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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, The History of Ink, by Thaddeus Davids
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-
-Title: The History of Ink
-       Including Its Etymology, Chemistry, and  Bibliography
-
-
-Author: Thaddeus Davids
-
-
-
-Release Date: November 27, 2015  [eBook #50564]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF INK***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by
-Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
-      file which includes the original illustrations.
-      See 50564-h.htm or 50564-h.zip:
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50564/50564-h/50564-h.htm)
-      or
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50564/50564-h.zip)
-
-
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      https://archive.org/details/historyofinkincl00davi
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-      Words in fonts different from the main text,
-      used to denote emphasis, have been surrounded by
-      _underscores_.
-
-      Superscripts have been indicated by preceding the
-      superscripted letters with ^. When more than one
-      character in a row is superscripted, the letters
-      have been surrounded by {}.
-
-      An attempt has been made to transcribe the handwritten
-      text in plates used to show the different kinds of ink.
-      Where the original text was unclear, dots have been
-      used to mark illegible letters, [] surround illegible
-      but obvious letters, and <> surround letters deleted by
-      the original scribe.
-
-      Hyphens have been added at the end of lines where
-      appropriate.
-
-      Macrons and tildes on consonants within the plates have
-      not been reproduced.
-
-      Longer illegible sections were replaced by [illegible].
-
-      In some cases, a descriptive word or phrase has been
-      added and surrounded by square brackets, for example
-      [Hieratic text].
-
-      Some corrections have been made to the original. These
-      are described in a second transcriber's note at the end
-      of the text.
-
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  THE
-  History
-  OF INK
-
-  VOX DICTA PERIT, LITERA SCRIPTA MANET.
-
-  THADDEUS DAVIDS & CO.
-
-  NEW YORK.
-
-  SNYDER, BLACK & STURM,
-
-  LITHOGRAPHERS, 92 WILLIAM ST. N.Y.]
-
-
-THE HISTORY OF INK
-
-Including Its Etymology, Chemistry, and Bibliography.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-New-York;
-Thaddeus Davids & Co.
-127 William Street.
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-FRANCIS HART & CO.
-
-Printers,
-
-63 Cortlandt St. N.Y.]
-
-
-
-
-
-                          The History of Ink.
-
-
-Ink IS history, in the common acceptation of the word; for, what is
-generally denominated history—is ink diffused on paper in certain
-definite lines. Yet ink has no history written or composed hitherto. In
-view of this deficiency—which betrays a singular negligence (on the part
-of historians and all literary men) and a thoughtless ingratitude to
-this indispensable means of accomplishing and preserving their work—we
-propose to supply the desideratum, by furnishing, on these little pages,
-what is indicated by the above title, in the fullest sense and widest
-scope of the term, including its etymology, its chemistry, and all that
-can be suggested and justified by the title, or fairly demanded under
-it, or claimed from it.
-
-The great common error of general historians, ancient and modern, (with
-a very few exceptions among the moderns,) has been, that they have given
-to the world little else than narrations and descriptions of wars and
-treaties, of governmental changes and political events, omitting to
-record the often far more important facts in the history of literature,
-science, and the arts of utility, by which the progress of civilization
-and the development of the human race in its higher capacities have been
-effected or aided. The great “Instaurator of the Sciences” was the first
-to call attention to these omissions and deficiencies in all previous
-histories, and to indicate the duty of historians to avoid these
-errors,—setting a good example in that respect, in the specimen, or
-model work, which he produced as a pattern,—his history of the reign of
-Henry the Seventh. Since his time, many special histories of inventions
-and of the arts of utility have been written; and the numerous
-cyclopaedists have largely contributed to this object; still, however,
-leaving many vacancies to be filled in this department of human
-knowledge, of which the one before us can not be considered the least
-worthy of the labor needful for its investigation.
-
-
-
-
-                              DEFINITION.
-
-
-The word INK has been variously defined by lexicographers, cyclopaedists
-and chemists; but the following terms may be taken as fully expressing
-the common qualities and essential specific characteristics of all
-substances included under the name.
-
-INK is a colored liquid employed in making lines, characters or figures
-on surfaces capable of retaining the marks so made. The Encyclopaedia
-Britannica, (vol. xii. p. 382, 1856,) gives the following definition:
-“INK.—The term ink is usually restricted to the fluid employed in
-writing with a pen. Other kinds of ink are indicated by a second word,
-such as red ink, Indian ink, marking ink, sympathetic ink, printers’
-ink, etc. Common ink is, however, sometimes distinguished as writing
-ink.”
-
-As to COLOR,—black is and has always been preferred in ordinary uses.
-For ornamental purposes and for occasionally useful distinctions,
-various other tints have been and are adopted—as blue, red, green,
-purple, violet, yellow—and so on, according to the fancy of the maker,
-or purchaser, or consumer.
-
-The substance employed to receive and preserve the marks thus made is
-now almost universally Paper. Parchment is still used in many legal
-documents and writings of form and ceremony. Cotton, linen and silk,
-when woven into fabrics for garments and like uses, are also subjected
-to marks of ink for the purpose of identifying property. So are wooden
-and leathern surfaces in similar conditions. It is also employed in
-writing on stone, in the quite modern art of lithography.
-
-Though its great original and continual employment is in writing, it
-must be remembered that it is also largely used in the delineation of
-objects by artists. Ink and paint are mutually convertible to each
-other’s uses, but are yet so distinct in character and objects, that no
-one regards the words as synonymous, and no precise definition is needed
-to teach the distinction between them. As, for instance, in pen-and-ink
-drawings and sketches, the ink serves the purpose of paint. So likewise
-in the letters on sign-boards, &c. paint may be considered as a
-substitute for ink. The artist who traces his name on the canvas in a
-corner of his painting, employs paint in a similar manner. Printing-ink
-is used as black paint. In the best red inks, carmine (a paint in
-water-colors) is the essential ingredient. Indian Ink is used here only
-as paint,—in China, as ink.
-
-
-
-
-                               ETYMOLOGY.
-
-
-The derivation of the English word “INK,” and of its representatives in
-various modern languages, has caused much perplexity to philologists,
-and has been the subject of many erroneous conjectures. We suffix the
-names by which it is known in those nations who have most employed it:
-
- English,                                                             Ink.
-
- Low-Dutch, Neder-Duytsch, Hollandisch,                              Inkt.
-
- German or Deutsch,                                       Dinte and Tinte.
-
- Old German,                               Anker, Tincta, Tinta and Dinde.
-
- Danish, Norwegian, }                           Blaek, (India Ink, Tusch.)
- Norse, Icelandic,  }
-
- Swedish,                                       Blaeck, (India Ink, Tusk.)
-
- French,                                                            Encre.
-
- Old French,                                                        Enque.
-
- Italian,                                                      Inchiostro.
-
- Spanish,                                                           Tinta.
-
- Portuguese,                                                        Tinta.
-
- Illyrian,                                                         Ingvas.
-
- Polish,                                                          Incaust.
-
- Basque,                                                         Coransia.
-
- Latin,                                                        Atramentum.
-
- Mediæval Latin,                                                Encaustum.
-
- Greek,                                                             Melan.
-
- Hebrew,                                                             D’yo.
-
- Chaldee,                                                          N’kaso.
-
- Arabic,                                                   Nikson, Anghas.
-
- Persian,                                                        S’y’ah’o.
-
- Hindustani, }                          S’yaho, Rosh’na, kali, shira, mas,
- and Hindui, }                                     murakkat, kalik, midad.
-
- Sanscrit,                                                  Kali, (Black.)
-
- Armenian,                                                       Syuaghin.
-
-We might amuse ourselves by extending this tabular list indefinitely.
-Enough, however, has been already shown to illustrate a few remarkable
-facts which we wish to present that are connected with the etymology of
-our subject; but we present a page of Lithographic illustrations which
-will enable any “curious reader” to trace the word further.
-
-No dictionary of the English language gives us any help or light about
-the matter. Webster suggests “_inchiostro_,” (the Italian word,) as the
-source of derivation; and all the Italian lexicographers agree that
-_inchiostro_ is from the later Latin ENCAUSTUM, which is in fact Greek,
-Εγκαυστον, (Encauston,) “_burned-in_ or corroded.” Encaustum became
-corrupted into “_enchaustrum_,” from which the transition to
-“_inchiostro_,” is by the regular form of derivation from the Latin to
-the Italian,—the L before a vowel giving place to a short I—as “_piano_”
-from PLANUS. (The CH, in Italian is always sounded hard, like the
-English K.)
-
-Leaving the French word _encre_ as on the middle ground between
-different etymologies, and affording no light either way,—we find the
-Spanish and Portugese “_tinta_,” and the German (a language widely
-remote from those of the Iberian peninsula in origin and affinities)
-“_dinte, tinte and tincta_,” forcibly reminding us of the Latin
-participle TINCTUS, TINCTA, TINCTUM, from the verb TINGO, which is
-represented in English by TINGE, and other derivatives, such as
-“_tincture_,” &c. We cannot refuse to recognize the Holland-Dutch
-“_Inkt_” as from the same root to which we have thus traced the
-corresponding word in a language which we may call its “cousin-German;”
-and it is hard to exclude the Old French “_Enque_” and modern “_Encre_”
-from this circle of relationship.
-
-Then, we are somewhat impressed by the discovery of the word _Ingvas_ in
-the Illyrian, a language of the Slavonic (or more properly Slovenic)
-stock, like the Polish,—and, like that, enriched by words derived from
-the Latin. The Polish, however, presents us with the actual Graeco-Latin
-_Encaustrum_.
-
-Still more remote from the English and Italian, we find among the
-Orientals of the Shemitish race, ANGHAS and NIKSON in the Arabic, and
-N’KASHO in the Chaldee, with a manifest resemblance in sound, and with
-an actual possession of the same elements and radical letters, N. K. Yet
-we do not think of suggesting that these words had a common origin with
-the corresponding ones in European Languages, though so nearly
-coincident in sound. The case is simply one of accidental resemblance, a
-remarkable coincidence,—(because occurring at three different and remote
-points,) but yet a coincidence not wholly unparalleled.
-
-The probability is that the English word, like the Dutch, German,
-Spanish, &c., came from the Latin TINCTUM, but it may be left “an open
-question;” for if we had not these instances to direct the formation of
-our opinions, we should have no hesitation in acknowledging the Italian
-_Inchiostro_ as the true ETYMON; just as, if we had neither of these in
-view, we might suspect the origin of our word to be in the Oriental
-ANGHAS or NIKSON.
-
-The Ethiopic KALAMA at first sight appears to be related to the
-Hindustani KALI; but the latter is merely the word in all the languages
-of Hindustan for black,—while the former is but a modification of the
-Greek and Latin CALAMUS, a _reed_ or pen,—the instrument (naturally
-enough) giving its name to the liquid which was essential to its use.
-
-The word ENCAUSTUM connects, in a very interesting and instructive
-manner, both with the history and the chemistry or manufacture of our
-modern inks, and is a satisfactory demonstration of the utility of such
-etymological researches as those in which we have been here indulging.
-
-The one great distinction between the ancient and the modern inks is
-this: The old inks were PAINTS; the writing inks now in use by all
-nations (excepting those of Southern Asia) are DYES. That is the whole
-difference.
-
-It would be well to give a definition or limitation of the words
-“Ancient” and “Modern.” No one has done it hitherto. We will not attempt
-to fix the point precisely, but may reasonably say that the period
-intervening between September, A.D. 410, (when Rome was taken by ALARIC
-and his Visigoths) and December 25, A.D. 800, (when Karl the Great,
-otherwise called Charlemagne, was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo with the
-title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire) contains the interval between
-antiquity and modern times.
-
-The introduction of Paper as the common material upon which significant
-characters were to be marked must have had a great agency in producing a
-change in the composition of the liquid employed in making the marks.
