs in, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamship subsidies in, <a href="#page_003">3</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">street-cars in, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wedding in, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.</span><br />
+
+Middleton, British Minister to Venezuela, <a href="#page_265">265</a>.<br />
+
+Miraculous candlestick, the, <a href="#page_418">418</a>.<br />
+
+Misery of Peru, Blaine responsible for, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br />
+
+Misti Volcano, Bolivia, <a href="#page_420">420</a>.<br />
+
+Molino del Rey, battle-field of, <a href="#page_043">43</a>.<br />
+
+Mollendo, town of, <a href="#page_419">419</a>.<br />
+
+Monte de Piedad of Mexico, the, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.<br />
+
+Montevideo, bay of, <a href="#page_605">605</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, <a href="#page_548">548</a>, <a href="#page_602">602</a>, <a href="#page_609">609</a>.</span><br />
+
+Montezuma, descendants of, <a href="#page_006">6</a>.<br />
+
+Morazan, Dictator of Guatemala, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_136">136</a>.<br />
+
+Moreno, President of Ecuador, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a>.<br />
+
+Mummies, eyes of, <a href="#page_415">415</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="N" id="N"></a>N.</span><br />
+
+National Palace of Nicaragua, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br />
+
+Navigation Company, The Pacific, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.<br />
+
+Negroes in Brazil, <a href="#page_705">705</a>.<br />
+
+Newspapers of Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_555">555</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lima, <a href="#page_386">386</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Montevideo, <a href="#page_616">616</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South American, <i>ibid.</i></span><br />
+
+Nicaragua, agriculture in, <a href="#page_151">151</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">baptism of volcanoes in, <a href="#page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capitals of, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities of, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial condition of, <a href="#page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_164">164</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government of, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">holidays in, <a href="#page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration resisted in, <a href="#page_149">149</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Palace of, <a href="#page_167">167</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of name of, <a href="#page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar customs in, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">people of, <a href="#page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principal seaport of, <a href="#page_140">140</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#page_141">141</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rubber, how it is gathered in, <a href="#page_146">146</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social restrictions in, <a href="#page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjugation of, <a href="#page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suffrage restricted in, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">timber resources of, <a href="#page_145">145</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation facilities in, <a href="#page_141">141</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Walker, the filibuster, in, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.</span><br />
+
+Nitrate deposits of Peru, <a href="#page_430">430</a>.<br />
+
+Nobility of Brazil, <a href="#page_676">676</a>.<br />
+
+Nomenclature, peculiar, in Chili, <a href="#page_483">483</a>.<br />
+
+Nuñez, President of Colombia, <a href="#page_256">256</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="O" id="O"></a>O.</span><br />
+
+Officials, Peruvian, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br />
+
+O’Higgins, Bernard, Liberator of Chili, <a href="#page_475">475</a>.<br />
+
+Old Guatemala, its wealth and influence, <a href="#page_063">63</a>.<br />
+
+Opera-house of Caracas, <a href="#page_271">271</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Santiago, <a href="#page_470">470</a>.</span><br />
+
+Orchids in Colombia, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br />
+
+Oroya Railroad, Peru, <a href="#page_403">403</a>.<br />
+
+Ostrich-hunting in Patagonia, <a href="#page_538">538</a>, <a href="#page_540">540</a>.<br />
+
+Ox-carts in Costa Rica, employment of, <a href="#page_212">212</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="P" id="P"></a>P.</span><br />
+
+Palaces, Mexican, <a href="#page_030">30</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.<br />
+
+Paraguay, capital of, <a href="#page_636">636</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#page_658">658</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_633">633</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_636">636</a>, <a href="#page_638">638</a>, <a href="#page_642">642</a>, <a href="#page_645">645</a>, <a href="#page_649">649</a>, <a href="#page_651">651</a>, <a href="#page_652">652</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francia, “Perpetual President” of, <a href="#page_623">623</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fruits of, <a href="#page_648">648</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">funeral customs in, <a href="#page_645">645</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government’s effort to educate the people of, <a href="#page_634">634</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration to, <a href="#page_628">628</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">land laws of, <a href="#page_629">629</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez I., II., Presidents of, <a href="#page_623">623</a>, <a href="#page_624">624</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage customs in, <a