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diff --git a/old/50524-0.txt b/old/50524-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5d609ac..0000000 --- a/old/50524-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1328 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Letter of Petrus Peregrinus on the -Magnet, A.D. 1269, by Petrus Peregrinus - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Letter of Petrus Peregrinus on the Magnet, A.D. 1269 - -Author: Petrus Peregrinus - -Translator: Brother Arnold - -Release Date: November 21, 2015 [EBook #50524] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTER OF PETRUS PEREGRINUS ON MAGNET *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE LETTER OF - PETRUS - PEREGRINUS - ON THE MAGNET, A.D. 1269 - - - TRANSLATED BY - BROTHER ARNOLD, M.Sc. - PRINCIPAL OF LA SALLE INSTITUTE, TROY - WITH - INTRODUCTORY NOTICE - BY - BROTHER POTAMIAN, D.Sc. - PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN MANHATTAN - COLLEGE, NEW YORK - - - NEW YORK - McGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY - MCMIV - - Copyright, 1904, by - McGraw Publishing Company - - - - - INTRODUCTORY - - -The magnetic lore of classic antiquity was scanty indeed, being limited -to the attraction which the lodestone manifests for iron. Lucretius -(99-55 B. C.), however, in his poetical dissertation on the magnet, -contained in _De Rerum Natura_, Book VI.[1] recognizes magnetic -repulsion, magnetic induction, and to some extent the magnetic field -with its lines of force, for in verse 1040 he writes: - - Oft from the magnet, too, the steel recedes, - Repelled by turns and re-attracted close. - -And in verse 1085: - - Its viewless, potent virtues men surprise; - Its strange effects, they view with wond’ring eyes - When without aid of hinges, links or springs - A pendant chain we hold of steely rings - Dropt from the stone—the stone the binding source— - Ring cleaves to ring and owns magnetic force: - Those held above, the ones below maintain, - Circle ’neath circle downward draws in vain - Whilst free in air disports the oscillating chain. - -The poet Claudian (365-408 A. D.) wrote a short idyll on the attractive -virtue of the lodestone and its symbolism; St. Augustine (354-430), in -his work _De Civitate Dei_, records the fact that a lodestone, held -under a silver plate, draws after it a scrap of iron lying on the plate. -Abbot Neckam, the Augustinian (1157-1217), distinguishes between the -properties of the two ends of the lodestone, and gives in his _De -Utensilibus_, what is perhaps the earliest reference to the mariner’s -compass that we have. Albertus Magnus, the Dominican (1193-1280), in his -treatise, _De Mineralibus_, enumerates different kinds of natural -magnets and states some of the properties commonly attributed to them; -the minstrel, Guyot de Provins, in a famous satirical poem, written -about 1208, refers to the directive quality of the lodestone and its use -in navigation, as do also Cardinal de Vitry in his _Historia Orientalis_ -(1215-1220); Brunetto Latini, poet, orator and philosopher, in his -_Trésor des Sciences_, a veritable library, written in Paris in 1260; -Raymond Lully, the Enlightened Doctor, in his treatise, _De -Contemplatione_, begun in 1272, and Guido Guinicelli, the poet-priest of -Bologna, who died in 1276. - -The authors of these learned works were too busy with the pen to find -time to devote to the close and prolonged study of natural phenomena -necessary for fruitful discovery, and so had to content themselves with -recording and discussing in their tomes the scientific knowledge of -their age without making any notable additions to it. - -But this was not the case with such contemporaries of theirs as Roger -Bacon, the Franciscan, and his Gallic friend, Pierre de Maricourt, -commonly called Petrus Peregrinus, the subject of the present notice, a -man of academic culture and of a practical rather than speculative turn -of mind. Of the early years of Peregrinus nothing is known save that he -studied probably at the University of Paris, and that he graduated with -the highest scholastic honors. He owes his surname to the village of -Maricourt, in Picardy, and the appellation Peregrinus, or Pilgrim, to -his having visited the Holy Land as a member of one of the crusading -expeditions of the time. - -In 1269 we find him in the engineering corps of the French army then -besieging Lucera, in Southern Italy, which had revolted from the -authority of its French master, Charles of Anjou. To Peregrinus was -assigned the work of fortifying the camp and laying mines as well as of -constructing engines for projecting stones and fire-balls into the -beleaguered city. - -It was in the midst of such warlike preoccupations that the idea seems -to have occurred to him of devising a piece of mechanism to keep the -astronomical sphere of Archimedes in uniform rotation for a definite -time. In the course of his work over the new motor, Peregrinus was -gradually led to consider the more fascinating problem of perpetual -motion itself with the result that he showed, at least diagrammatically, -and to his own evident satisfaction, how a wheel might be driven round -forever by the power of magnetic attraction. - -Elated over his imaginary success, Peregrinus hastened to inform a -friend of his at home; and that his friend might the more readily -comprehend the mechanism of the motor and the functions of its parts, he -proceeds to set forth in a methodical manner all the properties of the -lodestone, most of which he himself had discovered. It is a fortunate -circumstance that this Picard friend of his was not a man learned in the -sciences, otherwise we would probably never have had the remarkable -exposition which Peregrinus gives of the phenomena and laws of -magnetism. This letter of 3,500 words is the first great landmark in the -domain of magnetic philosophy, the next being Gilbert’s _De Magnete_, in -1600. - -The letter was addressed from the trenches at Lucera, Southern Italy, in -August, 1269, to Sigerus de Foucaucourt, his “amicorum intimus,” the -dearest of friends. A more enlightened