-
-PARCHMENT was the substance in use, among all the European nations, as
-the substratum of manuscript, from the time when the Egyptian _papyrus_
-went out of fashion. Both the parchment and the papyrus were written
-upon, by Romans, Greeks and Hebrews, with pens made of small reeds,
-dipped in a fluid composed of _carbon_, (not dissolved, but) held in a
-state of suspension by an oil or a solution of gum.
-
-The letters were originally painted on the surface of the papyrus,
-parchment, board, or other material so employed—the ink not being
-imbibed or absorbed by the substance on which it was shed, but remaining
-on the surface, capable of being removed by washing, scraping, rubbing,
-or any similar process. The surface thus cleansed was then in a state to
-receive a new inscription; so that erasions and inscriptions might be
-indefinitely repeated upon it, as upon a modern sign-board.
-
-MODERN INK, on the contrary, leaves its marks upon paper, parchment,
-&c., by penetrating the material to such a depth that it cannot be
-erased (mechanically) without the removal or destruction of the surface
-which it has _tinged_. Chemical agency, as of various acids, chlorine
-and its compounds, is generally employed, therefore, to discharge the
-color from modern writing-ink-marks. CARBON, in all its common forms,
-(charcoal, bituminous coal, anthracite, jet, plumbago, lignite,
-ivory-black, lamp-black and soot,) is wholly unalterable in color by any
-of these chemical means.
-
-PRINTING INK (which is composed of carbon suspended in a drying oil) is,
-in essential characteristics, identical with the writing-inks of the
-ancient Romans and Greeks. It is impressed upon the surface of paper,
-(that which is _unsized_ or bibulous being commonly preferred,) and is
-retained unchanged by the action of moisture, on account of the
-insolubility of the carbon and the repulsion between oil and water.
-These two forms of ink are therefore the exact opposites of each other,
-in the qualities on which their use and permanence depend. The most
-important peculiarity of the modern writing-ink, as contrasted with the
-ancient, naturally suggested the two names which it bore in the Latin
-and Greek of the middle ages, or (to speak more definitely,) the time of
-its invention and first employment. It was a _Tincta_, a DYE, or STAIN,
-which _tinged_ and _tinctured_ the material on which it was placed,
-entering among its fibres as coloring fluids do into cloth in the
-ordinary processes of manufacture. It penetrated the substance of the
-paper (as caustics or powerful chemical solvents and corrosives act on
-the organic fibre): it _bit in_, or _burned in_,—and was therefore well
-named ENCAUSTON and _Incaustum_.
-
-
-
-
-                    CHEMISTRY or COMPOSITION of INK.
-
-
-We do not propose to furnish recipes, prescriptions, directions or
-instructions for the manufacture of this article. No mere statement in
-words can enable any one to arrive at perfection, or excellence, or
-practical success in the production of this article, or any articles
-whatsoever. A skill and carefulness, which can be acquired only by long
-and laborious experience, are indispensable to the management of the
-various processes. Time is an essential element of success in this
-peculiar art; and that makes absolutely requisite also, two other
-conditions,—_patience_ and _capital_. We shall therefore be brief on
-this point,—referring those who wish for minute details, to the
-cyclopaedias, dictionaries of the arts and sciences, and the larger
-works on practical chemistry. The following we venture to present as the
-most correct account of this subject, derived from the latest scientific
-and practical authorities.
-
-The composition of ink varies according to its colors, and the purposes
-to which it is to be applied.
-
-COMMON BLACK WRITING-INK is the tannate of the sesquoxyd of iron mixed
-with a smaller quantity of the gallate of the sesquoxyd of iron. When in
-the liquid form, it is generally the tannate and gallate of the
-protoxyd; but after being long kept, (or put on the paper and drying
-there,) it absorbs more oxygen from the atmosphere; and thus the saline
-compounds become the per-tannate and per-gallate, which are blacker than
-the tannate and gallate of the protoxyd. It is thus and therefore that
-good modern ink is known by the simple test-quality of darkening by age.
-On the other hand, when writing becomes yellow, pale or indistinct by
-age, it is from the decay of the imperfectly combined vegetable
-astringent,—the marks on the paper or parchment being then little more
-than the stain of the per-oxyd (that is the sesquoxyd) of iron. If the
-written surface be then carefully washed or even moistened with the
-infusion of nut-galls, it will be rendered blacker, and if before
-indistinct will become legible. This may sometimes be better
-accomplished by first applying a weak solution of oxalic acid or very
-dilute muriatic (hydro-chloric) acid, and then delicately laying on the
-infusion of galls.
-
-When the writing paper has been made of inferior rags, bleached with
-chlorine, the best ink used upon it is liable to become discolored.
-
-Nut-gulls or gall-nuts (_Gallæ-tinctoriæ_) are excrescences growing upon
-the leaves or twigs of oak trees, (especially the _Quercus infectoria_,)
-caused by the puncture of an insect (the _Cynips gallæ-tinctoriæ_) which
-deposits its eggs in the perforations thus made. The _Quercus
-infectoria_ is most abundant in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Asia
-Minor, from which countries the galls are brought in large quantities to
-the manufactories of Europe and America. The best are called “ALEPPO
-galls,” from the name of the Syrian city which is the chief original
-market for them. Those from Smyrna are also highly esteemed.
-
-They contain the vegetable astringent principle called _tannin_ in
-greater abundance than any other known substance. This is chemically
-resolved into the acids known as the tannic and gallic. All the woods
-and barks employed in the manufacture of leather by the tanning of hides
-contain this astringent matter in various degrees. The oak and the
-hemlock, for instance, are in extensive and familiar use for this
-purpose in the United States. The blackness of ink, as has been already
-indicated, is derived from the combination of these two acids with
-oxydized iron in saline compounds which are insoluble in water, and are
-therefore precipitated or deposited at the bottom of the fluid, unless
-held mechanically suspended in it, by gum, sugar or some similar
-substance which gives the quality of viscidity to its solutions.
-
-The following will serve as a good formula for making common ink, and
-will be enough to give an idea of the ordinary and general mode of its
-composition:—“Take of Aleppo galls finely bruised, six ounces,—sulphate
-of iron, four ounces,—gum Arabic, four ounces,—water, six pints. Boil
-the galls in the water for about two hours, occasionally adding water to
-supply the loss from evaporation; then add the other ingredients; and
-keep the whole for two months in a wooden or glass vessel, which is to
-be shaken at intervals. Then strain the ink into glass bottles, adding a
-few drops of creosote to prevent mouldiness.”
-
-Besides its property of viscidity, the gum possesses the power of
-preventing the ink from being too fluid: and it also serves to protect
-the vegetable matter from decomposition. The great desideratum or
-requisite is that the ink should flow with perfect freedom from the pen,
-to allow rapid writing, and that it should adhere to the paper, or “bite
-into it,” so as not to be effaceable by washing or sponging. The great
-defect to be avoided and prevented is the want of durability. The
-writing ink of the ancients was characterized by great permanency, being
-composed of finely pulverized carbon mixed with a mucilaginous or
-adhesive liquid. INDIA or CHINA INK is of this composition: it is formed
-of lamp-black and size or fine animal glue, with the incidental addition
-of perfumes. It is used in China with a brush, both for writing and
-painting on Chinese paper; and it is employed in other countries for
-making drawings in black and white,—the different depths of shade being
-produced by varying the degree of dilution in water.
-
-Inks of other colors than black were anciently used only for purposes of
-ornamental and decorative writing. In later and present times, red and
-blue inks have been extensively employed in ruling account-books and
-other paper for like uses. Blue ink, within ten or more years past, has
-been, with many, a preferred fluid for common writing.
-
-Blue ink, when properly made, flows with great ease and rapidity from
-the pen, dries almost instantly on the paper, and has been supposed or
-expected to be quite durable, and unchangeable in color, under ordinary
-vicissitudes. Yet, experience has demonstrated the contrary,—though
-various and well-contrived chemical combinations have been attempted for
-the purpose. Blue inks that change to black some time after writing are
-very popular. On well-made and high-priced paper, and with gold pens,
-such inks, if prepared by good chemists, may ultimately prove worthy of
-the high esteem in which they are held; but their absolute and
-unchangeable durability is yet to be tested by experience, before they
-can be safely employed for writings of permanent value, and relied on
-for use in making records designed for preservation and reference during
-a long course of years.
-
-There is a compound of bichromate of potash and extract of logwood,
-which forms a very cheap and convenient writing fluid. Dr. Ure
-pronounces it “a vile dye.” Yet it may have its utilities, in localities
-remote from the centres of civilization and commerce,—as in the new
-settlements in western America, in Australia, &c., and for travelers in
-Africa, in the Arctic and other barbarous or uninhabited regions. The
-following is the best formula which can be given for this compound; and
-we present it on the highest chemical authority:—“Take Bichromate of
-potash, 1-4 oz.—Extract of logwood 1 oz.—Boiling water, 1 gallon.”
-
-We have taken the trouble to give this prescription or formula, because
-some quacks have been peddling it all over the country, at all sorts of
-prices, varying (according to the credulity and liberality of
-purchasers) from 50 cents to $250. We give it for just what it is worth;
-and that is—exactly what this book costs the reader.
-
-
-
-
-                             BIBLIOGRAPHY.
-
-
-The longest and most valuable passage which we find in the writings of
-any English author, who has alluded to our subject, is the following,
-from “THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF WRITING,” by Thomas Astle, F. R. S., F.
-A. S. &c., pp. 209 to 212, 2d edition, London, 1803.
-
-“OF INKS. Ink has not only been useful in all ages, but still continues
-absolutely necessary to the preservation and improvement of every art
-and science, and for conducting the ordinary transactions of life.
-
-“Daily experience shows that the most common objects generally prove
-most useful and beneficial to mankind. The constant occasion we have for
-Ink evinces its convenience and utility. From the important benefits
-arising to society from its use, and the injuries individuals may suffer
-from the frauds of designing men in the abuse of this necessary article,
-it is to be wished that the legislature would frame some regulation to
-promote its improvement, and prevent knavery and avarice from making it
-instrumental to the accomplishment of any base purpose.
-
-“Simple as the composition of Ink may be thought, and really is—it is a
-fact well known, that we have at present none equal in beauty and color
-to that used by the ancients; as will appear by an inspection of many of
-the manuscripts above quoted, especially those written in England in the
-times of the Saxons. What occasions so great a disparity? Does it arise
-from our ignorance, or from our want of materials? FROM NEITHER, _but
-from the negligence of the present race_; as very little attention would
-soon demonstrate that we want neither skill nor ingredients to make Ink
-as good now as at any former period.
-
-“It is an object of the utmost importance that the Records of
-Parliament, the Decisions and Adjudications of the Courts of Justice,
-Conveyances from man to man, Wills, Testaments, and other Instruments
-which affect property, should be written with Ink of such durable
-quality as may best resist the destructive powers of time and the
-elements. The necessity of paying greater attention to this matter may
-be readily seen by comparing the Rolls and Records that have been
-written from the fifteenth century to the end of the seventeenth, with
-the writings we have remaining of various ages from the fifth to the
-twelfth century. Notwithstanding the superior antiquity of the latter,
-they are in excellent preservation; but we frequently find the former,
-though of more modern date, so much defaced that they are scarcely
-legible.
-
-“Inks are of various sorts, as—encaustic or varnish, Indian ink, gold
-and silver, purple, black, red, green, and various other colors. There
-were also secret and sympathetic Inks.
-
-“The Ink used by the ancients had nothing in common with ours, but the
-color and gum. Gall-nuts, copperas and gum make up the composition of
-our Ink; whereas soot, or ivory-black, was the chief ingredient in that
-of the ancients; so that very old charters might be suspected, if
-written with Ink entirely similar to what we use; but the most acute and
-delicate discernment is necessary in this matter; for some of the
-[black] Inks formerly used were liable to fade and decay, and are found
-to have turned red, yellow or pale. Those imperfections are however rare
-in manuscripts prior to the tenth century.