href="#page_645">645</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native customs in, <a href="#page_642">642</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#page_630">630</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#page_635">635</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#page_633">633</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization of the Government of, <a href="#page_627">627</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamships to, <a href="#page_566">566</a>, <a href="#page_634">634</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tapioca, how made in, <a href="#page_650">650</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tea-drinking in, <a href="#page_651">651</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">timber of, <a href="#page_656">656</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tobacco cultivated in, <a href="#page_655">655</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_625">625</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_643">643</a>.</span><br />
+
+Paraguay River, the, <a href="#page_632">632</a>.<br />
+
+Parana River, the, <a href="#page_631">631</a>.<br />
+
+Patagonia, capital of, <a href="#page_536">536</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fenton, Doctor, in, <a href="#page_537">537</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fur-bearing animals in, <a href="#page_539">539</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians of, <a href="#page_530">530</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ostrich-hunting in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_713" id="page_713"></a>{713}</span>, <a href="#page_538">538</a>, <a href="#page_540">540</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">partition of, <a href="#page_528">528</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ranchmen in, <a href="#page_534">534</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roca’s (General) Indian campaign in, <a href="#page_533">533</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sterling, Bishop, in, <a href="#page_521">521</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Taylor’s (Wm.) adventure with cannibals in, <a href="#page_525">525</a>.</span><br />
+
+Peonage, Nicaraguan, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br />
+
+Peru, Andes railway in, <a href="#page_407">407</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of Chili in, <a href="#page_392">392</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture of by Caceres, <a href="#page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cause of the late war in, <a href="#page_434">434</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coca plant in, <a href="#page_448">448</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_388">388</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“deck trading” in, <a href="#page_347">347</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desert of, <a href="#page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">iodine, how made in, <a href="#page_434">434</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mines of, <a href="#page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate of soda deposits in, <a href="#page_430">430</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">petroleum in, <a href="#page_344">344</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pizarro’s plunder in, <a href="#page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_401">401</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rain never falls in, <a href="#page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saltpetre, how made in, <a href="#page_433">433</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shoes of natives of, <a href="#page_484">484</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">soldiers of, <a href="#page_352">352</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Chili, its, <a href="#page_388">388</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">water in, <a href="#page_436">436</a>.</span><br />
+
+Peruvian bark, supply of, <a href="#page_446">446</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserts, water in, <a href="#page_436">436</a>.</span><br />
+
+Petropolis, palace of, Brazil, <a href="#page_684">684</a>.<br />
+
+Pichincha Volcano, Ecuador, <a href="#page_323">323</a>.<br />
+
+Pierola, Don Nicolas, <a href="#page_396">396</a>.<br />
+
+Pizarro, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>.<br />
+
+Plate River, the, <a href="#page_543">543</a>, <a href="#page_581">581</a>, <a href="#page_630">630</a>.<br />
+
+Poncho, the, <a href="#page_505">505</a>, <a href="#page_577">577</a>.<br />
+
+Popocatepetl Mountain, Mexico, <a href="#page_042">42</a>.<br />
+
+Potosi, silver-mines of, <a href="#page_445">445</a>.<br />
+
+Prado, President of Peru, <a href="#page_398">398</a>.<br />
+
+Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.<br />
+
+Pulpit, a miraculous, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br />
+
+Puna, island of, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.<br />
+
+Puno, town of, <a href="#page_438">438</a>.<br />
+
+Punta Arenas, railroad to, <a href="#page_211">211</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Taylor’s journey to, <a href="#page_527">527</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Q.</span><br />
+
+Quinine, discovery of in Peru, <a href="#page_446">446</a>.<br />
+
+Quito, age of, <a href="#page_325">325</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architecture of, <a href="#page_332">332</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">business perfidy in, <a href="#page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#page_333">333</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey to, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manufacturing in, <a href="#page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monks of, <a href="#page_332">332</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no newspapers in, <a href="#page_340">340</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools in, <a href="#page_340">340</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanoes near, <a href="#page_323">323</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="R" id="R"></a>R.</span><br />