friend, however, than the knight -of Foucaucourt was Roger Bacon, who held Peregrinus in the very highest -esteem, as the following glowing testimony shows: “There are but two -perfect mathematicians,” wrote the English monk, “John of London and -Petrus de Maharne-Curia, a Picard.” Further on in his _Opus Tertium_, -Bacon thus appraises the merits of the Picard: “I know of only one -person who deserves praise for his work in experimental philosophy, for -he does not care for the discourses of men and their wordy warfare, but -quietly and diligently pursues the works of wisdom. Therefore, what -others grope after blindly, as bats in the evening twilight, this man -contemplates in all their brilliancy because he is a master of -experiment. Hence, he knows all natural science whether pertaining to -medicine and alchemy, or to matters celestial and terrestrial. He has -worked diligently in the smelting of ores as also in the working of -minerals; he is thoroughly acquainted with all sorts of arms and -implements used in military service and in hunting, besides which he is -skilled in agriculture and in the measurement of lands. It is impossible -to write a useful or correct treatise in experimental philosophy without -mentioning this man’s name. Moreover, he pursues knowledge for its own -sake; for if he wished to obtain royal favor, he could easily find -sovereigns who would honor and enrich him.” - -This last statement is worthy of the best utterances of the twentieth -century. Say what they will, the most ardent pleaders of our day for -original work and laboratory methods cannot surpass the Franciscan monk -of the thirteenth century in his denunciation of mere book learning or -in his advocacy of experiment and research, while in Peregrinus, the -mediævalist, they have Bacon’s impersonation of what a student of -science ought to be. Peregrinus was a hard worker, nor a mere theorizer, -preferring, Procrustean-like, to make theory fit the facts rather than -facts the theory; he was a brilliant discoverer who knew at the same -time how to use his discoveries for the benefit of mankind; he was a -pioneer of science and a leader in the progress of the world. - -An analysis of the “Epistola” shows that - -(_a_) Peregrinus was the first to assign a definite position to the -poles of a lodestone, and to give directions for determining which is -north and which south; - -(_b_) He proved that unlike poles attract each other, and that similar -ones repel; - -(_c_) He established by experiment that every fragment of a lodestone, -however small, is a complete magnet, thus anticipating one of our -fundamental laboratory illustrations of the molecular theory; - -(_d_) He recognized that a pole of a magnet may neutralize a weaker one -of the same name, and even reverse its polarity; - -(_e_) He was the first to pivot a magnetized needle and surround it with -a graduated circle, Figs. 2 and 3.[2] - -(_f_) He determined the position of an object by its magnetic bearing as -done to-day in compass surveying; and - -(_g_) He introduced into his perpetual motion machine, Fig. 4, the idea -of a magnetic motor, a clever idea, indeed, for a thirteenth century -engineer. - -This rapid summary will serve to show that the letter of Peregrinus is -one of great interest in physics as well as in navigation and geodesy. -For nearly three centuries, it lay unnoticed among the libraries of -Europe, but it did not escape Gilbert, who makes frequent mention of it -in his _De Magnete_, 1600; nor the illustrious Jesuit writers, Cabæus, -who refers to it in his _Philosophia Magnetica_, 1629, and Kircher, who -quotes from it in his _De Arte Magnetica_, 1641; it was well known to -Jean Taisnier, the Belgian plagiarist, who transferred a great part of -it verbatim to the pages of his _De Natura Magnetis_, 1562, without a -word of acknowledgment. By this piece of fraud, Taisnier acquired -considerable celebrity, a fact that goes to show the meritorious -character of the work which he unscrupulously copied. - -This memorable letter is divided into two parts: the first contains ten -chapters on the general properties of the lodestone; the second has but -three chapters, and shows how the author proposed to use a lodestone for -the purpose of producing continuous rotation. - -There are many manuscript copies of the letter in European libraries: -the Bodleian has six; the Vatican, two; Trinity College, Dublin, one; -the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, one; Leyden, Geneva and Turin, one -each. The Leyden MS. has acquired special notoriety from a passage which -appears near the end of it in which reference is made to magnetic -declination and its value given: but Prof. W. Wenckebach, of The Hague, -has shown[3] that the lines are spurious, having been interpolated in -the manuscript in the early part of the sixteenth century. - -The Leyden manuscript has also led some writers to believe in a -fictitious author of the letter, one Peter Adsiger, or Petrus Adsigerus. -As said above, Sigerus was the name of his countryman, to whom -Peregrinus addressed his letter, the _Epistola ad Sigerum_, from the -trenches at Lucera, in August, 1269. - -Magnetic declination was unknown to Peregrinus, else he would not have -written the following words: “Wherever a man may be, he finds the -lodestone pointing to the heavens in accordance with the position of the -meridian” (Chapter X). Of course, the geographical meridian is the one -here meant, as the necessity of a distinct magnetic meridian had not yet -occurred to any one. - -Nor was this important magnetic element known to Columbus when he sailed -from the shores of the Old World in 1492 as appears from the surprise -with which he noticed the deviation of the needle from North as well as -from the consternation of his pilots. Columbus has the unquestionable -merit of being the first to observe and record the change of declination -with change of place. - -The first printed edition of the Epistola, now very rare, was prepared -by Achilles Gasser, a physician of Lindau, a man well versed in -mathematics, astronomy, history and philosophy. The work