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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #50765 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50765)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II.,
-No. 1, April, 1890, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 1, April, 1890
-
-Author: Various
-
-Release Date: December 25, 2015 [EBook #50765]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-Vol. II. No. 1.
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.
-
-
-
-
-PUBLISHED BY THE
-
-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
-
-WASHINGTON, D. C.
-
-
-Price 50 Cents.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-On the Telegraphic Determinations of Longitude by the Bureau of
-  Navigation: Lieut. J. A. Norris, U. S. N.
-
-Reports of the Vice-Presidents:
-  Geography of the Land: Herbert G. Ogden
-  Geography of the Air: A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A.
-
-Annual Report of the Treasurer
-
-Report of Auditing Committee
-
-Annual Report of the Secretary
-
-National Geographic Society:
-  Abstract of Minutes
-  Officers for 1890
-  Members of the Society
-
-  Published April, 1890.
-
-
-
-
-PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.
-
-
-
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.
-
-Vol. II. 1890. No. 1.
-
-
-
-
-ON THE TELEGRAPHIC DETERMINATIONS OF LONGITUDE BY THE BUREAU OF
-NAVIGATION.
-
-BY LIEUT. J. A. NORRIS, U. S. N.
-
-
-The following definitions are given by Chauvenet in his Spherical and
-Practical Astronomy.
-
-"The longitude of a point on the earth's surface is the angle at the
-Pole included between the meridian of that point and some assumed first
-meridian. The difference of longitude between any two points is the
-angle included between their meridians." To describe the practical
-methods of obtaining this difference or angle, by means of the electric
-telegraph both overland and submarine, and especially those employed by
-the expeditions sent out by the Navy department, is the object of this
-paper.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Before the invention of the telegraph various methods more or less
-accurate in their results were employed, and are still in use where the
-telegraph is not available. The one most used and giving the best
-results was that in which a number of chronometers were transported
-back and forth between two places the difference of whose longitudes
-was required. "For," as the author quoted above says, "the
-determination of an absolute longitude from the first meridian or of a
-difference of longitude in general, resolves itself into the
-determination of the difference of the time reckoned at the two
-meridians at the same absolute instant." If a chronometer be regulated
-to the time at any place _A_, and then transported to a second place
-_B_, and the local time at _B_, be determined at any instant, and at
-that instant the time at _A_, as shown by the chronometer is noted, the
-difference of the times is at once known, and that is the difference of
-longitude required. The principal objection to this plan is that the
-best chronometers vary. If the variations were constant and regular,
-and the chronometer always gained or lost a fixed amount for the same
-interval of time, this objection would disappear. But the variation is
-not constant, the rate of gain or loss, even in the best instruments,
-changes from time to time from various causes. Some of these causes may
-be discovered and allowed for in a measure, others are accidental and
-unknown. Of the former class are variations due to changes of
-temperature. At the Naval Observatory, chronometers are rated at
-different temperatures, and the changes due thereto are noted, and
-serve to a great extent as a guide in their use. But the transportation
-of a chronometer, even when done with great care is liable to cause
-sudden changes in its indications, and of course in carrying it long
-distances, numerous shocks of greater or less violence are unavoidable.
-Still, chronometric measurements, when well carried out with a number
-of chronometers and skilled observers have been very successful. Among
-notable expeditions of this sort was that undertaken in 1843, by Struve
-between Pulkova and Altona, in which eighty-one chronometers were
-employed and nine voyages made from Pulkova to Altona and eight the
-other way. The results from thirteen of the chronometers were rejected
-as being discordant, and the deduced longitude was made to depend on
-the remaining 68. The result thus obtained differs from the latest
-determination by 0^{s}.2.
-
-The U. S. Coast Survey instituted chronometric expeditions between
-Cambridge, Mass., and Liverpool, England, in the years 1849, '50, '51
-and '55. The probable error of the results of six voyages, three in
-each direction, in 1855 was 0^{s}.19, fifty chronometers being carried.
-
-Among other methods of determining differences of time may be mentioned
-the observation of certain celestial phenomena, which are visible at
-the same absolute instant by observers in various parts of the globe,
-such as the instant of the beginning or end of an eclipse of the moon,
-the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites by the shadow of the planet, the
-bursting of a meteor, and the appearance or disappearance of a shooting
-star. The difficulty of identifying these last mentioned objects and
-the impossibility of foretelling their occurrence prevents the extended
-use of this method.
-
-Terrestrial signals may be used and among these can be included those
-sent by the electric telegraph. But when two stations are near together
-a signal may be made at either or at an intermediate station, which can
-be observed at both, the time may be noted at each of the stations and
-the difference found directly. These signals may be made by flashes of
-gunpowder, or the appearance and disappearance of a strong light, or a
-pre-concerted movement of any object easily seen. The heliotrope
-reflecting the image of the sun from one station to the other with an
-arrangement for suddenly eclipsing it, is a useful and efficient
-apparatus.
-
-Various truly astronomical methods have been employed with good
-results, of these may be mentioned moon-culminations, azimuths of the
-moon, lunar distances, etc.
-
-Coming now to the use of the electric telegraph for this purpose the
-following is a rough outline of the methods employed. Suppose two
-stations A and B connected by wire, and provided with clocks,
-chronographs and transit instruments. A list of suitable fixed stars is
-compiled and each observer furnished with a copy. The observer at A the
-eastern station, selects a star from his list and sets his transit
-instrument upon it. He is furnished with a key by which he can send
-telegraphic signals over the line and also mark the time on his own
-chronograph. The instant he observes the star crossing the spider line
-which represents the meridian, he taps his key, thus registering the
-time on his own chronograph and on that at station B and this operation
-he repeats with as many stars as necessary. B has his instrument set
-for the first star, and when it crosses his meridian, he taps his key
-marking the time on his own chronograph and also on A's. Then,
-disregarding instrumental and personal errors and the rate of the
-clock, A has a record of the times at which the star passed both
-meridians. The difference of these times is the difference of longitude
-sought, except for an error due to the time occupied in the
-transmission of the signal over the wire between the stations. B also
-has a record of the same difference of time with the same error
-affecting it in the opposite way. A mean of these two differences, will
-be the true difference with the error of transmission eliminated. This
-method has the advantage of not depending upon the computed position of
-the star. The instrumental errors may be allowed for, as well as the
-rate of the clocks, and the personal error may be eliminated by the
-exchange of stations.
-
-There are disadvantages inseparable from this method, however,
-especially when the meridian distance is great. A star observed at the
-first station, may be obscured by clouds at the time of its meridian
-passage at the second. And the weather generally, at the two stations
-may be cloudy, so that while stars can be observed at intervals, yet it
-may be impossible to note the meridian passage of the same star at both
-places on the same night. Then the telegraph lines are usually the
-property of some commercial company and while their use for a short
-time might be freely granted, yet a protracted occupation of them as
-necessary when the meridians are distant from each other, would prove a
-serious hindrance to their regular business.
-
-The method at this time most generally employed, is to observe at each
-station a number of stars entirely independently of the other. From
-these stars are deduced the clock errors and rates upon the respective
-local times. Then at some prearranged period, communication is opened
-between the stations, and a comparison of the clocks made which shows
-their exact difference at a given instant. By applying the error to the
-time as shown by the clock at this instant, the exact local time at
-each station is the result, and applying the difference between the
-clocks as shown by the comparison, the required difference of longitude
-is readily obtained.
-
-These methods originated, as did the electric telegraph, in the United
-States, and soon after Morse's invention came into practical use, they
-were extensively employed by the Coast Survey, in accurately
-determining points in every part of the country that could be reached,
-no pains being spared to make the determinations as accurate as
-possible. Upon the completion of the first successful Atlantic cable in
-1866, an expedition was organized and placed in charge of Dr. B. A.
-Gould, for the purpose of measuring the meridian distance between
-Greenwich and the Naval Observatory at Washington. This was
-successfully carried out in spite of numerous difficulties, and the
-result proved that the determinations already made upon which the most
-reliance was placed were decidedly in error. The result from the
-chronometric expedition in 1855 previously referred to differing over a
-second of time.
-
-In constructing charts for use at sea, the accurate determination of
-latitude and longitude is of the utmost importance. The navigator
-starting on a voyage must know the exact position of his destination as
-well as the location of dangers to be avoided. He must know the error
-and rate of his chronometer when he sets out, but as the rate is not
-constant he should have some means of re-rating it at any place where
-he may stop. If the longitude of this place is well determined, the
-operation of obtaining the error and rate is an easy one, and may save
-his vessel from loss.
-
-Surveys, of coasts or countries must have well established starting
-points, and while the latitude of a place is comparatively easy to
-determine, the longitude, except when the telegraphic method is used,
-is attended with more or less uncertainty.
-
-In 1873, Commodore R. H. Wyman, U. S. N. Hydrographer to the Bureau of
-Navigation, organized by permission of the Navy Department, an
-expedition for the telegraphic determination of longitude in the West
-Indies and Central America. The submarine cables of the West India and
-Panama Telegraph Co. had just been completed, extending from Key West
-through Havana and Santiago de Cuba, south to Jamaica and Aspinwall,
-and east through the Virgin and Windward Islands to the northeast coast
-of South America, thus affording admirable facilities for the accurate
-determination of many points. It had long been known that the
-longitudes of various points in the West Indies and in Central and
-South America, did not harmonize, there having been no systematic
-attempt to determine them with relation to each other or to a common
-base. Longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean Sea depended upon
-the position of the Morro lighthouse at Havana, which had been
-determined by occultations. Further to the eastward, positions depended
-upon that of Fort Christian at St. Thomas. This in its turn depended
-upon the observatory of Major Lang in the Island of Santa Cruz about
-forty miles distant. This position depended upon numerous observations
-of moon culminations and occultations. Martinique and Guadeloupe in the
-Windward Islands had been surveyed by French officers who based their
-positions upon longitudes derived from moon culminations. The absolute
-determination of these starting points would of course fix all points
-derived from them.
-
-The U. S. Steamer Fortune was designated by the Navy Department for the
-conveyance of the expedition, and Lieut. Commander (now Commander), F.
-M. Green, U. S. N. was placed in charge. This officer had given great
-attention to the subject, was a practiced observer, and exceptionally
-well qualified for the position. The services of Mr. Miles Rock, a
-skillful astronomer and computer who is now chief of the boundary
-survey of Guatemala, were obtained as principal astronomical assistant.
-The breaking out in the autumn of 1873, of the trouble with Spain and
-Cuba, over the Virginius affair, delayed the expedition until the next
-year, but in November 1874, a start was made from Washington, and after
-a short stay in Kingston, Jamaica, Aspinwall was reached early in
-December. Mr. Rock with one set of instruments proceeded immediately to
-Panama, while Lieut. Commander Green remained in Aspinwall with the
-other. The outfit for each party consisted of:--first, a portable
-observatory. This was made of wood in sections, framework of ash,
-covered with tongued and grooved pine boards. The sections were
-connected when set up by iron knees and bolts. When packed it was not
-difficult to transport, and it could be put up, or taken down in an
-hour. When set up it was about eight feet square, with doors in all
-sides, and a shed roof. The roof was made in three sections, the middle
-one being hinged so that it could be raised for observing. These
-observatories proved to be very strong and serviceable. They remained
-in use for a number of years with occasional slight repairs, were
-transported many thousand miles and set up in a great number of places
-in Europe, Asia, North and South America. They were designed by Mr. J.
-A. Rogers, and constructed at the Washington Navy Yard. Upon arriving
-at a point where observations were to be made, after obtaining the
-necessary permits from the local authorities, a suitable location for
-the observatory was the first consideration. The essential requirements
-were, a clear view of the heavens in the meridian, firm ground, a spot
-secluded enough not to attract attention from inquisitive idlers, and
-proximity to the telegraph office, or end of the telegraph line. Such a
-spot being found and permission being obtained from the owner for its
-use, an approximate meridian line was laid out by compass, and the
-house set up with reference to it. Experience soon showed the
-advisability of making certain additions to the observatory not
-contemplated by the designer, but which added much to convenience and
-comfort. A foundation was made, of timbers about six inches square,
-mortised together at the ends which could be placed in position and
-leveled before the observatory was set up, rendering this operation
-much easier and giving greater stability. A floor was laid upon joists
-supported by this foundation. Shelves were put up at various points,
-affording resting places for tools and small instruments, while a table
-in one corner, supported the chronometer, and offered a convenient
-place for an assistant to record observations, etc.
-
-The principal instrument used was the transit. Those furnished for the
-use of the expedition were designed by Mr. J. A. Rogers, and
-constructed under his supervision in the repair shop of the
-Hydrographic office. The object glasses, made by the Clarks at
-Cambridge, were of 2½ inches clear aperture with a focal length of
-thirty inches. The instruments were of the prismatic or "broken" form
-in which the eye-piece is at one end of the axis, and the light is
-reflected from the object glass to the eye by a prism placed at the
-junction of the telescope tube with the axis. The observer does not
-have to change the position of his eye, no matter what the zenith
-distance of the star may be. This renders observation much less
-fatiguing and conduces to accuracy. The eye-piece was furnished with
-the usual spider line reticle and also with a filar micrometer for the
-measurement of zenith distances for latitude. A vertical finding circle
-was on the eye-piece end of the axis, and the instrument was provided
-also with a horizontal circle, fourteen inches in diameter, graduated
-to ten seconds. Other necessary parts were the striding and zenith
-telescope levels, and the illuminating lamps. The ends of the axis were
-supported by Ys at the ends of a transverse arm which in its centre was
-screwed to the top of a vertical axis supported in a socket surmounting
-the tripod. This vertical axis was slightly conical in shape and
-accurately fitted into its socket. A screw was so placed underneath,
-that the axis, and with it the instrument, could be raised slightly,
-when it was easily revolved horizontally into any desired position, a
-reverse movement of the screw then lowered the axis into its seat, when
-the instrument was held firmly by the friction. For supporting the
-instrument there was used at first, a portable pier made in the shape
-of the frustrum of a cone, of strong oak staves, firmly bound with iron
-hoops, and when set up, filled with sand or earth. Subsequently a brick
-pier was found to be more stable and the wooden ones were discarded.
-
-Of equal importance with the transit was the Chronometer. The
-expedition was supplied with four of these made by Negus of New York.
-They were regulated to sidereal time, and provided with a break circuit
-arrangement. This consists of a toothed wheel acting on a jewel pallet
-attached to a light steel spring. In this spring is a platinum point,
-which touches another platinum point, except when the spring is acted
-upon by the toothed wheel. These points are connected respectively with
-terminals on the outside of the chronometer, and are insulated from
-each other except at their point of contact. The electric circuit is
-complete through the chronometer except when the teeth of the wheel
-acting on the jewel pallet separate the points. The circuit is opened
-for about one-fortieth of a second and closed during the rest of the
-time. One tooth in the wheel is omitted and the circuit remains
-unbroken at that point which is the beginning of each minute. Each
-chronometer is provided with a condenser to take up the extra current,
-and avoid burning the contact points. These chronometers were most
-excellent instruments, the rate was generally small and very regular,
-and did not seem to be influenced in any way by the passage of the
-current. They are still in use, and are as efficient as ever.
-
-The expedition was at first provided with a substitute for the
-chronograph in the shape of the old fashioned Morse telegraph register.
-In this a steel point or stylet was pressed by the action of an
-electro-magnet against a long fillet of paper, unwound by clock-work at
-a rate more or less regular. This magnet was in circuit with the
-chronometer and with a break circuit key in the observer's hand. As
-long as the electric circuit was closed the stylet made a continuous
-indented straight line on the paper; but as soon as it was broken,
-either by the chronometer or the observer's key, the stylet flew back
-and left the paper unmarked until the circuit was again closed. The
-effect of the action of the chronometer was to graduate the fillet of
-paper into a series of straight indentations, from one to two inches in
-length, separated by unmarked spaces from 1/16 to 1/8 inch in length.
-When the key was pressed an independent clear space was left on the
-paper, and by the relation in distance between the beginning of this
-space and the beginning of the second spaces immediately preceding and
-following, the time of pressing the key was determined. The omission of
-the break at the sixtieth second, made the mark of double length, and
-hence the beginning of the minute was easily recognized. These
-instruments served their purpose very well, but had several
-disadvantages. The rate of movement of the paper was not regular; when
-the clock-work was first wound up the motion was rapid and the second
-spaces long, and as the spring ran down the marks became shorter and
-shorter. Another drawback was the great length of the fillet; with
-spaces only an inch in length, it required five feet of paper to record
-a minute in time, and after a night's observation, there would be
-several hundred feet to examine, measure and record, occupying the
-greater part of the following day. By stopping the instrument between
-the observations something was gained in this respect, but this tended
-somewhat to confusion and error in keeping the record. They were only
-used for one season's work, and in their stead were procured two
-cylinder chronographs, made by Bond of Boston. These were fine
-instruments, but somewhat too delicate to stand the necessary
-transportation. In these instruments as in most other chronographs, a
-cylinder about six inches in diameter is made to revolve by clock-work
-once in a minute. An electro-magnet mounted on a carriage actuated by
-the same clock-work moves alongside the cylinder, in a direction
-parallel with its axis, at the rate of about an eighth of an inch in a
-minute. The armature of the magnet carries attached to it a pen, the
-point of which rests upon a sheet of the paper wrapped around the
-cylinder. While the circuit through the coils of the magnet is
-complete, the pen makes a continuous spiral line upon the paper, but
-when the circuit is broken by the chronometer, or key, it flies to one
-side making an offset, and immediately returns to its position, as soon
-as the circuit is again closed. The result is to graduate the whole
-surface of the paper into second spaces, from which the observations
-can be read off with the greatest ease.
-
-For supplying the electric current, there was used at first, a
-modification of the Smee battery, but this proving very uncertain in
-strength, a gravity battery was substituted, and afterwards a number of
-LeClanché cells were procured.
-
-Upon the first expedition, no telegraph instruments were carried, but
-the use of such as were needed was easily obtained from the telegraph
-companies. The line between Aspinwall and Panama was in good condition
-and no trouble was experienced in exchanging the time signals by which
-was effected the comparison of the chronometers. Wires were stretched
-from the observatories in each place to the respective telegraph
-offices, and for the exchange of signals were connected directly to the
-ends of the line.
-
-Everything being ready, the routine of the work was as follows:--The
-transit being carefully leveled was placed in the meridian by
-observation of zenith and circumpolar stars. From six to ten time
-stars, and two or three circumpolars were then observed, the instrument
-was reversed in the Ys and nearly the same number of stars observed in
-the new position. At some time agreed upon, generally when the regular
-work of the telegraph line was over for the day, the wires were
-connected up and one of the operators came to the observatory to assist
-in holding communication. By a simple arrangement of relays, in the
-line and chronograph circuits the chronometer at one station was made
-to register its second beats on the chronograph at the other, which was
-all the time being graduated into second spaces by its own chronometer.
-This was done for about five minutes and the times of beginning and
-ending noted. Then the connections were reversed and both chronometers
-allowed to beat for five minutes on the chronograph at the first
-station.
-
-This method of exchanging signals was only practicable on land lines or
-very short cables. The ordinary relay used on a land line requires a
-strong current to work it, and would not be affected in the least by
-the delicate impulse sent over a long cable, consequently when the
-expedition came to compare chronometers over the 600 miles of cable
-between Aspinwall and Kingston, it was necessary to use another method.
-At that time the instrument in general use on submarine cable lines was
-what is known as Thompson's mirror galvanometer. It consists of a coil
-of very fine insulated wire wound with great care on a spool or bobbin
-of vulcanite, about three inches in diameter and 1½ inches thick. In a
-hole in the centre of the spool is made to slide a small tube, so that
-the end of the tube will be in the centre of the coil. In the end of
-the tube is mounted a small mirror, swung in a vertical position on a
-single upright fibre of silk. Horizontally across the back of this
-mirror is secured a small permanent magnet, in length about the
-diameter of the mirror or about one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch.
-The mirror and magnet together weigh only one or two grains. When an
-electric current is sent through this coil it deflects the magnet and
-with it the mirror to the right or left. The apparatus is exceedingly
-sensitive so that it is influenced by very feeble currents.
-Communication has been maintained with an instrument of this kind over
-the Atlantic cables, by the current proceeding from a battery composed
-of a single copper percussion cap with a small scrap of zinc and a drop
-of acidulated water. The use of the mirror is to make visible the
-movements of the magnet. The coil is mounted upon a standard so as to
-be about eight inches above the table. At the distance of eighteen
-inches or two feet is placed a lamp. This is surrounded by a screen
-which cuts off all the light, except that which passes through a tube
-directed towards the mirror. Lenses in the tube focus the light on the
-mirror and thence it is reflected to a vertical white surface, a sheet
-of paper for instance, at a suitable distance and appears as a small
-and brilliant spot. A movement of the magnet causes a horizontal
-deflection of this spot to the right or left depending upon the
-direction of the current passing through the coil. As these movements
-can be produced at will by means of the key at the sending station, it
-is only necessary to apply to them the dots and dashes of the Morse
-alphabet, to have a very ready and perfect means of communication. To
-the uninitiated spectator the facility with which the practiced
-operator translates these apparently meaningless movements is
-remarkable. If the cable is long and not in good condition the signals
-are sometimes almost imperceptible, while any slight jar of the table
-or apparatus will produce a large and irregular effect. Earth currents
-also will cause vibrations hard to distinguish from the signals, and
-if, as sometimes happens, the battery is connected in the wrong way,
-the signals will be reversed. In spite of these drawbacks the skillful
-operator reads off the message and rarely makes an error. This
-instrument is still in use on some of the cable lines, but on most of
-them it has been replaced by a recording instrument, also the invention
-of Sir Wm. Thompson, which is almost as sensitive, and of which I will
-speak later on. The key used in connection with these instruments, both
-the mirror and recorder, is arranged with two levers, so connected that
-pressing one of them causes a current to be sent over the line in one
-direction, while the other sends it in the opposite.
-
-The method adopted for comparing chronometers by means of these
-instruments was as follows:--Everything being ready for the exchange of
-signals, the observer at one station seated himself, where he could see
-the face of the chronometer, with his hand on the cable key. At ten
-seconds before the beginning of a minute as shown by the second hand,
-he pressed his key several times in quick succession, thus sending a
-series of impulses through the line, which appeared at the other end as
-a rapid movement of the light to and fro. This was a warning signal,
-and the observer at the second station with his eye on the light,
-tapped his chronograph key in the same way making a series of marks,
-which indicated the beginning of the comparison. The first observer
-exactly at the sixtieth second by his chronometer pressed his key
-quickly and firmly and repeated this operation at every fifth second
-for one minute. The second observer tapped his key promptly as soon as
-he saw the light move, thus registering the time on his chronograph.
-The minute at which the first signal was sent, was then telegraphed,
-and repeated back, to insure against error, and the operation was
-repeated until sixty-five signals had been sent from one station and
-received at the other. Then the second observer sent the same number of
-signals to the first in precisely the same manner, thus giving
-sixty-five comparisons of the chronometers in each direction. The
-results derived from this method are affected by errors from two
-causes. One is the personal error of the observers in sending and
-receiving signals and the other the time consumed by the electric
-impulse in traveling over the line and through the instruments. If the
-same strength of battery is used at each station, and the resistance of
-the instruments is the same, the errors arising from this latter source
-will be eliminated by the double exchange. The observer sending the
-signals kept his eye on the chronometer and counted the second beats by
-both eye and ear, moving the hand which he had on the key slightly in
-unison with the beats, and could thus be sure of pressing the key at
-the proper time within a very small fraction of a second. At the other
-end of the line, considerable time is lost after the actual movement of
-the light before the observer can press his chronograph key, and the
-principal error affecting the result is the difference of this time in
-the two observers, which was found to be very small.
-
-As I have said, the cable was first used in the measurement between
-Kingston and Aspinwall, Lieut. Commander Green occupying the former
-station, and Mr. Rock the latter. After the successful completion of
-this link, measurements were made from Santiago de Cuba to Kingston,
-and to Havana. It was the intention to measure from this last point to
-Key West, but about this time yellow fever broke out there and the
-expedition was ordered by the Secretary of the Navy to return. The
-Fortune arrived at Washington in April, 1875, and the time until
-November was spent in working up the winter's observations. Speaking in
-a general way this work is as follows:--From observations extending
-over many years, the exact positions in the heavens of a large number
-of fixed stars have been found, so that their times of passing any
-meridian can be computed with great accuracy. The transit instrument is
-furnished with an eye-piece containing a number of parallel lines
-usually made of spider silk. These are placed in the focus of the
-instrument, and it is set in position, so that the middle line of the
-group is in the plane of the meridian. The observer provides himself
-with a list of desirable stars, and setting his instrument on those he
-may choose, records the time at which they pass each of the spider
-lines, by tapping his chronograph key. If there were no instrumental
-errors to be discovered and allowed for, if the star's place were known
-absolutely, and the observer had no personal equation, then it would be
-only necessary in order to find the error of the clock, to observe one
-star upon the middle line of the reticle. The difference of the clock
-time of transit and the real time as already known, would be the clock
-error and no further trouble would be required. But as none of these
-conditions are fulfilled, it is necessary to multiply observations in
-order to eliminate accidental errors, and to obtain instrumental
-corrections which may be applied so as to get the most probable result.
-Accidental errors of eyesight and perception are nearly eliminated by
-taking the star's transit over several lines instead of one and using
-the mean. Some of the instrumental errors are from the following
-causes. If the pivots which support the telescope are unequal in size
-the axis of the tube will be thrown to one side or the other of the
-meridian, and the star will be observed either before or after it
-crosses. The weight of all transit instruments causes a flexure of the
-horizontal axis and this effect is at its maximum in those of the
-prismatic pattern. The spider lines must be adjusted so that the middle
-one is exactly in the axis of the tube, or as this can seldom be done
-the resulting error, called the collimation, must be found. The
-horizontal axis of the instrument must be as nearly level as possible,
-and the error in this respect must be found by frequent applications of
-a delicate spirit level. Finally the instrument must be directed as
-nearly as possible to the north and south points of the horizon, and a
-correction must be made for any error in this respect. The result of
-each of these errors is to cause the star's transit to be recorded too
-early or too late, and to get the true result they must all be found
-and applied with their proper signs. The inequality of pivots and the
-flexure correction are found by delicate measurement and observations,
-when the instrument is first used, and are recorded as constants to be
-applied in all subsequent work. The level tubes are graduated and the
-value of their divisions obtained in angular measure. The collimation
-error is found by observing stars near the zenith in one position of
-the instrument and then reversing and observing others, or by taking
-the transit of a slow moving star over a portion of the spider lines
-then reversing and observing the same intervals in the opposite order.
-The error of azimuth, or deviation from the north and south line, is
-found by comparing the observations of stars whose zenith distances
-differ considerably. These corrections all being found and applied to
-the observation of each star, the result is the correct time of transit
-as shown by the chronometer, and the difference between that time and
-the true time, is the error of the chronometer. A mean of the
-observations of several stars on the same night, gives a very accurate
-value for this clock error, and by comparing the results of several
-nights' work, the rate is found. By applying the rate to the clock
-error it is reduced to any required epoch, as for instance, the mean
-time of the exchange of time signals, and the difference of longitude
-is easily found. As may be imagined the computation and application of
-all these errors, exercising the greatest care to insure accuracy is a
-long and tedious process. The operations described give a very close
-result, but in order to arrive at the greatest accuracy obtainable the
-computations are made again by the method of least squares.
-
-In the Autumn of 1875, the expedition again took the field, this time
-in the side wheel steamer Gettysburg, which was much better adapted to
-the work than the Fortune. The first link measured was between Key West
-and Havana. Key West had already been telegraphically determined by the
-Coast Survey, and now afforded a base for the system of measurements
-completed and for those to follow. The next measurement was between
-Kingston and St. Thomas. Then from the latter place to Antigua and to
-Port Spain, Trinidad. From Port Spain, measurements were made to
-Barbadoes and Martinique. The position at St. Thomas was then
-re-occupied, and measurements made thence to San Juan, Porto Rico, and
-to Santa Cruz. This ended the work in the West Indies, differences of
-longitude having been measured between nearly all the important points
-connected by telegraph. The Latitude of all the stations, was also
-determined by the zenith telescope method, and the position of the
-stations was referred either to the observation spot previously used,
-when that could be identified, or to some prominent landmark.
-
-Between St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, the measurement was made twice, the
-observers exchanging stations at the completion of the first series of
-observations. This was to eliminate the effect of their personal
-errors, and to obtain a value of these, which might be applied to the
-other measurements. It has long been known that different people
-perceive the same phenomenon at different times, varying with different
-individuals, but reasonably constant with the same individual. In the
-particular case of observing the transit of a star, most people will
-record it on a chronograph from one to three tenths of a second after
-it happens. In the method of observing by eye and ear the error is
-generally much greater. The whole question of personal equation,
-however, is a mixed one and I will not attempt to discuss it, but will
-only give some of the results obtained in this particular work. In
-longitude measurements the error from this cause is half the difference
-of the personal equation of the two observers. If this difference
-remained constant, then it would be easy to find it once for all, and
-apply it to all measurements made by the same observers. In the West
-India work, it was assumed that it did remain constant, and half the
-difference between the two measurements made from St. Thomas to Santa
-Cruz, was applied to all the other links. The correction was quite
-small, being only 0^{s}.025. In subsequent work by the same and other
-observers it was deemed wiser not to apply any corrections at all,
-rather than one that was probably not exact, and might be much in
-error. To show the fluctuations to which this elusive quantity is
-subject, I will cite the results of some observations made to determine
-it, by observers engaged in this same work at a subsequent period. In
-April and May, 1883, at Galveston, Texas, two observers D. and N.
-having just completed a telegraphic measurement between that place and
-Vera Cruz, Mexico, made some observations for the determination of
-their relative personal equation, by observing transits of alternate
-stars under the same conditions as near as possible. Both used the same
-instruments, transit, chronometer and chronograph. On April 30, two
-sets of observations were made, showing the difference of the equations
-to be 0^{s}.26. On May 1, one set gave 0^{s}.32, and another 0^{s}.29.
-On May 2, only one set was made giving 0^{s}.36, a variation of
-0^{s}.07 in two days. In June 1884, one year later, another series of
-observations of the same character was made at the Naval Observatory in
-Washington, and on the same nights the personal equation machine
-invented by Prof. Eastman, was used as a comparison. This is an
-instrument in which an artificial star is made to record its own
-transit over the wires of a reticle, while the observer records the
-same with a chronograph key. The difference is manifestly the personal
-error of the observer. This gives the absolute equation of the
-observers, and their difference is the relative equation, and should
-accord with that found by the method of alternate stars. Some of the
-results were as follows:--On June 4, the difference by machine of their
-personal errors was 0^{s}.16 and by star observations 0^{s}.24, on the
-15th of June the machine gave 0^{s}.10 and the stars 0^{s}.24, on the
-16th, machine 0^{s}.14, stars, 0^{s}.13, a very close agreement, on the
-17th, machine gave 0^{s}.07 and stars 0^{s}.18. The observer N.