+
+Rabonas of Peru, <a href="#page_348">348</a>.<br />
+
+Railway, Interoceanic, in Honduras, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+
+Rain never falls in Peru, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br />
+
+Religion and politics in Mexico, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br />
+
+Rio de Janeiro, bay of, <a href="#page_660">660</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">filth of, <a href="#page_662">662</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horse-cars of, <a href="#page_668">668</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels of, <a href="#page_673">673</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social customs in, <a href="#page_670">670</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">streets of, <a href="#page_664">664</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theatres of, <a href="#page_672">672</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_670">670</a>.</span><br />
+
+Rio de la Plata, the, <a href="#page_630">630</a>.<br />
+
+Robinson Crusoe’s Island, <a href="#page_451">451</a>.<br />
+
+Roca, General, Indian campaign of in Patagonia, <a href="#page_533">533</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_568">568</a>.</span><br />
+
+Rosas, the tyrant, <a href="#page_549">549</a>, <a href="#page_572">572</a>.<br />
+
+Rubber-gathering in Nicaragua, <a href="#page_146">146</a>.<br />
+
+Rubio, Romero, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.<br />
+
+Ruins in Guatemala, <a href="#page_067">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of old Spanish forts in Venezuela, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="S" id="S"></a>S.</span><br />
+
+Sabanilla, port of, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.<br />
+
+Sailors, superstitious, <a href="#page_544">544</a>.<br />
+
+Saint, a preserved, <a href="#page_229">229</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin, tomb of, <a href="#page_566">566</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the only American, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.</span><br />
+
+San José, city of, <a href="#page_203">203</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">merchants of, <a href="#page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation of freight to, <a href="#page_199">199</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanoes around, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</span><br />
+
+San Salvador, area of, <a href="#page_175">175</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempt to join the United States, its, <a href="#page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">balsam coast of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, <a href="#page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christmas in, <a href="#page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conscription in, <a href="#page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government of, <a href="#page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">homes of the people of, <a href="#page_180">180</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">landing in, <a href="#page_171">171</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriotism of the people of, <a href="#page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar customs of, <a href="#page_181">181-183</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political history of, <a href="#page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political organization of, <a href="#page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanism in, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social condition in, <a href="#page_181">181</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suffrage in, <a href="#page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanoes of, <a href="#page_179">179</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</span><br />
+
+Santa Anna, widow of, <a href="#page_013">13</a>.<br />
+
+Santiago, Alameda of, <a href="#page_466">466</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholicism in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">church catastrophe in, <a href="#page_496">496</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church struggles in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#page_464">464</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coal-mines at, <a href="#page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cousino, Donna Isadora, Crœsus of, <a href="#page_487">487</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cuaca dance in, <a href="#page_469">469</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#page_483">483</a>, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exposition buildings in, <a href="#page_470">470</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farming in, <a href="#page_489">489</a>, <a href="#page_502">502</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">home for foundlings in, <a href="#page_463">463</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_714" id="page_714"></a>{714}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horseback riding in, <a href="#page_503">503</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hotels of, <a href="#page_472">472</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey from Buenos Ayres to, <a href="#page_506">506</a>, <a href="#page_510">510</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberal party in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage in, <a href="#page_494">494</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">men of Irish descent in, <a href="#page_475">475</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nomenclature peculiar to, <a href="#page_483">483</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opera-house in, <a href="#page_470">470</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peonage in, <a href="#page_503">503</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plunder from Peru in, <a href="#page_471">471</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political struggle in, <a href="#page_493">493</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential election in, <a href="#page_495">495</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#page_496">496</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad facilities of, <a href="#page_464">464</a>, <a href="#page_481">481</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad from to Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_510">510</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Lucia Park in, <a href="#page_467">467</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“Señor May” in, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shops of, <a href="#page_465">465</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">superstition in, <a href="#page_499">499</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_484">484</a>, <a href="#page_498">498</a>.</span><br />