was printed in -Augsburg in 1558. A copy of this early print is among the treasures of -the Wheeler collection in the library of the American Institute of -Electrical Engineers, New York. It was from this text that the -translation which follows was made. - -Besides the Latin edition of Gasser, 1558, there is also that of Libri -in his _Histoire des Sciences Mathématiques_, 1838; of Bertelli, 1868, -and Hellmann, 1898. Bertelli’s is a learned and exhaustive work in which -the Barnabite monk, sometimes called by mistake, Barnabita, instead of -Bertelli, collates and compares the readings of the two Vatican codices -with other texts, adding copious references and explanatory notes. It -appeared in the _Bulletino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze -Matematiche e Fisiche_ for 1868. - -Of translations, we have that which Richard Eden made from Taisnier’s -pirated extracts, the first dated edition appearing in 1579. Cavallo’s -_Treatise on Magnetism_, 1800, also contains some of the more remarkable -passages. The only complete English translation that we have, appeared -in 1902 from the scholarly pen of Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, of London. -It is an _édition de luxe_ beautifully rubricated, but limited to 250 -copies. The translation was based on the texts of Gasser and Hellmann, -amended by reference to a manuscript in the author’s possession, dated -1391. We are informed that Mr. Fleury P. Mottelay, of New York, the -learned translator of Gilbert’s _De Magnete_, possesses a manuscript -version by Prof. Peirce, of Harvard, of the Paris codex, of which he -made a careful study in an endeavor to decipher the illegible parts. - - - - - PART I - - - - - THE LETTER OF - PEREGRINUS - - - PART I - CHAPTER I - PURPOSE OF THIS WORK - -Dearest of Friends: - -At your earnest request, I will now make known to you, in an unpolished -narrative, the undoubted though hidden virtue of the lodestone, -concerning which philosophers up to the present time give us no -information, because it is characteristic of good things to be hidden in -darkness until they are brought to light by application to public -utility. Out of affection for you, I will write in a simple style about -things entirely unknown to the ordinary individual. Nevertheless I will -speak only of the manifest properties of the lodestone, because this -tract will form part of a work on the construction of philosophical -instruments. The disclosing of the hidden properties of this stone is -like the art of the sculptor by which he brings figures and seals into -existence. Although I may call the matters about which you inquire -evident and of inestimable value, they are considered by common folk to -be illusions and mere creations of the imagination. But the things that -are hidden from the multitude will become clear to astrologers and -students of nature, and will constitute their delight, as they will also -be of great help to those that are old and more learned. - - - CHAPTER II - QUALIFICATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTER - -You must know, my dear friend, that whoever wishes to experiment, should -be acquainted with the nature of things, and should not be ignorant of -the motion of the celestial bodies. He must also be skilful in -manipulation in order that, by means of this stone, he may produce these -marvelous effects. Through his own industry he can, to some extent, -indeed, correct the errors that a mathematician would inevitably make if -he were lacking in dexterity. Besides, in such occult experimentation, -great skill is required, for very frequently without it the desired -result cannot be obtained, because there are many things in the domain -of reason which demand this manual dexterity. - - - CHAPTER III - CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LODESTONE - -The lodestone selected must be distinguished by four marks—its color, -homogeneity, weight and strength. Its color should be iron-like, pale, -slightly bluish or indigo, just as polished iron becomes when exposed to -the corroding atmosphere. I have never yet seen a stone of such -description which did not produce wonderful effects. Such stones are -found most frequently in northern countries, as is attested by sailors -who frequent places on the northern seas, notably in Normandy, Flanders -and Picardy. This stone should also be of homogeneous material; one -having reddish spots and small holes in it should not be chosen; yet a -lodestone is hardly ever found entirely free from such blemishes. On -account of uniformity in its composition and the compactness of its -innermost parts, such a stone is heavy and therefore more valuable. Its -strength is known by its vigorous attraction for a large mass of iron; -further on I will explain the nature of this attraction. If you chance -to see a stone with all these characteristics, secure it if you can. - - - CHAPTER IV - HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE POLES OF A LODESTONE - -I wish to inform you that this stone bears in itself the likeness of the -heavens, as I will now clearly demonstrate. There are in the heavens two -points more important than all others, because on them, as on pivots, -the celestial sphere revolves: these points are called, one the arctic -or north pole, the other the antarctic or south pole. Similarly you must -fully realize that in this stone there are two points styled -respectively the north pole and the south pole. If you are very careful, -you can discover these two points in a general way. One method for doing -so is the following: With an instrument with which crystals and other -stones are rounded let a lodestone be made into a globe and then -polished. A needle or an elongated piece of iron is then placed on top -of the lodestone and a line is drawn in the direction of the needle or -iron, thus dividing the stone into two equal parts. The needle is next -placed on another part of the stone and a second median line drawn. If -desired, this operation may be performed on many different parts, and -undoubtedly all these lines will meet in two points just as all meridian -or azimuth circles meet in the two opposite poles of the globe. One of -these is the north pole, the other the south pole. Proof of this will be -found in a subsequent chapter of this tract. - -A second method for determining these important points is this: Note the -place on the above-mentioned spherical lodestone where the point of the -needle clings most frequently and most strongly; for this will be one of -the poles as discovered by the previous method. In order to determine -this point exactly, break off a small piece of the needle or iron so as -to obtain a fragment about the length of two fingernails; then put it on -the spot which was found to be the pole by the former operation. If the -fragment stands perpendicular to the stone, then that is, -unquestionably, the pole sought; if not, then move the iron fragment -about until it becomes so; mark this point carefully; on the opposite -end another point may be found in a similar manner. If all this has been -done rightly, and if the stone is homogeneous throughout and a choice -specimen, these two points will be diametrically opposite, like the -poles of a sphere. - - - CHAPTER V -HOW TO DISCOVER THE POLES OF A LODESTONE AND HOW TO TELL WHICH IS NORTH - AND WHICH SOUTH - -The poles of a lodestone having been located in a general way, you will -determine which is north and which south in the following manner: Take a -wooden vessel rounded like a platter or dish, and in it place the stone -in such a way that the two poles will be equidistant from the edge of -the vessel; then place the dish in another and larger vessel full of -water, so that the stone in the first-mentioned dish may be like a -sailor in a boat. The second vessel should be of considerable size so -that the first may resemble a ship floating in a river or on the sea. I -insist upon the larger size of the second vessel in order that the -natural tendency of the lodestone may not be impeded by contact of one -vessel against the sides of the other. When the stone has been thus -placed, it will turn the dish round until the north pole lies in the -direction of the north pole of the heavens, and the south pole of the -stone points to the south pole of the heavens. Even if the stone be -moved a thousand times away from its position, it will return thereto a -thousand times, as by natural instinct. Since the north and south parts -of the heavens are known, these same points will then be easily -recognized in the stone because each part of the lodestone will turn to -the corresponding one of the heavens. - - - CHAPTER VI - HOW ONE LODESTONE ATTRACTS ANOTHER - -When you have discovered the north and the south pole in your lodestone, -mark them both carefully, so that by means of these indentations they -may be distinguished whenever necessary. Should you wish to see how one -lodestone attracts another, then, with two lodestones selected and -prepared as mentioned in the preceding chapter, proceed as follows: -Place one in its dish that it may float about as a sailor in a skiff, -and let its poles which have already been determined be equidistant from -the horizon, i. e., from the edge of the vessel. Taking the other stone -in your hand, approach its north pole to the south pole of the lodestone -floating in the vessel; the latter will follow the stone in your hand as -if longing to cling to it. If, conversely, you bring the south end of -the lodestone in your hand toward the north end of the floating -lodestone, the same phenomenon will occur; namely, the floating -lodestone will follow the one in your hand. Know then that this is the -law: the north pole of one lodestone attracts the south pole of another, -while the south pole attracts the north. Should you proceed otherwise -and bring the north pole of one near the north pole of another, the one -you hold in your hand will seem to put the floating one to flight. If -the south pole of one is brought near the south pole of another, the -same will happen. This is because the north pole of one seeks the south -pole of the other, and therefore repels the north pole. A proof of this -is that finally the north pole becomes united with the south pole. -Likewise if the south pole is stretched out towards the south pole of -the floating lodestone, you will observe the latter to be repelled, -which does not occur, as said before, when the north pole is extended -towards the south. Hence the silliness of certain persons is manifest, -who claim that just as scammony attracts jaundice on account of a -similarity between them, so one lodestone attracts another even more -strongly than it does iron, a fact which they suppose to be false -although really true as shown by experiment. - - - CHAPTER VII - HOW IRON TOUCHED BY A LODESTONE TURNS TOWARDS THE POLES OF THE WORLD - -It is well known to all who have made the experiment, that when an -elongated piece of iron has touched a lodestone and is then fastened to -a light block of wood or to a straw and made float on water, one end -will turn to the star which has been called the Sailor’s star because it -is near the pole; the truth is, however, that it does not point to the -star but to the pole itself. A proof of this will be furnished in a -following chapter. The other end of the iron will point in an opposite -direction. But as to which end of the iron will turn towards the north -and which to the south, you will observe that that part of the iron -which has touched the south pole of the lodestone will point to the -north and conversely, that part which had been in contact with the north -pole will turn to the south. Though this appears marvelous to the -uninitiated, yet it is known with certainty to those who have tried the -experiment. - - - CHAPTER VIII - HOW A LODESTONE ATTRACTS IRON - -If you wish the stone, according to its natural desire, to attract iron, -proceed as follows: Mark the north end of the iron and towards this end -approach the south pole of the stone, when it will be found to follow -the latter. Or, on the contrary, to the south part of the iron present -the north pole of the stone and the latter will attract it without any -difficulty. Should