-combined with another, C., who had not had as much experience in
-observing, gave still more discordant results. On June 20, the machine
-gave as their relative equation, 0^{s}.08, while star observations gave
-0^{s}.27, on June 23, machine 0^{s}.13, stars 0^{s}.51, and on June 28,
-machine, 0^{s}.20, stars 0^{s}.35. In the case of the first two
-observers a mean of the determinations amounting to about 0^{s}.20
-might have been applied to the measurements made by them, but as these
-were made under all conditions of climate, in latitudes varying from
-30° N. to 36° S. and in different states of health and bodily comfort,
-it was concluded not to introduce any correction at all rather than one
-that might be considerably in error. In all of the work it has been the
-custom as far as possible to place the observers alternately east and
-west of each other, so that the result of personal error in one
-measurement is neutralized to a greater or less extent in the next. Of
-course the method of exchanging stations and making two measurements of
-each meridian distance would afford the best solution of this problem,
-but except in certain favorable conditions, this is precluded by
-considerations of time and expense. In the measurement between
-Galveston and Vera Cruz mentioned above, it had been the intention to
-exchange stations, but by the time the first measurement was finished
-the season was rather far advanced, there was danger of yellow fever in
-Vera Cruz and an observer going there at that time, if he escaped
-disease would have had the certainty of being quarantined from entering
-the United States for three weeks or a month after leaving Mexico.
-
-Upon the completion of the West Indian work, and the publication in
-1877, of the results, it was determined by the Bureau of Navigation to
-send an Expedition for the same purpose to the east coast of South
-America. Cables were in use extending from Para in northern Brazil to
-Buenos Ayres in the Argentine Republic. A cable had at one time
-connected this system with the West Indies, through British Guiana and
-Trinidad, but one of the links was broken and there was no prospect of
-its repair, otherwise the Station established at Trinidad in 1874 might
-have been taken as the starting point. There was direct communication
-however between England and Brazil, by the way of Portugal, and the
-Madeira and Cape de Verde Islands. Lisbon seemed to afford the most
-convenient place to start from, but its longitude had never been
-determined by telegraph and it was decided to request the French Bureau
-of Longitudes to coöperate by making this measurement from Paris. This
-request was readily granted, but for some reason the agreement was not
-kept. For the use of the Expedition the old fashioned sailing ship
-_Guard_ was furnished and Lieut. Com. Green was given command. Mr. Rock
-being otherwise employed his place was taken by Lieut. Com.(now
-Commander) C. H. Davis, U. S. N. The instruments having been placed in
-good order, and new supplies furnished where necessary, the expedition
-sailed from New York for Lisbon in the latter part of October, 1877.
-The Guard was a slow sailer, the weather was rough and the wind
-generally ahead, consequently a month was consumed in making the
-passage. It was the intention to make the first measurement between
-Lisbon and Funchal, Madeira. Lieut. Com. Davis with party and
-instruments occupied the latter station, proceeding by mail steamer at
-the first opportunity. The cable from England does not land directly at
-Lisbon, but at a small town called Carcavellos on the coast about
-twelve miles from the city. As it was not practicable to connect the
-land line from Lisbon direct to the cable, it was necessary in making
-the exchange of signals to adopt another method, or rather combination
-of methods. An officer of the ship was sent to Carcavellos, furnished
-with a chronometer and chronograph. When the time came for exchanging
-signals, he first compared his chronometer with that at Lisbon, by the
-automatic method, in use on land lines, then with the Funchal
-chronometer over the cable using the mirror galvanometer. Finally a
-second automatic comparison was made with Lisbon. From the data
-furnished by these comparisons it was an easy matter to compute the
-difference between the chronometers at Lisbon and Funchal. The Lisbon
-party had been received with great courtesy by the director of the
-Royal Observatory, Capt. Oom of the Portuguese Navy, and had been given
-the use of a small detached observatory near the main building. The
-party at Funchal selected a site on the ramparts of an old fort, which
-afforded a clear view and was near the landing place of the cable. Here
-occurred an accident to the transit instrument, which fortunately was
-easily remedied. Near the beginning of the observations on the first
-night the wind, which was blowing almost a gale, lifted a part of the
-roof off the observatory, and dropped one section of it inside. The
-transit was knocked off the pier, and was at first thought to be much
-injured. Fortunately the precaution had been taken to bring along a
-couple of spare instruments, borrowed from the Transit of Venus
-Commission for use in case of such an accident. The Funchal party was
-provided with one of these, which was set up for use by the next night,
-and the injured one was sent to Lisbon for repairs. The injury proved
-to be less than supposed and the repairing was an easy matter. Upon the
-completion of this measurement the Lisbon party proceeded to St.
-Vincent one of the Cape de Verde Islands. This is a barren and desolate
-spot of volcanic formation, but being on the route of steamers from
-Europe to Africa and South America is of much importance as a coaling
-station. Measurements were made from this point to Funchal and to
-Pernambuco in Brazil, and the Guard then sailed for Rio Janeiro. Upon
-arriving at that point after a long passage, it was found that the
-cable between Rio and Pernambuco was broken, and there being no
-immediate prospect of its being repaired, the Pernambuco party was
-ordered by mail steamer to Rio, and thence to Montevideo. A measurement
-was made between Rio and Montevideo and then between the latter place
-and Buenos Ayres, Lieut. Com. Green occupying the Montevideo station
-for that purpose. The position of the observatory at Buenos Ayres was
-referred to that occupied by Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the Argentine
-National Observatory, in a similar measurement a short time before
-between that place and Cordova.
-
-Both parties now returned to Rio, only to find that the cable was still
-broken. In order to be ready for work as soon as it should be repaired,
-Lieut. Com. Green proceeded to Bahia with the ship and established a
-station there, Lieut. Com. Davis with his party remaining in Rio. After
-waiting a month, and there still seeming to be no prospect of the
-repair of the cable, the expedition finally sailed for home, arriving
-at Norfolk, Va., after a pleasant and uneventful voyage of forty-five
-days. Repairs to the cable were not completed until several months
-afterward. In May of the next year, the party was again sent out, to
-complete the measurement on the Brazilian Coast, and also to measure
-from Greenwich to Lisbon, the French Bureau of Longitudes having failed
-to carry out its promise to measure from Paris. There being no ship
-available for the purpose the traveling was done by mail steamer. Upon
-arrival in England, an interview was had with the Astronomer Royal, who
-readily agreed to assist in the work. Lieut. Com. Green accordingly
-established his observatory at the landing place of the cable at
-Porthcurnow in Cornwall, and Lieut. Com. Davis proceeded to Lisbon and
-occupied the station used there the year before. Owing to the foggy and
-rainy weather prevalent in England at that season, it was found
-impossible to make any astronomical observations at the Porthcurnow
-observatory. The work was therefore done in this way:--Observations
-were made at Greenwich and at Lisbon, and Porthcurnow and Carcavellos
-were used as transmitting stations. The chronometer at Porthcurnow was
-compared automatically with the clock at Greenwich, and by cable with
-the chronometer at Carcavellos. The latter was compared automatically
-with that at Lisbon, before and after the cable exchange. At this time
-there were made at Carcavellos, some experiments with a view to making
-the receipt of the time signals over the cable automatic, thus doing
-away with the personal equation of the receiver. The instrument in use
-for the regular business of the cable was what is known as the siphon
-recorder, also the invention of Sir Wm. Thompson. In this a small coil
-of fine wire is suspended by a fibre of silk, between the poles of a
-powerful permanent magnet. The currents from the cable pass through
-this coil and the action is to deflect it to the right or left, just as
-the mirror is deflected in the instrument already described. Attached
-to this coil is a siphon made of a capillary glass tube. One end of the
-siphon dips into a reservoir of aniline ink, and the other hangs
-immediately over the centre of a fillet of paper, which is unwound by
-clock-work. If the siphon touched the paper, the feeble currents sent
-through the cable would be powerless to move it, on account of the
-friction, and in order to produce a mark some means must be found of
-forcing the ink through the capillary tube. This is accomplished by
-electrifying the ink positively and the paper negatively, by means of a
-small inductive machine, driven by an electric motor. The effort of the
-two electricities to unite, forces the ink through the tube and it
-appears on the paper as a succession of small dots. When the paper is
-in motion and the coil at rest, a straight line is formed along the
-middle of the fillet by these dots, but as soon as a current is sent
-through the coil the siphon moves to the right or left making an offset
-to this line. These offsets on one side or the other are used as the
-dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet. A time signal sent over the
-cable while this instrument was in circuit, appeared as a single offset
-on the paper, and it was only necessary to graduate the paper into
-seconds spaces by the local chronometer, in order to have the automatic
-record required. The ordinary chronometer circuit could not be put
-through the coil directly, as it would then charge the cable and
-interfere with the signals, and besides, the current, unless by the
-introduction of a high resistance it was reduced in strength, would
-infallibly give such a violent motion to the coil as to break the
-siphon, if it did no other damage. The result was obtained in this way;
-an ordinary telegraph relay was put in the chronometer circuit and the
-armature of course moved with the beats. To this armature was fastened
-one end of a fine thread. The other end was attached to a slender piece
-of elastic brass which was fixed at one end to the framework supporting
-the paper, in such a way that the other end touched the metallic vessel
-holding the ink, except when the thread was drawn tight enough to pull
-it away. This the armature of the relay did while the circuit through
-the chronometer was complete, but as soon as it was broken at the
-beginning of a second, the tension of the thread was relaxed and the
-brass sprung back against the ink well, allowing the positive and
-negative electricities to unite independently of the siphon. The ink
-then ceased to flow, until the spring was drawn away, thus leaving a
-small blank space in the line of dots and forming a very good
-chronographic record. This was liable to a small error due to the
-length of time that elapsed between the release of the spring by the
-armature and its impact on the ink well. Had there been time for more
-extensive experiment this difficulty might have been overcome. Or if
-the same method had been adopted at both stations, the result would
-have been affected by only the difference between the times of movement
-of the brass spring which would have been minute. Lack of time for
-experiment, and the fact that the observers were averse to introducing
-untested methods into a chain of measurements most of the links of
-which were already completed, prevented any use being made of this
-achievement. The measurement between Greenwich and Lisbon being
-satisfactorily completed, Lieut. Com. Green by order of the Navy
-Department returned to the United States, and the links between Rio and
-Pernambuco and between the latter place and Para, were measured by
-Lieut. Com. Davis and the writer, completing the work of the
-expedition, after which the party returned to Washington.
-
-The computation of this work, showed the somewhat surprising fact that
-the heretofore accepted position in longitude of Lisbon, differed from
-the true one by about two miles. The longitude of Rio Janeiro had
-always been more or less in doubt, various determinations had differed
-by as much as nine miles, but the position finally decided upon by the
-best authorities agreed very closely with that obtained by telegraph.
-
-The next expedition was sent out by the Bureau of Navigation to China,
-Japan and the East Indies, Lieut. Com. Green being still in charge. The
-officers composing the party sailed from San Francisco by mail steamer
-in April, 1881, for Yokohama, where they joined the U. S. Steamer
-Palos. From Hong Kong north to Vladivostok in Eastern Siberia the
-cables were owned by a Danish company. From Hong Kong to the south and
-west they were the property of English companies. Beginning at
-Vladivostok observations were made at all stations on the Asiatic coast
-except Penang, as far as Madras, India. It was intended to try and make
-some use of the automatic method of receiving time signals, on this
-work, but on arriving in Japan it was found that the recording
-instrument used by the Danish company was entirely different from that
-used by the English lines. It consisted of a series of electro-magnets
-acting on a single armature, which carried a siphon made of silver. The
-signals consisted of long and short movements, to one side of the
-middle line, instead of equal deflections on both sides as in the
-Thompson recorder. An attempt was made to convert this instrument into
-a relay, by causing the siphon to make and break a circuit, but it was
-not successful. The movements of the siphon were not regular enough,
-and the contact was not firm. Consequently the mirror method of
-exchanging signals was still adhered to.
-
-The longitude of the position occupied in Vladivostok, had been
-determined telegraphically from Pulkova, by the Russians, using the
-land lines across Siberia. The English had also determined the position
-at Madras, using the cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The
-work of the United States Expedition joined these two positions,
-completing a chain of measurements extending over many thousand miles,
-made by observers of different nationalities in various climates. It
-was to be expected that considerable discrepancy would be found in the
-final result, but taking the longitude of Vladivostok as brought from
-Madras, and comparing it with that determined by the Russians, the
-difference was only 0^{s}.39. Taking everything into consideration,
-this result was gratifyingly close. Upon the conclusion of this series
-of determinations, the connection of Lieut. Commander Green with the
-work was severed, he receiving his promotion to the rank of Commander.
-
-The next work was under the charge of Lieut. Com. Davis, and consisted
-in the determination in 1883-84, of positions in Mexico, Central
-America and the west coast of South America. Cables had just been
-completed, extending from Galveston, Texas, to Vera Cruz, thence across
-Mexico to the Pacific and down that coast to Lima, Peru, where
-connection was made with another system extending to Valparaiso.
-Galveston was a point determined by the Coast Survey, and the
-measurement thence to Vera Cruz was the first one made. It was
-completed in May '83, and in the Autumn of the same year the party
-proceeded to the South American coast, and stations were established
-and observations made at various points from Valparaiso to Panama, and
-at one point, La Libertad, in Central America. It was at first the
-intention to extend the series across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and
-connect with Vera Cruz, but lack of time prevented this, and as the
-station at Panama determined nearly ten years before, afforded a
-convenient starting point, the idea was abandoned. From Valparaiso, a
-measurement was made with the coöperation of Dr. Gould to his
-observatory at Cordova, using the line across the Andes, and exchanging
-signals automatically. These measurements constituted the final links
-in a long chain, extending from the prime meridian Greenwich across the
-Atlantic to the United States, thence via the West Indies to Panama,
-down the west coast of South America to Valparaiso, across the Andes to
-Cordova and Buenos Ayres, up the east coast to Pernambuco, across the
-Atlantic to Lisbon, and thence to Greenwich, altogether a distance of
-eighteen to twenty thousand miles. The two longitudes of Cordova, as
-brought from Greenwich by the two routes, differed from each other by
-only 0^{s}.048, a result which speaks well for the accuracy of the
-methods employed. When preparations were being made for this
-expedition, it was determined to accomplish if possible something in
-the way of getting rid of the personal equation in exchanging signals.
-An idea which had been suggested by work done by Major Campbell, R. E.
-in the measurement between Bombay and Aden, seemed to promise well. It
-was to be used with the siphon or other form of recorder. The ordinary
-double current cable key with two levers, was arranged with an
-additional lever in such a manner that while in ordinary use in the
-telegraph office, it could also be put in circuit with the chronometer
-and chronograph in the observatory, and a signal sent through the cable
-would have its time of sending registered on the chronograph.
-Ordinarily in speaking over a cable line, connection is made in such a
-way that the current sent does not pass through the recorder at the
-sending station, as a violent movement of the siphon would result. By
-means of a shunt, however, it is possible to control this movement
-somewhat. Suppose now, that the connections at each station are made in
-such a way, by means of this key and the shunt, that a signal sent from
-one, is registered on both recorders and on the sender's chronograph.
-The observers leaving their assistants to take care of the
-chronographs, go to the respective telegraph offices, and all being
-ready, the observer A taps his key. This sends an impulse through the
-cable, which appears on A's recorder, as a violent jump or kick of the
-siphon. On B's recorder it is registered as a deflection like the
-ordinary dot or dash, at the same instant is recorded on A's
-chronograph the time of sending. As soon as B sees the signal on his
-recorder, he taps his key also registering the signals on both
-recorders and on his chronograph. A, seeing B's signal again taps his
-key, and so on, as long as desired. The result is that each observer
-has a record on his siphon fillet of all signals sent and received,
-while the times of those he sent are recorded on his chronograph. By
-the use of the diagonal scale and the Rule of Three, he can without
-difficulty find the times of the signals received. The siphon recorders
-are well made, and the paper moves with great regularity. This system
-was used in the measurement between Galveston and Vera Cruz with great
-success. It was intended to employ the same method throughout the
-measurement on the west coast of America, but on arriving at Lima, it
-was found that the company owning the lines south of that point still
-used the mirror galvanometer, and it was of course necessary to return
-to the old method. The improved key was used however, which eliminated
-the error in sending signals.
-
-After this work was completed and the results published in 1885,
-nothing was done in this line by the Bureau of Navigation for some
-years. Upon the return of the writer in the spring of 1888, from a
-cruise in the South Pacific, he found that the subject of sending an
-expedition to complete the measurements in Mexico and Central America
-was under consideration in the Bureau of Navigation and the
-Hydrographic office. It was finally decided that the work should be
-done, and the writer was placed in charge. The instruments were brought
-out of their retirement, and by the aid of the Hydrographic Office a
-very complete outfit was furnished, and in November of last year a
-start was made from New York, the expedition proceeding by mail steamer
-to Vera Cruz. Here the spot occupied by Lieut. Com. Davis in '83 was
-found, his transit pier, which was still standing was repaired, and
-instruments mounted. Lieut. Charles Laird, U. S. N., who had been
-identified with the longitude work since the China expedition in 1881,
-was left in charge of the observatory at Vera Cruz, and the writer
-proceeded with his party to the small town of Coatzacoalcos, at the
-mouth of the river of the same name. This point is about one hundred
-and twenty miles southeast of Vera Cruz, and is the landing place of
-the cable. A land line extends from this point to Salina Cruz on the
-Pacific coast, a distance of about two hundred miles. In exchanging
-time signals between Vera Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, the automatic method
-was employed, the cable being short. The old wooden observatories were
-used at these points, but as they were too heavy for transportation
-across the Isthmus, tents made especially for astronomical purposes
-were substituted for them in the observations made on the Pacific
-coast. The journey across the Isthmus was slow, about two weeks being
-employed in traveling two hundred miles, though as the route was
-devious, the actual distance was nearer three hundred. Some of the
-instruments were heavy, and after being taken in canoes a hundred miles
-up the Coatzacoalcos river, against a rapid current, they were loaded
-on a train of pack mules, and carried the rest of the way by land.
-While the first party was crossing the Isthmus, the other was on its
-way from Vera Cruz, and being ready at about the same time, a
-successful measurement was made between Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz,
-exchanging signals automatically. The Coatzacoalcos party then crossed
-to Salina Cruz, while the other proceeded to La Libertad in Salvador,
-where the station established in the Spring of '84, was again occupied.
-The measurement between these places being completed, the Libertad
-party went on to San Juan del Sur, in Nicaragua, near the terminus of
-the proposed interoceanic canal. In the measurement between this point
-and Salina Cruz, as well as in the one preceding, the exchange was
-effected by mirror signals. This completed the season's work, and the
-two parties made the best of their way home via Panama, arriving in
-Washington in April and May respectively. The computation of the
-observations is not yet complete though well advanced; it was the
-intention to publish preliminary results this Fall, but owing to lack
-of time that can not be done.
-
-Another piece of work is laid out for the same party for the coming
-winter, which is the measurement from Santiago de Cuba, through Hayti
-and San Domingo to La Guayra in Venezuela, over the cables of a French
-company, which have just been completed. This work will consume about
-six months, and the expedition which is to start almost immediately
-will probably return in April or May next. The determination of the
-longitude of La Guayra will give a point from which many other
-measurements may be made along the north coast of South America,
-furnishing material for extensive corrections of the charts of that
-region.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Having presented an outline of the work done so far, as well as that
-proposed for the near future, I will now mention some of the trials and
-tribulations, as well as the pleasures experienced in carrying out the
-object desired in an expedition of this kind. The greatest politeness
-and kindness have always been experienced from the officials and
-employees of the various telegraph companies over whose lines work has
-been carried on. The government officials of the foreign countries
-visited, have also invariably shown the utmost politeness, but
-sometimes this politeness has been visibly tinged with suspicion. The
-measurements in Peru and Chili were made amid the closing scenes of the
-war between the countries. Upon the arrival of the expedition in Lima,
-an interview was had with the Chilian Commander-in-Chief who had
-possession of the city, and permission was requested and readily
-granted to occupy a station in Arica. Upon arriving at the latter place
-some days after, the Chilian governor in charge was found to have
-instructions to facilitate the work, and readily granted permission to
-establish the observatory in a convenient locality, but flatly refused
-to allow a wire to be extended to the telegraph office, and also
-refused to forward to his immediate superior, a request that it might
-be allowed. He evidently supposed the party were emissaries of the
-United States, sent to treat secretly with conquered Peru, but how he
-expected this was to be done remains a secret. By a vigorous use of the
-telegraph in communicating with the U. S. Ministers to both Chili and
-Peru, his objections were silenced, and the wire was put up. The
-observatory at Arica was erected on the side of a hill to the windward
-of the town, because it afforded a clear view, and was less dirty than
-other eligible sites. It also was a safe position in case of a possible
-earthquake or tidal wave, by which Arica had already been twice visited
-with disastrous effect. In digging for a foundation for the transit
-pier, several mummies of the ancient Peruvians were unearthed at a
-depth of a foot. They had evidently belonged to the poorer class of
-people, as their wrappings were composed of coarse mats, instead of the
-fine cloth with which the wealthier people were usually interred. One
-was the body of a female with long hair, which had been turned to a
-reddish yellow color by the alkali in the soil. The whole coast of Peru
-is barren and desolate, except in the river valleys, it being seldom
-visited by rain, while it is nearly always overhung with heavy clouds
-and fog banks, which render astronomical work exceedingly difficult.
-Even when partially clear in the day time, it generally becomes cloudy
-at night. Many times the observer would be at his place before sunset
-ready to seize the first suitable star revealed by the darkness, only
-to be baffled by thick banks of cloud which would cover the entire sky
-in from five to ten minutes.
-
-In northern Peru, with a latitude of about five degrees south, is the
-town of Paita. It is an assemblage of mud-colored houses, at the foot
-of high, mud colored bluffs. On top of these bluffs is a perfectly
-barren table land extending inland and up and down the coast for many
-miles. Before visiting it the observers were informed that its one good
-point was the perfect astronomical weather which always prevailed.
-Clouds were unknown, and such a thing as rain had never been heard of.
-The extreme dryness of the atmosphere was so favorable to health that
-no one ever died, and when a consumptive invalid was imported by the
-inhabitants in the hope of starting a cemetery, he blasted their
-expectations by recovering. Judge then of their feeling, when upon
-arriving at this delightful place, they were met with the information
-that while it was true that the sky was, in general, perfectly clear
-both by night and day, yet about once in seven years, rain could be
-expected, and that the year then present was the rainy one. And sure
-enough it did rain. The usually dusty streets became rivers and
-quagmires, the rocky valleys in the vicinity were transformed into
-roaring torrents, and the table land usually an arid desert became a
-swamp with a rank growth of vegetation. However by using every
-opportunity and snatching stars between clouds and showers the work was
-finally completed.
-
-Upon arriving in Panama shortly after this experience, the party was
-met with the pleasant intelligence that yellow fever was prevalent, and
-that the foreigners were dying like sheep. Nearly every day of the
-party's stay, some one died of sufficient importance to have the church
-bells tolled for his funeral, while of the ordinary people little
-notice was taken. Every morning, the writer remembers passing a
-carpenter's shop where nothing was made but coffins, and the supply was
-evidently not equal to the demand, for finally the proprietor began to
-import them, apparently by the ship load. The weather however was
-delightful, and the nights were the most perfect, astronomically
-speaking, that could be desired.
-
-The observers who went from Japan to Vladivostok were obliged to wait
-several weeks at Nagasaki, before an opportunity offered for proceeding
-to their destination, and when they finally arrived, the getting away
-again was a problem. Communication with the outside world by water was
-only open during the summer months, and even then it was more
-accidental than otherwise. The party established the observatory
-however, and settled down to work, letting the future take care of
-itself. In the early part of the work, rather an amusing incident
-occurred. As the community was full of all sorts and conditions of men,
-Koreans, Chinamen and Russian exiles, the last not political but
-criminal offenders; it was thought wise to have a sentry stationed at
-the observatory to guard against any possible harm to the instruments.
-So the Governor of the town was asked to furnish a soldier for that
-purpose, which request was readily granted, and one night the sentry
-was posted with orders to let no one touch the observatory. These
-orders he construed literally, and when the observers appeared to
-commence their night's work, he kept them off at the point of the
-bayonet. His only language being Russian with which the observers were
-not familiar, it was impossible to explain the true state of affairs,
-and it was only after hunting up an interpreter and communicating with
-his commanding officer that an entry was finally effected. A good deal
-of bad weather was experienced at this place, but at the end of six
-weeks enough observations had been made for the required purpose, and
-the party was fortunate enough to secure passage to Nagasaki, in a
-small steamer that had brought a load of coal out from Germany.
-
-In the expedition to the Asiatic coast one of the most interesting
-experiences was the trip to Manila in the Philippine Islands. This is
-quite a large town when intact, but a great portion of it is usually in
-the condition of being shaken down by an earthquake or blown over by a
-typhoon. The inhabitants are full of energy, however, and find time
-between downfalls to build up again. The cable from Hong Kong lands at
-a point about one hundred and twenty miles from Manila, and the writer
-was directed to proceed thither, with a chronometer and chronograph for
-the purpose of transmitting time signals. The first part of the journey
-was made in a small coasting steamer uncommonly dirty, and occupied
-about thirty-six hours. At the end of that time the village of Sual in
-the Gulf of Lingayen was reached. This was distant from the cable
-station about thirty miles, and the remainder of the journey was made
-in a native boat, with mat sails, and bamboo outriggers, part of the
-time through channels between numerous small islands and for some
-distance in the open sea. The progress was slow, but it was a pleasant
-way of traveling, except for the sleeping accommodations which were
-primitive; consisting of a palm leaf mat thrown over a platform made of
-split bamboo, in which all the knots had been carefully preserved.
-About three days, including stoppages, were consumed in this thirty
-mile voyage, and the traveler finally reached his destination to be
-received with the greatest hospitality by the staff at the telegraph
-station, and just in time to allay the fears of the observers at Hong
-Kong and Manila who had begun to think him lost. About three weeks were
-spent here, and as the work only occupied a short time at night, the
-days were pleasantly passed in exploring the surrounding country,
-making friends with the natives, shooting and photographing the
-scenery. The return to Manila was by the same route and occupied nearly
-the same length of time.
-
-The measurement from Singapore to Madras was over one of the longest
-lines of cable ever used for this purpose, the distance being about
-1600 nautical miles. The Atlantic cables used by Dr. Gould in 1866 were
-a little more than 1,850 miles in length. There was an intermediate
-station at Penang about 400 miles from Singapore, where all the work of
-the line was repeated. For the longitude measurement however the cables
-were connected through to form an unbroken line. The mirror was the
-only instrument that could be used and even with this the signals were
-feeble and much affected by earth currents.
-
-The observing parties have never been troubled by wild beasts, but
-while at Saigon in Cochin, China, a rifle was always kept handy for use
-in case of the appearance of a tiger. The observatory here was located
-near the edge of a jungle, and alongside the telegraph station, on the
-veranda of which a large tiger had been shot by one of the operators
-only a short time before.
-
-In the expedition of last winter to Mexico and Central America, the
-principal annoyance was caused by insects which were numerous and
-malignant. At Coatzacoalcos they were found in the greatest abundance,
-though the whole isthmus of Tehuantepec is alive with them. Fleas and
-mosquitoes were expected of course, but added to this were numerous
-others much worse. Of the family of "ticks" four varieties were seen
-and felt, ranging in size from almost microscopic to a length of a
-third of an inch. The most numerous were about as large as a grain of
-mustard seed, and one who walked or rode through the bushes or high
-grass would find himself literally covered. One of the worst insects
-encountered was the "nigua" which is in appearance something like a
-small flea. It burrows into the toes and soles of the feet, lays a
-number of eggs, which hatch and produce painful sores. A gruesome story
-is current in that region, about an enthusiastic English naturalist,
-who found specimens of these encamped in his feet, and concluded to
-take them home in that way, in order to observe the effect, but died of
-them before reaching England. All the party were afflicted with these
-pests, but were always fortunate enough to discover them and dig them
-out with the point of a knife before any bad results were experienced.
-The village of Coatzacoalcos is prettily situated, the climate,
-especially in winter, is very agreeable and the river offers a
-commodious harbor, but as long as the insects are so unpleasant, few
-people will care to live there if they can avoid it.
-
-There have been directly determined by these various expeditions, about
-forty secondary meridians. Many more positions depend upon these, so
-they may be said to have made a large addition to our accurate
-knowledge of the earth's surface. Telegraphic facilities are being
-constantly extended, and as the Bureau of Navigation has now a very
-complete outfit for this work, which only needs occasional repairs, it
-is hoped that it may be kept up for some time in the future.
-
-
-
-
-REPORT--GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND.
-
-BY HERBERT G. OGDEN.
-
-
-In my annual report a year ago, I presented to you briefly our
-knowledge of the great geographic divisions of the world. It might be
-instructive to continue the subject this evening by relating the
-additional information we have acquired during the year; but as the
-items are not of great value and the most important are more in the
-form of rumors than of facts, I have restricted myself more to the
-interests of the western hemisphere, and particularly to those
-affecting the United States.
-
-In Europe we have still the visions of war that have agitated her
-peoples for years past; the decapitation of the Turk, and division of
-his European empire to appease the ambition of "friendly powers." It is
-not until we pass by this civilized section and reach the far east,
-that we recognize the dawn of progress in the year; the birth of events
-that may in time increase the happiness and welfare of many people.
-
-The influence of the United States in extending the principle so early
-enunciated, "that all men are born free and equal" has been most
-marked. The western hemisphere is virtually under the rule of men
-chosen by the people, and though we cannot claim that in all instances
-the result has been satisfactory, there has, nevertheless, been a
-steady advance; political disturbances have become less frequent and
-with prolonged tranquillity the arts of peace, commercial enterprise
-and internal improvements, have received an impetus that will wed more
-strongly the advocates of personal liberty to their ideal God.
-
-Educated men in both hemispheres predict ultimate success or failure
-for our form of government and advance cogent arguments in support of
-the views they express. The complications of the great economic
-questions that confront us afford texts for arguments that cause many
-to doubt the wisdom of entrusting the welfare of a great nation to the
-votes of the masses; nevertheless, the people are firm in the belief
-that they can conduct their own affairs; and those whom they intrust
-with temporary power are seldom so short-sighted as not to realize that
-a violation of the trust will meet with certain retribution. Those
-appointed to govern must also be teachers, and if in the enthusiasm of
-a new creed it shall be shown they have taught the people error instead
-of truth, a national uprising sweeps them from control, and for a time
-conservatism becomes the guide. To the people of the old world, the
-apparent prosperity that has followed our system doubtless receives the
-most earnest thought; and the contrast to their own condition excites
-their desires to experiment themselves in more liberal forms, and reap
-the rewards they believe have followed such measures in America.
-
-While American methods may extend their influence in this manner to
-European nations, and even to the nations of Asia, we should not rest
-self-confident of the superiority of our institutions, and that they
-alone are the permeating influence that inspire so many with the
-thoughts of liberal government that brings disquiet to crowned heads.
-The application of recent discoveries and inventions, to the affairs of
-every-day life, have raised the power of the individual and caused such
-a general increase of intellectual vigor, that independence of rulers
-by divine right is no longer a cause for wonder, but is considered by
-the intelligent as the natural state for the modern man.
-
-Since the expedition of Com. Perry our influence in Japan has been
-marked, and this most progressive of the Eastern nations has sought
-counsel and advice from new America and the men who constitute the
-nation. But the progressive people of these isles have been too earnest
-in their efforts to advance, to rely solely upon one set of men, or the
-example of one nation, and we find they have been gathering in that
-which is good from all sections of the civilized world. The record of
-their progress, however, bears the stamp of America, and we may justly
-claim that it was the influence of freedom that first led these
-interesting people into the paths they have followed with such
-gratifying results, and which many believe will culminate in the
-establishment of a powerful and enlightened nation. Recent advices
-announce the formation of a legislative body, organized on the
-principle of the Congress of the United States--a step that indicates
-Japan may yet find a place in the category of states that are destined
-to exert a marked influence in the control of human affairs.