+
+Santos, President of Uruguay, <a href="#page_593">593</a>, <a href="#page_613">613</a>.<br />
+
+Sarmiento, ex-President of Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_557">557</a>.<br />
+
+Selkirk, Alexander, on Island of Juan Fernandez, <a href="#page_452">452</a>.<br />
+
+Sinibaldi, Vice-President of Guatemala, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.<br />
+
+Sirroche disease, the, <a href="#page_423">423</a><br />
+
+Smyth’s Channel, beauty of, <a href="#page_516">516</a>.<br />
+
+Soldiers, Peruvian, <a href="#page_348">348</a>.<br />
+
+Soto, De, President of Costa Rica, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.<br />
+
+Soto, Marco A., President of Honduras, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.<br />
+
+South America, desert on west coast of, <a href="#page_342">342</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">freight charges on west coast of, <a href="#page_298">298</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yankees of, <a href="#page_542">542</a>.</span><br />
+
+Sterling, Bishop, missionary work of, <a href="#page_521">521</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="T" id="T"></a>T.</span><br />
+
+Tapioca, how made in Paraguay, <a href="#page_650">650</a>.<br />
+
+Taylor, William, his adventure with cannibals in Patagonia, <a href="#page_525">525</a>.<br />
+
+Tegucigalpa, city of, <a href="#page_128">128</a>.<br />
+
+Terra del Fuego, cannibalism in, <a href="#page_524">524</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians of, <a href="#page_518">518</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missionary work in, <a href="#page_521">521</a>.</span><br />
+
+Theatre Yturbide, Mexico, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br />
+
+Timber regions of Paraguay, streams in, <a href="#page_656">656</a>.<br />
+
+Titicaca, Lake, <a href="#page_428">428</a>.<br />
+
+Tobacco, cultivation of in Paraguay, <a href="#page_655">655</a>.<br />
+
+Tropical vegetation, beauty of near Guayaquil, <a href="#page_302">302</a>.<br />
+
+Tropics, fleas in the, <a href="#page_260">260</a>.<br />
+
+Tumbez, petroleum deposits near, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.<br />
+
+Tunguragua Volcano, Ecuador, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="U" id="U"></a>U.</span><br />
+
+Union of Central America, plan, etc., <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106-108</a>.<br />
+
+United States, trade with Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_553">553</a>.<br />
+
+University of Argentine Republic, <a href="#page_556">556</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Costa Rica, <a href="#page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Venezuela, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.</span><br />
+
+Uruguay, architecture of, <a href="#page_607">607</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#page_610">610</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">beggars of, <a href="#page_610">610</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birth statistics of, <a href="#page_598">598</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholic Church in, <a href="#page_612">612</a>, <a href="#page_615">615</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle in, <a href="#page_600">600</a>, <a href="#page_602">602</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">censorship of the press in, <a href="#page_620">620</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_600">600</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_603">603</a>, <a href="#page_607">607</a>, <a href="#page_609">609-611</a>, <a href="#page_615">615</a>, <a href="#page_618">618</a>, <a href="#page_620">620</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decay of Romanism in, <a href="#page_612">612</a>, <a href="#page_615">615</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of, <a href="#page_596">596</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ignorance concerning, <a href="#page_591">591</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">living cheap in, <a href="#page_598">598</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Methodist Church in, <a href="#page_615">615</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mining in, <a href="#page_592">592</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">newspapers in, <a href="#page_616">616</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#page_599">599</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protestantism in, <a href="#page_612">612</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad system of, <a href="#page_599">599</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resources of, <a href="#page_596">596</a>, <a href="#page_598">598</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#page_592">592</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, President of, <a href="#page_593">593</a>, <a href="#page_613">613</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vidal, President of, <a href="#page_596">596</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wealth of, <a href="#page_599">599</a>, <a href="#page_600">600</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_607">607</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood, Rev. Thomas, in, <a href="#page_614">614</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool product of, <a href="#page_601">601</a>.</span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a>V.<br />