-
-“There is a method of reviving the writing; but this expedient should
-not be hazarded, lest a suspicion of deceit may arise, and the support
-depended on [be] lost.
-
-“GOLDEN Ink was used by various nations, as may be seen in several
-libraries, and in the archives of churches. SILVER Ink was also common
-in most countries. Red Ink, made of vermilion, cinnabar, or purple, is
-very frequently found in manuscripts; but none are found written
-entirely with ink of that color. The capital letters, in some, are made
-with a kind of varnish, which seems to be composed of vermilion and gum.
-Green Ink was rarely used in charters, but often in Latin manuscripts,
-especially in those of the latter ages. The guardians of the Greek
-emperors [or rather the Regents of the Empire] made use of it in their
-signatures, till the latter [the monarchs during minority] became of
-age. Blue or Yellow Ink was seldom used but in _manuscripts_.[!!!] The
-yellow has not been in use, as far as we can learn, for six hundred
-years.
-
-“Metallic and other characters were sometimes burnished. Wax was used as
-a varnish by the Latins and Greeks, but much more by the latter, with
-whom it continued a long time. This covering or varnish was very
-frequent in the ninth century.
-
-“COLOR. The color of Ink is of no great assistance in authenticating
-manuscripts and charters. There is in my library a long roll of
-parchments, at the head of which is a letter that was carried over the
-greatest part of England by two devout monks, requesting prayers for
-Lucia de Vere, Countess of Oxford, a pious lady, who died in 1199,—who
-had formed the house [or convent] of Henningham in Essex, and done many
-other acts of piety. This roll consists of many membranes or skins of
-parchment sewed together,—all of which, except the first, contain
-certificates from the different religious houses that the two monks had
-visited them, and that they had ordered prayers to be offered up for the
-Countess, and had entered her name on their bead-rolls. It is observable
-that time hath had very different effects on the various inks with which
-these certificates were written. Some are as fresh and black as if
-written yesterday; others are changed brown; and some are of a yellow
-hue. It may naturally be supposed that there is a great variety of
-handwritings upon this; but the fact is otherwise, for they may be
-reduced to three.
-
-“It may be said in general, that BLACK ink of the seventh, eighth, ninth
-and tenth centuries, at least among the Anglo-Saxons, preserves its
-original blackness [thereby meaning that its “form had not lost all its
-original _brightness_”] much better than that of succeeding ages,—not
-even excepting the sixteenth and seventeenth, in which it was frequently
-very bad. Pale ink very rarely occurs before the four last centuries.
-[Illustration]
-
-“Peter Caniparius, Professor of Medicine at Venice, wrote a curious book
-concerning Ink, which is now scarce, though there is an edition of it
-printed in London, in 1660, quarto. The title is—_De Atramentis
-cujuscunque generis opus sanè novum. Hactenus à nemine promulgatum._ [A
-WORK ACTUALLY NEW, CONCERNING INKS OF EVERY KIND WHATSOEVER,—HITHERTO
-PUBLISHED BY NO ONE.] This work is divided into six parts. The _first_
-treats generally of Inks made from PYRITES, [sulphurets of iron and
-copper,] stones and metals. The _second_ treats more particularly of
-Inks made from metals and CALXES. [Better say _calces_, or, to speak
-chemically, crystallized salts deprived of their “water of
-crystallization,” or carbonic acid, by the action of heat.]—The _third_
-treats of Ink made from soots and vitriols.—The _fourth_ treats of the
-different kinds of Inks used by the _librarii_ or book-writers,
-[professional scribes or copyists of manuscripts before the invention of
-the art of Printing,] as well as by printers and engravers, and of
-staining (or writing upon) marble, stucco or scagliola, and of ENCAUSTIC
-modes of writing; as also of liquids for painting or coloring of
-leather, cloths made of linen or wool, and for restoring inks that have
-been defaced by time, as likewise many methods of effacing
-writing—restoring decayed paper—and of various modes of secret
-writing.—The _fifth_ part treats of Inks for writing, made in different
-countries, of various materials and colors,—as from gums, woods, the
-juice of plants, &c., and also of different kinds of varnishes.—The
-_sixth_ part treats of the various operations of extracting vitriol, and
-of its chemical uses.
-
-“This work abounds with a great variety of philosophical, chemical and
-historical knowledge, and will give great entertainment to those who
-wish for information on this subject.
-
-“Many curious particulars concerning Ink will be found in “_Weckerus de
-Secretis_.” (Printed at Basle, in 1612, octavo.)—This gentleman also
-gives receipts for making Inks of the color of Gold and Silver, composed
-as well with those materials as without them,—also, directions for
-making a variety of Inks for secret writing, and for defacing of
-[effacing] Inks. There are many marvelous particulars in this last work,
-which will not easily gain credit with the judicious part of mankind.”
-
-We have chosen to give Mr. Astle’s paragraphs on this subject, entire,
-“pure and simple,” (with no corrections or alterations, except as to a
-few particulars in spelling, punctuation, &c.,) including some
-unnecessary formal verbiage,—instead of embodying his facts and
-observations in our own language. We shall do likewise with other
-authors whose books we use in this work, as the most effectual way of
-giving each of them due credit for their several discoveries and
-statements, and, at the same time, securing our own just claims to what
-we herein present as of our own discovery or production. But we will
-give no credit to a mere compiler or plagiarist.
-
-Mr. Astle was keeper of the ancient Records of the English Government in
-the Tower of London, and thus enjoyed extraordinary facilities for
-ascertaining such facts, and making such observations as he furnishes in
-his very useful, interesting, and elegantly illustrated book. As to what
-he says (in his seventh paragraph) about the inexpediency of “hazarding”
-any effort to revive writing which has faded or become illegible, from
-fear of “a suspicion of deceit,”—the caution must of course be limited
-to cases where the words proposed to be restored to legibility have
-reference to some question of disputed title, or other matter in
-litigation or controversy. Mr. Astle would not have hesitated (any more
-than Angelo Mai) to use any possible process for the restoration of a
-_palimpsest_ manuscript of a long-lost work of Cicero or Livy, or of any
-document worth the labor and the time requisite to revive the letters or
-read them. Mr. Astle’s slight lapse of pen or mind in stating (eighth
-paragraph) that “Blue or yellow ink was seldom used except in
-_manuscripts_,” reminds us of Noah Webster’s reason, given in the first
-edition of his quarto dictionary, for the use of the word “Iland”
-instead of “Island,” viz., that the latter spelling was “found only in
-books.” Perhaps the venerable Mr. Astle would have been as much
-astonished to learn that he himself had always written manuscript,
-whenever he put pen to paper, as the _Bourgeois Gentilhomme_, in
-Moliere’s comedy, was to learn that he “had been speaking prose all his
-life.”
-
-A comparatively recent author gives the following as the sum and
-substance of his knowledge on this division of the subject of our book.
-
-
-
-
-                             WRITING-INKS.
-
-
-Dark-colored liquids were used to stain letters previously engraved on
-some hard substance, long before they were made to flow in the calamus
-or pen for forming them on a smooth surface; and the Chinese made their
-“Indian Ink” in the same manner as now, 1120 years before the Christian
-Era; but, only used it, at that time, to blacken incised characters.[1]
-Ink was termed by the ancient Latin authors _atramentum scriborium_,[2]
-or _librarium_, to distinguish it from _atramentum sutorium_ or
-_calchantum_. It was made of the soot of resin, or pounded charcoal, and
-other substances, mixed with gum, and not, like ours, of vitriol,
-gall-nuts, alum, &c. The earliest positive mention of ink is perhaps the
-passage in Jeremiah, in the Vulgate, “_Ego scribebam in volumine,
-atramento_.”[3]
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  Here we might add, without fear of contradiction, that _Ink_ is still
-  extensively used to “blacken characters,” without regard to the depth
-  of the incision.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  The specimen of the English language which we quote, is not faultless;
-  and the _Latin_ is execrable. There is no such word as _scriborium_ in
-  any language, ancient or modern. The Romans called writing-ink
-  _atramentum scriptorum_.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  _This_ is a very paltry piece of pedantry. Why could not this author
-  (who shows that he does not understand _Latin_,) give us the text in
-  English? The passage is in Jeremiah, chap. XXXVI, verse 18: “I wrote
-  them with _Ink_ in a book.” The only other references in the Bible to
-  _Ink_, are the following: 2 Corinthians, III, 3: “written not with
-  _Ink_, but the spirit.” 2 John, XII: “I would write with paper and
-  _Ink_.” 3 John, XIII: “I had many things to write, but I will not with
-  _Ink_.” Ezekiel, IX, 2: “with a writer’s _ink_-horn by his side.”
-
-Gold liquids, and also silver, purple, red, green, and blue inks, were
-eventually used in manuscripts after the fourth century,—red and gold
-having been employed much earlier. St. Jerome speaks of rich
-decorations, which must have been executed with colored inks; but,
-before his time, Ovid alludes not only to the purple _charta_, made use
-of for fine books, which were also tinged with an oil drawn from
-cedar-wood, to preserve them, but, also to titles written in red ink,
-which were the first kind of illuminations. The passage occurs in his
-first elegy, “Ad Librum:”
-
-              “_Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo;
-              Non est conveniens luctibus ille color.
-              Nec titulus minio, nec cedro charta notetur.
-              Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras._”
-
-The last line proving, as Casley observes, that Ovid wrote upon a
-_roll_.
-
-This author, not having been kind enough to translate Ovid for us, we
-are compelled to do it for him. This “Elegy” of the poet is addressed
-“To his Book;” and the following words contain the meaning of the four
-lines above quoted:
-
- _Nor shall huckleberries stain [literally, VEIL] thee with purple juice:
- That color is not becoming to lamentations.
- Nor shall title (or “head-letter”) be marked with vermilion, or paper
-    with cedar,
- Thou shalt carry neither white nor black horns on thy forehead (or
-    front, or frontispiece)._
-
-  The word “huckleberries,” we have rightly spelled here. The
-  dictionaries generally are wrong in spelling the word
-  “whortleberry.” Huckleberry, or Hockleberry, is found in the kindred
-  languages of Northern Europe.
-
-
-Diplomas were seldom written in gold or colored inks; but some charters
-of the German Emperors are known, not only in gold, but on purple
-vellum; and Leukfeld mentions one of the year 912, ornamented also with
-figures; while several early English charters have gold initial letters,
-crosses, &c. The black ink that has kept its color best, in mediaeval
-manuscripts, is that used from the tenth to the thirteenth century. The
-signatures of the Eastern Emperors are frequently in red ink.
-
-Colored inks were common in mediaeval manuscripts,—the red being most
-usual for titles, which has given rise to the term _Rubric_. The writers
-of books (that is, the copyists,) often appended their names to the end
-of the work, generally in ink of a different color from that of the body
-of the work, stating the time and place in which the work was executed.
-
-To this may be added, with advantage, some instructive account of
-
-
-
-
-                          WRITING INSTRUMENTS,
-
-
-whose history is closely connected, to a great extent, with that of
-writing FLUIDS.
-
-The Egyptian, and all other oriental and ancient scribes, who wrote upon
-stone, employed (of course) some instrument similar in character to the
-chisel of our modern tomb-stone cutters, or monument letterers. So with
-the Greeks and Romans, writing on surfaces of wax or wood, the
-instruments were the graphium, or glypheion, (the graver,) and the
-stilus, or caelum, all of steel or iron. When the use of a dark-colored
-liquid or _Ink_ was introduced, there arose a necessity for instruments
-of very different material, and great flexibility, in opposition to the
-unyielding rigidity of the tools previously employed. Then were invented
-the first implements properly called Pens, or really resembling what we
-so denominate and use. These were universally made of vegetable
-material, growing in the tubular form, of convenient size, as the
-_calamus_, _arundo_, _juncus_, and, in general terms, the smaller stems
-of various plants called “reeds” and “rushes” in English. We have
-already mentioned the uniform employment of the hair-pencil, or brush,
-by the Chinese, from the most ancient time of their writing. The quill,
-or feather-pen, was introduced during the fourth century.