-
-How different is the neighboring empire of China. Within a stone's
-throw, almost, of the advancing civilization of Japan, inhabited by a
-people of marked ability but restricted by race traditions to a
-condition of inactive conservatism, that seems almost to preclude the
-possibility of material advance in centuries to come. The population of
-this empire is so great that the density has been averaged at two and
-three hundred persons per square mile, and in some districts that it is
-as great as seven hundred. We can readily conceive the poverty that
-must exist in such an average population for such an extended area. And
-we may realize the cries of distress that come from great calamities by
-the experiences in our own history, even modified as they have been by
-our superior facilities for affording relief, and the comparative
-insignificance of the numbers who have required assistance. Recall for
-a moment one of the great floods of the Yellow river, where thousands
-have perished and tens of thousands have been rendered destitute within
-a few hours, and conceive the sufferings, hardships, and greater number
-that must yet succumb before those who survived the first great rush of
-the waters can be furnished relief; remembering that the means of
-intercommunication are the most primitive, and that the immediate
-neighbors of the sufferers are in no condition to render more
-assistance than will relieve the most urgent necessities of a
-comparatively insignificant number. May we not, then, if only from a
-humanitarian point of view, greet with pleasure the reception of the
-imperial decree authorizing the introduction in the empire of useful
-inventions of civilized man, and directing the construction of a great
-railroad through the heart of the empire, with Pekin as one of the
-termini. This road will cross the Yellow river, affording relief to
-this populous district in time of disaster; and it is understood will
-eventually be extended to traverse the empire, forming a means of rapid
-communication between distant provinces. We may believe, also, that in
-time it will be the medium of opening to us a new region for geographic
-research, not in the celestial empire alone, but also in the rich
-fields of central Asia that are now being occupied by Chinese
-emigration.
-
-Doubtless the greatest geographic discoveries of the age have been made
-in central Africa. It was but a few years ago that we were in doubt as
-to the true sources of the Nile, and the location of the mouths of
-great rivers that had been followed in the interior, was as much a
-mystery as though the rivers had flowed into a heated cauldron and the
-waters had been dissipated in mist, by the winds, to the four corners
-of the earth. It was then that grave fears were aroused for the safety
-of Livingstone, who had done so much, and whose efforts it was hoped
-would yet solve the great geographic problems his travels had evolved.
-A man, patient in suffering, and with a tenacity of purpose that
-overcomes the greatest obstacles, he had endeared himself to those who
-sought knowledge from his labors, and it was, therefore, with unfeigned
-regret that men spoke of the possibility that calamity had overtaken
-him, and that the work of the last years of his life would possibly be
-lost. The editor of an influential New York journal, sympathizing with
-the deep interest that was felt, and doubtless actuated to some extent
-by the notoriety success would bring to his journal, determined upon
-organizing an expedition to ascertain Livingstone's fate, and thus
-brought before the world the hitherto obscure correspondent Henry M.
-Stanley. The rare good judgment that selected Mr. Stanley for the
-command of such a hazardous expedition was more than demonstrated by
-subsequent events. The first reports that Livingstone had been succored
-were received with incredulity, but as the facts became known
-incredulity gave way to unstinted praise, and Mr. Stanley was accorded
-a place among those who had justly earned a reward from the whole
-civilized world.
-
-A few years after his return from his successful mission for the relief
-of Livingstone, he was commissioned in the joint interests of the _New
-York Herald_ and _London Daily Telegraph_, to command an expedition for
-the exploration of central Africa. Traversing the continent from east
-to west, he added largely to our knowledge of the lake region and was
-the first to bring us facts of the course of the Congo. This expedition
-placed him before the world as one of the greatest of explorers, and it
-seems, therefore, to have been but natural that, when a great
-humanitarian expedition was to be organized nearly ten years later to
-penetrate into the still unknown regions of the equatorial belt for the
-relief of Emin Pasha, that he should have been selected to command it.
-How faithfully he performed this task we are only just learning, and
-our admiration increases with every new chapter that is placed before
-us. That he was successful in the main object of the expedition is
-self-evident, having brought Emin Pasha and the remnant of his
-followers to the coast with him. The expedition has also been fruitful
-in geographic details, and though we have not as yet the data to change
-the maps to accord with all the newly discovered facts, we may feel
-assured of their value. Perhaps the best summary of the more important
-discoveries can be given in the explorer's own words, which I have
-taken from one of his recent letters:
-
-"Over and above the happy ending of our appointed duties we have not
-been unfortunate in geographical discoveries. The Aruwimi is now known
-from its source to its bourne. The great Congo forest, covering as
-large an area as France and the Iberian peninsula, we can now certify
-to be an absolute fact. The Mountains of the Moon, this time beyond the
-least doubt, have been located, and Ruwenzori, 'The Cloud King,' robed
-in eternal snow, has been seen and its flanks explored and some of its
-shoulders ascended, Mounts Gordon Bennett and MacKinnan Cones being but
-great sentries warding off the approach to the inner area of 'The Cloud
-King.'
-
-"On the southeast of the range the connection between Albert Edward
-Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza has been discovered, and the extent of the
-former lake is now known for the first time. Range after range of
-mountains has been traversed, separated by such tracts of pasture lands
-as would make your cowboys out west mad with envy. And right under the
-burning equator we have fed on blackberries and bilberries and quenched
-our thirst with crystal water fresh from snow beds. We have also been
-able to add nearly six thousand square miles of water to Victoria
-Nyanza.
-
-"Our naturalist will expatiate upon the new species of animals, birds
-and plants he has discovered. Our surgeon will tell what he knows of
-the climate and its amenities. It will take us all we know how to say
-what new store of knowledge has been gathered from this unexpected
-field of discoveries. I always suspected that in the central regions,
-between the equatorial lakes, something worth seeing would be found,
-but I was not prepared for such a harvest of new facts."
-
-The exploration of Africa, however, has not been confined to the
-central belt. Expeditions have been developing the southern section of
-the continent; the French have been active in the watershed of the
-Niger, and in the east there seems to have been a general advance of
-English, Germans, Portuguese and Italians. The latter, it is stated,
-have acquired several million square miles of territory in Mozambique,
-an acquisition that would indicate our maps have heretofore given this
-particular division of territory an area much too insignificant.
-
-We also learn that Capt. Trevier, a French traveler, has crossed the
-continent by ascending the Congo to Stanley Falls, thence southeasterly
-through the lake region to the coast at some point in Mozambique, in a
-journey of eighteen months; a journey that must bring us a harvest of
-new facts.
-
-On the western hemisphere there has been considerable activity in a
-variety of interest, tending to develop the political, commercial and
-natural resources.
-
-Four new states have been admitted to the American Union, and measures
-have been introduced in the Congress looking to the admission of two
-more. These acts mark an era in the progress of the great northwest
-significant of a national prosperity that a generation ago would have
-been deemed visionary. We have also to record a tentative union formed
-by the Central American states, that at the expiration of the term of
-ten years prescribed by the compact, we may hope will be solidified by
-a bond to make the union perpetual. In South America a bloodless
-revolution presented to the family of nations a new republic in the
-United States of Brazil. All thoughtful men must at least feel a throb
-of sympathy for Dom Pedro, who in a night lost the allegiance of his
-people and the rule of an empire. Sympathy, perhaps, that he does not
-crave, for history affords us no parallel of a monarch who taught his
-people liberalism, and knowing it could but lead to the downfall of his
-empire. It seems to be true, also, that although depriving him of
-power, the people whom he loved and ruled with such liberality, have
-not forgotten his many virtues, and that the Emperor Dom Pedro will be
-revered in republican Brazil as heartily as though his descendants had
-been permitted to inherit the empire. We cannot tell if the new order
-of affairs will prove permanent, but the education of the Brazilians in
-the belief that a republic was inevitable, gives strong grounds to hope
-the experiment of self-government will not be a failure. The influence
-the successful establishment of this republic is to exert in other
-parts of the world is a problem that has already brought new worries to
-the rulers of Europe, and not without a reason, for a republican
-America is an object lesson that the intelligence of the age will not
-be slow to learn.
-
-The assembly of the "Three Americas Congress" in Washington, is also an
-event that may wield an influence in the future. Perhaps it may not be
-seen for years to come, but it lays the foundation for commercial and
-geographic developments that would redound to the credit of the western
-hemisphere.
-
-We have seen during the year the virtual failure of the Panama Canal
-company; for it is unreasonable to believe that a corporation so
-heavily involved with such a small proportion of its allotted labor
-accomplished, can secure the large sum that would be requisite to
-continue operations to completion. The failure of this company has
-imparted a fresh impetus to the Nicaragua scheme and ground was broken
-on this route in October last. As the Nicaragua route presents many
-natural advantages and is free from such stupendous engineering works
-as were contemplated at Panama, we may hope for its completion. The
-surveys were conducted with deliberation and have evidenced great skill
-on the part of those who supervised them, so that we may reasonably
-expect the construction will proceed with the same care, and resolve
-the question of success into the simple problem of cost.
-
-A partial account has been furnished by Dr. Nansen of his journey
-across Greenland a year ago. The result will be disappointing to those
-who anticipated the discovery of open country with green fields and the
-general reversal of the Arctic conditions. He describes the region as
-being covered with a great shield of ice, dome-like in shape, and which
-he estimates to have a maximum thickness of six or seven thousand feet.
-For a great part of his journey he traveled at an elevation of about
-eight thousand feet, and the cold at times was so intense that he
-believes the temperature must have been at least 50° below zero on the
-Fahrenheit scale. No land was visible in the interior and he estimates
-the highest mountains must be covered with at least several hundred
-feet of snow ice. The expedition was one of great danger, and we may
-say was accomplished only through the good judgment of the explorer.
-The scientific results have not yet been considered, but the explorer
-suggests it is an excellent region to study an existing ice field, and
-estimates that persistent observations might prove productive of value
-in the science of meteorology.
-
-The Canadians have been active during the year in the exploration of
-the vast territory to the northward of their supposed habitable
-regions. In the report of Dr. Dawson relating the result of his labors
-in the northwest, up to the date of its compilation, we find much that
-is new and a great deal that is of interest. We cannot enter into the
-details of his itinerary, but we may note as one fact that surely will
-excite surprise, the conclusion he reaches that there is a territory of
-about 60,000 square miles, the most part to the northward of the
-sixtieth parallel, in which agricultural pursuits may be successfully
-followed in conjunction with the natural development of the other
-resources of the territory. This does not imply that it may become an
-agricultural region, and should hardly be construed as more than a
-prediction that the pioneers who attempt to develop the region need not
-die of starvation.
-
-We have also to record as a matter of interest in the Arctic region,
-the successful establishment of the two parties sent out by the United
-States to determine the location of the 141st meridian, the boundary
-line between Alaska and the British Provinces north of Mt. St. Elias.
-The parties are located on the Yukon and Porcupine rivers above their
-confluence at Ft. Yukon. They are well equipped, and it is expected
-they will explore a considerable territory and bring back with them
-valuable information beyond the special object of the expedition.
-Indeed, it may be said, this is but the beginning of a thorough
-examination of Alaskan territory, that will eventually form a basis for
-the demarkation of the international boundary. This country is full of
-surprises in its details, and whatever examinations are made must be
-thorough to be effective. Only recently, a small indentation, as it has
-been carried on the maps since Vancouver's time, and known as Holkham
-Bay, has been found to be a considerable body of water, extending back
-from Stephen's passage in two arms, each nearly thirty miles in length
-and nearly reaching the assumed location of the Alaska boundary. So
-perfectly is the bifurcation and extension of the arms hidden by
-islands, that it was only during the past summer when in the regular
-course of work the shores of the bay were to be traversed, that the
-extent of the bay became known.
-
-The determination of the boundaries of the land areas on the surface of
-the earth has ever been a matter of the greatest interest to the
-students of geography. It was the incentive that led the daring
-navigators of old to undertake the perilous voyages that in these days
-read like romances; and in the light of the more perfect knowledge we
-now have of the hidden dangers to which they were exposed, we may pass
-by their shortcomings in the admiration we must feel for their heroism
-and endurance. To these men we owe our first conception of the probable
-distribution of the areas of land and water, but the lines they gave us
-were only approximate; and had not scientific effort followed in their
-tracks we may reasonably believe the progress of civilization would
-have been retarded by generations. True it is, also, that even to-day
-we have not that precise knowledge that is requisite for the safety of
-quick navigation, nor to calculate the possibility of the future
-improvement of undeveloped regions. The commerce of the world in coming
-years will demand the accuracy in the location of distant regions as
-great as we now have in civilized centres, for time will be too
-precious to lose a day of it in the precautions that the navigator must
-now follow in approaching undeveloped coasts. That these truths have
-guided those who seek to do their share for the future in the labor of
-the present, we have ample evidence in the activity of all civilized
-governments during the last century. It is a source of shame and
-infinite regret that our own government has done so little in this vast
-field: that the intelligence of our people has not been awakened to put
-forth their energy in so good a cause, that would eventually increase
-their own prosperity. But we have not been altogether inactive and
-complaint must be in the quantity, not the quality of our labors. The
-establishment of "definite locations," for the control of sections and
-regions, is the first step in eliminating errors that have been
-committed and in providing greater accuracy in the future. At a recent
-meeting of the Society we had a paper presented on this subject, from
-which we can judge of the good work that has been done by our navy in
-these determinations, and gain an insight of the similar labor that has
-been prosecuted by other nations. The bands of electric cables that
-girdle the earth, afford the most approved means of ascertaining the
-longitudes of these positions; and if we but study a cable chart, it
-will be found the work yet to be accomplished before the facilities the
-cables now afford are exhausted, is not inconsiderable. We hope,
-therefore, this good work may be continued, and that surveying and
-charting the regions thus approached, will shortly follow. There is
-much labor of this character still required on our own continent, and
-we will be delinquent in our duty as a progressive people if we do not
-follow the good beginning already made to its legitimate conclusion.
-
-The duties of government are manifold, and for the benefit of those
-governed must include legislation that will make manifest the natural
-resources of the State. The geographic development and political
-advancement of our own country in the century of our national
-existence, is a marked instance of the wisdom of preparing for the
-future by such acts as legitimately fall within the province of
-legislation.
-
-The new nation began her existence under extraordinary circumstances.
-With only an experimental form of government, she was to develop a vast
-region of unknown resources; but happily imbued with the belief that
-"knowledge is power," it was not long before systematic efforts were
-put forth to learn the wealth we had and how it might be utilized. The
-congress of the confederation provided the first act in 1785, for the
-organization of the land surveys and land parcelling system, that title
-to the unoccupied territories in the west might be securely vested in
-the individual. We have record of the stimulus this act gave to the
-settlement of a large territory, and raised the demand for surveys in
-the still further west, developing the geography of a vast region that
-has since become the home of millions of people. The original act was
-amended as early as 1796, and since then has frequently been added to
-in the effort to meet the new conditions evolved in the rapid
-development of the country. Other great regions were explored by the
-army, sometimes under special acts, until finally we had learned with
-some degree of reliability, the general adaptability of our whole
-territory. The discovery of the great mineral wealth of the west, and
-the improved means of communication afforded by the construction of
-continental railways, however, imposed new conditions and it was found
-more detailed information would be necessary to meet the demands of the
-increasing population. We thus reached another stage where expeditions
-equipped for scientific investigation were organized, and through their
-labors brought us knowledge of still greater value; and to-day we see
-these merged into one body in the geological survey, whose special duty
-is the scientific exploration and study of our great territory.
-
-While this had been passing in the interior, bringing life to
-unoccupied regions, the districts on the coast that had long been
-settled, were also struggling with new problems. The material progress
-of the civilized world, and the pressure from the regions behind them
-that had been recently peopled, demanded greater commercial facilities.
-Early in the century, almost coincident with the establishment of the
-land surveys, provision had been made for the survey of the coasts, and
-although through various causes it was not vigorously prosecuted until
-a third of the century had passed, when the time came for its economic
-use in meeting the new conditions imposed by the general progress of
-the nation, the knowledge had been gained that was essential to advance
-and develop the great interests affected. The improvements required,
-however, could only be secured through active exertion, the actual work
-of man; but so pressing has been the want and so persistent has been
-the labor, that should we chart the results it would be a surprise to
-those who believe the "local geography" has not been changed.
-
-The demands upon the older communities arising from the increase in
-commercial and industrial enterprise, have caused them too, to feel the
-want of more detailed information of their surroundings, and they have,
-in consequence, undertaken more precise surveys of their territories,
-generally availing themselves of the assistance offered by the general
-government. This work will doubtless extend in time to all the States,
-and be followed, when its value has been made manifest, by the detailed
-surveys of precision that have been found necessary as economic
-measures in the civilized States of the old world.
-
-It is rarely we can foresee the full results of great national
-enterprises; the special object that calls forth the exertion may be
-readily comprehended, but the new conditions evolved from success, and
-sometimes from only the partial accomplishment of the original design,
-may be factors in governing the future beyond our power to surmise.
-
-The work of improving the navigation of the Mississippi River, is an
-instance of this character so marked, and apparently destined to extend
-its influence through so many generations, that a brief record of the
-change it has effected in geographic environment will not be without
-interest, and, perchance, not without value.
-
-The area drained by the Mississippi river and tributaries, is forty-one
-per cent. of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska; and by
-the census of 1880 the population of this great district was
-forty-three per cent. of the whole Union. It seems probable that a
-large proportion of this population is directly interested in the river
-system, and if we add to it the number of those who are indirectly
-benefited, we should doubtless find a majority of our people more or
-less dependent upon its maintenance. It is only to the alluvial valley,
-however, the great strip from Cairo to the Gulf, that I wish
-particularly to call your attention this evening. This is really the
-great highway for traffic; the cause of the great work that has been
-prosecuted; and the scene of the geographic development that will mark
-an epoch in the history of the river.
-
-Ten years ago the importance of the improvement of this water-way was
-so forcibly impressed upon Congress, that an act was passed organizing
-a "Mississippi River Commission," to make an exhaustive study of the
-whole subject and submit plans for the improvement of the river and to
-prevent the destructive floods that are of almost annual occurrence. Or
-in the language of the act: "It shall be the duty of said Commission to
-take into consideration and mature such plan or plans, and estimates,
-as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect
-the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to
-the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and
-facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service."
-
-Large sums of money had already been expended by the general government
-in local improvements, but no consistent plan had been developed that
-would be an acceptable guide in conducting operations along the whole
-river, when this act went into effect. It is not necessary to refer
-here to the various systems that were presented to the Commission for
-consideration; nor to enter upon the details of the plan finally
-adopted; our record being more the effects and primary causes, than the
-intermediary processes through which the results have been produced.
-The general plan followed by the Commission has been the construction
-of works in the bed of the river, to form new banks where a contraction
-of the river bed has been deemed necessary; and the erection of levees,
-with grading, revetment, and other protection of the banks, in
-localities where the natural banks seem particularly liable to give way
-under the pressure of a great flood. The object of such works being to
-control the river by confining the low water channels in fixed lines,
-causing the recurrence of the scour in low water stages in the same
-channel in successive low waters; and preventing the diversion of the
-stream into new channels during high water stages by overflow of the
-banks. A diversion of the stream would leave the works in the bed of
-the river below of no greater value than as monuments to the energy and
-skill displayed in the details of their construction, and preclude the
-ultimate benefit that may be derived from these works in permanently
-lowering the bed of the river. The probability of such diversion of the
-water, however, seems to have been reduced to a minimum, through the
-conservative action of the Commission in coöperating with the States
-having jurisdiction over the alluvial bottoms, in reorganizing their
-levee systems and thus securing the greatest control over the volume of
-water brought down in the flood seasons, that is possible by the
-construction of well planned and substantially built levees. It having
-been demonstrated that the levees subserve a double purpose, that they
-are essential in the general plan to improve the navigation of the
-river adopted by the Commission, and are likewise needed to render the
-bottom lands habitable, it is not surprising that we find the State
-authorities and the Commission jointly engaged in their construction.
-
-It has thus been brought about that the effort to improve the
-navigation of the river for the general welfare, has resulted in such
-great changes in the geography of the locality, that a large district
-has been reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The alluvial valley of
-the Mississippi river has an area of thirty thousand square miles, and
-is naturally divided into four great basins that have been designated
-the St. Francis, Yazoo, Tensas and Atchafalaya. Two of these basins are
-now fairly protected from the overflows of the Mississippi, by the
-levees that have been constructed, or repaired, incidental to the work
-of the Commission, viz: the Yazoo basin extending from below Memphis to
-the mouth of the Yazoo river; and the Tensas basin from the high land
-south of the Arkansas river to the mouth of the Red river; and the
-Atchafalaya basin, from the Red river to the gulf, has been protected
-on the Mississippi fronts. These three basins have an aggregate area of
-nearly twenty thousand square miles that is now reasonably secure from
-inundation. Measures have also been instituted by the State authorities
-looking to the reclamation of the St. Francis basin; and the work is
-half accomplished on the White river section.
-
-Nearly the whole of this valley was under protection thirty years ago,
-but the disasters of the late civil war, and subsequent inability of
-the people to repair the damaged levees, resulted in the practical
-abandonment of many sections, and it was not until about ten or twelve
-years ago that the protective works again presented an appearance of
-continuity. The supposed security, however, was of short duration, as
-the great floods of 1882 overtopped the works in more than one hundred
-and forty places, causing such widespread destruction that cultivation
-of the soil was rendered impossible over large districts. The floods of
-succeeding years but added to the misfortunes of the valley, and land
-values became so depreciated that sales were impracticable, taxes could
-not be collected, and there was a general feeling that square miles of
-fertile land must be given over to the destructive agencies of the
-great river that had made it.
-
-It was while suffering under this distressing situation that the work
-of the Mississippi River Commission was brought forward as a possible
-means of salvation. With a recuperative power that seems almost
-marvelous, the people have contributed of their labor and their means,
-until now this great area of nearly twenty thousand square miles has
-been once more reclaimed, and seems to have entered upon an era of
-prosperity that will eclipse the prophecies of even the most sanguine.
-It is believed that the levees that have now been constructed will
-prove reasonably secure. They have been built for a double purpose; and
-the proportion of the expense incurred by the general government, about
-one-third, under the direction of the Commission, has insured a
-supervision and inspection by competent engineers such as was not
-exercised in the earlier history of such works on the river.
-
-We cannot foretell the developments that will follow the improvement of
-this water way and the reclamation of the alluvial bottoms on an
-enduring basis. That the works erected by the Commission will maintain
-an increased depth of water at the low stages of the river, seems to be
-demonstrated, as during the low water of November last a depth of nine
-feet was found on the Lake Providence and Plum Point bars, an increase
-of thirty-three and forty-four per cent. respectively. When the depths
-on the other bars have been increased in like proportion the free
-navigation of the river will be assured, and we may point to the result
-as one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times.
-
-The increased value of the land adjacent to the river redeemed from
-waste, more than doubled on the average, and in many instances
-quadrupled; the replenishing of the state and county treasuries by the
-collection of taxes on land that was before unremunerative; and the
-building of railroads through sections where it had been impracticable
-to maintain them before in consequence of their liability to
-destruction by the periodic floods; are marked evidences of the
-material prosperity that has already followed the great work. During
-the last four years, forty thousand settlers have taken up lands in the
-Yazoo basin alone, and it was estimated that in the fall of 1889 twenty
-thousand more would seek homes in the same district. These settlers
-have been mostly negroes from the worn out high lands to the eastward.
-If the change in their environment proves beneficial to the individual
-we may expect an increased migration, that may in turn be an aid in
-solving the political problem involved in the citizenship of the negro.
-
-The settlement of these bottom lands will also influence the prosperity
-of many commercial centers, as trade statistics indicate the general
-abandonment of the plantations that followed the great floods of 1882,
-caused a marked diminution in the shipments by the lower river, as well
-as in the receipts from that section; and that the partial reclamation
-of the lands and restoration of agricultural pursuits has already
-influenced the receipt and distribution of commercial products.
-
-The project to reclaim by irrigation large districts of the arid region
-of the west, if successfully accomplished, may also exert an influence
-in the political and commercial relations of the future that cannot now
-be foretold. Two-fifths of the territory of the United States has been
-classed as arid; not in the sense that there is no water, for the
-greatest rivers on the continent have their sources almost in the midst
-of the region; but rather that the water is not available for enriching
-the ground. The rainfall is generally not in the season when the crops
-would require it, or is too small and uncertain for the husbandman to
-depend upon it. The whole region is not of this character; many
-districts are susceptible of the highest cultivation as nature has left
-them, and others have been redeemed by the application of the water
-supply through the simpler devices customary in irrigated countries;
-until now nearly all the districts have been occupied that are
-susceptible of agricultural pursuits, either in the natural state or by
-irrigation, unless water is secured by means generally beyond the reach
-of the individual or combination of individuals who may use it. And
-yet, it is believed there are millions of acres of rich land that may
-be redeemed and converted to the support of a large population, by the
-application of capital in the construction of works of irrigation. The
-progress of the surveys of the region, therefore, that have been
-instituted by the general government, are watched with absorbing
-interest. The districts susceptible of such extensive improvement are
-only approximately known, and as it is only through these surveys their
-availability will be made manifest, the importance of the work can
-hardly be overestimated. The prosperity of several states will be
-largely influenced by the success of operations of this kind within
-their borders, and in turn their greater development and increased
-wealth, must react upon the older communities and benefit them, on the
-principle that the healthful growth of a single member is strength to
-all.
-
-The science of geography, as taught in the present day, is more
-comprehensive than the brief descriptions and delineations of the areas
-of land and water that satisfied the early explorers. The great strides
-that have been made in scientific research during the past century have
-opened new fields, and men are no longer content to picture that only
-which they can see. The varied features of the earth's surface,
-transformations now in progress and those which may be deduced from the
-facts we can observe, have led to many theories of the construction of
-the earth, ancient forms upon the surface and possibilities, if not
-probabilities, in the future. To ascertain the form of the earth has
-alone been the cause of heroic labor, and yet we have hardly passed the
-point that we can give it in probable terms with the general
-dimensions. Observations warrant the assumption that, discarding the
-accidents of nature--even the highest mountains--the sphere is far from
-being perfect. That it is flattened at the poles is now accepted as the
-true condition, but we have reason to believe, too, that this is not
-the only departure from the perfect sphere. The more thorough the
-research and precise the observations, the more certain does it appear
-that the crust has a form as though there had been great waves of
-matter that had been solidified. To locate the depressions of these
-great waves and measure their depths, to point to the crests and
-measure their extent, is a problem for the future to solve. Their study
-is claimed to be within the legitimate sphere of geography; and not
-until they have been satisfactorily answered can we assert the
-geographer is even approaching the end of the facts his science has yet
-to utilize.
-
-In pre-historic geography we have had two papers presented to the
-Society during the past year, relating to the orographic features of
-the earth's surface in times past compared with the localities as we
-may see them to-day. In the first instance the comparison is evolved
-from an effort to trace the origin and growth of the rivers of
-Pennsylvania; and the second, in a description of the famed district
-around Asheville, North Carolina. These have a substantial interest to
-us, treating as they do of localities so well known; and they
-illustrate, too, the resources of induction in bringing to our view the
-probable wonders of ancient geographic forms.
-
-The constitution of the interior of the earth is a subject of great
-interest in the science of geography, as many of the visible forms upon
-the crust have been wrought by the power of the agencies within it. The
-discussion has been warm in the past, and doubtless will be resumed
-with unabated interest as we find new phenomena for the argument. The
-apparent lull that has followed the promulgation of the theory, three
-years ago, that under the crust we should find a fluid, or semi-fluid,
-surrounding a solid nucleus, may not be of long duration. This
-hypothesis probably comes nearer to satisfying the conditions imposed
-by the physicist and geologist, than those which have preceded it, and
-may be accepted for the present; unless the processes of nature by
-which it is conceived this state of the interior of the earth has been
-produced, shall be demonstrated to have continued for sufficient time
-to have caused a condition of equilibrium and possible solidification
-of the whole sphere; when we might expect it to be repudiated by those
-who oppose the theory of isostacy, but commended by the physicists as
-supporting their claim that the earth must be substantially a solid
-even now. If we accept Mr. Frederick Wright's suggestion, isostacy may
-have an important bearing on the cause of the ice sheets that covered
-such great areas; a suggestion that opens to the vision of the
-imagination an orography beside which the grandest landscape we may see
-to-day would pale into insignificance. This is believed to be a new
-application of the isostatic theory, and may be a possible solution of
-a much vexed question when an initial cause for such great upheavals
-can be advanced that will not be inconsistent with other accepted
-conditions.
-
-Theories are modified by new facts, and in any attempt to demonstrate
-the constitution of the interior of the earth, the increase of
-temperature with the depth is an important factor. The recent measures,
-therefore, in Germany, that indicate the figures generally accepted are
-not reliable, may be received with interest. The shaft was sunk
-especially for the purpose of observing temperatures at different
-depths, and every precaution that former experience had suggested seems
-to have been taken to secure accuracy. The greatest depth reached was
-about one mile. An elaborate discussion of the results fixes the
-increase of temperature at 1° F. for each 65 ft. increase of depth.
-This is about 15 ft. greater than the figures that have heretofore been
-given; a difference so large that we may question if they will be
-generally accepted until verified by further observations made with
-equally great care.
-
-In conclusion permit me to note the fact that the United States was for
-the first time represented in the International Geodetic Association,
-at the meeting recently held in Paris; and also to record the
-successful conclusion of the fourth International Geographical Congress
-that assembled in Paris in August last. The reports from the Congress
-indicate a wide range of subjects discussed, and lead us to believe the
-interest in our science is progressive, and must receive the hearty
-appreciation of all who are inspired by the nobler instincts to
-develope the great sphere on which we live; that the riches, the
-beauties, and above all the grandeur of Nature, may be made manifest to
-ourselves and for our posterity.
-
-
-
-
-REPORT--GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR.
-
-BY GEN. A. W. GREELY.
-
-
-It is with a feeling of increased responsibility, shared doubtless by
-the Presidents of other sections, that the Vice-President of the
-Geography of the Air brings before you his modest annual contribution
-in one branch of geographical science.
-
-We live in an age so imbued with earnest thought, and so characterized
-by patient investigation, that an eager gleaner in scientific fields
-finds at the very outset his mind filled with the garnered grain of
-golden facts. The more cautious searcher often follows with uncertain
-mind, and doubtless in his backward glances sees many fairer and
-heavier sheaves than those he bears with full arms, from the fruitful
-harvest. If, then, you do not find here dwelt on such geographical
-phases as you judge most important, attribute the fact I pray you, not
-to neglect, but to lack of observation, or to the exercise of an
-undiscriminating judgment.
-
-First let us turn to the higher class of investigations, wherein that
-handmaid of science, a true and noble imagination, comes to supplement
-exact knowledge, to round out and give full form and perfect outline,
-either shaping a number of disjointed and apparently heterogeneous
-facts into a harmonious series, or evolving from a mass of confusing
-and seemingly inexplicable phenomena a theory or law consistent
-therewith.
-
-In this domain Professor Ferrel's book on Winds is probably the most
-important theoretical meteorological discussion of the past year. It
-owes its value to the fact that it puts into comparatively simple and
-popular form the processes and results of his intricate mathematical
-investigations of the motions of the air, published by him years since,
-and later elaborated during his service with the Signal Office.
-
-In connection with the subject of winds, Professor William M. Davis has
-formulated an excellent classification, depending first, on the
-ultimate source of the energy causing the motion; second, on
-temperature contrasts which produce and maintain winds; and third, on
-their periodicity and the time of the first appearance of the motion.