you, however, do the opposite, namely, if you bring -the north end of the stone towards the north pole of the iron, you will -notice the iron turn round until its south pole unites with the north -end of the lodestone. The same thing will occur when the south end of -the lodestone is brought near the south pole of the iron. Should force -be exerted at either pole, so that when the south pole of the iron is -made touch the south end of the stone, then the virtue in the iron will -be easily altered in such a manner that what was before the south end -will now become the north and conversely. The cause is that the last -impression acts, confounds, or counteracts and alters the force of the -original movement. - - - CHAPTER IX - WHY THE NORTH POLE OF ONE LODESTONE ATTRACTS THE SOUTH POLE OF ANOTHER - AND VICE VERSA - -As already stated, the north pole of one lodestone attracts the south -pole of another and conversely; in this case the virtue of the stronger -becomes active, whilst that of the weaker becomes obedient or passive. I -consider the following to be the cause of this phenomenon: the active -agent requires a passive subject, not merely to be joined to it, but -also to be united with it, so that the two make but one by nature. In -the case of this wonderful lodestone this may be shown in the following -manner: Take a lodestone which you may call _A D_, in which _A_ is the -north pole and _D_ the south; cut this stone into two parts, so that you -may have two distinct stones; place the stone having the pole _A_ so -that it may float on water and you will observe that _A_ turns towards -the north as before; the breaking did not destroy the properties of the -parts of the stone, since it is homogeneous; hence it follows that the -part of the stone at the point of fracture, which may be marked _B_, -must be a south pole; this broken part of which we are now speaking may -be called _A B_. The other, which contains _D_, should then be placed so -as to float on water, when you will see _D_ point towards the south -because it is a south pole; but the other end at the point of fracture, -lettered _C_, will be a north pole; this stone may now be named _C D_. -If we consider the first stone as the active agent, then the second, or -_C D_, will be the passive subject. You will also notice that the ends -of the two stones which before their separation were together, after -breaking will become one a north pole and the other a south pole. If now -these same broken portions are brought near each other, one will attract -the other, so that they will again be joined at the points _B_ and _C_, -where the fracture occurred. Thus, by natural instinct, one single stone -will be formed as before. This may be demonstrated fully by cementing -the parts together, when the same effects will be produced as before the -stone was broken. As you will perceive from this experiment, the active -agent desires to become one with the passive subject because of the -similarity that exists between them. Hence _C_, being a north pole, must -be brought close to _B_, so that the agent and its subject may form one -and the same straight line in the order _A B_, _C D_ and _B_ and _C_ -being at the same point. In this union the identity of the extreme parts -is retained and preserved just as they were at first; for _A_ is the -north pole in the entire line as it was in the divided one; so also _D_ -is the south pole as it was in the divided passive subject, but _B_ and -_C_ have been made effectually into one. In the same way it happens that -if _A_ be joined to _D_ so as to make the two lines one, in virtue of -this union due to attraction in the order _C D A B_, then _A_ and _D_ -will constitute but one point, the identity of the extreme parts will -remain unchanged just as they were before being brought together, for -_C_ is a north pole and _B_ a south, as during their separation. If you -proceed in a different fashion, this identity or similarity of parts -will not be preserved; for you will perceive that if _C_, a north pole, -be joined to _A_, a north pole, contrary to the demonstrated truth, and -from these two lines a single one, _B A C D_, is formed, as _D_ was a -south pole before the parts were united, it is then necessary that the -other extremity should be a north pole, and as _B_ is a south pole, the -identity of the parts of the former similarity is destroyed. If you make -_B_ the south pole as it was before they united, then _D_ must become -north, though it was south in the original stone; in this way neither -the identity nor similarity of parts is preserved. It is becoming that -when the two are united into one, they should bear the same likeness as -the agent, otherwise nature would be called upon to do what is -impossible. The same incongruity would occur if you were to join _B_ -with _D_ so as to make the line _A B D C_, as is plain to any person who -reflects a moment. Nature, therefore, aims at being and also at acting -in the best manner possible; it selects the former motion and order -rather than the second because the identity is better preserved. From -all this it is evident why the north pole attracts the south and -conversely, and also why the south pole does not attract the south pole -and the north pole does not attract the north. - - - CHAPTER X - AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSE OF THE NATURAL VIRTUE OF THE LODESTONE - -Certain persons who were but poor investigators of nature held the -opinion that the force with which a lodestone draws iron, is found in -the mineral veins themselves from which the stone is obtained; whence -they claim that the iron turns towards the poles of the earth, only -because of the numerous iron mines found there. But such persons are -ignorant of the fact that in many different parts of the globe the -lodestone is found; from which it would follow that the iron needle -should turn in different directions according to the locality; but this -is contrary to experience. Secondly, these individuals do not seem to -know that the places under the poles are uninhabitable because there -one-half the year is day