+
+Valparaiso, character of people of, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, <a href="#page_456">456</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#page_455">455</a>, <a href="#page_457">457</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461-464</a>, <a href="#page_469">469</a>, <a href="#page_472">472</a>, <a href="#page_475">475</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>, <a href="#page_483">483</a>, <a href="#page_487">487</a>, <a href="#page_498">498</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">female street-car conductors in, <a href="#page_458">458</a>, <a href="#page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbor of, <a href="#page_454">454</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intemperance in, <a href="#page_458">458</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the prejudice against United States in, <a href="#page_454">454</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steamship communication with, <a href="#page_456">456</a>, <a href="#page_480">480</a>, <a href="#page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_461">461</a>.</span><br />
+
+Venezuela, architecture of, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar, Simon, exiled from, <a href="#page_266">266</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boulton, Bliss &amp; Dallett’s steamers to, <a href="#page_257">257</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burial customs in, <a href="#page_280">280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chocolate production in, <a href="#page_294">294</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coffee plantations in, <a href="#page_293">293</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_274">274</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_715" id="page_715"></a>{715}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs peculiar to, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">downfall of Romish Church in, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federal Palace of, <a href="#page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humboldt in, <a href="#page_262">262</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Middleton, British Minister to, <a href="#page_265">265</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political progress in, <a href="#page_266">266</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#page_266">266</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruins of old Spanish forts in, <a href="#page_259">259</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools of, <a href="#page_270">270</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social customs of, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">telephones in, <a href="#page_271">271</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">University of, <a href="#page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voyage from New York to, <a href="#page_257">257</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women of, <a href="#page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yellow House, official residence of the President of, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.</span><br />
+
+Venezuelan independence, relics of, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br />
+
+Vicuña, the, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br />
+
+Vidal, President of Uruguay, <a href="#page_596">596</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="W" id="W"></a>W.</span><br />
+
+Walker, filibuster, in Nicaragua, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br />
+
+War with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, Paraguay’s, <a href="#page_625">625</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Chili, Peru’s, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_434">434</a>.</span><br />
+
+Washington, town of, <a href="#page_569">569</a>.<br />
+
+Watering-place, the Venezuelan, <a href="#page_291">291</a>.<br />
+
+Wheelwright, Wm., in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_562">562</a>.<br />
+
+Winslow, the forger, in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page_562">562</a>.<br />
+
+Wood, Rev. Thomas, missionary in, Uruguay, <a href="#page_614">614</a>.<br />
+
+World, highest town in the, <a href="#page_423">423</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+<span class="letra"><a name="Y" id="Y"></a>Y.</span><br />
+
+Yellow House, Venezuela, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.<br />
+
+Yerba mate of Paraguay, <a href="#page_651">651</a>.<br />
+
+Yturbide, family of, <a href="#page_009">9</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">romance of, <a href="#page_013">13</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Theatre, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.</span><br />
+
+Yzalco Volcano, San Salvador, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">&nbsp; <br />THE END.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_716" id="page_716"></a>{716}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_cat-001" id="page_cat-001"></a>{1}</span>&nbsp; </p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="cb"><big>VALUABLE WORKS</big><br />
+OF<br />
+<big><big>EXPLORATION AND ADVENTURE.</big></big></p>
+
+<p class="b">Charnay’s Ancient Cities of the New World.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Ancient Cities of the New World: being Voyages and Explorations
+in Mexico and Central America, from 1857 to 1882. By <span class="smcap">Désiré
+Charnay</span>. Translated from the French by <span class="smcap">J. Gonino</span> and <span class="smcap">Helen S.
+Conant</span>. Introduction by <span class="smcap">Allen Thorndike Rice</span>. 209 Illustrations and
+a Map. Royal 8vo, Ornamental Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top, $6 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Squier’s Nicaragua.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Nicaragua: its People, Scenery, Monuments, Resources, Condition,
+and Proposed Canal. With One Hundred Maps and Illustrations. By <span class="smcap">E.
+G. Squier</span>, M.A., F.S.A. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Squier’s Peru.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas.