-
-Professor Russell, appropriately it seems to me, remarks regarding the
-landslide winds, that avalanche would be a better term than landslide
-as applied to winds associated with fallen masses of earth or snow.
-
-With the enormous amounts of accumulated tabulated matter, and numerous
-studies bearing on isolated meteorological phenomena, it is a specially
-important consideration that some students pay constant attention to
-the investigations of the laws of storms. From such researches definite
-advances in theoretical meteorology may be made and fixed laws
-determined, which may be of practical utility with reference to the
-better forecasting of the weather. In the United States Signal Office,
-Professor Abbe has brought together the results of his studies and
-investigations for the past thirty years, under the title, "Preparatory
-studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions." This
-report will appear as an appendix to the annual report of the Chief
-Signal Officer of the army. Professor Abbe finds that the source and
-maintaining power of storms depend on the absorption by clouds of solar
-heat, and in the liberation of heat in the cloud during the subsequent
-precipitation, which, as he endeavors to show, principally influences
-the movement of the storm-centre.
-
-In this method one takes a chart showing current meteorological
-conditions, and the permanent orographic features of the continent;
-lines of equal density are also drawn for planes at several elevations
-above sea-level. On these latter, and on the lines of the orographic
-resistance, are based intermediate lines of flow, which show where
-conditions are favorable to cooling and condensation. The amount of
-condensation and its character, whether rain or snow, are estimated by
-the help of the graphic diagram. Numbers are thus furnished that can be
-entered on the chart and show at once the character of the new centre
-of buoyancy, or the directions and velocity of progress of the centre
-of the indraft and the consequent low barometer.
-
-It is hoped that this work of Professor Abbe's may be, as he
-anticipates, of great practical as well as theoretical value. Steps are
-being taken to test the theoretical scheme by practical and exhaustive
-applications to current work.
-
-Tiesserenc de Bort has continued his work, of improving weather
-forecasts for France, by studying the distribution of the great and
-important centres of high pressures, which prevail generally over the
-middle Atlantic ocean, and, at certain periods of the year, over Asia,
-Europe, and North America. His studies have proceeded on the theory
-that the displacements of centres of high pressure, whether in Asia,
-over the Azores, near Bermuda, in North America, or in the Polar
-regions, set up a series of secondary displacements, which necessarily
-cause storm centres to follow certain routes. M. de Bort concludes that
-a daily knowledge of the relation of these centres and their areas of
-displacement will eventually enable skilled meteorologists to deduce
-the position of unknown and secondary centres. He has endeavored to
-reduce these various displacements to a series of types and has made
-very considerable progress in this classification. Daily charts
-covering many years of observations have been prepared, and these
-separated, whenever the characteristics are sufficiently pronounced,
-into corresponding types. This plan of forecasting necessitates
-extended meteorological information daily, which France obtains not
-only from Russia, Algeria, Italy and Great Britain, but, through the
-coöperation of United States, from North America. The daily information
-sent by the Signal Office shows, in addition to the general weather
-over the United States and Canada, the conditions on the western half
-of the North Atlantic ocean, as determined by observations made on the
-great steamships, and furnished voluntarily by their officers to the
-Signal Office through the Hydrographic Office and the New York Herald
-weather bureau.
-
-The study of thunder storms has received very elaborate and extensive
-consideration. M. Ciro Ferari in Italy finds that almost invariably the
-storms come from directions between north and northwest, the tendency
-in northern Italy being directly from the west, and in the more
-southern sections from the northwest. The velocities of storm movements
-are much greater from the west than from the east, considerably more so
-in the centre and south of Italy than in the north; and in the months,
-largest in July.
-
-The velocity of propagation increases with greater velocities of the
-winds accompanying the storms, with also greater attendant electrical
-intensity. The front line of propagation while more often curved, is
-sometimes straight and sometimes zigzag, and appears to undergo a
-series of successive transformations, more or less affected by the
-topographical nature of the country passed over.
-
-Ferari thinks their principal cause is to be found in high temperatures
-coincident with high vapor pressures. Thunder storms, he considers, are
-essentially local phenomena, superposed on the general atmospheric
-phenomena. A principal general cause of thunder storms in Italy is the
-existence of a deep depression in northwest Europe, with a secondary
-depression in Italy dependent on the first. This secondary feeble area
-remains for several days over upper Italy, and nearly always is
-followed by thunder storms. Minimum relative humidity precedes, and
-maximum follows a storm, while the vapor pressure conditions are
-exactly reversed. Ferari notes, as one matter of interest, the passage
-of fully developed thunder storms from France into Italy over mountains
-4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in elevation.
-
-Dr. Meyer, at Gottingen, has investigated the annual periodicity of
-thunder storms, while Carl Prohaska has made a statistical study of
-similar storms in the German and Austrian Alps. The latter writer
-thinks they are most likely to occur when the barometer is beginning to
-rise after a fall, thus resembling heavy down-pours of rain.
-
-In connection with Schmucher's theory on the origin of thunder storm
-electricity, Dr. Less has been able to satisfactorily answer in the
-affirmative an important point in the theory, as to whether the
-vertical decrement of temperature is especially rapid. Less finds
-evidences of very rapid decrement of temperature during thunder storms,
-as shown by the examination of records of 120 stations for ten years.
-
-Mohn and Hildebrandsson have also published a work on the thunder
-storms of the Scandinavian peninsula. The rise in the barometer at the
-beginning of rain, they agree with Mascart in attributing largely to
-the formation of vapor and the evaporation of moisture from rain
-falling through relatively dry air.
-
-A. Croffins has discussed thunder storms at Hamberg from observations
-for ten years. He believes that all such storms are due to the
-mechanical interaction of at least two barometric depressions.
-
-As a matter of interest bearing on the much discussed phenomena of
-globular lightning, an incident is recounted by F. Roth, where a man
-feeding a horse was struck by lightning and lost consciousness. The man
-states that he felt no shock, but was suddenly enveloped in light and
-that a ball of fire the size of his fist, traveled along the horse's
-neck. This points to the fact that "ball" lightning is probably a
-physiological phenomenon.
-
-In view of the recent extended interest in the question as to whether
-the climate of the United States is permanently changing, it should be
-remarked that this question has lately been under consideration with
-regard to Europe. Messrs. Ferrel, Richter, Lang, Bruchen and others
-conclude, from an examination of all available data, that there is no
-permanent climatic change in Europe. In connection with this discussion
-in Europe, long series of vintage records, going back to the year 1400,
-have been used. Apart from the ocean borders, extensive simultaneous
-climatic changes occur over extended areas, which changes--as might be
-expected--are more accentuated in the interior of the continents. These
-changes involve barometric pressure, rainfall and temperature, which
-all recur to that indefinite and complex phenomenon--the variation in
-the amount of heat received by the earth. The idea is advanced that
-these oscillations have somewhat the semblance of cycles, the period of
-which is thirty-six years. It may easily be questioned, however, in
-view of the fragmentary and heterogeneous character of the data on
-which this assumption is based, whether the error in the observations
-is not greater than the range of variation. Blanford, in one of his
-discussions, has pointed out that the temperature or rainfall data in
-India can be so arranged as to give a cycle with a period of almost any
-number of years, but, unfortunately, the possible error of observation
-is greater in value than the variations.
-
-As to the United States, it is pertinent to remark that the Signal
-Office is in possession of temperature observations in Philadelphia,
-covering a continuous period of one hundred and thirty-two years. The
-mean annual temperature for the past ten years is exactly the same as
-for the entire period.
-
-There have been criticisms in years past that the climatological
-conditions of the United States have not received that care and
-attention which their importance demanded. Much has been done to remedy
-defects in this respect, although, as is well known here in Washington,
-the general law which forbids the printing of any works without the
-direct authority of Congress, has been an obvious bar to great activity
-on the part of the Signal Office. Within the year the rainfall
-conditions of twelve Western States and Territories have been published
-with elaborate tables of data and fifteen large charts, which set forth
-in considerable detail the rainfall conditions for that section of the
-country. In addition the climatic characteristics of Oregon and
-Washington have been graphically represented; and rainfall
-maps,--unfortunately on a small scale,--have been prepared, showing for
-each month, the average precipitation of the entire United States, as
-determined from observations covering periods varying from fifteen to
-eighteen years.
-
-In Missouri, Professor Nipher has prepared normal rainfall charts for
-that State, unfortunately on rather a small scale. In New York,
-Professor Fuertes, and in Michigan, Sergeant Conger, of the Signal
-Service, have commenced maps showing, by months, the normal
-temperatures of their respective States on maps of fairly open scale.
-Work of a similar character has been carried on in Pennsylvania under
-the supervision of Professor Blodget, well known from his
-climatological work. In other directions and in other ways, work of a
-similar character is in progress.
-
-Without doubt too much is anticipated from pending or projected
-irrigation enterprises in the very arid regions of the West. These
-unwarranted expectations must in part result from a failure on the part
-of the investors to consider the general question of these enterprises,
-in its varied aspects, with that scientific exactness so essential in
-dealing theoretically with extended subjects of such great importance.
-
-Everyone admits the correctness of the statement that the amount of
-water which flows through drainage channels to the sea, cannot exceed
-the amount which has evaporated from adjacent oceans and fallen as
-precipitation on the land. Further it is not to be denied that the
-quantity of water available in any way for irrigation must be only a
-very moderate percentage of the total rainfall which occurs at
-elevations _above_, and perhaps it may be stated _considerably above_,
-that of the land to be benefited.
-
-Elsewhere it might be appropriate to dwell in detail upon the
-importance of cultivated land in serving as a reservoir which parts
-slowly with the water fallen upon or diverted to it, and in avoiding
-the quick and wasteful drainage which obtains in sections devoid of
-extensive vegetation or cultivation; and also that water thus taken up
-by cultivated lands must later evaporate and may again fall as rain on
-other land. But the pertinence of meteorological investigations in
-connection with irrigation and this annual address, relates much more
-directly to important questions of the manner by, and extent to which,
-precipitation over the catchment basins of the great central valleys
-fails to return in direct and visible form, through the water courses,
-to the Gulf of Mexico.
-
-The inter-relation of rainfall and river outflows is one of peculiar
-interest, in connection with the important matter of irrigation now
-under consideration in this country.
-
-Probably more attention has been paid to this subject in the valley of
-the Seine, by Belgrand and Chateaublanc, than in any other portion of
-the globe. One of the curious outcomes of Chateaublanc's observations,
-is one bearing on the maximum value of the floods in the Seine for the
-cold season, from October to May, by which he says that the reading of
-the river gauge at Port Royal is equal to 12.7 minus the number of
-decimetres of rainfall which has fallen on an average throughout the
-catchment basin during the preceding year. This curiously shows that
-the intensity of the winter floods of the Seine is inversely
-proportional to the quantity of rain of the _preceding_ year.
-
-Sometime since, John Murray, Esq., in the Scottish Geographic Magazine,
-treated generally the question of rainfall and river outflows. The
-annual rainfall of the globe was estimated to be 29,350 cubic miles, of
-which 2,343, falling on inland drainage areas, such as the Sahara
-desert, etc., evaporate. The total annual discharge of rivers was
-estimated at 7,270 cubic miles. In the case of European drainage areas
-between a third and a fourth of the rainfall reaches the sea through
-the rivers. The Nile delivers only one thirty-seventh of the rainfall
-of its catchment basin, while tropical rivers in general deliver
-one-fifth.
-
-The Saale river of Germany, from late data based on 45 rainfall
-stations in its catchment basin, during the years 1883 to 1886,
-discharged 30 per cent. of its rainfall.
-
-During the past year Professor Russell, of the Signal Office, has
-determined carefully the rainfall and river outflow over the most
-important part of the United States, the entire catchment basin of the
-Mississippi river and its tributaries. This work was done as
-preliminary to formulating rules for forecasting the stage of the water
-several days in advance on the more important of the western rivers in
-the United States. The river outflows at various places on the
-Mississippi and Missouri and Ohio rivers, were tabulated from data
-given in the reports of the Mississippi and Missouri River Commissions.
-The tables were largely derived from the results of the measurement of
-current velocities. As gauge readings were taken at the time of
-discharge or outflow measurements, the discharges or outflows can be
-told approximately at other times when only the river gauge readings
-are known. The results for the outflow of rivers derived from
-measurements made under the supervision of these commissions, are of a
-high order of accuracy, and it is not probable that the results deduced
-from the gauge readings are much in error. Of 1881 and 1882, during
-which years measurements were made, 1881 was a year of great flood in
-the Missouri river, while the Mississippi river was not flooded. The
-year 1882, on the other hand, was marked by a great flood in the lower
-Mississippi river, with a stage in the Missouri much above the average.
-The rainfall in the six great valleys of the Mississippi, during the
-entire years 1881 and 1882, was charted from all observations
-available, and its amount in cubic miles of water calculated with the
-aid of a planimeter.
-
-In connection with this investigation, and as a matter of value in
-showing the forces which are in operation to affect the river outflow,
-the fictitious or possible evaporation of the six great valleys
-referred to were calculated, in cubic miles of water, from July, 1887,
-to July, 1888, and also the average amounts of water in the air as
-vapor, and the amount required to saturate the air in the same valleys
-during the same period.
-
-During the year 1882, the year of great flood in the lower Mississippi
-valley, the outflow at Red River Landing, La., was 202.7 cubic miles,
-of which the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis furnished 16 per
-cent., the Ohio 43, and the whole Missouri above Omaha, 4 per cent. The
-upper Missouri valley (that is, from the mouth of the Yellowstone up to
-the sources), and the middle Missouri valley (from the mouth of the
-Platte to the Yellowstone), each furnished only about 2 per cent. of
-the entire amount of the water which passed Red River Landing. The
-lower Mississippi valley, including the Arkansas, etc., furnished 32
-per cent.
-
-During March, April and May, 1882, the time of highest stage of the
-water of the lower Mississippi, the outflow at Red River Landing and
-through the Atchafalaya measured 82.7 cubic miles. During this time
-there flowed through the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis, 14
-per cent. of the amount; through the Ohio, 38 per cent., and through
-the Missouri 6 per cent.; while the rivers of the lower Mississippi
-valley contributed 41 percent. The water that passed Omaha was 1.92
-cubic miles, or 2 per cent. of the flow of the whole Mississippi during
-the same time. The water which flowed from the upper and middle
-Missouri valleys during March, April and May, 1882, was for each
-valley, probably only 1 per cent. of the water that flowed through the
-lower Mississippi river. The flood of the lower Mississippi was
-undoubtedly due to the great discharge of the Ohio, supplemented by
-heavy river inflow below the mouth of the Ohio, and the unusually heavy
-rainfall in the lower Mississippi valley.
-
-The ratios of river outflow to rainfall over the catchment basins, as
-derived by Professor Russell from the two years' observations, 1881 and
-1882, were as follows:
-
-Upper and Middle Missouri valleys, about 335,000 square miles, 13 per
-cent.
-
-Lower Missouri valley, about 210,000 square miles, 12 per cent.
-
-Entire Missouri valley, about 545,000 square miles, nearly 13 per cent.
-
-The upper Mississippi valley, about 172,000 square miles, 33 per cent.
-
-Ohio valley, about 212,000 square miles, 40 per cent.
-
-Lower Mississippi valley, about 343,000 square miles, about 27 per
-cent.
-
-The above percentages, while showing the averages for two entire years,
-and so of decided value, are not to be depended upon for special years
-or months. For instance: in the Ohio valley in 1881, the outflow was 33
-per cent., while in 1882 it was 50 per cent., and as the rainfall in
-1882 was 180 cubic miles against 151 cubic miles in 1881, it appears
-evident that a much greater proportional quantity of water reaches the
-rivers during seasons of heavy rainfalls than when the precipitation is
-moderate or scanty.
-
-Evaporation is also a very potent cause in diminishing river outflow,
-and as this depends largely on the temperature of the air and the
-velocity of the wind, any marked deviation of these meteorological
-elements from the normal, must exercise an important influence on the
-ratio of outflow to rainfall.
-
-In connection with Professor Russell's work it is desirable to note
-that Professor F. E. Nipher has lately made a report on the Missouri
-rainfall based on observations for the ten years ending December, 1887,
-in which he points out as an interesting coincidence that the average
-annual discharge of the Missouri river closely corresponds in amount to
-the rainfall which falls over the State of Missouri. From Professor
-Nipher's figures it appears that the discharge of the Missouri river in
-the ten years ending 1887, was greatest in 1881 and next greatest in
-1882, so that the averages deduced from Professor Russell's report of
-the outflow of the Missouri are too large, and should be somewhat
-reduced to conform to the average conditions. In different years the
-average of the discharge in the outflow of the Missouri varies largely,
-as is evidenced by the fact reported by Professor Nipher, that the
-discharge in 1879 was only 56 per cent. of the outflow in 1881.
-
-In New South Wales, under the supervision of H. C. Russell, Esq.,
-government astronomer, the question of rainfall and river discharge has
-also received careful attention, especially in connection with
-evaporation. The observations at Lake George are important, owing to
-the shallowness of the lake (particularly at the margin); its
-considerable surface area (eighty square miles), its moderate elevation
-(2,200 feet), and the fact that it is quite surrounded by high lands.
-Observations of the fluctuations of this lake have been made from 1885
-to 1888, inclusive. In the latter year the evaporation was enormous,
-being 47.7 inches against a rainfall of 23.9 and an in-drainage of 5.3
-inches, so that the total loss in depth was 18.5 inches for the year.
-It appears that the evaporation in different years on this lake varies
-as much as 50 per centum of the minimum amount. According to Russell
-the amount of evaporation depends largely on the state of the soil,
-going on much faster from a wet surface of the ground than from water;
-with dry ground the conditions are reversed. In 1887, the outflow from
-the basin of Lake George, the drainage from which is not subject to
-loss by long river channels, was only 3.12 per centum of the rainfall.
-
-In the Darling river, above Bourke, says Russell, the rainfall is
-measured by 219 gauges. The average river discharge, deduced from
-observations covering seven years, is only 1.45 per centum of the
-rainfall, and in the wettest year known the discharge amounted only to
-2.33 per centum of the rainfall, and has been as low as 0.09 per centum
-in a very dry year. In the Murray basin the average discharge relative
-to the rainfall is estimated to be about 27 per centum from a record of
-seven years, and has risen as high as 36 per centum in a flood year.
-
-In connection with the regimen of rivers, it appears a proper occasion
-to again refute the popular opinion that the spring and summer floods
-of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys result from the melting of the
-winter snows. This is an erroneous impression which I have combatted
-since 1873, when my duties required a study of the floods of the entire
-Mississippi catchment basin. It is only within the last two years,
-however, that the meteorological data has been in such condition that
-the opinion put forth by me could be verified, namely: that the floods
-of the late spring and early summer owe their origin almost entirely to
-the heavy rains immediately before and during the flood period.
-Occasionally a very heavy fall of snow precedes extended general rains;
-but in this case the snow is lately fallen and is not the winter
-precipitation.
-
-Referring to the Missouri valley, the section of the country where the
-winter snowfall has been thought to exercise a dominating influence in
-floods, it has elsewhere been shown by me that about one-third of the
-annual precipitation falls over that valley during the months of May
-and June. In either of the months named the average precipitation over
-the Missouri valley is greater than the entire average precipitation
-for the winter months of December, January and February.
-
-Woiekoff thinks that the anomalies of temperatures shown in forest
-regions, particularly in Brazil--with its abnormally low temperatures,
-are due to heavy forests promoting evaporation, and by causing the
-prevalence of accompanying fogs thus prevent more intense insolation.
-He considers this an argument for the maintenance of forests to sustain
-humidity and distribute rain over adjacent cultivated land, as well as
-to maintain the fertility of the soil, which diminishes rapidly by
-washing away of the soil after deforestation.
-
-W. Koppen has devised a formula for deriving the true daily temperature
-from 8 A.M., 2 P.M. and 8 P.M. observations in connection with the
-minimum temperature, in which the minimum has a variable weight
-dependent on place and month. The results of Koppen's formula tested on
-six stations in widely different latitudes, indicate that it is of
-value.
-
-Paulsen's discussion of the warm winter winds of Greenland is
-interesting. These unusual storm conditions last three or four days, or
-even longer, the temperature being at times from 35° to 40° Fahr. above
-the normal, and they appear principally with winds from northeast to
-southeast, which Hoffmeyer believes to be _foehn_ winds. Paulsen
-contends that the extensive region over which these winds occur make
-the _foehn_ theory untenable, and that a more reasonable explanation of
-these winds is to be found in the course of low areas passing along the
-coast or over Greenland. This appears evident from the fact that not
-the easterly winds only but the southerly winds share this high
-temperature, and that as low areas approach from the west, at first the
-regions of the Greenland coast within its influence have south to
-southwest winds.
-
-The question of wind pressures and wind velocities is a most important
-one in these days of great engineering problems, particularly in
-connection with the stability of bridges and other large structures.
-
-Experimental determination of the constants of anemometric formulæ have
-recently been made both in England and this country. From results
-obtained in the English experiments it was concluded that the very
-widely used Robinson anemometer is not as satisfactory and reliable an
-instrument as a different form of anemometer devised by Mr. Dines.
-These conclusions, however, are not sustained by the American
-experiments, which were made by Professor C. F. Marvin, Signal Office,
-by means of a whirling apparatus, and under the most favorable
-circumstances, which yielded highly satisfactory results. Professor
-Marvin has lately made very careful open air comparisons of anemometers
-previously tested on the whirling machine, which have shown that, owing
-in part to the irregular and gusty character of the wind movement in
-the open air, taken in connection with the effects arising from the
-moment of inertia of the cups, and the length of the arms of the
-anemometer, the constants determined by whirling machine methods need
-slight corrections and alterations to conform to the altered conditions
-of exposure of the instruments in the open air. This latter problem is
-now being experimentally studied at the Signal Office, and final
-results will soon be worked out.
-
-Professor Langley has also made very elaborate observations of
-pressures on plane and other surfaces inclined to the normal, which it
-is believed will prove important contributions to this question, but
-the results have not yet been published. It is important in this
-connection to note experiments made by Cooper on the Frith of Forth
-Bridge, where a surface of 24 square metres, during a high wind,
-experienced a maximum pressure of 132 kilogrammes per square metre,
-while a surface of 14 square decimeters showed, under similar
-conditions, 200 kilogrammes per square metre, by one instrument, and
-170 by another. The opinion expressed by Cooper that in general the
-more surface exposed to the wind, the less the pressure per unit of
-surface, seems reasonable, and if verified by more elaborate
-experiments must have an important bearing.
-
-There are questions in connection with which even negative results are
-of an important character, particularly when such results are quite
-definite, and tend to remove one of many unknown elements from physical
-problems of an intricate character. In this class may be placed
-atmospheric electricity, with particular reference to its value in
-connection with the forecast of coming weather. The Signal Office,
-through Professor T. C. Mendenhall, a distinguished scientist
-peculiarly fitted for work of this character, has been able to carry
-out a series of observations, which have received from him careful
-attention, both as to the conditions under which the observations were
-made and in the elaboration of methods to be followed.
-
-Professor Mendenhall also supervised the reduction of these
-observations, and after careful study presented a full report of the
-work to the National Academy of Sciences, in whose proceedings this
-detailed report will appear. Professor Mendenhall says, "Taking all the
-facts into consideration, it seems to be proved that the electrical
-phenomena of the atmosphere are generally local in their character.
-They do not promise, therefore, to be useful in weather forecasts,
-although a close distribution of a large number of observers over a
-comparatively small area would be useful in removing any doubt which
-may still exist as to this question." It may be added that Professor
-Mendenhall's conclusions bear out the opinions expressed to the
-speaker, in a discussion of this question, by Professor Mascart, the
-distinguished physicist.
-
-It has been generally admitted that the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere
-plays a most important part in bringing about the formation of storms
-and maintaining their energy. It has been frequently commented on by
-the forecast officials of the Signal Service, that storms passing over
-the United States were in general preceded by an increase in moisture,
-but unfortunately little effort had been made on the part of previous
-investigators to determine any quantitative relation between the actual
-humidity and the amount of precipitation or its relation to the storm
-movement. It has long been regretted that the direct relations of this
-to other meteorological phenomena were not more fully defined. During
-the past year Captain James Allen, of the Signal Office, has endeavored
-to apply the results of his investigations and theories to the
-practical forecasts of storm conditions. Captain Allen has carefully
-studied the relations of the potential energy of the surface air, as
-represented by the total quantity of heat it contained, to the movement
-of storm centres and the extent of accompanying rain areas. In his
-first investigations the potential energy per cubic foot was estimated
-as follows: Supposing the air to have been originally 32° and the
-moisture in it as water at 32°, the total quantity of heat applied to
-reduce to the state of observation will be A = (_t_-32)/6 + Q in which
-A is total heat per unit volume; _t_ is the temperature of the air, Q
-the total heat of vapor, and the specific heat of air at constant
-volume being taken as one-sixth (.168). From Regnault's formula we have
-Q = 1091.7 + .305(_t_-32).
-
-For the mechanical equivalent we have J = 772A. If we divide J by the
-pressure estimated in pounds per square foot, it will give the height
-through which the pressure can be lifted if all the heat is spent in
-work by expanding the air.
-
-An approximate expression for the upward velocity V may be obtained
-from Torrecelli's theorem from which we have V^2 = 2_gh_, _h_ in this
-case being the height through which the pressure would be lifted if all
-the heat is spent in work. The theory has been that the storm centre
-will move over that section of the country where V is the greatest, and
-that the time of occurrence and amount of rain have a relation of
-conformity to the changes in Q and its actual amount.
-
-Auxiliary charts were also made showing for each station the following
-values of Q:
-
-1st. Highest Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.
-
-2d. Greatest plus change in Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.
-
-3d. Lowest value for Q followed by rain in 12 hours.
-
-A tentative application of the theory during December, 1889, has given
-very encouraging results. The problem can be approached in many
-different ways, but the basis of the solution is the determination of
-the actual energy of the air, both potential and kinetic, as well as
-differences of potential.
-
-Probably the most important event of the past year to general
-meteorological students has been the publication of Part I,
-Temperature, and Part II, Moisture, of the Bibliography of Meteorology,
-under the supervision of the Signal Office, and edited by Mr. O. L.
-Fassig. The two parts cover 8,500 titles out of a total of about
-60,000. This publication renders it now possible for any investigator
-to review the complete literature of these subjects, not only with a
-minimum loss of time, but with the advantage of supplementing his own
-work, without duplication, by the investigations of his predecessors.
-The publication is a lithographic reproduction of a type-written copy,
-the only available method, which leaves much to be desired on the
-grounds of appearance, space and clearness.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The experiments of Crova and Houdaille on Mount Venteux, elevation
-1,907 metres, and at Bedoin, 309 metres, are of more than transient
-interest since they fix the solar constant at a height of 1,907 metres,
-at about three calories; agreeing with the value obtained by Langley on
-Mt. Whitney, Cal.
-
-With this brief allusion to the important phenomena of sun-heat,
-whereon depend not only the subordinate manifestations pertaining to
-this section, but those relating to all other departments, this report
-may appropriately close.
-
-
-
-
-TREASURER'S REPORT.
-
-YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1889.
-
-
-C. J. BELL, TREASURER, in account with NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
-
-Balance on hand as per last account . . . . . . . . .           $626.70
-
-RECEIPTS.
-
-To amount of annual dues for 1889 . . . . . . . . . . $865
-     "      "      "      "  1890 . . . . . . . . . .   20
-To Life Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   50
-                                                       ---       935.00
-
-Note for $1,000 with interest paid off, Nov. 16, 1869          1,032.08
-Sale of Maps  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .              1.41
-Surplus from Field Meeting  . . . . . . . . . . . . .             25.35
-                                                               --------
-                                                              $2,620.54
-
-INVESTMENTS ON HAND, DEC. 31, 1889.
-
-Note dated March 27, 1889, for the sum of $750, with interest @ 6%, due
-March 27, 1890. Secured by real estate.
-
-DISBURSEMENTS.
-
-         By Cost of Magazine, No. 2 . . . . . . . . $174.46
-          "   "        "      No. 3 . . . . . . . .  233.66
-          "   "        "      No. 4 . . . . . . . .  197.28
-          " Directory of Society  . . . . . . . . .   28.35
-          " Rent of Hall at Cosmos Club . . . . . .   45.00
-          " Printing, Stationery and Postage  . . .  108.72
-          " Sundries  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   13.00
-  1889.                                              ------      800.47
-Mar. 26. By Loan on collateral  . . . . . . . . . .            1,000.00
-          " Note for $750 and interest, from
-              March 27, 1889, for 1 year @ 6%,
-              due March 27, 1890  . . . . . . . . .              756.25
-         Balance in Bank  . . . . . . . . . . . . .               63.82
-                                                              ---------
-                                                              $2,620.54
-
-
-
-
-REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.
-
-
-December 27, 1889.
-
-_To the National Geographic Society:_
-
-The undersigned, having been appointed an auditing committee to examine
-the account of the Treasurer for 1889, make the following report:
-
-We have examined the Treasurer's books and find that the receipts as
-therein stated are correctly reported. We have compared the
-disbursements with the vouchers for the same and find them to have been
-properly approved and correctly recorded. We have examined the bank
-account and compared the checks accompanying the same. We find the
-balance (beside the sum of $756.25 invested in real estate note) as
-reported by the Treasurer ($63.82) consistent with the balance as shown
-by the bankbook ($82.82), the difference being explained by the fact
-that there are two outstanding checks for the sum of $19.00 not yet
-presented for payment.
-
-  BAILEY WILLIS,
-  R. BIRNIE, JR.,
-  WILLARD D. JOHNSON,
-    _Auditing Committee_.
-
-
-
-
-REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY.
-
-
-The first report of the Secretaries was presented to the Society,
-December 28, 1888. At that time the Society had a total membership of
-209. Since that date this membership has been increased by the election
-of 36 new members; it has been decreased by the death of 3 and by the
-resignation of 14. The net increase in membership is thus 19 and the
-present membership is 228, including 3 life members. The deceased
-members are, Z. L. White, G. W. Dyer and Charles A. Ashburner.
-
-The number of meetings held during the year was 17, of which 15 were
-for the presentation and discussion of papers; one was a field meeting
-held at Harper's Ferry, W. Va., on Saturday, May 11, 1889, and one, the
-annual meeting. The average attendance was about 65.
-
-The publication of a magazine begun last year, has been continued, and
-three additional numbers have been published, being Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of
-Vol. I. Copies of the numbers have been sent to all members and also to
-about 75 American and foreign scientific societies and other
-institutions interested in Geography. As a result the Society is now
-steadily in receipt of geographical publications from various parts of
-the world.
-
-Respectfully submitted,
-  HENRY GANNETT, _Recording Secretary_.
-
-
-
-
-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
-
-ABSTRACT OF MINUTES.
-
-
-_Nov. 1, 1889. Twenty-seventh Meeting._
-
-A paper was read entitled, "Telegraphic Determinations of Longitudes by
-the Bureau of Navigation," by Lieutenant J. A. Norris, U. S. N.
-_Published in the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1._
-
-
-_Nov. 15, 1889. Twenty-eighth Meeting._
-
-A paper was read by Ensign Everett Hayden, U. S. N., entitled, "Law of
-Storms considered with Special Reference to the North Atlantic,"
-illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. Greely and
-Hayden.
-
-
-_Nov. 29, 1889. Twenty-ninth Meeting._
-
-A paper was read by Mr. H. M. Wilson entitled, "The Irrigation Problem
-in Montana." Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Dutton, Greely
-and Wilson.