and the other half night. Hence it is most -silly to imagine that the lodestone should come to us from such places. -Since the lodestone points to the south as well as to the north, it is -evident from the foregoing chapters that we must conclude that not only -from the north pole but also from the south pole rather than from the -veins of the mines virtue flows into the poles of the lodestone. This -follows from the consideration that wherever a man may be, he finds the -stone pointing to the heavens in accordance with the position of the -meridian; but all meridians meet in the poles of the world; hence it is -manifest that from the poles of the world, the poles of the lodestone -receive their virtue. Another necessary consequence of this is that the -needle does not point to the pole star, since the meridians do not -intersect in that star but in the poles of the world. In every region, -the pole star is always found outside the meridian except twice in each -complete revolution of the heavens. From all these considerations, it is -clear that the poles of the lodestone derive their virtue from the poles -of the heavens. As regards the other parts of the stone, the right -conclusion is, that they obtain their virtue from the other parts of the -heavens, so that we may infer that not only the poles of the stone -receive their virtue and influence from the poles of the world, but -likewise also the other parts, or the entire stone from the entire -heavens. You may test this in the following manner: A round lodestone on -which the poles are marked is placed on two sharp styles as pivots -having one pivot under each pole so that the lodestone may easily -revolve on these pivots. Having done this, make sure that it is equally -balanced and that it turns smoothly on the pivots. Repeat this several -times at different hours of the day and always with the utmost care. -Then place the stone with its axis in the meridian, the poles resting on -the pivots. Let it be moved after the manner of bracelets so that the -elevation and depression of the poles may equal the elevation and -depressions of the poles of the heavens of the place in which you are -experimenting. If now the stone be moved according to the motion of the -heavens, you will be delighted in having discovered such a wonderful -secret; but if not, ascribe the failure to your own lack of skill rather -than to a defect in nature. Moreover, in this position I consider the -strength of the lodestone to be best preserved. When it is placed -differently, i. e., not in the meridian, I think its virtue is weakened -or obscured rather than maintained. With such an instrument you will -need no timepiece, for by it you can know the ascendant at any hour you -please, as well as all other dispositions of the heavens which are -sought for by astrologers. - - - - - PART II - - - PART II - CHAPTER I - THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING THE AZIMUTH OF THE SUN - THE MOON OR ANY STAR ON THE HORIZON - -Having fully examined all the properties of the lodestone and the -phenomena connected therewith, let us now come to those instruments -which depend for their operation on the knowledge of those facts. Take a -rounded lodestone,[4] and after determining its poles in the manner -already mentioned, file its two sides so that it becomes elongated at -its poles and occupies less space. The lodestone prepared in this wise -is then enclosed within two capsules after the fashion of a mirror. Let -these capsules be so joined together that they cannot be separated and -that water cannot enter; they should be made of light wood and fastened -with cement suited to the purpose. Having done this, place them in a -large vessel of water on the edges of which the two parts of the world, -i. e., the north and south points, have been found and marked. These -points may be united by a thread stretched across from north to south. -Then float the capsules and place a smooth strip of wood over them in -the manner of a diameter. Move the strip until it is equally distant -from the meridian-line, previously determined and marked by a thread, or -else until it coincides therewith. Then mark a line on the capsules -according to the position of the strip, and this will indicate forever -the meridian of that place. Let this line be divided at its middle by -another cutting it at right angles, which will give the east and west -line; thus the four cardinal points will be determined and indicated on -the edge of the capsules. Each quarter is to be subdivided into 90 -parts, making 360 in the circumference of the capsules. Engrave these -divisions on them as usually done on the back of an astrolabe. On the -top or edge of the capsules thus marked place a thin ruler like the -pointer on the back of the astrolabe; instead of the sights attach two -perpendicular pins, one at each end. If, therefore, you desire to take -the azimuth of the sun, place the capsules in water and let them move -freely until they come to rest in their natural position. Hold them -firmly in one hand, while with the other you move the ruler until the -shadow of the pins falls along the length of the ruler; then the end of -the ruler which is towards the sun will indicate the azimuth of the sun. -Should it be windy, let the capsules be covered with a suitable vessel -until they have taken their position north and south. The same method, -namely, by sighting, may be followed at night for determining the -azimuth of the moon and stars; move the ruler until the ends of the pins -are in the same line with the moon or star; the end of the ruler will -then indicate the azimuth just as in the case of the sun. By means of -the azimuth may then be determined the hour of the day, the ascendant, -and all those other things usually determined by the astrolabe. A form -of the instrument is shown in the following figure. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.