-
-We have alluded to the _palimpsest_ manuscripts. This is the term
-applied to parchments that have been twice written upon,—the first
-writing being effaced to make room for the second. During the period
-commonly called “the dark ages,” the monks and other scribes, copyists
-or book-makers, were in the habit of effacing the letters from old
-manuscripts, in order to make a clean surface for a new writing. In this
-way was caused the deplorable destruction of an immense and an
-inestimably valuable amount of ancient literature, of Greek and Roman
-history, poetry, eloquence and philosophy, merely to make room for
-mass-books, and other works of stupid superstition and mis-directed
-devotion, or, of scholastic theology and philosophy, now long ago
-universally condemned and exploded. Within the past and present
-generation, however, the learned world has been delighted by the
-surprising recovery of some of these long-lost treasures, through the
-skilful and ingenious labors of the deservedly famous Cardinal Angelo
-Mai, and others, whose researches in the libraries of Rome, Milan,
-Padua, Naples, Florence, and other cities, have resulted in the
-restoration of inestimably precious writings, thus partially obliterated
-or obscured.
-
-Brande’s Dictionary of Literature, Science, and Art, gives a brief
-summary of the same general facts in the article “Palimpsest.”
-
-The fullest and most elaborate exposition of the composition and
-manufacture of Ink which we have been able to find, however, is in the
-great French “Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,” by an association
-of distinguished _savans_, in two volumes, imperial octavo, Paris, 1853,
-article, ENCRE.
-
-But, of all articles and treatises on the subject, which we have
-examined, that in the English Penny Cyclopaedia has the merit of
-containing, if not the best and longest account, a very good and
-satisfactory one,—because it expresses all the essential facts in the
-fewest and best-chosen because perfectly intelligible words. As we do
-not attempt to furnish a text-book for ink-manufacturers, we do not
-transcribe in full, or translate, from these and other works of great
-value on this subject.
-
-That modern inks do not resist the decomposing and destructive power of
-chemical agents (whether acids, alkalies, saline bodies or elements,) as
-well as the ancient inks, is the result of a necessity existing in their
-very composition and invention, and even in the use for which they were
-designed, and to which they are applied. A _dye_ (like modern ink) is
-the result of chemical action, and is therefore subject to chemical
-re-agents; yet, when well made, it is proof against mechanical action,
-such as washing, rubbing, and scraping; nor can it be removed from paper
-to which it is applied, without destroying that material, or rendering
-that part of it practically useless. But, on the other hand, the ancient
-inks, which resist all chemical processes, can be removed by mechanical
-action, such as has been named. If a new ink were compounded of the two,
-possessing the best properties of each, any writing executed with it
-could be effaced by the joint or successive action of mechanical and
-chemical applications.
-
-It must be borne in mind that the ancient inks had one use for which
-writing ink is now never required; and that was in making books, or
-multiplying copies of manuscripts indefinitely for _general reading_, or
-_publication_. The invention and universal employment of the art of
-printing has wholly done away with that.
-
-Of INDELIBLE INKS, or those used for marking fabrics of cotton, linen,
-&c., for the identification of ownership, it is not necessary to give
-any particular description. Their ordinary composition is very generally
-understood to be a solution of nitrate of silver, or some similar
-caustic, applied with a pen of proper material, to a portion of the
-surface of the cloth, which has been previously prepared by the
-absorption of a gummy or mucilaginous fluid dried upon it under
-pressure.
-
-SYMPATHETIC INKS are fluids employed in coloring drawings made for
-parlor amusement, or the diversion of children and youth. As, for
-instance, a landscape drawn in ordinary colors with a wintry aspect,
-cloudy or sombre sky, snow on the ground, and leafless trees, if
-properly touched with sympathetic inks, will, at any time, when brought
-near a fire, or otherwise subjected to a certain degree of warmth,
-change to the hues of summer, the sky becoming of a clear blue, the
-trees in full foliage, and the turf rich with grass, each with its
-appropriate shade of verdure, as also flowers of their various natural
-colors, &c., according to the fancy of the artist, the whole
-disappearing as the picture grows cold. The chloride, the nitrate, the
-acetate, and the sulphate of cobalt, form sympathetic inks,—the first,
-blue, and (with the addition of nickel,) green; the second, red.
-Chloride of copper gives a gamboge yellow; bromide of copper, a fine
-rich brown.
-
-Letters written with a solution of acetate of lead, are invisible until
-exposed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, which makes them
-distinct, with the lustrous greyish black of sulphuret of lead, the same
-substance which is called galena when it occurs as lead-ore. A weak
-infusion of galls or other vegetable astringent, will, if applied to
-paper in the form of letters, become legible when touched with any
-solution of iron. If written with a solution of ferro-cyanide of potash,
-letters will remain invisible until touched with a solution of sulphate
-of iron.
-
-
-
-
-                        IMPORTANCE OF GOOD INK.
-
-
-Astle speaks very impressively and justly on this point; and we
-contribute to this part of our subject by calling attention to facts
-almost daily occurring or brought to notice in this country, especially
-in the older cities and states, where town-records, parish-registers,
-and other documents of ancient date, and of high importance in history,
-chronology, and genealogy, (as well as in regard to the title and
-inheritance of estates,) are found obscured and obliterated, causing
-losses, public and private, that need but to be mentioned to be properly
-estimated.
-
-In the appendix will be found a fac-simile of a sheet upon which various
-specimens of ink were thoroughly and fairly tested, which is a brief but
-emphatic demonstration of a difference of qualities by difference of
-results.
-
-To show what can be done in the preservation of writing on material even
-frailer than such paper as we employ, we need but produce the specimen
-of Egyptian writing on papyrus, pronounced by Champollion to have been
-executed more than sixteen hundred (1600) years before the birth of
-Christ, yet still in preservation and legible, as may be seen by the
-representation we give of it.
-
-This is undoubtedly as old as any specimen of phonetic characters or
-written letters (representing sounds, not ideas or objects,) extant,
-made by marking with a fluid upon any substance. There are inscriptions
-of letters upon stone, for which an earlier date of 4000 years B.C., is
-claimed with truth. But this is INK-writing, absolutely 3500 years old!
-
-The Chinese assert that they had the art of writing at a period 2950
-years before Christ; but they have no records or monuments of that date;
-and their characters even to the present time, are entire words,
-representing objects, ideas or things, not sounds. In the art of
-printing, they pretend to have preceded the European nations about 2400
-years, dating their invention of it from the tenth century before
-Christ. But they have never advanced beyond the first form of the
-art—letters engraved on solid wooden blocks—the very method in use by
-Koster, and his associates, until the invention of moveable types by
-John Gansfleisch, otherwise named John Gutenberg or Guttemberg, in 1435.
-In both arts, writing and printing alike, the Chinese have remained
-stiff, solid and immovable at the first step, with the characteristic
-unchangeability of the yellow races of Eastern Asia, so opposite to the
-indefinitely progressive and self-improving energy of the nations whose
-progenitors proceeded west from the original source and centre of the
-earth’s population. The same ink serves the Chinese both for writing and
-printing, as does the same kind of paper. This ink they invented about
-the end of the first century of the Christian era; before which time
-they wrote on boards or bamboos. Having next proceeded to the use of
-silken cloth for these purposes, the preparation of paper from that
-material naturally followed. Their ink, being carbonaceous and
-oleaginous, is, of course, (like that of the Egyptians and all the other
-ancients,) unfading, and unalterable by chemical agencies, though
-capable of being effaced or obscured by watery applications or exposure.
-
-As to their claim of having _invented_ the art of printing, we shall
-have something to say hereafter.
-
-The Aztecs (in Mexico, before the Spanish discovery and conquest,)
-extensively employed a picture-writing, as a means of recording events,
-during a period not exceeding two centuries before that epoch. They had
-the art of manufacturing materials as a basis of such writing, from the
-_Agave_ or American aloe, and from cotton, in the form of a very fine
-cloth. They also used prepared skins for the same purpose, the best
-specimens of which are pronounced to be more beautiful than the finest
-vellum. Their manuscripts were sometimes done up in rolls or scrolls,
-and frequently on tablets, in the form of a folding-screen. Their inks
-appear to have been coloring matters in watery solutions.
-
-The oldest Phoenician ink-writing of which any specimen has been
-preserved, dates no later than the second century before Christ, and may
-be much older.
-
-A fac-simile of a portion of it will be found among our illustrations,
-explained by notes referring to each by its number.
-
-Greek manuscripts in ink (on papyrus), of the third century before
-Christ, are in existence. We give specimens of the oldest known,—one
-written in Egypt, 260 B.C., being an order from Dioscorides, an officer
-of the government of Ptolemy Philadelphus, to another named Dorion. The
-translation of the words is “Dioscorides to Dorion, greeting. Of the
-letter to Dorion the copy is subjoined.” * * * We add other specimens,
-of the same and later periods.
-
-Of Latin writing with ink, the earliest we can find is the palimpsest of
-Cicero’s book, “De Republica,” which had been partly effaced to make
-room for a copy of Augustin’s commentary on the Psalms. It is believed
-by the learned that the original manuscript was executed at least as
-early as the second or third century of the Christian era. The
-restoration of this manuscript, and the discovery of this long-lost and
-earnestly sought classic gem, were the work of Cardinal Mai, as before
-mentioned. The original words are TETERRIMUS ET EX HAC VEL——, and are
-written in two columns on the page, while the later writing runs
-completely across the page.
-
-Of the earliest writing executed in France, after that country received
-its name from those who conquered it, we give a specimen from the
-beginning of a charter of King Dagobert I, executed A.D. 628. The words
-are—“QUOTIESCUMQUE PETITIONIBUS”—“However many times to petitions,” &c.
-It is a confirmation of a partition of property between two heirs. The
-monogrammatic autograph of the Great Karl, (in modern times called
-Charlemagne,) we present also as an object of interest. A.D. 800.
-
-The oldest specimen of writing in Great Britain which has been preserved
-to the nineteenth century, was a book believed to be not later than the
-year 600 of the Christian era. Astle has preserved an engraved specimen
-of it; but the priceless original has since been destroyed by fire in
-the British Museum. It was said to be a book of Augustin. A specimen
-still in existence, dates between the years 664 and 670. It is a charter
-of Sebbi, King of the East Saxons, and is easily read:—“I, Sebbi, King,”
-&c. We subjoin a few words from the commencement of a charter of William
-the Conqueror, whose reign commenced in England, A.D. 1066:—WILL: DEI
-GRA^{TIA} REX, &c., SCIATIS ME CONCESSISSE—“William, by the grace of God,
-King &c.: Know ye that I have granted—”
-
-ISAAC D’ISRAELI, in his Curiosities of Literature, (vol. 2, page 180, of
-the Boston edition,) gives a treatise on the “Origin of the Materials of
-Writing.” He commences it with these remarkable words: “It is curious to
-observe the various substitutes for paper before its discovery.”
-
-Now, of all “curiosities of literature,” this little sentence is, in
-many respects, the most curious. He talks of substitutes for a thing not
-in existence, and not even a subject of imagination, conjecture, or
-conception. The name of D’Israeli does not indicate an IRISH origin, but
-there is a strong affinity between this and those curiosities of
-literature commonly called “Irish bulls.” As for instance, it reminds us
-of the couplet composed by an Irish officer of a garrison in the
-Scottish Highlands, in commemoration of the “good works” of General
-Wade, who had caused excellent military roads to be made through some of
-the previously almost impassable morasses of that region.