-
-
-_Dec. 13, 1889. Thirtieth Meeting._
-
-The paper of the evening was by Mr. I. C. Russell upon "A Trip up the
-Yukon River, Alaska," and was illustrated by lantern slides.
-
-
-_Dec. 27, 1889. Thirty-first Meeting--2d Annual Meeting._
-
-Vice-President Thompson in the chair. The minutes of the first annual
-meeting were read and approved. Annual reports of the secretaries and
-treasurer and the report of the auditing committee were presented and
-approved. The following officers were then elected for the succeeding
-year:
-
-_President_--GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
-
-_Vice-Presidents_--HERBERT G. OGDEN, [land]; EVERETT HAYDEN,[sea]; A.
-W. GREELY, [air]; C. HART MERRIAM, [life]; A. H. THOMPSON, [art.]
-
-_Treasurer_--CHARLES J. BELL.
-
-_Recording Secretary_--HENRY GANNETT.
-
-_Corresponding Secretary_--O. H. TITTMANN.
-
-_Managers_--CLEVELAND ABBE, MARCUS BAKER, ROGERS BIRNIE JR., G. BROWN
-GOODE, W. D. JOHNSON, C. A. KENASTON, W. B. POWELL and JAMES C.
-WELLING.
-
-
-_Jan. 10, 1890. Thirty-second Meeting._
-
-The annual reports of Vice-Presidents Ogden and Greely were presented.
-_Published in the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1._
-
-
-_Jan. 24, 1890. Thirty-third Meeting._
-
-A paper was read entitled, "The Rivers of Northern New Jersey," with
-notes on the "General Classification of Rivers," by Professor William
-M. Davis. The subject was discussed by Messrs. Davis, Gilbert and
-McGee.
-
-
-_Feb. 7, 1890. Thirty-fourth Meeting._
-
-The annual report of Vice-President Merriam was presented. A paper on
-"Bering's First Expedition," was read by Dr. W. H. Dall.
-
-
-_Feb. 21st, 1890. Thirty-fifth Meeting._
-
-Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. The annual address of
-the President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, was delivered, the subject
-being "Asia, Its Past and Future." _Published in "Science," Vol. XV,
-No. 371._
-
-
-_Feb. 28th, 1890. Special Meeting._
-
-Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. A paper was read by
-Lieut. Com'dr Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N., entitled "The Arctic Cruise
-of the Thetis During the Summer and Autumn of 1889," which was
-illustrated by lantern slides.
-
-
-_March 7th, 1890. Thirty-sixth Meeting._
-
-A paper was read by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, entitled "A Glimpse of Chinese
-Life in Canton."
-
-
-
-
-OFFICERS.
-
-1890.
-
-
-_President._
-  GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
-
-_Vice-Presidents._
-  HERBERT G. OGDEN.
-  EVERETT HAYDEN.
-  A. W. GREELY.
-  C. HART MERRIAM.
-  A. H. THOMPSON.
-
-_Treasurer._
-  CHARLES J. BELL.
-
-_Secretaries._
-  HENRY GANNETT.
-  O. H. TITTMANN.
-
-_Managers._
-  CLEVELAND ABBE.
-  MARCUS BAKER.
-  ROGERS BIRNIE, JR.
-  G. BROWN GOODE.
-  W. D. JOHNSON.
-  C. A. KENASTON.
-  W. B. POWELL.
-  JAMES C. WELLING.
-
-
-
-
-MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.
-
-  _a_, original members.
-  _l_, life members.
-  * Deceased.
-
-In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is
-to be understood.
-
-
-ABBE, PROF. CLEVELAND, _a_, _l_,
-  Army Signal Office. 2017 I Street.
-
-ABERT, S. T.,
-  1928½ Pennsylvania Avenue.
-
-AHERN, JEREMIAH,
-  Geological Survey. 804 Tenth Street.
-
-ALLEN, DR. J. A.,
-  American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y.
-
-APLIN, S. A., JR.,
-  Geological Survey. 1513 R Street.
-
-ARRICK, CLIFFORD, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1131 Fourteenth Street.
-
-*ASHBURNER, PROF. CHARLES A.
-
-ATKINSON, W. R., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 2900 Q Street.
-
-AYRES, MISS S. C., _a_,
-  502 A Street SE.
-
-BAKER, PROF. FRANK, _a_,
-  Life Saving Service. 1315 Corcoran Street.
-
-BAKER, MARCUS, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.
-
-BALDWIN, H. L. JR., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 125 Sixth Street NE.
-
-BARCLAY, A. C.,
-  Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.
-
-BARNARD, E. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1773 Massachusetts Avenue.
-
-BARTLE, R. F.,
-  947 Virginia Avenue SW.
-
-BARTLETT, COMDR. J. R., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Providence, R. I.
-
-BARTLETT, P. V. S.,
-  Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.
-
-BASSETT, C. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 929 New York Avenue.
-
-BELL, A. GRAHAM, _a_,
-  1336 Nineteenth Street.
-
-BELL, CHAS. J., _a_,
-  1437 Pennsylvania Avenue. 1328 Nineteenth Street.
-
-BERNADOU, ENS. J. B., U. S. N.,
-  Office of Naval Intelligence. 1908 F. Street.
-
-BIEN, JULIUS, _a_,
-  139 Duane Street, New York, N. Y.
-
-BIEN, MORRIS, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.
-
-BIRNIE, CAPT. ROGERS, JR., U. S. A., _a_,
-  Ordnance Office. 1341 New Hampshire Avenue.
-
-BLAIR, H. B., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.
-
-BLODGETT, JAMES H., _a_,
-  Census Office. 1237 Massachusetts Avenue.
-
-BODFISH, S. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 58 B Street NE.
-
-BOUTELLE, CAPT. C. O., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 105 Fourth Street NE.
-
-BRENT, L. D.,
-  Geological Survey. 1741 F Street.
-
-BREWER, H. G., _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office. Meridian Avenue, Mt. Pleasant.
-
-BROWN, MISS E. V.,
-  1312 R Street.
-
-BURTON, PROF. A. E., _a_,
-  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.
-
-CARPENTER, Z. T., _a_,
-  1003 F Street. 1009 Thirteenth Street.
-
-CHAPMAN, R. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1207 L Street.
-
-CHATARD, DR. THOS. M., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. The Portland.
-
-CHESTER, COMDR. COLBY M., U. S. N.,
-  Navy Department.
-
-CHRISTIE, PETER H.,
-  Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.
-
-CLARK, A. HOWARD,
-  National Museum. 1527 S Street.
-
-CLARK, E. B., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. Laurel, Md.
-
-COLONNA, B. A.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 23 Grant Place.
-
-COLVIN, VERPLANCK, _a_,
-  Albany, New York.
-
-COURT, E. E.,
-  Hydrographic Office. Seventeenth Street, Mt. Pleasant.
-
-CRAVEN, ENS. JOHN E., U. S. N.,
-  Hydrographic Office. 1313 Twenty-second Street.
-
-CUMMIN, R. D., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1105 Thirteenth Street.
-
-CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY, _a_,
-  513 Fourteenth Street. 1801 Connecticut Avenue.
-
-DARWIN, CHAS. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1907 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-DAVIDSON, PROF. GEORGE, _a_,
-  U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal.
-
-DAVIS, ARTHUR P., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-DAVIS, MRS. ARTHUR P.,
-  1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-DAVIS, PROF. WM. M., _a_,
-  Cambridge, Mass.
-
-DAY, DR. DAVID T.,
-  Geological Survey. 1411 Chapin Street.
-
-DENNIS, W. H., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 12 Iowa Circle.
-
-DILLER, J. S., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1804 Sixteenth Street.
-
-DOUGLAS, E. M., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.
-
-DOW, JOHN M.,
-  Pacific Mail S. S. Co., Panama, U. S. Colombia.
-
-DUKE, BASIL, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.
-
-DUNNINGTON, A. F., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1000 North Carolina Avenue SE.
-
-DURAND, JOHN,
-  164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France.
-
-DUTTON, A. H., _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office. 1338 Nineteenth Street.
-
-DUTTON, CAPT. C. E., U. S. A., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 2024 R Street.
-
-DYER, LIEUT. G. L., U. S. N.,
-  Navy Department.
-
-EDSON, J. R., _a_,
-  1003 F Street. 1705 Q Street.
-
-ELLICOTT, ENS. JOHN M., U. S. N.,
-  Office of Naval Intelligence. 3009 P Street.
-
-ELLIOTT, LIEUT. W. P., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-FAIRFIELD, G. A., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-FAIRFIELD, WALTER B., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-FARMER, ROBERT A.,
-  Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.
-
-FERNOW, B. E., _a_,
-  Department of Agriculture. 1843 R Street.
-
-FISCHER, E. G., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 436 New York Avenue.
-
-FITCH, C. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 3025 N Street.
-
-FLETCHER, L. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.
-
-FLETCHER, DR. ROBERT, _a_,
-  Army Medical Museum. The Portland.
-
-FOOT, SAM'L A.,
-  Geological Survey. 918 H Street.
-
-GAGE, N. P., _a_,
-  Seaton School. 401 Fourth Street.
-
-GANNETT, HENRY, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1881 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-GANNETT, S. S., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 401 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-GILBERT, G. K., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1424 Corcoran Street.
-
-GILMAN, DR. D. C., _a_,
-  Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
-
-GOODE, G. BROWN, _a_,
-  National Museum. Lanier Heights.
-
-GOODE, R. U., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.
-
-GOODFELLOW, EDWARD, _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 7 Dupont Circle.
-
-GORDON, R. O., _a_,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-GRANGER, F. D.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-GREELY, GEN. A. W., U. S. A., _a_,
-  Army Signal Office. 1914 G Street.
-
-GRISWOLD, W. T., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.
-
-GULLIVER, F. P.,
-  Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.
-
-HACKETT, MERRILL, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 318 Third Street.
-
-HARRISON, D. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1326 Corcoran Street.
-
-HARROD, MAJOR B. M.,
-  Miss. River Commission, New Orleans, La.
-
-HASBROUCK, E. M.,
-  Geological Survey. 1305 R Street.
-
-HASKELL, E. E., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1418 Fifteenth Street.
-
-HAYDEN, ENS. EVERETT, U. S. N., _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office. 1802 Sixteenth Street.
-
-HAYES, C. WILLARD,
-  Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.
-
-HAYS, J. W.,
-  Geological Survey. 2225 Thirteenth Street.
-
-HEATON, A. G.,
-  1618 Seventeenth Street.
-
-HENRY, A. G., _a_,
-  Army Signal Office. 948 S Street.
-
-HENSHAW, H. W., _a_,
-  Bureau of Ethnology. 13 Iowa Circle.
-
-HERRLE, GUSTAV, _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office. 646 C Street NE.
-
-HERRON, W. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1008 H Street.
-
-HILL, GEO. A., _a_,
-  Naval Observatory. 2626 K Street.
-
-HILL, PROF. R. T.,
-  State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex.
-
-HINMAN, RUSSELL,
-  In care Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, O.
-
-HODGKINS, PROF. H. L., _a_,
-  Columbian University. 1511 Tenth Street.
-
-HODGKINS, W. C.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 416 B Street NE.
-
-HOLLERITH, HERMAN,
-  Room 48 Atlantic Building. 3107 N Street.
-
-HOPKINS, C. L.,
-  Department of Agriculture. 1004 H Street.
-
-HORNADAY, W. T., _a_,
-  National Museum. 405 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-HOWELL, E. E., _a_,
-  48 Oxford Street, Rochester, N. Y.
-
-HOWELL, D. J., _a_,
-  District Building. Alexandria, Va.
-
-HUBBARD, GARDINER G., _a_,
-  1328 Connecticut Avenue.
-
-HYDE, G. E.,
-  Geological Survey. 330 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-IARDELLA, C. T., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1536 I Street.
-
-JENNINGS, J. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 824 I Street NE.
-
-JOHNSON, A. B., _a_,
-  Light House Board. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-JOHNSON, J. B.,
-  Howard University. 2460 Sixth Street.
-
-JOHNSON, S. P.,
-  Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-JOHNSON, W. D., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-JUNKEN, CHARLES,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 140 B Street NE.
-
-KARL, ANTON, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1230 Eleventh Street.
-
-KAUFFMANN, S. H., _a_,
-  1421 Massachusetts Avenue.
-
-KENASTON, PROF. C. A., _a_,
-  Howard University.
-
-KENNAN, GEORGE, _a_,
-  1318 Massachusetts Avenue.
-
-KENNEDY, DR. GEORGE G., _l_,
-  284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass.
-
-KERR, MARK B., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1708 M Street.
-
-KIMBALL, E. F.,
-  Post Office Department. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-KIMBALL, S. I., _a_,
-  Life Saving Service. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-KING, F. H.,
-  University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
-
-KING, PROF. HARRY, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1319 Q Street.
-
-KING, WILLIAM B.,
-  906 F Street. 1328 Twelfth Street.
-
-KNIGHT, F. J., _a_,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-KNOWLTON, F. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-KOCH, PETER, _a_,
-  Bozeman, Mont.
-
-LACKLAND, W. E., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1305 Corcoran Street.
-
-LAMBERT, M. B.,
-  Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.
-
-LEACH, BOYNTON,
-  Hydrographic Office. 2028 P Street.
-
-LERCH, R. L., _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office. 936 K Street.
-
-LINDENKOHL, ADOLPH, _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 19 Fourth Street SE.
-
-LINDENKOHL, HENRY, _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 452 K Street.
-
-LIPPINCOTT, J. BARLOW,
-  Geological Survey. 1802 M Street.
-
-LONGSTREET, R. L., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1536 I Street.
-
-LOVELL, W. H.,
-  Geological Survey. 413 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.
-
-MCCORMICK, JAMES,
-  Geological Survey. 1001 Eleventh Street.
-
-MCGEE, W. J., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 2410 Fourteenth Street.
-
-MCGILL, MISS MARY C.,
-  336 C Street.
-
-MCKEE, R. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1753 Rhode Island Avenue.
-
-MCKINNEY, R. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1120 Thirteenth Street.
-
-MAHER, JAMES A., _a_,
-  Johnson City, Tenn.
-
-MANNING, VAN. H., JR., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1331 N Street.
-
-MARINDIN, H. L.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-MARSHALL, ROBERT B.,
-  Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.
-
-MATTHEWS, DR. WASHINGTON, U. S. A., _a_,
-  Army Medical Museum. 1262 New Hampshire Avenue.
-
-MELVILLE, ENG. IN CHIEF, GEO. W., U. S. N., _a_, _l_,
-  Navy Department. 1705 H Street.
-
-MENDENHALL, PROF. T. C.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 220 New Jersey Avenue SE.
-
-MENOCAL, CIV. ENG. A. G., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Navy Department. 2012 Hillyer Place.
-
-MERRIAM, DR. C. HART, _a_,
-  Department of Agriculture. 1919 Sixteenth Street.
-
-MINDELEFF, COSMOS,
-  Bureau of Ethnology. 1401 Stoughton Street.
-
-MINDELEFF, VICTOR,
-  Bureau of Ethnology. 2504 Fourteenth Street.
-
-MITCHELL, PROF. HENRY, _a_,
-  18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass.
-
-MOSMAN, A. T., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-MULDROW, ROBERT, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1511 Rhode Island Avenue.
-
-MURLIN, A. E.,
-  Geological Survey. 1550 Third Street.
-
-NATTER, E. W. F., _a_,
-  Readville, Mass.
-
-NELL, LOUIS, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1118 Virginia Avenue SW.
-
-NILES, PROF. W. H.,
-  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.
-
-NORDHOFF, CHARLES, _a_,
-  701 Fifteenth Street. 1731 K Street.
-
-OGDEN, HERBERT G., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1324 Nineteenth Street.
-
-PARSONS, F. H., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 210 First Street SE.
-
-*PATTON, PRES. W. W., _a_.
-
-PEALE, DR. A. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1446 Stoughton Street.
-
-PEARY, CIV. ENG. R. E., U. S. N.,
-  League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.
-
-PENROSE, R. A. F., JR.,
-  State Geological Survey, Little Rock, Ark.
-
-PERKINS, E. T., JR., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.
-
-PETERS, LIEUT. G. H., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Navy Department.
-
-PETERS, WILLIAM J., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.
-
-PHILLIPS, R. H.,
-  1511 Vermont Avenue.
-
-PICKING, CAPT. HENRY F., U. S. N.,
-  Hydrographic Office. Baltimore, Md.
-
-PIERCE, JOSIAH, JR.,
-  Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.
-
-POWELL, MAJOR J. W., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 910 M Street.
-
-POWELL, PROF. WM. B., _a_,
-  Franklin School Building.
-
-PRENTISS, DR. D. W., _a_,
-  1101 Fourteenth Street.
-
-PUMPELLY, PROF. RAPHAEL,
-  U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I.
-
-RENSHAWE, JNO. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-RICKSECKER, EUGENE, _a_,
-  Seattle, Wash.
-
-RITTER, H. P., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.
-
-ROBERTS, A. C., _a_,
-  Hydrographic Office.
-
-RODMAN, ENS. HUGH, U. S. N.,
-  Hydrographic Office. 2015 Hillyer Place.
-
-RUSSELL, I. C., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.
-
-SARGENT, PROF. C. S., _a_,
-  Brookline, Mass.
-
-SCHLEY, CAPT. W. S., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Navy Department.
-
-SCUDDER, SAM. H., _a_,
-  Cambridge, Mass.
-
-SHALER, PROF. N. S., _a_,
-  Cambridge, Mass.
-
-SIEBERT, J. S.,
-  Hydrographic Office. 1911 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-SINCLAIR, C. H.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-SINCLAIR, J. C.,
-  4 Lafayette Square.
-
-SMITH, EDWIN, _a_.
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rockville, Md.
-
-SMITH, MIDDLETON, _a_,
-  Army Signal Office. 1616 Nineteenth Street.
-
-SOMMER, E. J., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 330 A Street SE.
-
-STEIN, ROBERT,
-  Geological Survey. 710 Eleventh Street.
-
-STEJNEGER, LEONHARD, _a_,
-  National Museum.
-
-STOCKTON, LT. COMDR. C. H., U. S. N., _a_,
-  Navy Department.
-
-SUTTON, FRANK,
-  Geological Survey. 702 Nineteenth Street.
-
-THOMAS, MISS MARY VON E., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey.
-
-THOMPSON, PROF. A. H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-THOMPSON, GILBERT, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1448 Q Street.
-
-THOMPSON, LAURENCE, _a_,
-  In care Northern Pacific R. R. Co., Seattle, Wash.
-
-THOMPSON, LIEUT. R. E., U. S. A., _a_,
-  Army Signal Office. 2011 N Street.
-
-TITTMANN, O. H., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1019 Twentieth Street.
-
-TOWSON, R. M., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1446 N Street.
-
-TWEEDY, FRANK, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1311 M Street.
-
-URQUHART, CHAS. F., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.
-
-VASEY, DR. GEORGE, _a_,
-  Department of Agriculture. 2006 Fourteenth Street.
-
-VINAL, W. I., _a_,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 152 D Street SE.
-
-VON HAAKE, ADOLPH,
-  Post Office Department. 1215 L Street.
-
-WALCOTT, C. D., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 418 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.
-
-WALLACE, HAMILTON S., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1813 M Street.
-
-WARD, LESTER F., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1464 Rhode Island Avenue.
-
-WEED, WALTER H., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 825 Vermont Avenue.
-
-WEIR, J. B., _a_,
-  1602 L Street.
-
-WELLING, DR. JAMES C., _a_,
-  Columbian University. 1302 Connecticut Avenue.
-
-WHITE, DR. C. H., U. S. N.,
-  Navy Department.
-
-WHITING, HENRY L.,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. West Tisbury, Mass.
-
-WILDER, GEN. J. T., _a_, _l_,
-  Johnson City, Tenn.
-
-WILDER, MISS MARY,
-  Johnson City, Tenn.
-
-WILLIS, BAILEY, _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1617 Riggs Place.
-
-WILLIS, MRS. BAILEY,
-  1617 Riggs Place.
-
-WILSON, A. E.,
-  Geological Survey.
-
-WILSON, H. M., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.
-
-WILSON, THOMAS,
-  National Museum. 1218 Connecticut Avenue.
-
-WINSLOW, ARTHUR,
-  State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo.
-
-WINSTON, ISAAC,
-  Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1325 Corcoran Street.
-
-WOODWARD, R. S., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1804 Columbia Road.
-
-YARROW, DR. H. C., _a_,
-  814 Seventeenth Street.
-
-YEATES, CHAS. M., _a_,
-  Geological Survey. 1706 F Street.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-II., No. 1, April, 1890, by Various
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-
-<html>
-<head>
-	<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
-	<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1, by Various</title>
-	<link rel="coverpage" href="images/img-cover.jpg">
-	<style type="text/css">
-		<!--
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II.,
-No. 1, April, 1890, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 1, April, 1890
-
-Author: Various
-
-Release Date: December 25, 2015 [EBook #50765]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<p><a href="#chap1">On the Telegraphic Determinations of Longitude by the Bureau of
-  Navigation</a>: Lieut. J. A. Norris, U. S. N.</p>
-
-<p>Reports of the Vice-Presidents:<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap2">Geography of the Land</a>: Herbert G. Ogden<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap3">Geography of the Air</a>:
-A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#chap4">Annual Report of the Treasurer</a></p>
-
-<p><a href="#chap5">Report of Auditing Committee</a></p>
-
-<p><a href="#chap6">Annual Report of the Secretary</a></p>
-
-<p>National Geographic Society:<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap7">Abstract of Minutes</a><br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap8">Officers for 1890</a><br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap9">Members of the Society</a></p>
-
-<blockquote>Published April, 1890.</blockquote>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<center><small><small>PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE &amp; TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.</small></small></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h4>THE</h4>
-<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2>
-<hr align="center" width="100%">
-<center>Vol. II.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-1890.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No. 1.</center>
-<hr align="center" width="100%">
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap1"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>ON THE TELEGRAPHIC DETERMINATIONS OF LONGITUDE BY THE BUREAU OF
-NAVIGATION.</h3>
-
-<center>B<small>Y</small> L<small>IEUT</small>. J. A. N<small>ORRIS</small>, U. S. N.</center>
-<br>
-
-<p>The following definitions are given by Chauvenet in his Spherical and
-Practical Astronomy.</p>
-
-<p>"The longitude of a point on the earth's surface is the angle at the
-Pole included between the meridian of that point and some assumed first
-meridian. The difference of longitude between any two points is the
-angle included between their meridians." To describe the practical
-methods of obtaining this difference or angle, by means of the electric
-telegraph both overland and submarine, and especially those employed by
-the expeditions sent out by the Navy department, is the object of this
-paper.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>Before the invention of the telegraph various methods more or less
-accurate in their results were employed, and are still in use where the
-telegraph is not available. The one most used and giving the best
-results was that in which a number of chronometers were transported
-back and forth between two places the difference of whose longitudes
-was required. "For," as the author quoted above says, "the
-determination of an absolute longitude from the first meridian or of a
-difference of longitude in general, resolves itself into the
-determination of the difference of the time reckoned at the two
-meridians at the same absolute instant." If a chronometer be regulated
-to the time at any place <i>A</i>, and then transported to a second place
-<i>B</i>, and the local time at <i>B</i>, be determined at any instant, and at
-that instant the time at <i>A</i>, as shown by the chronometer is noted, the
-difference of the times is at once known, and that is the difference of
-longitude required. The principal objection to this plan is that the
-best chronometers vary. If the variations were constant and regular,
-and the chronometer always gained or lost a fixed amount for the same
-interval of time, this objection would disappear. But the variation is
-not constant, the rate of gain or loss, even in the best instruments,
-changes from time to time from various causes. Some of these causes may
-be discovered and allowed for in a measure, others are accidental and
-unknown. Of the former class are variations due to changes of
-temperature. At the Naval Observatory, chronometers are rated at
-different temperatures, and the changes due thereto are noted, and
-serve to a great extent as a guide in their use. But the transportation
-of a chronometer, even when done with great care is liable to cause
-sudden changes in its indications, and of course in carrying it long
-distances, numerous shocks of greater or less violence are unavoidable.
-Still, chronometric measurements, when well carried out with a number
-of chronometers and skilled observers have been very successful. Among
-notable expeditions of this sort was that undertaken in 1843, by Struve
-between Pulkova and Altona, in which eighty-one chronometers were
-employed and nine voyages made from Pulkova to Altona and eight the
-other way. The results from thirteen of the chronometers were rejected
-as being discordant, and the deduced longitude was made to depend on
-the remaining 68. The result thus obtained differs from the latest
-determination by 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.2.</p>
-
-<p>The U. S. Coast Survey instituted chronometric expeditions between
-Cambridge, Mass., and Liverpool, England, in the years 1849, '50, '51
-and '55. The probable error of the results of six voyages, three in
-each direction, in 1855 was 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.19,
-fifty chronometers being carried.</p>
-
-<p>Among other methods of determining differences of time may be mentioned
-the observation of certain celestial phenomena, which are visible at
-the same absolute instant by observers in various parts of the globe,
-such as the instant of the beginning or end of an eclipse of the moon,
-the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites by the shadow of the planet, the
-bursting of a meteor, and the appearance or disappearance of a shooting
-star. The difficulty of identifying these last mentioned objects and
-the impossibility of foretelling their occurrence prevents the extended
-use of this method.</p>
-
-<p>Terrestrial signals may be used and among these can be included those
-sent by the electric telegraph. But when two stations are near together
-a signal may be made at either or at an intermediate station, which can
-be observed at both, the time may be noted at each of the stations and
-the difference found directly. These signals may be made by flashes of
-gunpowder, or the appearance and disappearance of a strong light, or a
-pre-concerted movement of any object easily seen. The heliotrope
-reflecting the image of the sun from one station to the other with an
-arrangement for suddenly eclipsing it, is a useful and efficient
-apparatus.</p>
-
-<p>Various truly astronomical methods have been employed with good
-results, of these may be mentioned moon-culminations, azimuths of the
-moon, lunar distances, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Coming now to the use of the electric telegraph for this purpose the
-following is a rough outline of the methods employed. Suppose two
-stations A and B connected by wire, and provided with clocks,
-chronographs and transit instruments. A list of suitable fixed stars is
-compiled and each observer furnished with a copy. The observer at A the
-eastern station, selects a star from his list and sets his transit
-instrument upon it. He is furnished with a key by which he can send
-telegraphic signals over the line and also mark the time on his own
-chronograph. The instant he observes the star crossing the spider line
-which represents the meridian, he taps his key, thus registering the
-time on his own chronograph and on that at station B and this operation
-he repeats with as many stars as necessary. B has his instrument set
-for the first star, and when it crosses his meridian, he taps his key
-marking the time on his own chronograph and also on A's. Then,
-disregarding instrumental and personal errors and the rate of the
-clock, A has a record of the times at which the star passed both
-meridians. The difference of these times is the difference of longitude
-sought, except for an error due to the time occupied in the
-transmission of the signal over the wire between the stations. B also
-has a record of the same difference of time with the same error
-affecting it in the opposite way. A mean of these two differences, will
-be the true difference with the error of transmission eliminated. This
-method has the advantage of not depending upon the computed position of
-the star. The instrumental errors may be allowed for, as well as the
-rate of the clocks, and the personal error may be eliminated by the
-exchange of stations.</p>
-
-<p>There are disadvantages inseparable from this method, however,
-especially when the meridian distance is great. A star observed at the
-first station, may be obscured by clouds at the time of its meridian
-passage at the second. And the weather generally, at the two stations
-may be cloudy, so that while stars can be observed at intervals, yet it
-may be impossible to note the meridian passage of the same star at both
-places on the same night. Then the telegraph lines are usually the
-property of some commercial company and while their use for a short
-time might be freely granted, yet a protracted occupation of them as
-necessary when the meridians are distant from each other, would prove a
-serious hindrance to their regular business.</p>
-
-<p>The method at this time most generally employed, is to observe at each
-station a number of stars entirely independently of the other. From
-these stars are deduced the clock errors and rates upon the respective
-local times. Then at some prearranged period, communication is opened
-between the stations, and a comparison of the clocks made which shows
-their exact difference at a given instant. By applying the error to the
-time as shown by the clock at this instant, the exact local time at
-each station is the result, and applying the difference between the
-clocks as shown by the comparison, the required difference of longitude
-is readily obtained.</p>
-
-<p>These methods originated, as did the electric telegraph, in the United
-States, and soon after Morse's invention came into practical use, they
-were extensively employed by the Coast Survey, in accurately
-determining points in every part of the country that could be reached,
-no pains being spared to make the determinations as accurate as
-possible. Upon the completion of the first successful Atlantic cable in
-1866, an expedition was organized and placed in charge of Dr. B. A.
-Gould, for the purpose of measuring the meridian distance between
-Greenwich and the Naval Observatory at Washington. This was
-successfully carried out in spite of numerous difficulties, and the
-result proved that the determinations already made upon which the most
-reliance was placed were decidedly in error. The result from the
-chronometric expedition in 1855 previously referred to differing over a
-second of time.</p>
-
-<p>In constructing charts for use at sea, the accurate determination of
-latitude and longitude is of the utmost importance. The navigator
-starting on a voyage must know the exact position of his destination as
-well as the location of dangers to be avoided. He must know the error
-and rate of his chronometer when he sets out, but as the rate is not
-constant he should have some means of re-rating it at any place where
-he may stop. If the longitude of this place is well determined, the
-operation of obtaining the error and rate is an easy one, and may save
-his vessel from loss.</p>
-
-<p>Surveys, of coasts or countries must have well established starting
-points, and while the latitude of a place is comparatively easy to
-determine, the longitude, except when the telegraphic method is used,
-is attended with more or less uncertainty.</p>
-
-<p>In 1873, Commodore R. H. Wyman, U. S. N. Hydrographer to the Bureau of
-Navigation, organized by permission of the Navy Department, an
-expedition for the telegraphic determination of longitude in the West
-Indies and Central America. The submarine cables of the West India and
-Panama Telegraph Co. had just been completed, extending from Key West
-through Havana and Santiago de Cuba, south to Jamaica and Aspinwall,
-and east through the Virgin and Windward Islands to the northeast coast
-of South America, thus affording admirable facilities for the accurate
-determination of many points. It had long been known that the
-longitudes of various points in the West Indies and in Central and
-South America, did not harmonize, there having been no systematic
-attempt to determine them with relation to each other or to a common
-base. Longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean Sea depended upon
-the position of the Morro lighthouse at Havana, which had been
-determined by occultations. Further to the eastward, positions depended
-upon that of Fort Christian at St. Thomas. This in its turn depended
-upon the observatory of Major Lang in the Island of Santa Cruz about
-forty miles distant. This position depended upon numerous observations
-of moon culminations and occultations. Martinique and Guadeloupe in the
-Windward Islands had been surveyed by French officers who based their
-positions upon longitudes derived from moon culminations. The absolute
-determination of these starting points would of course fix all points
-derived from them.</p>
-
-<p>The U. S. Steamer Fortune was designated by the Navy Department for the
-conveyance of the expedition, and Lieut. Commander (now Commander), F.
-M. Green, U. S. N. was placed in charge. This officer had given great
-attention to the subject, was a practiced observer, and exceptionally
-well qualified for the position. The services of Mr. Miles Rock, a
-skillful astronomer and computer who is now chief of the boundary
-survey of Guatemala, were obtained as principal astronomical assistant.