+By <span class="smcap">E. G. Squier</span>, M.A., F.S.A. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Cesnola’s Cyprus.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Cyprus: Its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narrative of
+Researches and Excavations during Ten Years’ Residence in that
+Island. By General <span class="smcap">Louis Palma di Cesnola</span>, Member of the Royal
+Academy of Sciences, Turin; Hon. Member of the Royal Society of
+Literature, London, &amp;c. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth,
+Gilt Tops and Uncut Edges, $7 50; Half Calf, $10 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Bishop’s Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A Journey in Mexico, Southern California, and Arizona, by Way of
+Cuba. By <span class="smcap">William Henry Bishop</span>. With numerous Illustrations, chiefly
+from Sketches by the Author. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Malay Archipelago: the Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of
+Paradise. A Narrative of Travel, 1854-62. With Studies of Man and
+Nature. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Russel Wallace</span>. With Maps and numerous
+Illustrations. New Edition. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Wallace’s Island Life.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Island Life; or, The Phenomena of Insular Faunas and Floras, with
+their Causes. Including an entire Revision of the Problem of
+Geological Climates. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Russel Wallace</span>. With Illustrations
+and Maps. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Wallace’s Geographical Distribution of Animals.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Geographical Distribution of Animals. With a Study of the
+Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas, as elucidating the Past
+Changes of the Earth’s Surface. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Russel Wallace</span>. With
+Colored Maps and numerous Illustrations by Zwecker. 2 vols., 8vo,
+Cloth, $10 00.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_cat-002" id="page_cat-002"></a>{2}</span></p>
+
+<p class="b">Stanley’s Congo, and the Founding of its Free State.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A Story of Work and Exploration. By <span class="smcap">Henry M. Stanley</span>. Dedicated by
+Special Permission to H. M. the King of the Belgians. In 2 vols.,
+8vo, Cloth, with over One Hundred full-page and smaller
+Illustrations, two large Maps, and several smaller ones. Cloth, $10
+00; Half Morocco, $15 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Stanley’s Through the Dark Continent.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Through the Dark Continent; or, The Sources of the Nile, Around the
+Great Lakes of Equatorial Africa, and Down the Livingstone River to
+the Atlantic Ocean. By <span class="smcap">Henry M. Stanley</span>. With 149 Illustrations and
+10 Maps. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10 00; Sheep, $12 00; Half Morocco,
+$15 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Stanley’s Coomassie and Magdala.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Coomassie and Magdala: a Story of Two British Campaigns in Africa.
+By <span class="smcap">Henry M. Stanley</span>. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $3
+50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Cameron’s Across Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Across Africa. By <span class="smcap">Verney Lovett Cameron</span>, C.B., D.C.L., Commander
+Royal Navy, Gold Medalist Royal Geographical Society, &amp;c. With a
+Map and numerous Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Livingstone’s Last Journals.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from
+1865 to his Death. Continued by a Narrative of his Last Moments and
+Sufferings, obtained from his Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi. By
+<span class="smcap">Horace Waller</span>, F.R.G.S. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5
+00; Sheep, $6 00; Half Calf, $7 25. <i>Popular Edition</i>, 8vo, Cloth,
+$2 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Livingstone’s Expedition to the Zambesi.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries; and
+of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. 1858-1864. By
+<span class="smcap">David</span> and <span class="smcap">Charles Livingstone</span>. With Map and Illustrations. 8vo,
+Cloth, $5 00; Sheep, $5 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Long’s Central Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked People. An Account of
+Expeditions to the Lake Victoria Nyanza and the Makraka Niam-Niam,
+West of the Bahr-El-Abiad (White Nile). By Col. <span class="smcap">C. Chaillé Long</span>, of
+the Egyptian Staff. Illustrated from Col. Long’s own Sketches. With
+Map. 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Du Chaillu’s Ashango-Land.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A Journey to Ashango-Land, and Further Penetration into Equatorial
+Africa. By <span class="smcap">Paul B. Du Chaillu</span>. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Du Chaillu’s Land of the Midnight Sun.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Land of the Midnight Sun. Summer and Winter Journeys through
+Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Northern Finland. By <span class="smcap">Paul B. Du
+Chaillu</span>. With Map and 235 Illustrations. In Two Volumes. 8vo,
+Cloth, $7 50; Half Calf, $12 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Thomson’s Voyage of the “Challenger.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Voyage of the “Challenger.” <i>The Atlantic:</i> An Account of the
+General Results of the Voyage during the Year 1873 and the Early
+Part of the Year 1876. By Sir <span class="smcap">C. Wyville Thomson</span>, F.R.S. With a
+Portrait of the Author, many Colored Maps, and Illustrations. 2
+vols., 8vo, Cloth, $12 00.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_cat-003" id="page_cat-003"></a>{3}</span></p>
+
+<p class="b">Thomson’s Southern Palestine and Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Land and the Book: Southern Palestine and Jerusalem. By <span class="smcap">William
+M. Thomson</span>, D.D., Forty-five Years a Missionary in Syria and
+Palestine. 140 Illustrations and Maps. Square 8vo, Cloth, $6 00;
+Sheep, $7 00; Half Morocco, $8 50; Full Morocco, Gilt Edges, $10
+00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Thomson’s Central Palestine and Phœnicia.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Land and the Book: Central Palestine and Phœnicia. By
+<span class="smcap">William M. Thomson</span>, D.D. 130 Illustrations and Maps. Square 8vo,
+Cloth, $6 00; Sheep, $7 00; Half Morocco, $8 50; Full Morocco, Gilt
+Edges, $10 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Thomson’s Lebanon, Damascus, and Beyond Jordan.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Land and the Book: Lebanon, Damascus, and Beyond Jordan. By
+<span class="smcap">William M. Thomson</span>, D.D. 147 Illustrations and Maps. Square 8vo,
+Cloth, $6 00; Sheep, $7 00; Half Morocco, $8 50; Full Morocco, Gilt
+Edges, $10 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">The Land and the Book.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Comprising the above works, viz., Southern Palestine and Jerusalem;
+Central Palestine and Phœnicia; and Lebanon, Damascus, and
+Beyond Jordan, in 3 vols., Popular Edition, Square 8vo, Cloth, $9
+00. (<i>Sold in Sets only.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Reade’s Savage Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Savage Africa: being the Narrative of a Tour in Equatorial,
+South-western, and North-western Africa; with Notes on the Habits
+of the Gorilla; on the Existence of Unicorns and Tailed Men; on the
+Slave-trade; on the Origin, Character, and Capabilities of the
+Negro, and on the Future Civilization of Western Africa. By <span class="smcap">W.
+Winwood Reade</span>. With Illustrations and a Map. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00;
+Sheep, $4 50; Half Calf, $6 25.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Schweinfurth’s Heart of Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Heart of Africa; or, Three Years’ Travels and Adventures in the
+Unexplored Regions of the Centre of Africa. From 1868 to 1871. By
+Dr. <span class="smcap">Georg Schweinfurth</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">Ellen E. Frewer</span>. With an
+Introduction by <span class="smcap">Winwood Reade</span>. Illustrated by about 130 Wood-cuts
+from Drawings made by the Author, and with Two Maps. 2 vols., 8vo,
+Cloth, $8 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Speke’s Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. By <span class="smcap">John Hanning
+Speke</span>, Captain H. M. Indian Army, Fellow and Gold Medalist of the
+Royal Geographical Society, Hon. Corresponding Member and Gold
+Medalist of the French Geographical Society, &amp;c. With Maps and
+Portraits and numerous Illustrations, chiefly from Drawings by
+Captain <span class="smcap">Grant</span>. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00; Sheep, $4 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Baker’s Ismailïa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ismailïa: a Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa for the
+Suppression of the Slave-trade, organized by <span class="smcap">Ismail, Khedive of
+Egypt</span>. By Sir <span class="smcap">Samuel White Baker, Pasha</span>, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
+Major-general of the Ottoman Empire, late Governor-general of the
+Equatorial Nile Basin, &amp;c., &amp;c. With Maps, Portraits, and upwards
+of fifty full-page Illustrations by Zwecker and Durand. 8vo, Cloth,
+$5 00; Half Calf, $7 25.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_cat-004" id="page_cat-004"></a>{4}</span></p>
+
+<p class="b">Schliemann’s Ilios.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ilios, the City and Country of the Trojans. The Results of
+Researches and Discoveries on the Site of Troy and throughout the
+Troad in the years 1871-’72-’73-’78-’79; including an Autobiography
+of the Author. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Henry Schliemann</span>, F.S.A., F.R.I. British
+Architects; Author of “Troy and its Remains,” “Mycenæ,” &amp;c. With a
+Preface, Appendices, and Notes by Professors Rudolf Virchow, Max
+Müller, A. H. Sayce, J. P. Mahaffy, H. Brugsch-Bey, P. Ascherson,
+M. A. Postolaccas, M. E. Burnouf, Mr. F. Calvert, and Mr. A. J.