-
-        “_Had you seen these roads before they were made,
-        You’d have lifted your hands and blessed General Wade._”
-
-Now, by way of comment on D’ISRAELI, we will say that “it is very
-curious,” and moreover very strange, if not ridiculous, that he and
-ASTLE, (from whom he copies without a full and fair acknowledgment,)
-while “deeply complaining of the inferiority of our inks to those of
-antiquity,” have utterly failed to ascertain the cause or even to notice
-the occasion of it. They, as well as other writers on the subject,
-observe the excellence of the ink employed in manuscripts of earlier
-ages, down to the twelfth century, and the inferiority of the ink used
-from that period down to the close of the seventeenth century, without
-turning attention to the great historical fact that the FIRST PAPER-MILL
-in Europe was established in that same twelfth century.
-
-A peculiar CACHEXY (a variety of the disease known to psycho-nosologists
-as the _cacoëthes scribendi_,) seems to be hereditary in the D’Israeli
-family. BENJAMIN D’ISRAELI, (the son of Isaac,) late Chancellor of the
-Exchequer, &c., when he rose in his place, as the Head or Representative
-of Her Majesty’s government in the House of Commons, to pronounce a
-eulogy on the recently deceased Duke of Wellington, had the impudence to
-repeat, word for word, a very bald translation of the _éloge_ delivered
-by Lamartine a few years previous, on occasion of the death of one of
-the third-rate marshals of Napoleon I.
-
-The D’Israeli family are evidently “some” of the children of Israel,
-who, (as we are told on good authority,) when they left Egypt _borrowed_
-everything they could get, and never, so far as the record shows, either
-returned the articles so obtained, or made proper acknowledgments
-therefor.
-
-The Chinese did manufacture paper from the bark of the small branches of
-a tree of the mulberry genus, (_Morus Multicaulis_?) and also from old
-rags, silk, hemp, and cotton, as early as the second century of the
-Christian era; and it is supposed that from them the Arabs derived their
-knowledge of paper-making, an art which they introduced into Europe in
-the former half of the twelfth century, when the first paper-mill was
-put in operation in Spain, then under the Moorish dominion; and, in
-1150, this article, as manufactured by them, had become famous
-throughout Christendom.
-
-[We use the words Arab and Moor indiscriminately here. The former is the
-name of the race; the latter is limited to that portion found in
-Northern Africa. The Moor is the Arab of the WEST, (Al Mogreb, El
-Gharb,) in the Arabic, denominated MOGREBYN,—a word which in Roman and
-European mouths has smoothed and softened itself into a form suggestive
-of the origin of _Maurus_ and _Mauritania_.]
-
-Now, without coming to a positive conclusion on this subject, we feel
-authorized to pronounce what appears to be a reasonable opinion, derived
-from all the facts which we have just placed before the reader,—that the
-introduction of writing-paper among Europeans, was the occasion and
-cause of the invention and general employment of modern writing-ink by
-them.
-
-The fact that the vegetable astringents form a deep or bluish black
-color, when combined with a salt of iron, had been known from time
-immemorial. Among the Romans, the _atramentum sutorium_,—“shoemaker’s
-ink,”—was applied to a solution of sulphate of iron employed by them, as
-it is even to this day, by workers in leather, to blacken the surface of
-that material. This it does by uniting chemically with the tannin and
-gallic acid, by which the hide was converted into leather, whose
-blackened particles are therefore essentially identical with modern ink.
-The “copperas-water” is to be found in every shoemaker’s shop, where it
-is used to color the cut edges of the heels and the rest of the soles.
-
-As soon as the difficulty of writing with convenience and rapidity on
-paper, with the ancient carbonaceous ink, became manifest, the resort to
-the _atramentum sutorium_ as a substitute for the _atramentum
-scriptorium_, was a matter of course, and was but a simple adaptation of
-a familiar substance to a new purpose, requiring no great ingenuity, and
-no invention whatever.
-
-For a time, perhaps through a period of several centuries, a mixture of
-the two kinds of ink was employed by the Romans; and this was
-undoubtedly the best composition that was ever invented for the purpose
-of deliberate, careful, elegant writing, designed and required to be
-permanent and unchangeable under constant exposure and handling,—as in
-the case of manuscript books before the art of printing was known. Even
-as early as the first century of the Christian era, in the time of Pliny
-the Younger, and probably long before that, a solution of sulphate of
-iron was commonly or frequently added to the carbonaceous and oleaginous
-mixture which we have described as the original writing-ink. In short,
-the _atramentum sutorium_ was added, in moderate quantity, to the
-_atramentum scriptorium_, thus constituting it a CHEMICAL as well as a
-MECHANICAL ink. So, modern ink may be improved in blackness, durability
-and beauty, and rendered unchangeable in color under the action of the
-chlorides, acids, &c., by the intermixture of a small quantity of the
-very finest carbon, in the form of an impalpable powder. But, the great
-difficulty is—that the carbon clogs the pen, and renders the ink too
-thick to flow easily, so that it can never be used for rapid or ordinary
-writing. We can not give, in our own words, a better account of this
-matter than we find in the language of a very learned author in the
-Edinburgh Review, (volume 48, Dec. 1828).
-
-The article here cited is entitled “THE RECOVERY OF LOST WRITINGS,” and
-is nominally a review of [1]GAII INSTITUTIONUM COMMENTARII:
-[2]INSTITUTES DE GAIUS, RECEMMENT DECOUVERTES DANS UN PALIMPSESTE DE LA
-BIBLIOTHEQUE DE CHAPITRE DE VERONE. [3]JURISCONSULTI ANTE-JUSTINIANEI
-RELIQUIAE INEDITAE, _ex codice rescripto Bibliothecae Vaticanae_,
-_curante_ ANGELO MAIO, _Bibliothecae ejusdem Praefecti_. The article
-begins on page 348 of this volume of the Review.
-
-We quote from page 366;—“The ink which the ancients generally used, was
-composed of lamp-black mixed with gum, as we are informed by Dioscorides
-and others, who give the receipt [recipe?] for making it. Ink of this
-kind may be called carbonic: it possesses the advantages of extreme
-blackness and durability, the writing remaining fresh so long as the
-substance on which it is written exists; but as it does not sink into
-the paper, it is liable to the great inconvenience of being easily and
-entirely removed; for, if a wet sponge be applied to it, the writing may
-be washed away, and no traces of the characters will remain. The
-facility with which documents might be thus obliterated, gave occasion
-to fraud, as an artful forger was able to remove such portions of the
-original writing as he might desire to get rid of, and thus profit by
-the absence of material words, or insert in the blanks which he had
-made, such interpolations as might serve his turn. Many common
-accidents, by which books and writings were exposed to wet, or even to
-damp, were also fatal, or at least highly injurious, to compositions and
-muniments of great value. Various expedients were therefore attempted to
-remedy an imperfection from which many must have suffered severely.
-PLINY informs us that it was usual, in his time, to mix vinegar with the
-ink, to make it _strike into the paper or parchment_, and that it, in
-some degree, answered the purpose. It should seem that vitriolic ink,
-such as we use at present, was also adopted soon afterwards, which
-possesses, in perfection, the quality that was desired of sinking
-instantly into the paper, so as to make it far more difficult to
-discharge it without destroying the texture on which it is written, and
-of being perfectly secure against water, by which Indian and other
-carbonic Inks are so easily effaced. IT IS NOT, however, EQUALLY SECURE
-AGAINST THE EFFECTS OF TIME; for vitriolic ink gradually fades away,
-becomes paler by degrees, turns brown and yellow, and is scarcely
-legible; and sometimes, as the parchment grows yellow and brown with
-age, it disappears altogether. A compound kind of ink came next into
-use, which united the advantages and avoided the defects of the two
-simple sorts. Such a mixed ink was generally used for several centuries;
-and with this, the manuscripts that are now most fresh and legible
-appear to have been written. It is evident that the ink with which the
-original works contained in the Palimpsest manuscripts that have been
-deciphered were written, was at least in part vitriolic: for the letters
-which had been rubbed out _were rendered legible by the application of
-the infusion of galls_. In order to remove the original writing, the
-parchments on which the mixed ink had been used were, probably, first
-washed to take off the carbon, and thus partially to efface the
-characters, and were afterwards scraped or rubbed with pumice, or some
-other suitable substance, to complete the process of destruction, by
-taking away mechanically the color that the vitriolic portion of the ink
-still preserved. It is but too probable that many manuscripts, the
-characters of which were entirely formed of the more ancient carbonic
-ink, have been entirely destroyed, the letters having been washed off
-completely, and by the same simple means as the writing of a school-boy
-on a slate; whilst the parchment still remains in our libraries, and is
-covered with more modern compositions which have sacrilegiously and too
-successfully usurped the place of more ancient and more valuable matter.
-The tirades of Cyril or of Jerome, or the tawdry eloquence of
-Chrysostom, are perhaps firmly established in quarters from whence [?]
-the Margites of Homer, or the comedies of Menander, were miserably
-dislodged.
-
-“A manuscript is called Palimpsest, from the adjective παλιμψαιστος or
-παλιμψηστος, signifying twice rubbed; NOT as the glossary of Du Cange
-(_membrana iterum abrasa—charta deletilis_) would seem to denote,
-because the parchment had twice undergone abrasure, or the writing been
-twice obliterated, but because it had been twice prepared for writing,
-which was principally effected by rubbing it with pumice, first in the
-course of manufacture, after the original skin had been cured, and again
-by the same process, after the original writing had been taken away by
-washing, or in any other manner. The strict and precise sense of
-Palimpsest is therefore ‘twice prepared for writing;’ the repetition of
-such preparation being the prevailing idea in the etymology, and _not
-erasure_, as some have erroneously supposed. It is said to be easy to
-remove from modern parchment, especially if what is written be of some
-standing, all traces of writing, by rubbing it with pumice, or similar
-substances; and if the surface be afterwards polished, no one, by merely
-looking on it, will ever suppose that it had ever been written upon;
-but, if it be washed by _an infusion of galls_, the letters will be so
-far restored, particularly if it be suffered to remain some time in the
-light, that it may be copied by a patient and practiced person, who is
-gifted with good eyes:—so deeply had the iron entered into the soul of
-the parchment! If the erased letters were written in a bold large hand,
-the task of deciphering them will of course be less troublesome, and the
-results more sure. And such are the characters of the more ancient
-manuscripts; for, the older the manuscript, the better and more legible
-is the writing, as approaching more nearly to the ages of civility and
-refinement. The method of writing in old times is also favorable, it is
-said, to the restoration of works apparently obliterated. The scribe did
-not use a flowing ink, nor a finely pointed pen, as modern writers are
-wont; nor was a small quantity applied so lightly and sparingly as to
-dry almost as fast as it touches the paper. The ancient ink was thick
-with gum, and was supplied copiously by a pen with a broad point,
-usually made of a reed; and the characters were _painted_ rather than
-written, the ink rather resembling paint or varnish than our thin
-liquor. As they rarely wrote in books, it was not necessary that the
-page should dry speedily, or be dried by means of sand and
-blotting-paper, in order to prevent the loss of time, and that the
-penman might turn over the leaf immediately; the loose sheets or leaves,
-on the contrary, which were only to be bound up when the whole was
-completed, were left to dry slowly, so that the pools of ink which
-formed the letters, stood long on the surface of the parchment; and that
-part of the fluid which was of a penetrating nature was gradually
-absorbed, and sunk deeply into the substance of the skin, so as to
-preserve to us—if we be not wanting to ourselves in diligence—many
-precious relics of ancient lore. The restoration of the original writing
-in a palimpsest manuscript will be best explained by referring to one of
-the many kinds of sympathetic ink, which is in truth, making common ink
-_ex post facto_, or uniting the ingredients of which it is composed,
-after the fact of writing. If we write with water in which copperas has
-been dissolved, the letters will be invisible; but when the paper has
-been washed over with an infusion of galls, they will appear gradually,
-and will in time become tolerably legible; the ink being thus formed
-upon the paper, although much less perfectly, than in the ordinary
-maceration.”