-The breaking out in the autumn of 1873, of the trouble with Spain and
-Cuba, over the Virginius affair, delayed the expedition until the next
-year, but in November 1874, a start was made from Washington, and after
-a short stay in Kingston, Jamaica, Aspinwall was reached early in
-December. Mr. Rock with one set of instruments proceeded immediately to
-Panama, while Lieut. Commander Green remained in Aspinwall with the
-other. The outfit for each party consisted of:&mdash;first, a portable
-observatory. This was made of wood in sections, framework of ash,
-covered with tongued and grooved pine boards. The sections were
-connected when set up by iron knees and bolts. When packed it was not
-difficult to transport, and it could be put up, or taken down in an
-hour. When set up it was about eight feet square, with doors in all
-sides, and a shed roof. The roof was made in three sections, the middle
-one being hinged so that it could be raised for observing. These
-observatories proved to be very strong and serviceable. They remained
-in use for a number of years with occasional slight repairs, were
-transported many thousand miles and set up in a great number of places
-in Europe, Asia, North and South America. They were designed by Mr. J.
-A. Rogers, and constructed at the Washington Navy Yard. Upon arriving
-at a point where observations were to be made, after obtaining the
-necessary permits from the local authorities, a suitable location for
-the observatory was the first consideration. The essential requirements
-were, a clear view of the heavens in the meridian, firm ground, a spot
-secluded enough not to attract attention from inquisitive idlers, and
-proximity to the telegraph office, or end of the telegraph line. Such a
-spot being found and permission being obtained from the owner for its
-use, an approximate meridian line was laid out by compass, and the
-house set up with reference to it. Experience soon showed the
-advisability of making certain additions to the observatory not
-contemplated by the designer, but which added much to convenience and
-comfort. A foundation was made, of timbers about six inches square,
-mortised together at the ends which could be placed in position and
-leveled before the observatory was set up, rendering this operation
-much easier and giving greater stability. A floor was laid upon joists
-supported by this foundation. Shelves were put up at various points,
-affording resting places for tools and small instruments, while a table
-in one corner, supported the chronometer, and offered a convenient
-place for an assistant to record observations, etc.</p>
-
-<p>The principal instrument used was the transit. Those furnished for the
-use of the expedition were designed by Mr. J. A. Rogers, and
-constructed under his supervision in the repair shop of the
-Hydrographic office. The object glasses, made by the Clarks at
-Cambridge, were of 2½ inches clear aperture with a focal length of
-thirty inches. The instruments were of the prismatic or "broken" form
-in which the eye-piece is at one end of the axis, and the light is
-reflected from the object glass to the eye by a prism placed at the
-junction of the telescope tube with the axis. The observer does not
-have to change the position of his eye, no matter what the zenith
-distance of the star may be. This renders observation much less
-fatiguing and conduces to accuracy. The eye-piece was furnished with
-the usual spider line reticle and also with a filar micrometer for the
-measurement of zenith distances for latitude. A vertical finding circle
-was on the eye-piece end of the axis, and the instrument was provided
-also with a horizontal circle, fourteen inches in diameter, graduated
-to ten seconds. Other necessary parts were the striding and zenith
-telescope levels, and the illuminating lamps. The ends of the axis were
-supported by Ys at the ends of a transverse arm which in its centre was
-screwed to the top of a vertical axis supported in a socket surmounting
-the tripod. This vertical axis was slightly conical in shape and
-accurately fitted into its socket. A screw was so placed underneath,
-that the axis, and with it the instrument, could be raised slightly,
-when it was easily revolved horizontally into any desired position, a
-reverse movement of the screw then lowered the axis into its seat, when
-the instrument was held firmly by the friction. For supporting the
-instrument there was used at first, a portable pier made in the shape
-of the frustrum of a cone, of strong oak staves, firmly bound with iron
-hoops, and when set up, filled with sand or earth. Subsequently a brick
-pier was found to be more stable and the wooden ones were discarded.</p>
-
-<p>Of equal importance with the transit was the Chronometer. The
-expedition was supplied with four of these made by Negus of New York.
-They were regulated to sidereal time, and provided with a break circuit
-arrangement. This consists of a toothed wheel acting on a jewel pallet
-attached to a light steel spring. In this spring is a platinum point,
-which touches another platinum point, except when the spring is acted
-upon by the toothed wheel. These points are connected respectively with
-terminals on the outside of the chronometer, and are insulated from
-each other except at their point of contact. The electric circuit is
-complete through the chronometer except when the teeth of the wheel
-acting on the jewel pallet separate the points. The circuit is opened
-for about one-fortieth of a second and closed during the rest of the
-time. One tooth in the wheel is omitted and the circuit remains
-unbroken at that point which is the beginning of each minute. Each
-chronometer is provided with a condenser to take up the extra current,
-and avoid burning the contact points. These chronometers were most
-excellent instruments, the rate was generally small and very regular,
-and did not seem to be influenced in any way by the passage of the
-current. They are still in use, and are as efficient as ever.</p>
-
-<p>The expedition was at first provided with a substitute for the
-chronograph in the shape of the old fashioned Morse telegraph register.
-In this a steel point or stylet was pressed by the action of an
-electro-magnet against a long fillet of paper, unwound by clock-work at
-a rate more or less regular. This magnet was in circuit with the
-chronometer and with a break circuit key in the observer's hand. As
-long as the electric circuit was closed the stylet made a continuous
-indented straight line on the paper; but as soon as it was broken,
-either by the chronometer or the observer's key, the stylet flew back
-and left the paper unmarked until the circuit was again closed. The
-effect of the action of the chronometer was to graduate the fillet of
-paper into a series of straight indentations, from one to two inches in
-length, separated by unmarked spaces from
-<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small>/<small><small>16</small></small>
-to <small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small>/<small><small>8</small></small> inch in length.
-When the key was pressed an independent clear space was left on the
-paper, and by the relation in distance between the beginning of this
-space and the beginning of the second spaces immediately preceding and
-following, the time of pressing the key was determined. The omission of
-the break at the sixtieth second, made the mark of double length, and
-hence the beginning of the minute was easily recognized. These
-instruments served their purpose very well, but had several
-disadvantages. The rate of movement of the paper was not regular; when
-the clock-work was first wound up the motion was rapid and the second
-spaces long, and as the spring ran down the marks became shorter and
-shorter. Another drawback was the great length of the fillet; with
-spaces only an inch in length, it required five feet of paper to record
-a minute in time, and after a night's observation, there would be
-several hundred feet to examine, measure and record, occupying the
-greater part of the following day. By stopping the instrument between
-the observations something was gained in this respect, but this tended
-somewhat to confusion and error in keeping the record. They were only
-used for one season's work, and in their stead were procured two
-cylinder chronographs, made by Bond of Boston. These were fine
-instruments, but somewhat too delicate to stand the necessary
-transportation. In these instruments as in most other chronographs, a
-cylinder about six inches in diameter is made to revolve by clock-work
-once in a minute. An electro-magnet mounted on a carriage actuated by
-the same clock-work moves alongside the cylinder, in a direction
-parallel with its axis, at the rate of about an eighth of an inch in a
-minute. The armature of the magnet carries attached to it a pen, the
-point of which rests upon a sheet of the paper wrapped around the
-cylinder. While the circuit through the coils of the magnet is
-complete, the pen makes a continuous spiral line upon the paper, but
-when the circuit is broken by the chronometer, or key, it flies to one
-side making an offset, and immediately returns to its position, as soon
-as the circuit is again closed. The result is to graduate the whole
-surface of the paper into second spaces, from which the observations
-can be read off with the greatest ease.</p>
-
-<p>For supplying the electric current, there was used at first, a
-modification of the Smee battery, but this proving very uncertain in
-strength, a gravity battery was substituted, and afterwards a number of
-LeClanché cells were procured.</p>
-
-<p>Upon the first expedition, no telegraph instruments were carried, but
-the use of such as were needed was easily obtained from the telegraph
-companies. The line between Aspinwall and Panama was in good condition
-and no trouble was experienced in exchanging the time signals by which
-was effected the comparison of the chronometers. Wires were stretched
-from the observatories in each place to the respective telegraph
-offices, and for the exchange of signals were connected directly to the
-ends of the line.</p>
-
-<p>Everything being ready, the routine of the work was as follows:&mdash;The
-transit being carefully leveled was placed in the meridian by
-observation of zenith and circumpolar stars. From six to ten time
-stars, and two or three circumpolars were then observed, the instrument
-was reversed in the Ys and nearly the same number of stars observed in
-the new position. At some time agreed upon, generally when the regular
-work of the telegraph line was over for the day, the wires were
-connected up and one of the operators came to the observatory to assist
-in holding communication. By a simple arrangement of relays, in the
-line and chronograph circuits the chronometer at one station was made
-to register its second beats on the chronograph at the other, which was
-all the time being graduated into second spaces by its own chronometer.
-This was done for about five minutes and the times of beginning and
-ending noted. Then the connections were reversed and both chronometers
-allowed to beat for five minutes on the chronograph at the first
-station.</p>
-
-<p>This method of exchanging signals was only practicable on land lines or
-very short cables. The ordinary relay used on a land line requires a
-strong current to work it, and would not be affected in the least by
-the delicate impulse sent over a long cable, consequently when the
-expedition came to compare chronometers over the 600 miles of cable
-between Aspinwall and Kingston, it was necessary to use another method.
-At that time the instrument in general use on submarine cable lines was
-what is known as Thompson's mirror galvanometer. It consists of a coil
-of very fine insulated wire wound with great care on a spool or bobbin
-of vulcanite, about three inches in diameter and 1½ inches thick. In a
-hole in the centre of the spool is made to slide a small tube, so that
-the end of the tube will be in the centre of the coil. In the end of
-the tube is mounted a small mirror, swung in a vertical position on a
-single upright fibre of silk. Horizontally across the back of this
-mirror is secured a small permanent magnet, in length about the
-diameter of the mirror or about one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch.
-The mirror and magnet together weigh only one or two grains. When an
-electric current is sent through this coil it deflects the magnet and
-with it the mirror to the right or left. The apparatus is exceedingly
-sensitive so that it is influenced by very feeble currents.
-Communication has been maintained with an instrument of this kind over
-the Atlantic cables, by the current proceeding from a battery composed
-of a single copper percussion cap with a small scrap of zinc and a drop
-of acidulated water. The use of the mirror is to make visible the
-movements of the magnet. The coil is mounted upon a standard so as to
-be about eight inches above the table. At the distance of eighteen
-inches or two feet is placed a lamp. This is surrounded by a screen
-which cuts off all the light, except that which passes through a tube
-directed towards the mirror. Lenses in the tube focus the light on the
-mirror and thence it is reflected to a vertical white surface, a sheet
-of paper for instance, at a suitable distance and appears as a small
-and brilliant spot. A movement of the magnet causes a horizontal
-deflection of this spot to the right or left depending upon the
-direction of the current passing through the coil. As these movements
-can be produced at will by means of the key at the sending station, it
-is only necessary to apply to them the dots and dashes of the Morse
-alphabet, to have a very ready and perfect means of communication. To
-the uninitiated spectator the facility with which the practiced
-operator translates these apparently meaningless movements is
-remarkable. If the cable is long and not in good condition the signals
-are sometimes almost imperceptible, while any slight jar of the table
-or apparatus will produce a large and irregular effect. Earth currents
-also will cause vibrations hard to distinguish from the signals, and
-if, as sometimes happens, the battery is connected in the wrong way,
-the signals will be reversed. In spite of these drawbacks the skillful
-operator reads off the message and rarely makes an error. This
-instrument is still in use on some of the cable lines, but on most of
-them it has been replaced by a recording instrument, also the invention
-of Sir Wm. Thompson, which is almost as sensitive, and of which I will
-speak later on. The key used in connection with these instruments, both
-the mirror and recorder, is arranged with two levers, so connected that
-pressing one of them causes a current to be sent over the line in one
-direction, while the other sends it in the opposite.</p>
-
-<p>The method adopted for comparing chronometers by means of these
-instruments was as follows:&mdash;Everything being ready for the exchange of
-signals, the observer at one station seated himself, where he could see
-the face of the chronometer, with his hand on the cable key. At ten
-seconds before the beginning of a minute as shown by the second hand,
-he pressed his key several times in quick succession, thus sending a
-series of impulses through the line, which appeared at the other end as
-a rapid movement of the light to and fro. This was a warning signal,
-and the observer at the second station with his eye on the light,
-tapped his chronograph key in the same way making a series of marks,
-which indicated the beginning of the comparison. The first observer
-exactly at the sixtieth second by his chronometer pressed his key
-quickly and firmly and repeated this operation at every fifth second
-for one minute. The second observer tapped his key promptly as soon as
-he saw the light move, thus registering the time on his chronograph.
-The minute at which the first signal was sent, was then telegraphed,
-and repeated back, to insure against error, and the operation was
-repeated until sixty-five signals had been sent from one station and
-received at the other. Then the second observer sent the same number of
-signals to the first in precisely the same manner, thus giving
-sixty-five comparisons of the chronometers in each direction. The
-results derived from this method are affected by errors from two
-causes. One is the personal error of the observers in sending and
-receiving signals and the other the time consumed by the electric
-impulse in traveling over the line and through the instruments. If the
-same strength of battery is used at each station, and the resistance of
-the instruments is the same, the errors arising from this latter source
-will be eliminated by the double exchange. The observer sending the
-signals kept his eye on the chronometer and counted the second beats by
-both eye and ear, moving the hand which he had on the key slightly in
-unison with the beats, and could thus be sure of pressing the key at
-the proper time within a very small fraction of a second. At the other
-end of the line, considerable time is lost after the actual movement of
-the light before the observer can press his chronograph key, and the
-principal error affecting the result is the difference of this time in
-the two observers, which was found to be very small.</p>
-
-<p>As I have said, the cable was first used in the measurement between
-Kingston and Aspinwall, Lieut. Commander Green occupying the former
-station, and Mr. Rock the latter. After the successful completion of
-this link, measurements were made from Santiago de Cuba to Kingston,
-and to Havana. It was the intention to measure from this last point to
-Key West, but about this time yellow fever broke out there and the
-expedition was ordered by the Secretary of the Navy to return. The
-Fortune arrived at Washington in April, 1875, and the time until
-November was spent in working up the winter's observations. Speaking in
-a general way this work is as follows:&mdash;From observations extending
-over many years, the exact positions in the heavens of a large number
-of fixed stars have been found, so that their times of passing any
-meridian can be computed with great accuracy. The transit instrument is
-furnished with an eye-piece containing a number of parallel lines
-usually made of spider silk. These are placed in the focus of the
-instrument, and it is set in position, so that the middle line of the
-group is in the plane of the meridian. The observer provides himself
-with a list of desirable stars, and setting his instrument on those he
-may choose, records the time at which they pass each of the spider
-lines, by tapping his chronograph key. If there were no instrumental
-errors to be discovered and allowed for, if the star's place were known
-absolutely, and the observer had no personal equation, then it would be
-only necessary in order to find the error of the clock, to observe one
-star upon the middle line of the reticle. The difference of the clock
-time of transit and the real time as already known, would be the clock
-error and no further trouble would be required. But as none of these
-conditions are fulfilled, it is necessary to multiply observations in
-order to eliminate accidental errors, and to obtain instrumental
-corrections which may be applied so as to get the most probable result.
-Accidental errors of eyesight and perception are nearly eliminated by
-taking the star's transit over several lines instead of one and using
-the mean. Some of the instrumental errors are from the following
-causes. If the pivots which support the telescope are unequal in size
-the axis of the tube will be thrown to one side or the other of the
-meridian, and the star will be observed either before or after it
-crosses. The weight of all transit instruments causes a flexure of the
-horizontal axis and this effect is at its maximum in those of the
-prismatic pattern. The spider lines must be adjusted so that the middle
-one is exactly in the axis of the tube, or as this can seldom be done
-the resulting error, called the collimation, must be found. The
-horizontal axis of the instrument must be as nearly level as possible,
-and the error in this respect must be found by frequent applications of
-a delicate spirit level. Finally the instrument must be directed as
-nearly as possible to the north and south points of the horizon, and a
-correction must be made for any error in this respect. The result of
-each of these errors is to cause the star's transit to be recorded too
-early or too late, and to get the true result they must all be found
-and applied with their proper signs. The inequality of pivots and the
-flexure correction are found by delicate measurement and observations,
-when the instrument is first used, and are recorded as constants to be
-applied in all subsequent work. The level tubes are graduated and the
-value of their divisions obtained in angular measure. The collimation
-error is found by observing stars near the zenith in one position of
-the instrument and then reversing and observing others, or by taking
-the transit of a slow moving star over a portion of the spider lines
-then reversing and observing the same intervals in the opposite order.
-The error of azimuth, or deviation from the north and south line, is
-found by comparing the observations of stars whose zenith distances
-differ considerably. These corrections all being found and applied to
-the observation of each star, the result is the correct time of transit
-as shown by the chronometer, and the difference between that time and
-the true time, is the error of the chronometer. A mean of the
-observations of several stars on the same night, gives a very accurate
-value for this clock error, and by comparing the results of several
-nights' work, the rate is found. By applying the rate to the clock
-error it is reduced to any required epoch, as for instance, the mean
-time of the exchange of time signals, and the difference of longitude
-is easily found. As may be imagined the computation and application of
-all these errors, exercising the greatest care to insure accuracy is a
-long and tedious process. The operations described give a very close
-result, but in order to arrive at the greatest accuracy obtainable the
-computations are made again by the method of least squares.</p>
-
-<p>In the Autumn of 1875, the expedition again took the field, this time
-in the side wheel steamer Gettysburg, which was much better adapted to
-the work than the Fortune. The first link measured was between Key West
-and Havana. Key West had already been telegraphically determined by the
-Coast Survey, and now afforded a base for the system of measurements
-completed and for those to follow. The next measurement was between
-Kingston and St. Thomas. Then from the latter place to Antigua and to
-Port Spain, Trinidad. From Port Spain, measurements were made to
-Barbadoes and Martinique. The position at St. Thomas was then
-re-occupied, and measurements made thence to San Juan, Porto Rico, and
-to Santa Cruz. This ended the work in the West Indies, differences of
-longitude having been measured between nearly all the important points
-connected by telegraph. The Latitude of all the stations, was also
-determined by the zenith telescope method, and the position of the
-stations was referred either to the observation spot previously used,
-when that could be identified, or to some prominent landmark.</p>
-
-<p>Between St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, the measurement was made twice, the
-observers exchanging stations at the completion of the first series of
-observations. This was to eliminate the effect of their personal
-errors, and to obtain a value of these, which might be applied to the
-other measurements. It has long been known that different people
-perceive the same phenomenon at different times, varying with different
-individuals, but reasonably constant with the same individual. In the
-particular case of observing the transit of a star, most people will
-record it on a chronograph from one to three tenths of a second after
-it happens. In the method of observing by eye and ear the error is
-generally much greater. The whole question of personal equation,
-however, is a mixed one and I will not attempt to discuss it, but will
-only give some of the results obtained in this particular work. In
-longitude measurements the error from this cause is half the difference
-of the personal equation of the two observers. If this difference
-remained constant, then it would be easy to find it once for all, and
-apply it to all measurements made by the same observers. In the West
-India work, it was assumed that it did remain constant, and half the
-difference between the two measurements made from St. Thomas to Santa
-Cruz, was applied to all the other links. The correction was quite
-small, being only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.025. In subsequent work by the same and other
-observers it was deemed wiser not to apply any corrections at all,
-rather than one that was probably not exact, and might be much in
-error. To show the fluctuations to which this elusive quantity is
-subject, I will cite the results of some observations made to determine
-it, by observers engaged in this same work at a subsequent period. In
-April and May, 1883, at Galveston, Texas, two observers D. and N.
-having just completed a telegraphic measurement between that place and
-Vera Cruz, Mexico, made some observations for the determination of
-their relative personal equation, by observing transits of alternate
-stars under the same conditions as near as possible. Both used the same
-instruments, transit, chronometer and chronograph. On April 30, two
-sets of observations were made, showing the difference of the equations
-to be 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.26. On May 1, one set gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.32, and another 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.29.
-On May 2, only one set was made giving 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.36, a variation of
-0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.07 in two days. In June 1884, one year later, another series of
-observations of the same character was made at the Naval Observatory in
-Washington, and on the same nights the personal equation machine
-invented by Prof. Eastman, was used as a comparison. This is an
-instrument in which an artificial star is made to record its own
-transit over the wires of a reticle, while the observer records the
-same with a chronograph key. The difference is manifestly the personal
-error of the observer. This gives the absolute equation of the
-observers, and their difference is the relative equation, and should
-accord with that found by the method of alternate stars. Some of the
-results were as follows:&mdash;On June 4, the difference by machine of their
-personal errors was 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.16 and by star observations 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.24, on the
-15th of June the machine gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.10 and the stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.24, on the
-16th, machine 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.14, stars, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.13, a very close agreement, on the
-17th, machine gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.07 and stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.18. The observer N.
-combined with another, C., who had not had as much experience in
-observing, gave still more discordant results. On June 20, the machine
-gave as their relative equation, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.08, while star observations gave
-0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.27, on June 23, machine 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.13, stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.51, and on June 28,
-machine, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.20, stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.35. In the case of the first two
-observers a mean of the determinations amounting to about 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.20
-might have been applied to the measurements made by them, but as these
-were made under all conditions of climate, in latitudes varying from
-30° N. to 36° S. and in different states of health and bodily comfort,
-it was concluded not to introduce any correction at all rather than one
-that might be considerably in error. In all of the work it has been the
-custom as far as possible to place the observers alternately east and
-west of each other, so that the result of personal error in one
-measurement is neutralized to a greater or less extent in the next. Of
-course the method of exchanging stations and making two measurements of
-each meridian distance would afford the best solution of this problem,
-but except in certain favorable conditions, this is precluded by
-considerations of time and expense. In the measurement between
-Galveston and Vera Cruz mentioned above, it had been the intention to
-exchange stations, but by the time the first measurement was finished
-the season was rather far advanced, there was danger of yellow fever in
-Vera Cruz and an observer going there at that time, if he escaped
-disease would have had the certainty of being quarantined from entering
-the United States for three weeks or a month after leaving Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>Upon the completion of the West Indian work, and the publication in
-1877, of the results, it was determined by the Bureau of Navigation to
-send an Expedition for the same purpose to the east coast of South
-America. Cables were in use extending from Para in northern Brazil to
-Buenos Ayres in the Argentine Republic. A cable had at one time
-connected this system with the West Indies, through British Guiana and
-Trinidad, but one of the links was broken and there was no prospect of
-its repair, otherwise the Station established at Trinidad in 1874 might
-have been taken as the starting point. There was direct communication
-however between England and Brazil, by the way of Portugal, and the
-Madeira and Cape de Verde Islands. Lisbon seemed to afford the most
-convenient place to start from, but its longitude had never been
-determined by telegraph and it was decided to request the French Bureau
-of Longitudes to coöperate by making this measurement from Paris. This
-request was readily granted, but for some reason the agreement was not
-kept. For the use of the Expedition the old fashioned sailing ship
-<i>Guard</i> was furnished and Lieut. Com. Green was given command. Mr. Rock
-being otherwise employed his place was taken by Lieut. Com.(now
-Commander) C. H. Davis, U. S. N. The instruments having been placed in
-good order, and new supplies furnished where necessary, the expedition
-sailed from New York for Lisbon in the latter part of October, 1877.
-The Guard was a slow sailer, the weather was rough and the wind
-generally ahead, consequently a month was consumed in making the
-passage. It was the intention to make the first measurement between
-Lisbon and Funchal, Madeira. Lieut. Com. Davis with party and
-instruments occupied the latter station, proceeding by mail steamer at
-the first opportunity. The cable from England does not land directly at
-Lisbon, but at a small town called Carcavellos on the coast about
-twelve miles from the city. As it was not practicable to connect the
-land line from Lisbon direct to the cable, it was necessary in making
-the exchange of signals to adopt another method, or rather combination
-of methods. An officer of the ship was sent to Carcavellos, furnished
-with a chronometer and chronograph. When the time came for exchanging
-signals, he first compared his chronometer with that at Lisbon, by the
-automatic method, in use on land lines, then with the Funchal
-chronometer over the cable using the mirror galvanometer. Finally a
-second automatic comparison was made with Lisbon. From the data
-furnished by these comparisons it was an easy matter to compute the
-difference between the chronometers at Lisbon and Funchal. The Lisbon
-party had been received with great courtesy by the director of the
-Royal Observatory, Capt. Oom of the Portuguese Navy, and had been given
-the use of a small detached observatory near the main building. The
-party at Funchal selected a site on the ramparts of an old fort, which
-afforded a clear view and was near the landing place of the cable. Here
-occurred an accident to the transit instrument, which fortunately was
-easily remedied. Near the beginning of the observations on the first
-night the wind, which was blowing almost a gale, lifted a part of the
-roof off the observatory, and dropped one section of it inside. The
-transit was knocked off the pier, and was at first thought to be much
-injured. Fortunately the precaution had been taken to bring along a
-couple of spare instruments, borrowed from the Transit of Venus
-Commission for use in case of such an accident. The Funchal party was
-provided with one of these, which was set up for use by the next night,
-and the injured one was sent to Lisbon for repairs. The injury proved
-to be less than supposed and the repairing was an easy matter. Upon the
-completion of this measurement the Lisbon party proceeded to St.
-Vincent one of the Cape de Verde Islands. This is a barren and desolate
-spot of volcanic formation, but being on the route of steamers from
-Europe to Africa and South America is of much importance as a coaling
-station. Measurements were made from this point to Funchal and to
-Pernambuco in Brazil, and the Guard then sailed for Rio Janeiro. Upon
-arriving at that point after a long passage, it was found that the
-cable between Rio and Pernambuco was broken, and there being no
-immediate prospect of its being repaired, the Pernambuco party was
-ordered by mail steamer to Rio, and thence to Montevideo. A measurement
-was made between Rio and Montevideo and then between the latter place
-and Buenos Ayres, Lieut. Com. Green occupying the Montevideo station
-for that purpose. The position of the observatory at Buenos Ayres was
-referred to that occupied by Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the Argentine
-National Observatory, in a similar measurement a short time before
-between that place and Cordova.</p>
-
-<p>Both parties now returned to Rio, only to find that the cable was still
-broken. In order to be ready for work as soon as it should be repaired,
-Lieut. Com. Green proceeded to Bahia with the ship and established a
-station there, Lieut. Com. Davis with his party remaining in Rio. After
-waiting a month, and there still seeming to be no prospect of the
-repair of the cable, the expedition finally sailed for home, arriving
-at Norfolk, Va., after a pleasant and uneventful voyage of forty-five
-days. Repairs to the cable were not completed until several months
-afterward. In May of the next year, the party was again sent out, to
-complete the measurement on the Brazilian Coast, and also to measure
-from Greenwich to Lisbon, the French Bureau of Longitudes having failed
-to carry out its promise to measure from Paris. There being no ship
-available for the purpose the traveling was done by mail steamer. Upon
-arrival in England, an interview was had with the Astronomer Royal, who
-readily agreed to assist in the work. Lieut. Com. Green accordingly
-established his observatory at the landing place of the cable at
-Porthcurnow in Cornwall, and Lieut. Com. Davis proceeded to Lisbon and
-occupied the station used there the year before. Owing to the foggy and
-rainy weather prevalent in England at that season, it was found
-impossible to make any astronomical observations at the Porthcurnow
-observatory. The work was therefore done in this way:&mdash;Observations
-were made at Greenwich and at Lisbon, and Porthcurnow and Carcavellos
-were used as transmitting stations. The chronometer at Porthcurnow was
-compared automatically with the clock at Greenwich, and by cable with
-the chronometer at Carcavellos. The latter was compared automatically
-with that at Lisbon, before and after the cable exchange. At this time
-there were made at Carcavellos, some experiments with a view to making
-the receipt of the time signals over the cable automatic, thus doing
-away with the personal equation of the receiver. The instrument in use
-for the regular business of the cable was what is known as the siphon
-recorder, also the invention of Sir Wm. Thompson. In this a small coil
-of fine wire is suspended by a fibre of silk, between the poles of a
-powerful permanent magnet. The currents from the cable pass through
-this coil and the action is to deflect it to the right or left, just as
-the mirror is deflected in the instrument already described. Attached
-to this coil is a siphon made of a capillary glass tube. One end of the
-siphon dips into a reservoir of aniline ink, and the other hangs
-immediately over the centre of a fillet of paper, which is unwound by
-clock-work. If the siphon touched the paper, the feeble currents sent
-through the cable would be powerless to move it, on account of the
-friction, and in order to produce a mark some means must be found of
-forcing the ink through the capillary tube. This is accomplished by
-electrifying the ink positively and the paper negatively, by means of a
-small inductive machine, driven by an electric motor. The effort of the
-two electricities to unite, forces the ink through the tube and it
-appears on the paper as a succession of small dots. When the paper is
-in motion and the coil at rest, a straight line is formed along the
-middle of the fillet by these dots, but as soon as a current is sent
-through the coil the siphon moves to the right or left making an offset
-to this line. These offsets on one side or the other are used as the
-dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet. A time signal sent over the
-cable while this instrument was in circuit, appeared as a single offset
-on the paper, and it was only necessary to graduate the paper into
-seconds spaces by the local chronometer, in order to have the automatic
-record required. The ordinary chronometer circuit could not be put
-through the coil directly, as it would then charge the cable and
-interfere with the signals, and besides, the current, unless by the
-introduction of a high resistance it was reduced in strength, would
-infallibly give such a violent motion to the coil as to break the
-siphon, if it did no other damage. The result was obtained in this way;
-an ordinary telegraph relay was put in the chronometer circuit and the
-armature of course moved with the beats. To this armature was fastened
-one end of a fine thread. The other end was attached to a slender piece
-of elastic brass which was fixed at one end to the framework supporting
-the paper, in such a way that the other end touched the metallic vessel
-holding the ink, except when the thread was drawn tight enough to pull
-it away. This the armature of the relay did while the circuit through
-the chronometer was complete, but as soon as it was broken at the
-beginning of a second, the tension of the thread was relaxed and the
-brass sprung back against the ink well, allowing the positive and
-negative electricities to unite independently of the siphon. The ink
-then ceased to flow, until the spring was drawn away, thus leaving a
-small blank space in the line of dots and forming a very good
-chronographic record. This was liable to a small error due to the
-length of time that elapsed between the release of the spring by the
-armature and its impact on the ink well. Had there been time for more
-extensive experiment this difficulty might have been overcome. Or if
-the same method had been adopted at both stations, the result would
-have been affected by only the difference between the times of movement
-of the brass spring which would have been minute. Lack of time for
-experiment, and the fact that the observers were averse to introducing
-untested methods into a chain of measurements most of the links of
-which were already completed, prevented any use being made of this
-achievement. The measurement between Greenwich and Lisbon being
-satisfactorily completed, Lieut. Com. Green by order of the Navy
-Department returned to the United States, and the links between Rio and
-Pernambuco and between the latter place and Para, were measured by
-Lieut. Com. Davis and the writer, completing the work of the
-expedition, after which the party returned to Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The computation of this work, showed the somewhat surprising fact that
-the heretofore accepted position in longitude of Lisbon, differed from
-the true one by about two miles. The longitude of Rio Janeiro had
-always been more or less in doubt, various determinations had differed
-by as much as nine miles, but the position finally decided upon by the
-best authorities agreed very closely with that obtained by telegraph.</p>
-
-<p>The next expedition was sent out by the Bureau of Navigation to China,
-Japan and the East Indies, Lieut. Com. Green being still in charge. The
-officers composing the party sailed from San Francisco by mail steamer
-in April, 1881, for Yokohama, where they joined the U. S. Steamer
-Palos. From Hong Kong north to Vladivostok in Eastern Siberia the
-cables were owned by a Danish company. From Hong Kong to the south and
-west they were the property of English companies. Beginning at
-Vladivostok observations were made at all stations on the Asiatic coast
-except Penang, as far as Madras, India. It was intended to try and make
-some use of the automatic method of receiving time signals, on this
-work, but on arriving in Japan it was found that the recording
-instrument used by the Danish company was entirely different from that
-used by the English lines. It consisted of a series of electro-magnets
-acting on a single armature, which carried a siphon made of silver. The
-signals consisted of long and short movements, to one side of the
-middle line, instead of equal deflections on both sides as in the
-Thompson recorder. An attempt was made to convert this instrument into
-a relay, by causing the siphon to make and break a circuit, but it was
-not successful. The movements of the siphon were not regular enough,
-and the contact was not firm. Consequently the mirror method of
-exchanging signals was still adhered to.</p>
-
-<p>The longitude of the position occupied in Vladivostok, had been
-determined telegraphically from Pulkova, by the Russians, using the
-land lines across Siberia. The English had also determined the position
-at Madras, using the cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The
-work of the United States Expedition joined these two positions,
-completing a chain of measurements extending over many thousand miles,
-made by observers of different nationalities in various climates. It
-was to be expected that considerable discrepancy would be found in the
-final result, but taking the longitude of Vladivostok as brought from
-Madras, and comparing it with that determined by the Russians, the
-difference was only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.39. Taking everything into consideration,
-this result was gratifyingly close. Upon the conclusion of this series
-of determinations, the connection of Lieut. Commander Green with the
-work was severed, he receiving his promotion to the rank of Commander.</p>
-
-<p>The next work was under the charge of Lieut. Com. Davis, and consisted
-in the determination in 1883-84, of positions in Mexico, Central
-America and the west coast of South America. Cables had just been
-completed, extending from Galveston, Texas, to Vera Cruz, thence across
-Mexico to the Pacific and down that coast to Lima, Peru, where
-connection was made with another system extending to Valparaiso.