—AZIMUTH COMPASS] - - - CHAPTER II - THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BETTER INSTRUMENT FOR THE SAME PURPOSE - -In this chapter I will describe the construction of a better and more -efficient instrument. Select a vessel of wood, brass or any solid -material you like, circular in shape, moderate in size, shallow but of -sufficient width, with a cover of some transparent substance, such as -glass or crystal; it would be even better to have both the vessel and -the cover transparent. At the centre of this vessel fasten a thin axis -of brass or silver, having its extremities in the cover above and the -vessel below. At the middle of this axis let there be two apertures at -right angles to each other; through one of them pass an iron stylus or -needle, through the other a silver or brass needle crossing the iron one -at right angles. Divide the cover first into four parts and subdivide -these into 90 parts, as was mentioned in describing the former -instrument. Mark the parts north, south, east and west. Add thereto a -ruler of transparent material with pins at each end. After this bring -either the north or the south pole of a lodestone near the cover so that -the needle may be attracted and receive its virtue from the lodestone. -Then turn the vessel until the needle stands in the north and south line -already marked on the instrument; after which turn the ruler towards the -sun if day-time, and towards the moon and stars at night, as described -in the preceding chapter. By means of this instrument you can direct -your course towards cities and islands and any other place wherever you -may wish to go by land or sea, provided the latitude and longitude of -the places are known to you. How iron remains suspended in air by virtue -of the lodestone, I will explain in my book on the action of mirrors. -Such, then, is the description of the instrument illustrated below. (See -Figs. 2 and 3.) - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.—DOUBLE-PIVOTED NEEDLE] - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.—PIVOTED COMPASS] - - - CHAPTER III - THE ART OF MAKING A WHEEL OF PERPETUAL MOTION - -In this chapter I will make known to you the construction of a wheel -which in a remarkable manner moves continuously. I have seen many -persons vainly busy themselves and even becoming exhausted with much -labor in their endeavors to invent such a wheel. But these invariably -failed to notice that by means of the virtue or power of the lodestone -all difficulty can be overcome. For the construction of such a wheel, -take a silver capsule like that of a concave mirror, and worked on the -outside with fine carving and perforations, not only for the sake of -beauty, but also for the purpose of diminishing its weight. You should -manage also that the eye of the unskilled may not perceive what is -cunningly placed inside. Within let there be iron nails or teeth of -equal weight fastened to the periphery of the wheel in a slanting -direction, close to one another so that their distance apart may not be -more than the thickness of a bean or a pea; the wheel itself must be of -uniform weight throughout. Fasten the middle of the axis about which the -wheel revolves so that the said axis may always remain immovable. Add -thereto a silver bar, and at its extremity affix a lodestone placed -between two capsules and prepared in the following way: When it has been -rounded and its poles marked as said before, let it be shaped like an -egg; leaving the poles untouched, file down the intervening parts so -that thus flattened and occupying less space, it may not touch the sides -of the capsules when the wheel revolves. Thus prepared, let it be -attached to the silver rod just as a precious stone is placed in a ring; -let the north pole be then turned towards the teeth or cogs of the wheel -somewhat slantingly so that the virtue of the stone may not flow -diametrically into the iron teeth, but at a certain angle; consequently -when one of the teeth comes near the north pole and owing to the impetus -of the wheel passes it, it then approaches the south pole from which it -is rather driven away than attracted, as is evident from the law given -in a preceding chapter. Therefore such a tooth would be constantly -attracted and constantly repelled. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.—PERPETUAL MOTION WHEEL] - -In order that the wheel may do its work more speedily, place within the -box a small rounded weight made of brass or silver of such a size that -it may be caught between each pair of teeth; consequently as the -movement of the wheel is continuous in one direction, so the fall of the -weight will be continuous in the other. Being caught between the teeth -of a wheel which is continuously revolving, it seeks the centre of the -earth in virtue of its own weight, thereby aiding the motion of the -teeth and preventing them from coming to rest in a direct line with the -lodestone. Let the places between the teeth be suitably hollowed out so -that they may easily catch the body in its fall, as shown in the diagram -above. (Fig. 4.) - -Farewell: finished in camp at the siege of Lucera on the eighth day of -August, Anno Domini MCCLXIX. - - - - - NOTES - - - EARLY REFERENCES TO THE MARINER’S COMPASS - -The following are the passages referred to in the introductory notice: - -Abbot Neckam (1157-1217), in his _De Naturis Rerum_, writes: - -“The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy -weather they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the -world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night and they are -ignorant to what point their ship’s course is directed, these mariners -touch the lodestone with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round -in a circle until when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the -north. (_Cuspis ipsius septentrionalem plagam respiciat._)” - -In his _De Utensilibus_, we read: - -“Among other stores of a ship, there must be a needle mounted on a dart -(_habeat etiam acum jaculo superpositam_) which will oscillate and turn -until the point looks to the north, and the sailors will thus know how -to direct their course when the pole star is concealed through the -troubled state of the atmosphere.”