+Duffield. With Maps, Plans, and about 1800 Illustrations. Imperial
+8vo, Cloth, $12 00; Half Morocco, $15 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Schliemann’s Troja.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Troja. Results of the Latest Researches and Discoveries on the Site
+of Homer’s Troy, and in the Heroic Tumuli and other Sites, made in
+the year 1882, and a Narrative of a Journey in the Troad in 1881.
+By Dr. <span class="smcap">Henry Schliemann</span>, Author of “Ilios,” &amp;c. Preface by
+Professor A. H. Sayce. With 150 Wood-cuts and 4 Maps and Plans.
+8vo, Cloth, $7 50; Half Morocco, $10 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Thomson’s Malacca, Indo-China, and China.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China; or, Ten Years’
+Travels, Adventures, and Residence Abroad. By <span class="smcap">J. Thomson</span>. With over
+Sixty Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Spry’s Cruise of the “Challenger.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Cruise of Her Majesty’s Ship “Challenger.” Voyages over many
+Seas, Scenes in many Lands. By <span class="smcap">W. J. J. Spry</span>, R.N. With Maps and
+Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Prime’s Boat-Life in Egypt and Nubia.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Boat-Life in Egypt and Nubia. By <span class="smcap">William C. Prime</span>. Illustrated.
+12mo, Cloth, $2 00.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Vámbéry’s Central Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Travels in Central Asia: being the Account of a Journey from
+Teheran across the Turkoman Desert, on the Eastern Shore of the
+Caspian, to Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand, performed in the year
+1863. By <span class="smcap">Arminius Vámbéry</span>, Member of the Hungarian Academy of
+Pesth, by whom he was sent on this Scientific Mission. With Map and
+Wood-cuts. 8vo, Cloth, $4 50; Half Calf, $6 75.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">MacGahan’s Campaigning on the Oxus.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Campaigning on the Oxus and the Fall of Khiva. By <span class="smcap">J. A. MacGahan</span>.
+With Map and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $3 50.</p></div>
+
+<p class="b">Forbes’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago. A Narrative
+of Travel and Exploration from 1878 to 1883. By <span class="smcap">Henry O. Forbes</span>,
+F.R.G.S., &amp;c. With many Illustrations and Colored Maps. 8vo,
+Ornamental Cloth, $5 00.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Published by HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, New York.</span></p>
+
+<p class="c"><big>☛</big> <span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers</span> <i>will send any of the above works by mail, postage
+prepaid, to any part of the United States or Canada, on receipt of the
+price</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="transcrib" id="transcrib"></a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;">
+<tr><th align="center">Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">the <span class="errata">temperaature</span> of Guayaquil☛ the temperature of Guayaquil {pg 309}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">This is the <span class="errata">ofcial</span> paper☛ This is the oficial paper {pg 340}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">from Alahualpa’s army☛ from Atahualpa’s army {pg 344}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">finds <span class="errata">it way</span> to the sea☛ finds its way to the sea {pg 436}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">“Calle <span class="errata">Viente</span> y Cinco de Mayo”☛ “Calle Veinte y Cinco de Mayo” {pg 609}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">jefe <span class="errata">polico☛</span> jefe politico {pg 617}</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Capitals of Spanish America, by 
+William Eleroy Curtis
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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