-Galveston was a point determined by the Coast Survey, and the
-measurement thence to Vera Cruz was the first one made. It was
-completed in May '83, and in the Autumn of the same year the party
-proceeded to the South American coast, and stations were established
-and observations made at various points from Valparaiso to Panama, and
-at one point, La Libertad, in Central America. It was at first the
-intention to extend the series across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and
-connect with Vera Cruz, but lack of time prevented this, and as the
-station at Panama determined nearly ten years before, afforded a
-convenient starting point, the idea was abandoned. From Valparaiso, a
-measurement was made with the coöperation of Dr. Gould to his
-observatory at Cordova, using the line across the Andes, and exchanging
-signals automatically. These measurements constituted the final links
-in a long chain, extending from the prime meridian Greenwich across the
-Atlantic to the United States, thence via the West Indies to Panama,
-down the west coast of South America to Valparaiso, across the Andes to
-Cordova and Buenos Ayres, up the east coast to Pernambuco, across the
-Atlantic to Lisbon, and thence to Greenwich, altogether a distance of
-eighteen to twenty thousand miles. The two longitudes of Cordova, as
-brought from Greenwich by the two routes, differed from each other by
-only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.048, a result which speaks well for the accuracy of the
-methods employed. When preparations were being made for this
-expedition, it was determined to accomplish if possible something in
-the way of getting rid of the personal equation in exchanging signals.
-An idea which had been suggested by work done by Major Campbell, R. E.
-in the measurement between Bombay and Aden, seemed to promise well. It
-was to be used with the siphon or other form of recorder. The ordinary
-double current cable key with two levers, was arranged with an
-additional lever in such a manner that while in ordinary use in the
-telegraph office, it could also be put in circuit with the chronometer
-and chronograph in the observatory, and a signal sent through the cable
-would have its time of sending registered on the chronograph.
-Ordinarily in speaking over a cable line, connection is made in such a
-way that the current sent does not pass through the recorder at the
-sending station, as a violent movement of the siphon would result. By
-means of a shunt, however, it is possible to control this movement
-somewhat. Suppose now, that the connections at each station are made in
-such a way, by means of this key and the shunt, that a signal sent from
-one, is registered on both recorders and on the sender's chronograph.
-The observers leaving their assistants to take care of the
-chronographs, go to the respective telegraph offices, and all being
-ready, the observer A taps his key. This sends an impulse through the
-cable, which appears on A's recorder, as a violent jump or kick of the
-siphon. On B's recorder it is registered as a deflection like the
-ordinary dot or dash, at the same instant is recorded on A's
-chronograph the time of sending. As soon as B sees the signal on his
-recorder, he taps his key also registering the signals on both
-recorders and on his chronograph. A, seeing B's signal again taps his
-key, and so on, as long as desired. The result is that each observer
-has a record on his siphon fillet of all signals sent and received,
-while the times of those he sent are recorded on his chronograph. By
-the use of the diagonal scale and the Rule of Three, he can without
-difficulty find the times of the signals received. The siphon recorders
-are well made, and the paper moves with great regularity. This system
-was used in the measurement between Galveston and Vera Cruz with great
-success. It was intended to employ the same method throughout the
-measurement on the west coast of America, but on arriving at Lima, it
-was found that the company owning the lines south of that point still
-used the mirror galvanometer, and it was of course necessary to return
-to the old method. The improved key was used however, which eliminated
-the error in sending signals.</p>
-
-<p>After this work was completed and the results published in 1885,
-nothing was done in this line by the Bureau of Navigation for some
-years. Upon the return of the writer in the spring of 1888, from a
-cruise in the South Pacific, he found that the subject of sending an
-expedition to complete the measurements in Mexico and Central America
-was under consideration in the Bureau of Navigation and the
-Hydrographic office. It was finally decided that the work should be
-done, and the writer was placed in charge. The instruments were brought
-out of their retirement, and by the aid of the Hydrographic Office a
-very complete outfit was furnished, and in November of last year a
-start was made from New York, the expedition proceeding by mail steamer
-to Vera Cruz. Here the spot occupied by Lieut. Com. Davis in '83 was
-found, his transit pier, which was still standing was repaired, and
-instruments mounted. Lieut. Charles Laird, U. S. N., who had been
-identified with the longitude work since the China expedition in 1881,
-was left in charge of the observatory at Vera Cruz, and the writer
-proceeded with his party to the small town of Coatzacoalcos, at the
-mouth of the river of the same name. This point is about one hundred
-and twenty miles southeast of Vera Cruz, and is the landing place of
-the cable. A land line extends from this point to Salina Cruz on the
-Pacific coast, a distance of about two hundred miles. In exchanging
-time signals between Vera Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, the automatic method
-was employed, the cable being short. The old wooden observatories were
-used at these points, but as they were too heavy for transportation
-across the Isthmus, tents made especially for astronomical purposes
-were substituted for them in the observations made on the Pacific
-coast. The journey across the Isthmus was slow, about two weeks being
-employed in traveling two hundred miles, though as the route was
-devious, the actual distance was nearer three hundred. Some of the
-instruments were heavy, and after being taken in canoes a hundred miles
-up the Coatzacoalcos river, against a rapid current, they were loaded
-on a train of pack mules, and carried the rest of the way by land.
-While the first party was crossing the Isthmus, the other was on its
-way from Vera Cruz, and being ready at about the same time, a
-successful measurement was made between Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz,
-exchanging signals automatically. The Coatzacoalcos party then crossed
-to Salina Cruz, while the other proceeded to La Libertad in Salvador,
-where the station established in the Spring of '84, was again occupied.
-The measurement between these places being completed, the Libertad
-party went on to San Juan del Sur, in Nicaragua, near the terminus of
-the proposed interoceanic canal. In the measurement between this point
-and Salina Cruz, as well as in the one preceding, the exchange was
-effected by mirror signals. This completed the season's work, and the
-two parties made the best of their way home via Panama, arriving in
-Washington in April and May respectively. The computation of the
-observations is not yet complete though well advanced; it was the
-intention to publish preliminary results this Fall, but owing to lack
-of time that can not be done.</p>
-
-<p>Another piece of work is laid out for the same party for the coming
-winter, which is the measurement from Santiago de Cuba, through Hayti
-and San Domingo to La Guayra in Venezuela, over the cables of a French
-company, which have just been completed. This work will consume about
-six months, and the expedition which is to start almost immediately
-will probably return in April or May next. The determination of the
-longitude of La Guayra will give a point from which many other
-measurements may be made along the north coast of South America,
-furnishing material for extensive corrections of the charts of that
-region.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>Having presented an outline of the work done so far, as well as that
-proposed for the near future, I will now mention some of the trials and
-tribulations, as well as the pleasures experienced in carrying out the
-object desired in an expedition of this kind. The greatest politeness
-and kindness have always been experienced from the officials and
-employees of the various telegraph companies over whose lines work has
-been carried on. The government officials of the foreign countries
-visited, have also invariably shown the utmost politeness, but
-sometimes this politeness has been visibly tinged with suspicion. The
-measurements in Peru and Chili were made amid the closing scenes of the
-war between the countries. Upon the arrival of the expedition in Lima,
-an interview was had with the Chilian Commander-in-Chief who had
-possession of the city, and permission was requested and readily
-granted to occupy a station in Arica. Upon arriving at the latter place
-some days after, the Chilian governor in charge was found to have
-instructions to facilitate the work, and readily granted permission to
-establish the observatory in a convenient locality, but flatly refused
-to allow a wire to be extended to the telegraph office, and also
-refused to forward to his immediate superior, a request that it might
-be allowed. He evidently supposed the party were emissaries of the
-United States, sent to treat secretly with conquered Peru, but how he
-expected this was to be done remains a secret. By a vigorous use of the
-telegraph in communicating with the U. S. Ministers to both Chili and
-Peru, his objections were silenced, and the wire was put up. The
-observatory at Arica was erected on the side of a hill to the windward
-of the town, because it afforded a clear view, and was less dirty than
-other eligible sites. It also was a safe position in case of a possible
-earthquake or tidal wave, by which Arica had already been twice visited
-with disastrous effect. In digging for a foundation for the transit
-pier, several mummies of the ancient Peruvians were unearthed at a
-depth of a foot. They had evidently belonged to the poorer class of
-people, as their wrappings were composed of coarse mats, instead of the
-fine cloth with which the wealthier people were usually interred. One
-was the body of a female with long hair, which had been turned to a
-reddish yellow color by the alkali in the soil. The whole coast of Peru
-is barren and desolate, except in the river valleys, it being seldom
-visited by rain, while it is nearly always overhung with heavy clouds
-and fog banks, which render astronomical work exceedingly difficult.
-Even when partially clear in the day time, it generally becomes cloudy
-at night. Many times the observer would be at his place before sunset
-ready to seize the first suitable star revealed by the darkness, only
-to be baffled by thick banks of cloud which would cover the entire sky
-in from five to ten minutes.</p>
-
-<p>In northern Peru, with a latitude of about five degrees south, is the
-town of Paita. It is an assemblage of mud-colored houses, at the foot
-of high, mud colored bluffs. On top of these bluffs is a perfectly
-barren table land extending inland and up and down the coast for many
-miles. Before visiting it the observers were informed that its one good
-point was the perfect astronomical weather which always prevailed.
-Clouds were unknown, and such a thing as rain had never been heard of.
-The extreme dryness of the atmosphere was so favorable to health that
-no one ever died, and when a consumptive invalid was imported by the
-inhabitants in the hope of starting a cemetery, he blasted their
-expectations by recovering. Judge then of their feeling, when upon
-arriving at this delightful place, they were met with the information
-that while it was true that the sky was, in general, perfectly clear
-both by night and day, yet about once in seven years, rain could be
-expected, and that the year then present was the rainy one. And sure
-enough it did rain. The usually dusty streets became rivers and
-quagmires, the rocky valleys in the vicinity were transformed into
-roaring torrents, and the table land usually an arid desert became a
-swamp with a rank growth of vegetation. However by using every
-opportunity and snatching stars between clouds and showers the work was
-finally completed.</p>
-
-<p>Upon arriving in Panama shortly after this experience, the party was
-met with the pleasant intelligence that yellow fever was prevalent, and
-that the foreigners were dying like sheep. Nearly every day of the
-party's stay, some one died of sufficient importance to have the church
-bells tolled for his funeral, while of the ordinary people little
-notice was taken. Every morning, the writer remembers passing a
-carpenter's shop where nothing was made but coffins, and the supply was
-evidently not equal to the demand, for finally the proprietor began to
-import them, apparently by the ship load. The weather however was
-delightful, and the nights were the most perfect, astronomically
-speaking, that could be desired.</p>
-
-<p>The observers who went from Japan to Vladivostok were obliged to wait
-several weeks at Nagasaki, before an opportunity offered for proceeding
-to their destination, and when they finally arrived, the getting away
-again was a problem. Communication with the outside world by water was
-only open during the summer months, and even then it was more
-accidental than otherwise. The party established the observatory
-however, and settled down to work, letting the future take care of
-itself. In the early part of the work, rather an amusing incident
-occurred. As the community was full of all sorts and conditions of men,
-Koreans, Chinamen and Russian exiles, the last not political but
-criminal offenders; it was thought wise to have a sentry stationed at
-the observatory to guard against any possible harm to the instruments.
-So the Governor of the town was asked to furnish a soldier for that
-purpose, which request was readily granted, and one night the sentry
-was posted with orders to let no one touch the observatory. These
-orders he construed literally, and when the observers appeared to
-commence their night's work, he kept them off at the point of the
-bayonet. His only language being Russian with which the observers were
-not familiar, it was impossible to explain the true state of affairs,
-and it was only after hunting up an interpreter and communicating with
-his commanding officer that an entry was finally effected. A good deal
-of bad weather was experienced at this place, but at the end of six
-weeks enough observations had been made for the required purpose, and
-the party was fortunate enough to secure passage to Nagasaki, in a
-small steamer that had brought a load of coal out from Germany.</p>
-
-<p>In the expedition to the Asiatic coast one of the most interesting
-experiences was the trip to Manila in the Philippine Islands. This is
-quite a large town when intact, but a great portion of it is usually
-in the condition of being shaken down by an earthquake or blown over by
-a typhoon. The inhabitants are full of energy, however, and find time
-between downfalls to build up again. The cable from Hong Kong lands at
-a point about one hundred and twenty miles from Manila, and the writer
-was directed to proceed thither, with a chronometer and chronograph for
-the purpose of transmitting time signals. The first part of the journey
-was made in a small coasting steamer uncommonly dirty, and occupied
-about thirty-six hours. At the end of that time the village of Sual in
-the Gulf of Lingayen was reached. This was distant from the cable
-station about thirty miles, and the remainder of the journey was made
-in a native boat, with mat sails, and bamboo outriggers, part of the
-time through channels between numerous small islands and for some
-distance in the open sea. The progress was slow, but it was a pleasant
-way of traveling, except for the sleeping accommodations which were
-primitive; consisting of a palm leaf mat thrown over a platform made of
-split bamboo, in which all the knots had been carefully preserved.
-About three days, including stoppages, were consumed in this thirty
-mile voyage, and the traveler finally reached his destination to be
-received with the greatest hospitality by the staff at the telegraph
-station, and just in time to allay the fears of the observers at Hong
-Kong and Manila who had begun to think him lost. About three weeks were
-spent here, and as the work only occupied a short time at night, the
-days were pleasantly passed in exploring the surrounding country,
-making friends with the natives, shooting and photographing the
-scenery. The return to Manila was by the same route and occupied nearly
-the same length of time.</p>
-
-<p>The measurement from Singapore to Madras was over one of the longest
-lines of cable ever used for this purpose, the distance being about
-1600 nautical miles. The Atlantic cables used by Dr. Gould in 1866 were
-a little more than 1,850 miles in length. There was an intermediate
-station at Penang about 400 miles from Singapore, where all the work of
-the line was repeated. For the longitude measurement however the cables
-were connected through to form an unbroken line. The mirror was the
-only instrument that could be used and even with this the signals were
-feeble and much affected by earth currents.</p>
-
-<p>The observing parties have never been troubled by wild beasts, but
-while at Saigon in Cochin, China, a rifle was always kept handy for use
-in case of the appearance of a tiger. The observatory here was located
-near the edge of a jungle, and alongside the telegraph station, on the
-veranda of which a large tiger had been shot by one of the operators
-only a short time before.</p>
-
-<p>In the expedition of last winter to Mexico and Central America, the
-principal annoyance was caused by insects which were numerous and
-malignant. At Coatzacoalcos they were found in the greatest abundance,
-though the whole isthmus of Tehuantepec is alive with them. Fleas and
-mosquitoes were expected of course, but added to this were numerous
-others much worse. Of the family of "ticks" four varieties were seen
-and felt, ranging in size from almost microscopic to a length of a
-third of an inch. The most numerous were about as large as a grain of
-mustard seed, and one who walked or rode through the bushes or high
-grass would find himself literally covered. One of the worst insects
-encountered was the "nigua" which is in appearance something like a
-small flea. It burrows into the toes and soles of the feet, lays a
-number of eggs, which hatch and produce painful sores. A gruesome story
-is current in that region, about an enthusiastic English naturalist,
-who found specimens of these encamped in his feet, and concluded to
-take them home in that way, in order to observe the effect, but died of
-them before reaching England. All the party were afflicted with these
-pests, but were always fortunate enough to discover them and dig them
-out with the point of a knife before any bad results were experienced.
-The village of Coatzacoalcos is prettily situated, the climate,
-especially in winter, is very agreeable and the river offers a
-commodious harbor, but as long as the insects are so unpleasant, few
-people will care to live there if they can avoid it.</p>
-
-<p>There have been directly determined by these various expeditions, about
-forty secondary meridians. Many more positions depend upon these, so
-they may be said to have made a large addition to our accurate
-knowledge of the earth's surface. Telegraphic facilities are being
-constantly extended, and as the Bureau of Navigation has now a very
-complete outfit for this work, which only needs occasional repairs, it
-is hoped that it may be kept up for some time in the future.</p>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap2"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>REPORT&mdash;GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND.</h3>
-
-<center>B<small>Y</small> H<small>ERBERT</small> G. O<small>GDEN</small>.</center>
-<br>
-
-<p>In my annual report a year ago, I presented to you briefly our
-knowledge of the great geographic divisions of the world. It might be
-instructive to continue the subject this evening by relating the
-additional information we have acquired during the year; but as the
-items are not of great value and the most important are more in the
-form of rumors than of facts, I have restricted myself more to the
-interests of the western hemisphere, and particularly to those
-affecting the United States.</p>
-
-<p>In Europe we have still the visions of war that have agitated her
-peoples for years past; the decapitation of the Turk, and division of
-his European empire to appease the ambition of "friendly powers." It is
-not until we pass by this civilized section and reach the far east,
-that we recognize the dawn of progress in the year; the birth of events
-that may in time increase the happiness and welfare of many people.</p>
-
-<p>The influence of the United States in extending the principle so early
-enunciated, "that all men are born free and equal" has been most
-marked. The western hemisphere is virtually under the rule of men
-chosen by the people, and though we cannot claim that in all instances
-the result has been satisfactory, there has, nevertheless, been a
-steady advance; political disturbances have become less frequent and
-with prolonged tranquillity the arts of peace, commercial enterprise
-and internal improvements, have received an impetus that will wed more
-strongly the advocates of personal liberty to their ideal God.</p>
-
-<p>Educated men in both hemispheres predict ultimate success or failure
-for our form of government and advance cogent arguments in support of
-the views they express. The complications of the great economic
-questions that confront us afford texts for arguments that cause many
-to doubt the wisdom of entrusting the welfare of a great nation to the
-votes of the masses; nevertheless, the people are firm in the belief
-that they can conduct their own affairs; and those whom they intrust
-with temporary power are seldom so short-sighted as not to realize that
-a violation of the trust will meet with certain retribution. Those
-appointed to govern must also be teachers, and if in the enthusiasm of
-a new creed it shall be shown they have taught the people error instead
-of truth, a national uprising sweeps them from control, and for a time
-conservatism becomes the guide. To the people of the old world, the
-apparent prosperity that has followed our system doubtless receives the
-most earnest thought; and the contrast to their own condition excites
-their desires to experiment themselves in more liberal forms, and reap
-the rewards they believe have followed such measures in America.</p>
-
-<p>While American methods may extend their influence in this manner to
-European nations, and even to the nations of Asia, we should not rest
-self-confident of the superiority of our institutions, and that they
-alone are the permeating influence that inspire so many with the
-thoughts of liberal government that brings disquiet to crowned heads.
-The application of recent discoveries and inventions, to the affairs of
-every-day life, have raised the power of the individual and caused such
-a general increase of intellectual vigor, that independence of rulers
-by divine right is no longer a cause for wonder, but is considered by
-the intelligent as the natural state for the modern man.</p>
-
-<p>Since the expedition of Com. Perry our influence in Japan has been
-marked, and this most progressive of the Eastern nations has sought
-counsel and advice from new America and the men who constitute the
-nation. But the progressive people of these isles have been too earnest
-in their efforts to advance, to rely solely upon one set of men, or the
-example of one nation, and we find they have been gathering in that
-which is good from all sections of the civilized world. The record of
-their progress, however, bears the stamp of America, and we may justly
-claim that it was the influence of freedom that first led these
-interesting people into the paths they have followed with such
-gratifying results, and which many believe will culminate in the
-establishment of a powerful and enlightened nation. Recent advices
-announce the formation of a legislative body, organized on the
-principle of the Congress of the United States&mdash;a step that indicates
-Japan may yet find a place in the category of states that are destined
-to exert a marked influence in the control of human affairs.</p>
-
-<p>How different is the neighboring empire of China. Within a stone's
-throw, almost, of the advancing civilization of Japan, inhabited by a
-people of marked ability but restricted by race traditions to a
-condition of inactive conservatism, that seems almost to preclude the
-possibility of material advance in centuries to come. The population of
-this empire is so great that the density has been averaged at two and
-three hundred persons per square mile, and in some districts that it is
-as great as seven hundred. We can readily conceive the poverty that
-must exist in such an average population for such an extended area. And
-we may realize the cries of distress that come from great calamities by
-the experiences in our own history, even modified as they have been by
-our superior facilities for affording relief, and the comparative
-insignificance of the numbers who have required assistance. Recall for
-a moment one of the great floods of the Yellow river, where thousands
-have perished and tens of thousands have been rendered destitute within
-a few hours, and conceive the sufferings, hardships, and greater number
-that must yet succumb before those who survived the first great rush of
-the waters can be furnished relief; remembering that the means of
-intercommunication are the most primitive, and that the immediate
-neighbors of the sufferers are in no condition to render more
-assistance than will relieve the most urgent necessities of a
-comparatively insignificant number. May we not, then, if only from a
-humanitarian point of view, greet with pleasure the reception of the
-imperial decree authorizing the introduction in the empire of useful
-inventions of civilized man, and directing the construction of a great
-railroad through the heart of the empire, with Pekin as one of the
-termini. This road will cross the Yellow river, affording relief to
-this populous district in time of disaster; and it is understood will
-eventually be extended to traverse the empire, forming a means of rapid
-communication between distant provinces. We may believe, also, that in
-time it will be the medium of opening to us a new region for geographic
-research, not in the celestial empire alone, but also in the rich
-fields of central Asia that are now being occupied by Chinese emigration.</p>
-
-<p>Doubtless the greatest geographic discoveries of the age have been made
-in central Africa. It was but a few years ago that we were in doubt as
-to the true sources of the Nile, and the location of the mouths of
-great rivers that had been followed in the interior, was as much a
-mystery as though the rivers had flowed into a heated cauldron and the
-waters had been dissipated in mist, by the winds, to the four corners
-of the earth. It was then that grave fears were aroused for the safety
-of Livingstone, who had done so much, and whose efforts it was hoped
-would yet solve the great geographic problems his travels had evolved.
-A man, patient in suffering, and with a tenacity of purpose that
-overcomes the greatest obstacles, he had endeared himself to those who
-sought knowledge from his labors, and it was, therefore, with unfeigned
-regret that men spoke of the possibility that calamity had overtaken
-him, and that the work of the last years of his life would possibly be
-lost. The editor of an influential New York journal, sympathizing with
-the deep interest that was felt, and doubtless actuated to some extent
-by the notoriety success would bring to his journal, determined upon
-organizing an expedition to ascertain Livingstone's fate, and thus
-brought before the world the hitherto obscure correspondent Henry M.
-Stanley. The rare good judgment that selected Mr. Stanley for the
-command of such a hazardous expedition was more than demonstrated by
-subsequent events. The first reports that Livingstone had been succored
-were received with incredulity, but as the facts became known
-incredulity gave way to unstinted praise, and Mr. Stanley was accorded
-a place among those who had justly earned a reward from the whole
-civilized world.</p>
-
-<p>A few years after his return from his successful mission for the relief
-of Livingstone, he was commissioned in the joint interests of the <i>New
-York Herald</i> and <i>London Daily Telegraph</i>, to command an expedition for
-the exploration of central Africa. Traversing the continent from east
-to west, he added largely to our knowledge of the lake region and was
-the first to bring us facts of the course of the Congo. This expedition
-placed him before the world as one of the greatest of explorers, and it
-seems, therefore, to have been but natural that, when a great
-humanitarian expedition was to be organized nearly ten years later to
-penetrate into the still unknown regions of the equatorial belt for the
-relief of Emin Pasha, that he should have been selected to command it.
-How faithfully he performed this task we are only just learning, and
-our admiration increases with every new chapter that is placed before
-us. That he was successful in the main object of the expedition is
-self-evident, having brought Emin Pasha and the remnant of his
-followers to the coast with him. The expedition has also been fruitful
-in geographic details, and though we have not as yet the data to change
-the maps to accord with all the newly discovered facts, we may feel
-assured of their value. Perhaps the best summary of the more important
-discoveries can be given in the explorer's own words, which I have
-taken from one of his recent letters:</p>
-
-<blockquote>"Over and above the happy ending of our appointed duties we have not
-been unfortunate in geographical discoveries. The Aruwimi is now known
-from its source to its bourne. The great Congo forest, covering as
-large an area as France and the Iberian peninsula, we can now certify
-to be an absolute fact. The Mountains of the Moon, this time beyond the
-least doubt, have been located, and Ruwenzori, 'The Cloud King,' robed
-in eternal snow, has been seen and its flanks explored and some of its
-shoulders ascended, Mounts Gordon Bennett and MacKinnan Cones being but
-great sentries warding off the approach to the inner area of 'The Cloud
-King.'</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>"On the southeast of the range the connection between Albert Edward
-Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza has been discovered, and the extent of the
-former lake is now known for the first time. Range after range of
-mountains has been traversed, separated by such tracts of pasture lands
-as would make your cowboys out west mad with envy. And right under the
-burning equator we have fed on blackberries and bilberries and quenched
-our thirst with crystal water fresh from snow beds. We have also been
-able to add nearly six thousand square miles of water to Victoria
-Nyanza.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>"Our naturalist will expatiate upon the new species of animals, birds
-and plants he has discovered. Our surgeon will tell what he knows of
-the climate and its amenities. It will take us all we know how to say
-what new store of knowledge has been gathered from this unexpected
-field of discoveries. I always suspected that in the central regions,
-between the equatorial lakes, something worth seeing would be found,
-but I was not prepared for such a harvest of new facts."</blockquote>
-
-<p>The exploration of Africa, however, has not been confined to the
-central belt. Expeditions have been developing the southern section of
-the continent; the French have been active in the watershed of the
-Niger, and in the east there seems to have been a general advance of
-English, Germans, Portuguese and Italians. The latter, it is stated,
-have acquired several million square miles of territory in Mozambique,
-an acquisition that would indicate our maps have heretofore given this
-particular division of territory an area much too insignificant.</p>
-
-<p>We also learn that Capt. Trevier, a French traveler, has crossed the
-continent by ascending the Congo to Stanley Falls, thence southeasterly
-through the lake region to the coast at some point in Mozambique, in a
-journey of eighteen months; a journey that must bring us a harvest of
-new facts.</p>
-
-<p>On the western hemisphere there has been considerable activity in a
-variety of interest, tending to develop the political, commercial and
-natural resources.</p>
-
-<p>Four new states have been admitted to the American Union, and measures
-have been introduced in the Congress looking to the admission of two
-more. These acts mark an era in the progress of the great northwest
-significant of a national prosperity that a generation ago would have
-been deemed visionary. We have also to record a tentative union formed
-by the Central American states, that at the expiration of the term of
-ten years prescribed by the compact, we may hope will be solidified by
-a bond to make the union perpetual. In South America a bloodless
-revolution presented to the family of nations a new republic in the
-United States of Brazil. All thoughtful men must at least feel a throb
-of sympathy for Dom Pedro, who in a night lost the allegiance of his
-people and the rule of an empire. Sympathy, perhaps, that he does not
-crave, for history affords us no parallel of a monarch who taught his
-people liberalism, and knowing it could but lead to the downfall of his
-empire. It seems to be true, also, that although depriving him of
-power, the people whom he loved and ruled with such liberality, have
-not forgotten his many virtues, and that the Emperor Dom Pedro will be
-revered in republican Brazil as heartily as though his descendants had
-been permitted to inherit the empire. We cannot tell if the new order
-of affairs will prove permanent, but the education of the Brazilians in
-the belief that a republic was inevitable, gives strong grounds to hope
-the experiment of self-government will not be a failure. The influence
-the successful establishment of this republic is to exert in other
-parts of the world is a problem that has already brought new worries to
-the rulers of Europe, and not without a reason, for a republican
-America is an object lesson that the intelligence of the age will not
-be slow to learn.</p>
-
-<p>The assembly of the "Three Americas Congress" in Washington, is also an
-event that may wield an influence in the future. Perhaps it may not be
-seen for years to come, but it lays the foundation for commercial and
-geographic developments that would redound to the credit of the western
-hemisphere.</p>
-
-<p>We have seen during the year the virtual failure of the Panama Canal
-company; for it is unreasonable to believe that a corporation so
-heavily involved with such a small proportion of its allotted labor
-accomplished, can secure the large sum that would be requisite to
-continue operations to completion. The failure of this company has
-imparted a fresh impetus to the Nicaragua scheme and ground was broken
-on this route in October last. As the Nicaragua route presents many
-natural advantages and is free from such stupendous engineering works
-as were contemplated at Panama, we may hope for its completion. The
-surveys were conducted with deliberation and have evidenced great skill
-on the part of those who supervised them, so that we may reasonably
-expect the construction will proceed with the same care, and resolve
-the question of success into the simple problem of cost.</p>
-
-<p>A partial account has been furnished by Dr. Nansen of his journey
-across Greenland a year ago. The result will be disappointing to those
-who anticipated the discovery of open country with green fields and the
-general reversal of the Arctic conditions. He describes the region as
-being covered with a great shield of ice, dome-like in shape, and which
-he estimates to have a maximum thickness of six or seven thousand feet.
-For a great part of his journey he traveled at an elevation of about
-eight thousand feet, and the cold at times was so intense that he
-believes the temperature must have been at least 50° below zero on the
-Fahrenheit scale. No land was visible in the interior and he estimates
-the highest mountains must be covered with at least several hundred
-feet of snow ice. The expedition was one of great danger, and we may
-say was accomplished only through the good judgment of the explorer.