[5] - -Alexander Neckam was born at St. Albans in 1157, joined the Augustinian -Order and taught in the University of Paris from 1180 to 1187, after -which he returned to England to take charge of a College of his Order at -Dunstable. He was elected Abbot of Cirencester in 1213 and died at -Kemsey, near Worcester, in 1217. - - -The satirical poem of Guyot de Provins, written about 1208, contains the -following passage: - - The mariners employ an art which cannot deceive, - By the property of the lodestone, - An ugly stone and brown, - To which iron joints itself willingly - They have; they attend to where it points - After they have applied a needle to it; - And they lay the latter on a straw - And put it simply in the water - Where the straw makes it float. - Then the point turns direct - To the star with such certainty - That no man will ever doubt it, - Nor will it ever go wrong. - When the sea is dark and hazy, - That one sees neither star nor moon, - Then they put a light by the needle - And have no fear of losing their way. - The point turns towards the star; - And the mariners are taught - To follow the right way. - It is an art which cannot fail. - -Provins, from which Guyot took his surname, was a small town in the -vicinity of Paris. - - -Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, in his _Historia Orientalis_, Cap. 89, -writes: - -“An iron needle, after having been in contact with the lodestone, turns -towards the north star, so that it is very necessary for those who -navigate the seas.” - -Jacques de Vitry was born at Argenteuil, near Paris, joined the fourth -crusade, became Bishop of Ptolemais, and died in Rome in 1244. He wrote -his “Description of Palestine,” which forms the first book of his -_Historia Orientalis_, in the East, between 1215 and 1220. - - -Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) in his _De Mineralibus_, Lib. II., Tract 3, -Cap. 6, writes: - -“It is the end of the lodestone which makes the iron that touched it -turn to the north (_ad zoron_) and which is of use to mariners; but the -other end of the needle turns toward the south (_ad aphron_).” - -This illustrious Bavarian schoolman joined the Dominican Order in his -youth, lectured to great audiences in Cologne, became bishop of -Ratisbonne in 1260, and died in 1280. Thomas Aquinas the greatest of -schoolmen, was among his pupils. - - -In the Spanish code of laws, begun in 1256, during the reign of Alfonso -el Sabio, and known as _Las Siete Partidas_, we read: - -“Just as mariners are guided during the night by the needle, which -replaces for them the shores and pole star alike, by showing them the -course to pursue both in fair weather and foul, so those who are called -upon to advise the King must always be guided by a spirit of justice.” - - -Brunetto Latini, in his _Trésor des Sciences_, 1260, writes: - -“The sailors navigate the seas guided by the two stars called the -tramontanes, and each of the two parts of the lodestone directs the end -of the needle to the star to which that part itself turns.” - -Brunetto Latini (1230-1294) was a man of great eminence in the -thirteenth century; Dante was among his pupils at Florence. For -political reasons, he removed to Paris, where he wrote his _Trésor_ and -also his _Tesoretto_. He visited Roger Bacon at Oxford about 1260. - - -In his treatise _De Contemplatione_, begun in 1272, Raymond Lully -writes: - -“As the needle, after having touched the lodestone, turns to the north, -so the mariner’s needle (_acus nautica_) directs them over the sea.” - -Lully was born at Palma in the Island of Majorca in 1236; he joined the -Third Order of St. Francis, dying in 1315. - - -Ristoro d’Arezzo, in his _Libro della Composizione del Mundo_, written -in 1282, has the following: - -“Besides this, there is the needle which guides the mariner, and which -is itself directed by the star called the tramontane.”[6] - - -The following metrical translation of a poem by Guido Guinicelli, an -Italian priest, 1276, is from the pen of Dr. Park Benjamin, of New York: - - In what strange regions ’neath the polar star - May the great hills of massy lodestone rise, - Virtue imparting to the ambient air - To draw the stubborn iron; while afar - From that same stone, the hidden virtue flies - To turn the quivering needle to the Bear - In splendor blazing in the Northern skies. - -The above extracts show that the directive property of the magnetic -needle was well known in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy in -the thirteenth century. In the passage from Neckam, the _acum jaculo -superpositam_ has been construed by some to mean a form of pivoted -needle, while in the letter of Peregrinus, 1269, the double pivoted form -is clearly described. - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]With very few exceptions all the works referred to in this notice - will be found in the Wheeler Collection in the Library of the - American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York. - -[2]It is probable that Flavio Gioja, an Italian pilot, some fifty years - later, added the compass-card and attached it to the magnet. - -[3]Annali di Matematica Pura ed Applicata, 1865. - -[4]A terrella, or earthkin. - -[5]The Chronicles and Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland during the - Middle Ages, by Thomas Wright (1863). - -[6]The pole-star was thus named in the south of France and the north of - Italy because seen beyond the mountains (the Alps). - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication and copyright information from the original; this - eBook is public-domain in the U.S. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typographical errors. - -—In the text versions, enclosed italicized text in _underscore_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Letter of Petrus Peregrinus on the -Magnet, A.D. 1269, by Petrus Peregrinus - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTER OF PETRUS PEREGRINUS ON MAGNET *** - -***** This file should be named 50524-0.txt or 50524-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/2/50524/ - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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