-
-Little or nothing can be added to the full and elaborate history of
-ancient and modern inks which is contained in this extract,—so thorough
-and complete in its analysis of the subject, and so clear in its
-distinct statements of the results of investigations in which some of
-the most acute minds of Europe have long been successfully employed,
-that we will not linger upon it with mere verbal criticism.
-
-We can not present a more striking illustration of the change in the
-composition of inks about the time of the invention of the art of
-printing, than is furnished by the annexed fac-simile of a page in the
-BIBLIA PAUPERUM, (“Bible for poor folks,”) the oldest printed book in
-the world. This extraordinary book is of uncertain date. (No printed
-book has a date prior to 1457.) There are, as we believe, only two
-copies of it in America, one in the possession of JAMES LENOX, of
-New-York,—the other in the ASTOR LIBRARY.
-
-The maker of this book was the unconscious inventor of the art of
-printing. Wood-engraving was in use for ages before it occurred to the
-mind of man that a letter might be as easily reproduced in that way as a
-picture or figure. To convey scriptural history to the minds of the
-common people, the wood-engravers (whose art was invented to multiply
-and cheapen the production of PLAYING-CARDS) made little pictures
-representing scenes described, and events narrated, in the Bible. For
-the benefit of the few who could read, it was customary to write on the
-margin, or at the foot, of the page on which the woodcut was printed, a
-few words descriptive of the subject or object delineated. This was
-always done with a pen, by a regular scribe, until, one day, it occurred
-to the wood-engraver employed on the _Biblia Pauperum_, that these words
-might be as easily engraved as the figures to which they referred, and
-of which they were the explanation. He put that idea in practice: and in
-an instant the sublime ART OF PRINTING was an “accomplished fact.”
-
-The advocates of the claims of Koster, Gansefleisch, (or Gutenberg,)
-Faust (or Fust,) and Schoeffer, to this invention, have wasted much
-labor in bringing forth conflicting testimony about them. The
-long-forgotten and now wholly unknown wood-engraver of the _Biblia
-Pauperum_ had preceded them by half of a generation. Such books were in
-existence before A.D. 1420; and the earliest date which the Haarlaem
-Dutchmen set up for the first printing of their fellow-townsman,
-Lawrence Koster, is 1428. And his pretensions are after all very
-dubious. Indeed they have been generally condemned as utterly fabulous
-by bibliographical critics and typographical historians.
-
-We introduce it here to show the _color_ and the (thereby indicated)
-composition of the INK employed. It was _writing-ink_. It contained
-sulphate of iron (copperas), in combination with vegetable astringent
-matter, and with very little carbon. The vegetable substance,
-imperfectly united to the mineral ingredient, has (in obedience to the
-laws of organic matter) been decomposed and “resolved into its original
-elements.” It has disappeared; but the IRON remains with its yellow
-stain, an imperishable memorial of that humble, nameless workman, more
-enduring than that which the plaintive man of Uz desired; for if those
-words had been “graven with an IRON PEN and lead in the rock _forever_,”
-that anticipated eternity might have faded of realization by the action
-of the rain, the frost, the dust, and innumerable imaginable atmospheric
-vicissitudes, or, (what is worse,) “the wrath of man.”—Some Cambyses
-might have demolished the rock itself, and left no more of the
-inscription than can now be read of those once carved on the cliffs of
-Edom, the God-created walls of Petra in the valley of EL GHOR.
-
-This pale rusty WORD-STAMPING on the fragile and easily combustible
-paper, has outlasted the inscriptions once visible in gigantic
-characters on the four sides of the Memphitic pyramids; and it is only
-an incidental result of the intelligence diffused and the learning
-promoted by the invention thus begun, that we can now read the
-long-buried records of Nineveh, the epitaphs of the Thebaic kings, and
-the gravings on the precipitous fronts of the mountains which surround
-the ruins of Persepolis.
-
-All writers upon this subject have strangely overlooked the fact that
-the art of impressing or printing letters with a metallic stamp or type
-on parchment, as a substitute for pen-work, is about a thousand years
-older than the period above specified as the date of the invention of
-the modern art of printing. The CODEX ARGENTEUS, (the oldest translation
-of the entire Bible into any European language,) is a famous book, in
-the Library of the University of Upsala in Sweden.
-
-(We give the particulars of its history in our Appendix.)
-
-This “antique” is on purple _vellum_, (which is parchment made of
-_calf-skin_,) and all the letters are SILVER, (whence the name Codex
-Argenteus, the “silver book,”) manifestly impressed on the page by a
-metallic stamp or type, each letter evidently being on a separate stock
-or handle, and applied by manual pressure. We give a specimen of this
-style of work. It may be called printing, but can not be denominated
-_manuscript_, for that is (literally) “hand-writing,” which this
-certainly is not.
-
-In our Appendix may be found still earlier instances of this art as
-practiced by the ancient Romans on a small scale, in signatures,
-trade-marks, &c.
-
-The Edinburgh review refers to Pliny and Dioscorides, as furnishing
-directions for the manufacture of ink. The Edinburgh reviewer says
-“receipts,”—not recognizing the broad distinction between a _receipt_
-and a _recipe_. The former of these two words was originally intended to
-convey the idea that the person who signs the paper has _got_ something:
-the latter word, or its representative initial (℞) means simply,
-“_take_.”
-
-The directions of Pliny are in the following words:—
-
-                 C. Plinii Secundi Historia Naturalis.
-
-                            Lib. XXXV, §25.
-
-                             _ATRAMENTUM._
-
-  Atramentum quoque inter factitios erit, quanquam est et terra geminæ
-  originis. Aut enim salsuginis modo emanat, aut terra ipsa sulphurei
-  coloris ad hoc probatur. Inventi sunt pictores, qui e sepulcris
-  carbones infectos effoderent. Importuna haec omnia, et novitia. Fit
-  enim e fuligine pluribus modis, resina vel pice exustis. Propter
-  quod, officinas etiam aedificavere, fumum eum non emittentes.
-  Laudatissimum eodem modo fit e tedis. Adulteratur fornacum
-  balnearumque fuligine, quo ad volumina scribenda utuntur. Sunt qui
-  et vini faecem exsiccatam excoquant; adfirmantque, si ex bono vino
-  faex fuerit, Indici speciem id atramentum praebere. Polygnotus et
-  Micon celeberrimi pictores Athenis, e vinaceis facere: tryginon
-  appellant. Apelles commentus est ex ebore combusto facere, quod
-  elephantinum vocavit. Adportatur et Indicum, inexploratae adhuc
-  inventionis mihi. Fit etiam apud infectores ex flore nigro, qui
-  adhaerescit aheneis cortinis. Fit et e tedis ligno combusto,
-  tritisque in mortario carbonibus. Mira in hoc sepiarum natura: sed
-  ex his non fit. Omne autem atramentum sole perficitur, librarium
-  gummi, tectorum glutino admixto. Quod autem aceto liquefactum est,
-  aegre eluitur.
-
-                             (TRANSLATION.)
-
-“INK (or literally) BLACKING.—Ink also may be set down among the
-artificial (or compound) drugs, although it is a mineral derived from
-two sources. For, it is sometimes developed in the form of a saline
-efflorescence,—or is a real mineral of sulphureous color—chosen for this
-purpose. There have been painters who dug up from graves colored coals
-(CARBON). But all these are useless and new-fangled notions. For it is
-made from soot in various forms, as (for instance) of burnt rosin or
-pitch. For this purpose, they have built manufactories not emitting that
-smoke. The ink of the very best quality is made from the smoke of
-torches. An inferior article is made from the soot of furnaces and
-bath-house chimneys. There are some (manufacturers) also, who employ the
-dried lees of wine; and they DO say that if the lees so employed were
-from good wine, the quality of the ink is thereby much improved.
-Polygnotus and Micon, celebrated painters at Athens, made their black
-paint from burnt grape-vines; they gave it the name of TRYGYNON.
-APELLES, we are told, made HIS from burnt ivory, and called it
-elephantina “ivory-black.” Indigo has been recently imported,—a
-substance whose composition I have not yet investigated. The dyers make
-theirs from the dark crust that gradually accumulates on brass-kettles.
-Ink is made also from torches (pine-knots), and from charcoal pounded
-fine in mortars. “The cuttle-fish” has a remarkable quality in this
-respect; but the coloring-matter which it produces is not used in the
-manufacture of ink. All ink is improved by exposure to the sun’s rays.
-Book-writers’ ink has gum mixed with it,—weaver’s ink is made up with
-glue. Ink whose materials have been liquified by the agency of an acid
-is erased with great difficulty.”
-
-
-This sounds very much like nonsense: but it is exactly what the “Great
-Naturalist,” Pliny, meant when he wrote all that _he_ knew, and probably
-all that was then known on the subject of ink, black paints and dyes,
-and very dark-colored fluids generally, which were then employed by
-painters, dyers, weavers, writers and physicians. To make his chapter on
-this subject fully intelligible to us, we must bear in mind the fact,
-that the great science of _Chemistry_ had no existence till many
-centuries after Pliny wrote. And thus, it never occurred to him that
-there was but one substance, (now known to be elementary,) CARBON, which
-gave the quality of blackness to all the materials which he names, with
-the exception of one salt of copper, and probably one of iron, (the
-sulphate,) and INDIGO, a purely vegetable substance, the dried coloring
-matter of a plant in India, (_Indicofera anil_,) and named by the Romans
-from the country that produced it, and first made it known to them.
-
-PEDANIUS DIOSCORIDES, born in Anazarbus, (a city of Cilicia, about fifty
-miles from TARSUS, the birth-place of the Apostle Paul,) wrote a book on
-the Materia Medica, or the qualities of drugs, a little after the time
-when Pliny composed his Natural History. Neither of them seems to have
-been acquainted with the writings of the other. Apparently, they lived,
-wrote and died nearly or actually cotemporary, in the same empire,
-utterly ignorant of each other’s existence,—though they are now
-universally recognized as the two most eminent writers of all antiquity
-on the subjects of Natural History and the Materia Medica. They both
-lived in the reign of Nero, and the date of the active or middle part of
-both their lives may be reasonably placed at or about the year 100 of
-the Christian Era.
-
-From Dioscorides to LINNÆUS, (in the last century,) the Materia Medica
-made no actual progress and received no scientific improvement; yet,
-eminent as is Dioscorides, he was so little known to his own generation
-or that next following, that it is now impossible to ascertain the exact
-date of his birth or of his death, or any facts in his life, but that he
-wrote two books, of which that here quoted is the best known, and has
-made him known 1700 years after his birth.
-
-(We may mention that this Dioscorides was, in no traceable degree,
-related to the person of the same name, whose manuscript we have copied
-in our illustrations as the oldest extant specimen of Greek
-ink-writing.)
-
-We give a translation of his brief but complete description of the ink
-used in his time, and the Latin version, that those who wish may satisfy
-themselves of the correctness of our rendering. It will be seen that it
-occurs at the close of the great work of Dioscorides:—
-
-  Atramentum, quo scribimus, e fuligine taedarum collecta conficitur.
-  In singulas gummi uncias ternae fuliginis unciae adjiciuntur. Fit
-  etiam e resinae fuligine et pictoria illa modo dicta. Hujus
-  fuliginis autem sumi oportet minam unam, gummi sesquilibram, taurini
-  glutinis et chalcanthi singulorum sesquiunciam. Idoneum est ad
-  septica; et confert ambustis ex aqua paullo crassius inunctum et
-  tamdiu dimissum, donec cicatrix obducatur, sanatis nimirum ulceribus
-  sponte sua excidit.
-
-  Atque jam, carissime Aree, tum pro operis modo, quem proposueramus,
-  tum pro materiae auxiliorumque copia, quam colligere licuit,
-  hucusque dicta sufficiant.
-
-  Libri quinti et ultimi de Materia Medica finis.
-
-  Pedanii Dioscoridis Anazarbei De Materia Medica.
-
-                             [TRANSLATION.]
-
-[The] “INK with which we write is composed of the soot of torches,
-collected.
-
-“To each ounce of gum, add three of soot.
-
-“It is also made of the soot of resin and of that lately called
-‘painters’ black.’ Of this soot, however,—take one MINA,—of gum, half a
-pound,—of ox-glue and of copperas, each, half an ounce.
-
-“It is a good application in cases of gangrene, and is useful in scalds,
-if a little thickened and employed as a salve, and permitted to remain
-until a new cuticle is formed, when it will spontaneously fall off from
-the healed sore.
-
-“And now, my very dear Areas, in due proportion to the work which we had
-undertaken, and the quantity of the materials and contributions which we
-could gather, what we have thus far said must suffice.
-
-“End of the fifth and last book on The Materia Medica.
-
-“[The book] of Pedanius Dioscorides on the Materia Medica.”
-
-We have followed the text of Karl Gotleib Kuhn. _Medicorum Graecorum,
-opera quae extant._ Leipzig, 1829.
-
-Among the fantastic trifles with which DEAN SWIFT was accustomed to
-amuse his leisure, is a little string of verses on this subject which
-are appended, not as being of any poetic merit, but as a “curiosity of
-literature”—not out of place here:—
-
-
-                                On Ink.
-
-              _I am jet black, as you may see,
-              The son of pitch and gloomy night;
-              Yet all who know me will agree
-              I’m dead, except I live in light._
-
-              _Sometimes in panegyric high,
-              Like lofty Pindar, I can soar,
-              And raise a virgin to the sky,
-              Or her to a * * * * *_
-
-              _My blood this day is very sweet,
-              To-morrow of a bitter juice;
-              Like milk, ’tis cried about the street
-              And so applied to different use._
-
-              _Most wondrous is my magic power:
-              For with one color I can paint.
-              I’ll make the devil a saint this hour,
-              Next make a devil of a saint._
-
-              _Through distant regions I can fly,
-              Provide me with but paper wings,
-              fairly show a reason why
-              There should be quarrels among kings._
-
-              _And, after all, you’ll think it odd,
-              When learned doctors will dispute,
-              That I should point the word of God,
-              And show where they can best confute._
-
-              _Let lawyers bawl and strain their throats,
-              ’Tis I that must the lands convey,
-              And strip their clients to their coats,—
-              Nay, give their very souls away._
-
-We find also in Pope’s epistle of Heloise to Abeillard an allusion to
-the power of letters, as conveying ideas, which seems appropriate in
-this connexion as illustrating the uses of ink.
-
-        _Heaven first taught letters for some wretch’s aid,
-        Some banished lover, or some captive maid:
-        They live, they speak, they breathe what love inspires,
-        Warm from the soul, and faithful to its fires;
-        The virgin’s wish without her fears impart,
-        Excuse the blush, and pour out all the heart,
-        Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,
-        And waft a sigh from Indus to the pole._
-
-The genius of BYRON (in a playful flash) has illuminated our subject
-with one of his most brilliant passages:—
-
-         _But words are things: and a small drop of INK,
-         Falling like dew upon a thought, produces
-         That which makes thousands (perhaps millions) think._
-
-A less distinguished poet has, in expressive, and though in quainter,
-humbler, yet in noble strain, said what is equally appropriate in this
-place:—
-
-              _Books are a part of man’s prerogative:
-              In formal INK, they thought and voices hold,
-              That we to them our solitude may give,
-              And make time present travel as of old._
-
-CELSUS, who lived in this world, about the commencement of the Christian
-era, has left a little memorandum on this subject which is worth
-quoting.
-
-We give his words entire:—
-
-There are two kinds of bald spots occurring on the human head,—one of
-them a baldness which creeps over the scalp like a serpent,—the other
-showing itself in the form of round spaces uncovered by hair. Some
-recommend the use of acrid irritant articles, combined with oils, &c.
-But there is nothing better for you than to have the bald place shaved
-every day with a [very dull] razor, and, after having done that, you
-needn’t do anything else but rub on the place thus shaved a little
-_atramentum sutorium_—(“shoemakers’ ink,” “copperas-water,”)—[solution
-of the Di-proto sulphate of the (per) sesquoxyd of iron].
-
-The editor of the printed copy of the edition of the works of AULUS
-CORNELIUS CELSUS which was printed in Padua, made a material error on
-this point.
-
-The word “sutorium” (being unintelligible to the ignorant monk who
-superintended the printing) was changed to “scriptorium,”—that is,
-“writing-ink,” instead of “shoemakers’-ink.” It is well-known that a
-solution of copperas properly made, will remedy or prevent premature
-baldness; but we assert that no quantity of lamp-black and gum, or
-grease, will be found effectual for that purpose.
-
-In the time of Celsus, the sulphate of iron (copperas) had not yet
-become an essential ingredient of writing-ink; and even after that its
-combination with carbonaceous and oleaginous matters entirely
-neutralized the power which renders it applicable and useful in such
-cases.
-
-
-
-
-                              CONCLUSION.
-
-
-We have thus herein attempted the fulfilment of the promise (with which
-we began) to produce a “HISTORY OF INK,”—a thing never before done or
-even proposed to be done. If not successful in our attempt, we hope that
-we have at least, in this little book, furnished hints and suggestions
-on this subject which the learned may employ hereafter when the history
-of this important material of history shall be undertaken and executed
-on a larger scale. In view of which possibility, we may, with a
-pardonable self-gratulation, say,—in the words of Martin Luther,—“We
-have given to other and higher spirits occasion to reflect.”
-
-But we are loth to leave this subject (which has grown into our
-affections as we have dwelt upon it) without giving a blow or a kick to
-one monstrous absurdity which has prevailed among the learned, “falsely
-so-called,”—from the time when the Jesuits returned from China with
-their “edifying and curious” tales about the huge antiquity of all the
-arts and some of the sciences of civilization among the people of what
-they called the “Celestial Empire,”—a term wholly unknown to the
-Chinese, in any form or variation of expression.
-
-The simple facts are that—the Chinese derived their knowledge of INK (of
-writing with a colored liquid) from Europe. So did they obtain their
-knowledge of the art of printing, carried to them by Venetian travelers,
-“overland,” just at the moment before the clumsy engraved wood-blocks
-were superseded by the moveable types of Gansefleisch or Gutenberg. So
-was it with the Mariner’s Compass, the manufacture of gunpowder, and all
-their boasted “inventions,”—among which may be included their
-calculation of eclipses backward through fabulous cycles of centuries,
-and the morals of Confucius or Kong-foo-tsee, a mythical personage
-unmentioned in the history of China until the contents of the New
-Testament had been made known there,—and _that_—many ages after the date
-of his supposed life and death.
-
-But for their derivation and appropriation or theft of the great arts
-from the West, the Chinese and all Oriental nations, from the Euphrates
-to the Pacific, including the Japanese, would have remained to this day
-in the condition in which the Mexicans and Peruvians were found by the
-Spanish and Italian robbers who first explored the Western Hemisphere,
-and murdered its inhabitants for their land, and the fruits and the gold
-and silver of that land.
-
-Whatever arts the Chinese or Japanese or Jesuits may have invented or
-preserved, the art of TELLING THE TRUTH is evidently, to all of them,
-one of “THE LOST ARTS,“—lost irretrievably and forever!
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Blackwood’s Black Ink.
-
-  Davids & Co’s Limpid
-  Writing Fluid.—
-
-  Harrison’s Columbian Ink.
-
-  Steel-Pen Ink, Thaddeus Davids.
-
-  Maynard & Noye’s Black
-  Writing Ink.—
-
-  Written, Augt. 14, 1855, to test
-  permanence by long exposure to
-  Sun & Rain—
-
-  James R. Chilton, MD.
-  Chemist
-
-  The above is a close fac-simile of
-  a paper upon which I wrote with Several Kinds
-  of Ink, as it appeared after being exposed to
-  the weather for five months.
-
-  James R. Chilton, MD.
-  Chemist.
-
-  New York, March 15, 1856.
-
-  Snyder, Black & Sturn, 92 William St.]
-
-
-
-
-                       DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
-
-
-No. 1.—A fac simile of the oldest Hieratic writing extant—about the 15th
-century B.C. The hawk (the emblem of Divinity) and the man stand on
-something that “teters”—the circle between them (a serpent biting its
-own tail) is the ancient symbol of eternity. The Deity overbalances the
-man.
-
-No. 2.—From a Greek MS. buried at Herculaneum in the year 29 B.C.
-
-No. 3.—Written on papyrus in Egypt; in the 3d century B.C.
-
-No. 4.—Written on papyrus 260 years B.C.
-
-No. 5.—Specimen of a Palimpsest copy of Cicero’s “Republic” in the
-Vatican Library.
-
-No. 6.—Phœnician writing on papyrus.
-
-No. 7.—From a Pentateuch in the Bib^{e.} Nat^{e.} Paris, A.D. 450.
-
-No. 8.—From a Greek Copy of the Book of Genesis, written in gold on
-purple vellum, A.D. 400.
-
-No. 9.—From a MS. on papyrus written in Egypt 3d century B.C.
-
-No. 10.—From a Charter of Childebert III. A.D. 703.
-
-No. 11.—From a Charter of Charlemagne, about A.D. 785.
-
-No. 12.—From a Charter of the Emperor Conrad I. A.D. 988.
-
-No. 13.—Specimen of “Roman Saxon,” A.D. 600.
-
-No. 14.—From a Charter of Dagobert I. about A.D. 620.
-
-No. 15.—From an early Gælic MS.
-
-No. 16.—From a Deed of William the Conqueror.
-
-No. 17.—The monogram signature to a Charter of Charlemagne about A.D.
-785.
-
-No. 18.—From a Charter of the reign of Hugh Capet, A.D. 988.
-
-No. 19.—From a Deed of Henry I.
-
-No. 20.—From a Deed of Stephen, dated A.D. 1139.
-
-No. 21.—From a Deed of the reign of Richard I.
-
-No. 22.—From a MS. of Wyckliffe’s translation of the Bible.
-
-No. 23.—“Set Saxon,” A.D. 850.
-
-“_Qui sub Pontio Pilato crucifixus est, et sepultus, tertia die
-resurrexit._”
-
-No. 24.—From a Charter of Sebbi, King of the East Saxons, A.D. 664,
-
-“_Ego Sebbi Rex East Sax(onum) pro—confirmatione Subscripsi._”
-
-No. 25.—Part of a Charter of Alfred the Great, A.D. 800.
-
-No. 26.—From a Charter of Edward the Confessor, A.D. 1045.
-
-No. 27.—From a Deed of the reign of Edward I.
-
-No. 28.—From a Deed of William the Conqueror.
-
-No. 29.—From a Deed of the reign of Edward III.
-
-_Edwardus Dei gratia Rex Anglias Dominus Hiberniæ, Dux Aquitaniæ, &c._
-
-No. 30.—From the Will of William Mikelfeld, Nov. 7, 1439.
-
-No. 31.—From a Deed of the reign of Edward IV.
-
-No. 32.—From a Grant by William Wallace.
-
-No. 33.—From a Deed of Richard III.
-
-No. 34.—From a Deed of the reign of John.
-
-No. 35.—Autograph of Lord Macaulay.
-
-No. 36.—From a Deed of Henry VII.
-
-No. 37.—From an English translation of the works of Chauliac, A.D. 1400.
-
-No. 38.—From a Deed of Henry VIII.
-
-No. 39.—From a MS. in the rounded hand of Italy, 15th century.
-
-No. 40.—Letter from Columbus to the Viceroy of Castile, 15th century.
-
-No. 41.—Letter of Anne of Brittany, 1514.
-
-No. 42.—Signature of “Bayard,” the Chevalier.
-
-No. 43.—Letter from Charles V. to Francis I.
-
-No. 44.—Letter from Calvin, 1559.
-
-No. 45.—Letter of the Earl of Essex, 1567.
-
-No. 46.—Letter of Copernicus, 1473.
-
-No. 47.—William H. Prescott.
-
-No. 48.—Letter of Charles the XII of Sweden.
-
-No. 49.—Rosseau, 1757.
-
-No. 50.—Letter of Erasmus, 1476.
-
-No. 51.—Letter of Queen Elizabeth to Henry IV of France.
-
-No. 52.—Christina of Sweden, 1626.
-
-No. 53.—Charles I. to his sister.
-
-No. 54.—Oliver Cromwell, 1643.
-
-No. 55.—Duke of Marlborough, June, 1706.
-
-No. 56.—The Empress Catherine II. of Russia, July, 1773.
-
-No. 57.—Washington, 6th Sept. 1788.
-
-No. 58.—Louis XVI, June 30, 1773.
-
-No. 59.—Robespierre.
-
-No. 60.—Napoleon to Soult.
-
-No. 61.—Wellington, June 19, 1815.
-
-No. 62.—Lord Byron, Nov. 4, 1821.
-
-No. 63.—Voltaire, July 29, 1757.
-
-No. 64.—Edmund Burke.
-
-No. 65.—William Pitt, March 27, 1803.
-
-No. 66.—Wellington, April 21, 1834.
-
-The colored engraving is an illustration of the picture writing of the
-Mexicans, from Lord Kingsborough’s great work. The blue border
-represents a series of years, distinguished by the dots. The compartment
-with five dots representing the fifth year of the reign, that with ten
-the tenth, and so on. The pictures of the acts of the Prince being
-connected with each special year by means of a connecting line. The
-additional symbols have different significations—that of the flower
-signifying a calamitous year, &c. In this plate King Acamapich is
-represented in the first and sixth year of his reign; at the top of the
-page are warlike instruments, signifying his preparation for war; the
-figures below, on the right, are the four cities—Quahnahuac, Mezquic,
-Cuitlhuac and Xochimilco—represented by descriptive symbols. The four
-heads on the left are those of the respective kings or chiefs of these
-cities, beheaded by Acamapich, each distinguished by the iconographic
-symbol by which his name was expressed in this system of writing.
-
-  These picture records, which would have illustrated the unknown
-  history of this continent, were destroyed in “mountain heaps” by the
-  first Spanish archbishop of Mexico—an act of fanatical vandalism
-  equalled only by the burning of the Alexandrian Library, and the
-  vast hoard of Moorish literature at Granada by Ximenes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 1.
-
-  1.
-  [Hieratic text]
-
-  2.
-  ...μασιν.στερον πο.αι
-  ...ιψόμεθα ὅταν δὲ πε.
-  ...αν καὶ δόξαν ἐ[κ] τοῦ
-  μαθήματος φῶσι περιγί-
-  νεσθαι λέγωμεν ὅτι
-  <π>κο<λ>ι-
-  νά τε προφέρονται πολ-
-  λ<α>ῶν ἐπιτηδευμάτων καὶ
-  λειπόμενα [π]λειόνων καὶ
-
-  3.
-  ναὶ οὐ Ἀλκμὰν ὁ ποιητὴς
-  οὕτως ἀπεφαίνετο οὐ-
-
-  4.
-  Διοσκουρίδης Δωρίωνι χαίρειν. τῆς πρὸς
-  Δωρίωνα ἐπιστολῆς τὸ ἀντίγραφον ὑπόκει-
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn 92 William St_]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 2.
-
-  5.
-  teterrimus
-  et ex hac vel
-
-  homines heretici maxime
-  quia non ds illam dedit
-  -catur; quia et legem ds dedit
-  -varet propter certam
-
-  6.
-  [Phœnician text]
-
-  7.
-  κῡ, καὶ προσοίσουσιν
-  οἱ υἱοὶ Ααρων οἱ ἱερεῖς
-
-  8.
-  ἐξῆλθεν δὲ
-  -τησιν αὐτῷ
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn 92 William St_]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 3.
-
-  9.
-  κϛʹ Ξανδικ[ο]ῦ αʹ Θῶυθ κεʹ
-
-  10.
-  [flourish representing “I(n) C(hristi) N(omine)”] Childeberths
-
-  11.
-  Et nostra indulgentia in aelimosina
-
-  12.
-  Et ut huĩs cõplacitationis pceptũ firmũ stabileq;
-
-  13.
-  abbas sirum pater
-
-  14.
-  quotienscumque petitionib[us]
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn 92 William St_]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 4.
-
-  15.
-  Nirsatimini curio annso
-
-  16.
-  W rex anglo[rum]
-
-  17.
-  KAROLVS
-
-  18.
-  in eisdem degentium orem nostre celsitudinis
-
-  19.
-  h. dei gra rex
-
-  20.
-  S rex—Anno m.cxxix
-
-  21.
-  Ricard di gra Rex Angl
-
-  22.
-  IN þe biginyng was þe wrd and þe
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn 92 William St_]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 5.
-
-  23.
-  qui sub pontio pilato crucifixus:
-  & sepultus tertia die resurrexit
-
-  24.
-  + ego sebbi rex east sax pro
-
-  25.
-  dccclxxvo—Ego alfred gratia di rex hanc
-
-  26.
-  nomina hic caraxata sunt—EADUUEARDUS
-
-  27.
-  Istud starr recog est
-
-  _Snyder, Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 6.
-
-  28.
-  Will di gra rex—Sciatis me concessisse
-
-  29.
-  [E]dwardus dei gra Rex Angl Dominus Hibnie & Dux A
-
-  30.
-  This is the laste Wil ind{en}tid of me Willia Meklfeld Esquyer being
-
-  _Snyder, Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 7.
-
-  31.
-  Edwardus dei gr Rex Anglie &c
-
-  32.
-  Wlls Walays miles Custos regni
-
-  33.
-  Ricardus dei gratia Rex Anglie &c.
-
-  34.
-  Johannes Dei Gra Rex Angl
-
-  35.
-  T B Macaulay
-
-  36.
-  Henricus dei grā Rex Anglie & Francie
-
-  _Snyder, Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 8
-
-  37.
-  it was saide aboue in þe chapitle of
-
-  38.
-  Henricus octavus dei grā Angl & Francie rex
-
-  39.
-  fecunditatem modo celi per multra
-
-  40.
-  Señor
-
-  dejado nō se puede
-
-  41.
-  Monsieur mon bon frere
-
-  42.
-  Bayart
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 9.
-
-  43.
-  monsr mon bon frer
-
-  Charles
-
-  44.
-  le 22 de Decembre 1559
-
-  45.
-  I. Caluin
-
-  46.
-  singularj, qua studiosos prosequi solet
-
-  47.
-  W H Prescott
-
-  48.
-  [illegible]
-
-  _Snyder, Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 10.
-
-  49.
-  ne rentre pas dans l’ame aussi
-
-  50.
-  at ego nō possum omnem
-
-  51.
-  affection & solide Amitie
-
-  52.
-  Vostre approbation
-
-  53.
-  I cannot refuse this
-
-  54.
-  reade and expound the Scriptures
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 11.
-
-  55.
-  happy success in this
-
-  56.
-  J’ai lue le memoire
-
-  57.
-  well affected to the
-
-  58.
-  votre amour pour le bien public
-
-  59.
-  Le comite a pris toutes les mesures
-
-  60.
-  les anglais ont bombardé Granville
-  la division de bateaux canonniers ayant
-  à bord la 24^e légère a marché à eux
-
-  61.
-  Wellington
-  Waterloo, June 19 1815
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pl. 12.
-
-  62.
-  They are very civil
-  about “Cain” but alarm^{ed}
-  at its tendency—as they
-
-  63.
-  faites je vous en pris le moins
-
-  64.
-  you have an armed Tyranny to deal with; &
-
-  65.
-  I conclude from your letter
-
-  66.
-  Wellington &c
-
-  _Snyder Black & Sturn, 92 William St._]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                          FORM OF THE WORD INK
-
-                         IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES
-
-
-Hebrew:__[Illustration]
-
-Chaldaic:__[Illustration] DȲŌ
-
-Sanskrit:__[Illustration]
-
-Greek:__Μελαν (Melan)
-
-Latin:__ATRAMEUTUM (Scriptorum)
-
-Mediaeval Latin:__ENCANSTUM
-
-China:__[Illustration] MĬH SHWUY (liquid Ink)
-
-  "  [Illustration] MĬH (Chinese Ink)
-
-Canton dialect:__ MAK SHUY
-
-Hindostan:__[Illustration] KALI
-
-Bengal:__[Illustration] KALI
-
-Shingalese:__[Illustration]
-
-Burmese:__[Illustration]
-
-Malayhim:__[Illustration]
-
-Persia:__[Illustration] SIYAHI
-
-Sinic:__[Illustration]
-
-Turkey:__[Illustration] MUREKKEB
-
-Armenia:__[Illustration]
-
-Thibet:__[Illustration]
-
-Anamitic:__MU^cC VIÊT
-
-Malay:__[Illustration] DAWĀT
-
-Japan:__[Illustration]
-
-Java:__ MANULYSAN
-
-Egyptian:__[Illustration]
-
-Coptic:__[Illustration]
-
-Amharic:__[Illustration]
-
-Algerian:__[Illustration] SIMEKH
-
-Aethiopic:__[Illustration]
-
-Arabic:__[Illustration] HBR, HIBR, HIBAR.
-
-               {Old French__ENQUE}
-French:__ENCRE {Breton__LYOU     }
-               {Provincal__ANCRA }
-                                   {Low Dutch }
-German:__[Illustration] (Tinte.)   {Flamande  } INK
-                                   {Hollandais}
-
-Spanish:__TINTA
-
-Portugese:__TINTA
-
-Italian:__INCHIOSTRO
-
-Piedmontese:__INCIOSTR.
-
-Russian:__[Illustration] {Lettish__BLAKKA
-                         {Lettauish__TINTA
-
-Polish:__INKAUST
-
-Hungarian:__TENTA
-
-Bunda or Argolense:__TINTA
-
-Bohemia:__INGAUST
-
-Basque:__CORANSIA
-
-Illyrian:__INGOAS
-
-Danish:__BLÆC
-
-Swedish:__BLÄCK
-
-Laplandish:__BLEKK
-
-Greenlandish:__BLEK
-
-Icelandish:__BLEK
-
-English:__INK {Old English__ENKE, INKE, YNKE
-              {Anglo-Saxon__BLÆC
-
-Welsh:__DU, ENGE
-
-Gaelic:__DUBHADH
-
-Irish:__[Illustration] DUBH
-
-Peruvian:__YANATULLPU
-
-Chilian:__CHILLCAMOM
-
-Mexican:__THLLI
-
-Guarani:__TIV_TIRV_ (Tinta)
-
-Caribee Islands: OÚLITI OR OÚLITACLE
-
-
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-Some corrections have been made to the original text, including
-standardizing the punctuation. Further corrections are listed below:
-
-    p. 12 unparalelled -> unparalleled
-
-    p. 26 Flenningham -> Henningham
-
-    p. 36 Dictionaire -> Dictionnaire
-
-    p. 36 pschyo -> psycho
-
-    p. 46 elogè -> éloge
-
-    p. 77 Macauley -> Macaulay
-
-Other spelling and hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained as
-printed.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF INK***
-
-
-******* This file should be named 50564-0.txt or 50564-0.zip *******
-
-
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