-The scientific results have not yet been considered, but the explorer
-suggests it is an excellent region to study an existing ice field, and
-estimates that persistent observations might prove productive of value
-in the science of meteorology.</p>
-
-<p>The Canadians have been active during the year in the exploration of
-the vast territory to the northward of their supposed habitable
-regions. In the report of Dr. Dawson relating the result of his labors
-in the northwest, up to the date of its compilation, we find much that
-is new and a great deal that is of interest. We cannot enter into the
-details of his itinerary, but we may note as one fact that surely will
-excite surprise, the conclusion he reaches that there is a territory of
-about 60,000 square miles, the most part to the northward of the
-sixtieth parallel, in which agricultural pursuits may be successfully
-followed in conjunction with the natural development of the other
-resources of the territory. This does not imply that it may become an
-agricultural region, and should hardly be construed as more than a
-prediction that the pioneers who attempt to develop the region need not
-die of starvation.</p>
-
-<p>We have also to record as a matter of interest in the Arctic region,
-the successful establishment of the two parties sent out by the United
-States to determine the location of the 141st meridian, the boundary
-line between Alaska and the British Provinces north of Mt. St. Elias.
-The parties are located on the Yukon and Porcupine rivers above their
-confluence at Ft. Yukon. They are well equipped, and it is expected
-they will explore a considerable territory and bring back with them
-valuable information beyond the special object of the expedition.
-Indeed, it may be said, this is but the beginning of a thorough
-examination of Alaskan territory, that will eventually form a basis for
-the demarkation of the international boundary. This country is full of
-surprises in its details, and whatever examinations are made must be
-thorough to be effective. Only recently, a small indentation, as it has
-been carried on the maps since Vancouver's time, and known as Holkham
-Bay, has been found to be a considerable body of water, extending back
-from Stephen's passage in two arms, each nearly thirty miles in length
-and nearly reaching the assumed location of the Alaska boundary. So
-perfectly is the bifurcation and extension of the arms hidden by
-islands, that it was only during the past summer when in the regular
-course of work the shores of the bay were to be traversed, that the
-extent of the bay became known.</p>
-
-<p>The determination of the boundaries of the land areas on the surface of
-the earth has ever been a matter of the greatest interest to the
-students of geography. It was the incentive that led the daring
-navigators of old to undertake the perilous voyages that in these days
-read like romances; and in the light of the more perfect knowledge we
-now have of the hidden dangers to which they were exposed, we may pass
-by their shortcomings in the admiration we must feel for their heroism
-and endurance. To these men we owe our first conception of the probable
-distribution of the areas of land and water, but the lines they gave us
-were only approximate; and had not scientific effort followed in their
-tracks we may reasonably believe the progress of civilization would
-have been retarded by generations. True it is, also, that even to-day
-we have not that precise knowledge that is requisite for the safety of
-quick navigation, nor to calculate the possibility of the future
-improvement of undeveloped regions. The commerce of the world in coming
-years will demand the accuracy in the location of distant regions as
-great as we now have in civilized centres, for time will be too
-precious to lose a day of it in the precautions that the navigator must
-now follow in approaching undeveloped coasts. That these truths have
-guided those who seek to do their share for the future in the labor of
-the present, we have ample evidence in the activity of all civilized
-governments during the last century. It is a source of shame and
-infinite regret that our own government has done so little in this vast
-field: that the intelligence of our people has not been awakened to put
-forth their energy in so good a cause, that would eventually increase
-their own prosperity. But we have not been altogether inactive and
-complaint must be in the quantity, not the quality of our labors. The
-establishment of "definite locations," for the control of sections and
-regions, is the first step in eliminating errors that have been
-committed and in providing greater accuracy in the future. At a recent
-meeting of the Society we had a paper presented on this subject, from
-which we can judge of the good work that has been done by our navy in
-these determinations, and gain an insight of the similar labor that has
-been prosecuted by other nations. The bands of electric cables that
-girdle the earth, afford the most approved means of ascertaining the
-longitudes of these positions; and if we but study a cable chart, it
-will be found the work yet to be accomplished before the facilities the
-cables now afford are exhausted, is not inconsiderable. We hope,
-therefore, this good work may be continued, and that surveying and
-charting the regions thus approached, will shortly follow. There is
-much labor of this character still required on our own continent, and
-we will be delinquent in our duty as a progressive people if we do not
-follow the good beginning already made to its legitimate conclusion.</p>
-
-<p>The duties of government are manifold, and for the benefit of those
-governed must include legislation that will make manifest the natural
-resources of the State. The geographic development and political
-advancement of our own country in the century of our national
-existence, is a marked instance of the wisdom of preparing for the
-future by such acts as legitimately fall within the province of
-legislation.</p>
-
-<p>The new nation began her existence under extraordinary circumstances.
-With only an experimental form of government, she was to develop a vast
-region of unknown resources; but happily imbued with the belief that
-"knowledge is power," it was not long before systematic efforts were
-put forth to learn the wealth we had and how it might be utilized. The
-congress of the confederation provided the first act in 1785, for the
-organization of the land surveys and land parcelling system, that title
-to the unoccupied territories in the west might be securely vested in
-the individual. We have record of the stimulus this act gave to the
-settlement of a large territory, and raised the demand for surveys in
-the still further west, developing the geography of a vast region that
-has since become the home of millions of people. The original act was
-amended as early as 1796, and since then has frequently been added to
-in the effort to meet the new conditions evolved in the rapid
-development of the country. Other great regions were explored by the
-army, sometimes under special acts, until finally we had learned with
-some degree of reliability, the general adaptability of our whole
-territory. The discovery of the great mineral wealth of the west, and
-the improved means of communication afforded by the construction of
-continental railways, however, imposed new conditions and it was found
-more detailed information would be necessary to meet the demands of the
-increasing population. We thus reached another stage where expeditions
-equipped for scientific investigation were organized, and through their
-labors brought us knowledge of still greater value; and to-day we see
-these merged into one body in the geological survey, whose special duty
-is the scientific exploration and study of our great territory.</p>
-
-<p>While this had been passing in the interior, bringing life to
-unoccupied regions, the districts on the coast that had long been
-settled, were also struggling with new problems. The material progress
-of the civilized world, and the pressure from the regions behind them
-that had been recently peopled, demanded greater commercial facilities.
-Early in the century, almost coincident with the establishment of the
-land surveys, provision had been made for the survey of the coasts, and
-although through various causes it was not vigorously prosecuted until
-a third of the century had passed, when the time came for its economic
-use in meeting the new conditions imposed by the general progress of
-the nation, the knowledge had been gained that was essential to advance
-and develop the great interests affected. The improvements required,
-however, could only be secured through active exertion, the actual work
-of man; but so pressing has been the want and so persistent has been
-the labor, that should we chart the results it would be a surprise to
-those who believe the "local geography" has not been changed.</p>
-
-<p>The demands upon the older communities arising from the increase in
-commercial and industrial enterprise, have caused them too, to feel the
-want of more detailed information of their surroundings, and they have,
-in consequence, undertaken more precise surveys of their territories,
-generally availing themselves of the assistance offered by the general
-government. This work will doubtless extend in time to all the States,
-and be followed, when its value has been made manifest, by the detailed
-surveys of precision that have been found necessary as economic
-measures in the civilized States of the old world.</p>
-
-<p>It is rarely we can foresee the full results of great national
-enterprises; the special object that calls forth the exertion may be
-readily comprehended, but the new conditions evolved from success, and
-sometimes from only the partial accomplishment of the original design,
-may be factors in governing the future beyond our power to surmise.</p>
-
-<p>The work of improving the navigation of the Mississippi River, is an
-instance of this character so marked, and apparently destined to extend
-its influence through so many generations, that a brief record of the
-change it has effected in geographic environment will not be without
-interest, and, perchance, not without value.</p>
-
-<p>The area drained by the Mississippi river and tributaries, is forty-one
-per cent. of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska; and by
-the census of 1880 the population of this great district was
-forty-three per cent. of the whole Union. It seems probable that a
-large proportion of this population is directly interested in the river
-system, and if we add to it the number of those who are indirectly
-benefited, we should doubtless find a majority of our people more or
-less dependent upon its maintenance. It is only to the alluvial valley,
-however, the great strip from Cairo to the Gulf, that I wish
-particularly to call your attention this evening. This is really the
-great highway for traffic; the cause of the great work that has been
-prosecuted; and the scene of the geographic development that will mark
-an epoch in the history of the river.</p>
-
-<p>Ten years ago the importance of the improvement of this water-way was
-so forcibly impressed upon Congress, that an act was passed organizing
-a "Mississippi River Commission," to make an exhaustive study of the
-whole subject and submit plans for the improvement of the river and to
-prevent the destructive floods that are of almost annual occurrence. Or
-in the language of the act: "It shall be the duty of said Commission to
-take into consideration and mature such plan or plans, and estimates,
-as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect
-the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to
-the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and
-facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service."</p>
-
-<p>Large sums of money had already been expended by the general government
-in local improvements, but no consistent plan had been developed that
-would be an acceptable guide in conducting operations along the whole
-river, when this act went into effect. It is not necessary to refer
-here to the various systems that were presented to the Commission for
-consideration; nor to enter upon the details of the plan finally
-adopted; our record being more the effects and primary causes, than the
-intermediary processes through which the results have been produced.
-The general plan followed by the Commission has been the construction
-of works in the bed of the river, to form new banks where a contraction
-of the river bed has been deemed necessary; and the erection of levees,
-with grading, revetment, and other protection of the banks, in
-localities where the natural banks seem particularly liable to give way
-under the pressure of a great flood. The object of such works being to
-control the river by confining the low water channels in fixed lines,
-causing the recurrence of the scour in low water stages in the same
-channel in successive low waters; and preventing the diversion of the
-stream into new channels during high water stages by overflow of the
-banks. A diversion of the stream would leave the works in the bed of
-the river below of no greater value than as monuments to the energy and
-skill displayed in the details of their construction, and preclude the
-ultimate benefit that may be derived from these works in permanently
-lowering the bed of the river. The probability of such diversion of the
-water, however, seems to have been reduced to a minimum, through the
-conservative action of the Commission in coöperating with the States
-having jurisdiction over the alluvial bottoms, in reorganizing their
-levee systems and thus securing the greatest control over the volume of
-water brought down in the flood seasons, that is possible by the
-construction of well planned and substantially built levees. It having
-been demonstrated that the levees subserve a double purpose, that they
-are essential in the general plan to improve the navigation of the
-river adopted by the Commission, and are likewise needed to render the
-bottom lands habitable, it is not surprising that we find the State
-authorities and the Commission jointly engaged in their construction.</p>
-
-<p>It has thus been brought about that the effort to improve the
-navigation of the river for the general welfare, has resulted in such
-great changes in the geography of the locality, that a large district
-has been reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The alluvial valley of
-the Mississippi river has an area of thirty thousand square miles, and
-is naturally divided into four great basins that have been designated
-the St. Francis, Yazoo, Tensas and Atchafalaya. Two of these basins are
-now fairly protected from the overflows of the Mississippi, by the
-levees that have been constructed, or repaired, incidental to the work
-of the Commission, viz: the Yazoo basin extending from below Memphis to
-the mouth of the Yazoo river; and the Tensas basin from the high land
-south of the Arkansas river to the mouth of the Red river; and the
-Atchafalaya basin, from the Red river to the gulf, has been protected
-on the Mississippi fronts. These three basins have an aggregate area of
-nearly twenty thousand square miles that is now reasonably secure from
-inundation. Measures have also been instituted by the State authorities
-looking to the reclamation of the St. Francis basin; and the work is
-half accomplished on the White river section.</p>
-
-<p>Nearly the whole of this valley was under protection thirty years ago,
-but the disasters of the late civil war, and subsequent inability of
-the people to repair the damaged levees, resulted in the practical
-abandonment of many sections, and it was not until about ten or twelve
-years ago that the protective works again presented an appearance of
-continuity. The supposed security, however, was of short duration, as
-the great floods of 1882 overtopped the works in more than one hundred
-and forty places, causing such widespread destruction that cultivation
-of the soil was rendered impossible over large districts. The floods of
-succeeding years but added to the misfortunes of the valley, and land
-values became so depreciated that sales were impracticable, taxes could
-not be collected, and there was a general feeling that square miles of
-fertile land must be given over to the destructive agencies of the
-great river that had made it.</p>
-
-<p>It was while suffering under this distressing situation that the work
-of the Mississippi River Commission was brought forward as a possible
-means of salvation. With a recuperative power that seems almost
-marvelous, the people have contributed of their labor and their means,
-until now this great area of nearly twenty thousand square miles has
-been once more reclaimed, and seems to have entered upon an era of
-prosperity that will eclipse the prophecies of even the most sanguine.
-It is believed that the levees that have now been constructed will
-prove reasonably secure. They have been built for a double purpose; and
-the proportion of the expense incurred by the general government, about
-one-third, under the direction of the Commission, has insured a
-supervision and inspection by competent engineers such as was not
-exercised in the earlier history of such works on the river.</p>
-
-<p>We cannot foretell the developments that will follow the improvement of
-this water way and the reclamation of the alluvial bottoms on an
-enduring basis. That the works erected by the Commission will maintain
-an increased depth of water at the low stages of the river, seems to be
-demonstrated, as during the low water of November last a depth of nine
-feet was found on the Lake Providence and Plum Point bars, an increase
-of thirty-three and forty-four per cent. respectively. When the depths
-on the other bars have been increased in like proportion the free
-navigation of the river will be assured, and we may point to the result
-as one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times.</p>
-
-<p>The increased value of the land adjacent to the river redeemed from
-waste, more than doubled on the average, and in many instances
-quadrupled; the replenishing of the state and county treasuries by the
-collection of taxes on land that was before unremunerative; and the
-building of railroads through sections where it had been impracticable
-to maintain them before in consequence of their liability to
-destruction by the periodic floods; are marked evidences of the
-material prosperity that has already followed the great work. During
-the last four years, forty thousand settlers have taken up lands in the
-Yazoo basin alone, and it was estimated that in the fall of 1889 twenty
-thousand more would seek homes in the same district. These settlers
-have been mostly negroes from the worn out high lands to the eastward.
-If the change in their environment proves beneficial to the individual
-we may expect an increased migration, that may in turn be an aid in
-solving the political problem involved in the citizenship of the negro.</p>
-
-<p>The settlement of these bottom lands will also influence the prosperity
-of many commercial centers, as trade statistics indicate the general
-abandonment of the plantations that followed the great floods of 1882,
-caused a marked diminution in the shipments by the lower river, as well
-as in the receipts from that section; and that the partial reclamation
-of the lands and restoration of agricultural pursuits has already
-influenced the receipt and distribution of commercial products.</p>
-
-<p>The project to reclaim by irrigation large districts of the arid region
-of the west, if successfully accomplished, may also exert an influence
-in the political and commercial relations of the future that cannot now
-be foretold. Two-fifths of the territory of the United States has been
-classed as arid; not in the sense that there is no water, for the
-greatest rivers on the continent have their sources almost in the midst
-of the region; but rather that the water is not available for enriching
-the ground. The rainfall is generally not in the season when the crops
-would require it, or is too small and uncertain for the husbandman to
-depend upon it. The whole region is not of this character; many
-districts are susceptible of the highest cultivation as nature has left
-them, and others have been redeemed by the application of the water
-supply through the simpler devices customary in irrigated countries;
-until now nearly all the districts have been occupied that are
-susceptible of agricultural pursuits, either in the natural state or by
-irrigation, unless water is secured by means generally beyond the reach
-of the individual or combination of individuals who may use it. And
-yet, it is believed there are millions of acres of rich land that may
-be redeemed and converted to the support of a large population, by the
-application of capital in the construction of works of irrigation. The
-progress of the surveys of the region, therefore, that have been
-instituted by the general government, are watched with absorbing
-interest. The districts susceptible of such extensive improvement are
-only approximately known, and as it is only through these surveys their
-availability will be made manifest, the importance of the work can
-hardly be overestimated. The prosperity of several states will be
-largely influenced by the success of operations of this kind within
-their borders, and in turn their greater development and increased
-wealth, must react upon the older communities and benefit them, on the
-principle that the healthful growth of a single member is strength to
-all.</p>
-
-<p>The science of geography, as taught in the present day, is more
-comprehensive than the brief descriptions and delineations of the areas
-of land and water that satisfied the early explorers. The great strides
-that have been made in scientific research during the past century have
-opened new fields, and men are no longer content to picture that only
-which they can see. The varied features of the earth's surface,
-transformations now in progress and those which may be deduced from the
-facts we can observe, have led to many theories of the construction of
-the earth, ancient forms upon the surface and possibilities, if not
-probabilities, in the future. To ascertain the form of the earth has
-alone been the cause of heroic labor, and yet we have hardly passed the
-point that we can give it in probable terms with the general
-dimensions. Observations warrant the assumption that, discarding the
-accidents of nature&mdash;even the highest mountains&mdash;the sphere is far from
-being perfect. That it is flattened at the poles is now accepted as the
-true condition, but we have reason to believe, too, that this is not
-the only departure from the perfect sphere. The more thorough the
-research and precise the observations, the more certain does it appear
-that the crust has a form as though there had been great waves of
-matter that had been solidified. To locate the depressions of these
-great waves and measure their depths, to point to the crests and
-measure their extent, is a problem for the future to solve. Their study
-is claimed to be within the legitimate sphere of geography; and not
-until they have been satisfactorily answered can we assert the
-geographer is even approaching the end of the facts his science has yet
-to utilize.</p>
-
-<p>In pre-historic geography we have had two papers presented to the
-Society during the past year, relating to the orographic features of
-the earth's surface in times past compared with the localities as we
-may see them to-day. In the first instance the comparison is evolved
-from an effort to trace the origin and growth of the rivers of
-Pennsylvania; and the second, in a description of the famed district
-around Asheville, North Carolina. These have a substantial interest to
-us, treating as they do of localities so well known; and they
-illustrate, too, the resources of induction in bringing to our view the
-probable wonders of ancient geographic forms.</p>
-
-<p>The constitution of the interior of the earth is a subject of great
-interest in the science of geography, as many of the visible forms upon
-the crust have been wrought by the power of the agencies within it. The
-discussion has been warm in the past, and doubtless will be resumed
-with unabated interest as we find new phenomena for the argument. The
-apparent lull that has followed the promulgation of the theory, three
-years ago, that under the crust we should find a fluid, or semi-fluid,
-surrounding a solid nucleus, may not be of long duration. This
-hypothesis probably comes nearer to satisfying the conditions imposed
-by the physicist and geologist, than those which have preceded it, and
-may be accepted for the present; unless the processes of nature by
-which it is conceived this state of the interior of the earth has been
-produced, shall be demonstrated to have continued for sufficient time
-to have caused a condition of equilibrium and possible solidification
-of the whole sphere; when we might expect it to be repudiated by those
-who oppose the theory of isostacy, but commended by the physicists as
-supporting their claim that the earth must be substantially a solid
-even now. If we accept Mr. Frederick Wright's suggestion, isostacy may
-have an important bearing on the cause of the ice sheets that covered
-such great areas; a suggestion that opens to the vision of the
-imagination an orography beside which the grandest landscape we may see
-to-day would pale into insignificance. This is believed to be a new
-application of the isostatic theory, and may be a possible solution of
-a much vexed question when an initial cause for such great upheavals
-can be advanced that will not be inconsistent with other accepted
-conditions.</p>
-
-<p>Theories are modified by new facts, and in any attempt to demonstrate
-the constitution of the interior of the earth, the increase of
-temperature with the depth is an important factor. The recent measures,
-therefore, in Germany, that indicate the figures generally accepted are
-not reliable, may be received with interest. The shaft was sunk
-especially for the purpose of observing temperatures at different
-depths, and every precaution that former experience had suggested seems
-to have been taken to secure accuracy. The greatest depth reached was
-about one mile. An elaborate discussion of the results fixes the
-increase of temperature at 1° F. for each 65 ft. increase of depth.
-This is about 15 ft. greater than the figures that have heretofore been
-given; a difference so large that we may question if they will be
-generally accepted until verified by further observations made with
-equally great care.</p>
-
-<p>In conclusion permit me to note the fact that the United States was for
-the first time represented in the International Geodetic Association,
-at the meeting recently held in Paris; and also to record the
-successful conclusion of the fourth International Geographical Congress
-that assembled in Paris in August last. The reports from the Congress
-indicate a wide range of subjects discussed, and lead us to believe the
-interest in our science is progressive, and must receive the hearty
-appreciation of all who are inspired by the nobler instincts to
-develope the great sphere on which we live; that the riches, the
-beauties, and above all the grandeur of Nature, may be made manifest to
-ourselves and for our posterity.</p>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap3"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>REPORT&mdash;GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR.</h3>
-
-<center>B<small>Y</small> G<small>EN</small>. A. W. G<small>REELY</small>.</center>
-<br>
-
-<p>It is with a feeling of increased responsibility, shared doubtless by
-the Presidents of other sections, that the Vice-President of the
-Geography of the Air brings before you his modest annual contribution
-in one branch of geographical science.</p>
-
-<p>We live in an age so imbued with earnest thought, and so characterized
-by patient investigation, that an eager gleaner in scientific fields
-finds at the very outset his mind filled with the garnered grain of
-golden facts. The more cautious searcher often follows with uncertain
-mind, and doubtless in his backward glances sees many fairer and
-heavier sheaves than those he bears with full arms, from the fruitful
-harvest. If, then, you do not find here dwelt on such geographical
-phases as you judge most important, attribute the fact I pray you, not
-to neglect, but to lack of observation, or to the exercise of an
-undiscriminating judgment.</p>
-
-<p>First let us turn to the higher class of investigations, wherein that
-handmaid of science, a true and noble imagination, comes to supplement
-exact knowledge, to round out and give full form and perfect outline,
-either shaping a number of disjointed and apparently heterogeneous
-facts into a harmonious series, or evolving from a mass of confusing
-and seemingly inexplicable phenomena a theory or law consistent
-therewith.</p>
-
-<p>In this domain Professor Ferrel's book on Winds is probably the most
-important theoretical meteorological discussion of the past year. It
-owes its value to the fact that it puts into comparatively simple and
-popular form the processes and results of his intricate mathematical
-investigations of the motions of the air, published by him years since,
-and later elaborated during his service with the Signal Office.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with the subject of winds, Professor William M. Davis has
-formulated an excellent classification, depending first, on the
-ultimate source of the energy causing the motion; second, on
-temperature contrasts which produce and maintain winds; and third, on
-their periodicity and the time of the first appearance of the motion.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Russell, appropriately it seems to me, remarks regarding the
-landslide winds, that avalanche would be a better term than landslide
-as applied to winds associated with fallen masses of earth or snow.</p>
-
-<p>With the enormous amounts of accumulated tabulated matter, and numerous
-studies bearing on isolated meteorological phenomena, it is a specially
-important consideration that some students pay constant attention to
-the investigations of the laws of storms. From such researches definite
-advances in theoretical meteorology may be made and fixed laws
-determined, which may be of practical utility with reference to the
-better forecasting of the weather. In the United States Signal Office,
-Professor Abbe has brought together the results of his studies and
-investigations for the past thirty years, under the title, "Preparatory
-studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions." This
-report will appear as an appendix to the annual report of the Chief
-Signal Officer of the army. Professor Abbe finds that the source and
-maintaining power of storms depend on the absorption by clouds of solar
-heat, and in the liberation of heat in the cloud during the subsequent
-precipitation, which, as he endeavors to show, principally influences
-the movement of the storm-centre.</p>
-
-<p>In this method one takes a chart showing current meteorological
-conditions, and the permanent orographic features of the continent;
-lines of equal density are also drawn for planes at several elevations
-above sea-level. On these latter, and on the lines of the orographic
-resistance, are based intermediate lines of flow, which show where
-conditions are favorable to cooling and condensation. The amount of
-condensation and its character, whether rain or snow, are estimated by
-the help of the graphic diagram. Numbers are thus furnished that can be
-entered on the chart and show at once the character of the new centre
-of buoyancy, or the directions and velocity of progress of the centre
-of the indraft and the consequent low barometer.</p>
-
-<p>It is hoped that this work of Professor Abbe's may be, as he
-anticipates, of great practical as well as theoretical value. Steps are
-being taken to test the theoretical scheme by practical and exhaustive
-applications to current work.</p>
-
-<p>Tiesserenc de Bort has continued his work, of improving weather
-forecasts for France, by studying the distribution of the great and
-important centres of high pressures, which prevail generally over the
-middle Atlantic ocean, and, at certain periods of the year, over Asia,
-Europe, and North America. His studies have proceeded on the theory
-that the displacements of centres of high pressure, whether in Asia,
-over the Azores, near Bermuda, in North America, or in the Polar
-regions, set up a series of secondary displacements, which necessarily
-cause storm centres to follow certain routes. M. de Bort concludes that
-a daily knowledge of the relation of these centres and their areas of
-displacement will eventually enable skilled meteorologists to deduce
-the position of unknown and secondary centres. He has endeavored to
-reduce these various displacements to a series of types and has made
-very considerable progress in this classification. Daily charts
-covering many years of observations have been prepared, and these
-separated, whenever the characteristics are sufficiently pronounced,
-into corresponding types. This plan of forecasting necessitates
-extended meteorological information daily, which France obtains not
-only from Russia, Algeria, Italy and Great Britain, but, through the
-coöperation of United States, from North America. The daily information
-sent by the Signal Office shows, in addition to the general weather
-over the United States and Canada, the conditions on the western half
-of the North Atlantic ocean, as determined by observations made on the
-great steamships, and furnished voluntarily by their officers to the
-Signal Office through the Hydrographic Office and the New York Herald
-weather bureau.</p>
-
-<p>The study of thunder storms has received very elaborate and extensive
-consideration. M. Ciro Ferari in Italy finds that almost invariably the
-storms come from directions between north and northwest, the tendency
-in northern Italy being directly from the west, and in the more
-southern sections from the northwest. The velocities of storm movements
-are much greater from the west than from the east, considerably more so
-in the centre and south of Italy than in the north; and in the months,
-largest in July.</p>
-
-<p>The velocity of propagation increases with greater velocities of the
-winds accompanying the storms, with also greater attendant electrical
-intensity. The front line of propagation while more often curved, is
-sometimes straight and sometimes zigzag, and appears to undergo a
-series of successive transformations, more or less affected by the
-topographical nature of the country passed over.</p>
-
-<p>Ferari thinks their principal cause is to be found in high temperatures
-coincident with high vapor pressures. Thunder storms, he considers, are
-essentially local phenomena, superposed on the general atmospheric
-phenomena. A principal general cause of thunder storms in Italy is the
-existence of a deep depression in northwest Europe, with a secondary
-depression in Italy dependent on the first. This secondary feeble area
-remains for several days over upper Italy, and nearly always is
-followed by thunder storms. Minimum relative humidity precedes, and
-maximum follows a storm, while the vapor pressure conditions are
-exactly reversed. Ferari notes, as one matter of interest, the passage
-of fully developed thunder storms from France into Italy over mountains
-4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in elevation.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Meyer, at Gottingen, has investigated the annual periodicity of
-thunder storms, while Carl Prohaska has made a statistical study of
-similar storms in the German and Austrian Alps. The latter writer
-thinks they are most likely to occur when the barometer is beginning to
-rise after a fall, thus resembling heavy down-pours of rain.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with Schmucher's theory on the origin of thunder storm
-electricity, Dr. Less has been able to satisfactorily answer in the
-affirmative an important point in the theory, as to whether the
-vertical decrement of temperature is especially rapid. Less finds
-evidences of very rapid decrement of temperature during thunder storms,
-as shown by the examination of records of 120 stations for ten years.</p>
-
-<p>Mohn and Hildebrandsson have also published a work on the thunder
-storms of the Scandinavian peninsula. The rise in the barometer at the
-beginning of rain, they agree with Mascart in attributing largely to
-the formation of vapor and the evaporation of moisture from rain
-falling through relatively dry air.</p>
-
-<p>A. Croffins has discussed thunder storms at Hamberg from observations
-for ten years. He believes that all such storms are due to the
-mechanical interaction of at least two barometric depressions.</p>
-
-<p>As a matter of interest bearing on the much discussed phenomena of
-globular lightning, an incident is recounted by F. Roth, where a man
-feeding a horse was struck by lightning and lost consciousness. The man
-states that he felt no shock, but was suddenly enveloped in light and
-that a ball of fire the size of his fist, traveled along the horse's
-neck. This points to the fact that "ball" lightning is probably a
-physiological phenomenon.</p>
-
-<p>In view of the recent extended interest in the question as to whether
-the climate of the United States is permanently changing, it should be
-remarked that this question has lately been under consideration with
-regard to Europe. Messrs. Ferrel, Richter, Lang, Bruchen and others
-conclude, from an examination of all available data, that there is no
-permanent climatic change in Europe. In connection with this discussion
-in Europe, long series of vintage records, going back to the year 1400,
-have been used. Apart from the ocean borders, extensive simultaneous
-climatic changes occur over extended areas, which changes&mdash;as might be
-expected&mdash;are more accentuated in the interior of the continents. These
-changes involve barometric pressure, rainfall and temperature, which
-all recur to that indefinite and complex phenomenon&mdash;the variation in
-the amount of heat received by the earth. The idea is advanced that
-these oscillations have somewhat the semblance of cycles, the period of
-which is thirty-six years. It may easily be questioned, however, in
-view of the fragmentary and heterogeneous character of the data on
-which this assumption is based, whether the error in the observations
-is not greater than the range of variation. Blanford, in one of his
-discussions, has pointed out that the temperature or rainfall data in
-India can be so arranged as to give a cycle with a period of almost any
-number of years, but, unfortunately, the possible error of observation
-is greater in value than the variations.</p>
-
-<p>As to the United States, it is pertinent to remark that the Signal
-Office is in possession of temperature observations in Philadelphia,
-covering a continuous period of one hundred and thirty-two years. The
-mean annual temperature for the past ten years is exactly the same as
-for the entire period.</p>
-
-<p>There have been criticisms in years past that the climatological
-conditions of the United States have not received that care and
-attention which their importance demanded. Much has been done to remedy
-defects in this respect, although, as is well known here in Washington,
-the general law which forbids the printing of any works without the
-direct authority of Congress, has been an obvious bar to great activity
-on the part of the Signal Office. Within the year the rainfall
-conditions of twelve Western States and Territories have been published
-with elaborate tables of data and fifteen large charts, which set forth
-in considerable detail the rainfall conditions for that section of the
-country. In addition the climatic characteristics of Oregon and
-Washington have been graphically represented; and rainfall
-maps,&mdash;unfortunately on a small scale,&mdash;have been prepared, showing for
-each month, the average precipitation of the entire United States, as
-determined from observations covering periods varying from fifteen to
-eighteen years.</p>
-
-<p>In Missouri, Professor Nipher has prepared normal rainfall charts for
-that State, unfortunately on rather a small scale. In New York,
-Professor Fuertes, and in Michigan, Sergeant Conger, of the Signal
-Service, have commenced maps showing, by months, the normal
-temperatures of their respective States on maps of fairly open scale.
-Work of a similar character has been carried on in Pennsylvania under
-the supervision of Professor Blodget, well known from his
-climatological work. In other directions and in other ways, work of a
-similar character is in progress.</p>
-
-<p>Without doubt too much is anticipated from pending or projected
-irrigation enterprises in the very arid regions of the West. These
-unwarranted expectations must in part result from a failure on the part
-of the investors to consider the general question of these enterprises,
-in its varied aspects, with that scientific exactness so essential in
-dealing theoretically with extended subjects of such great importance.</p>
-
-<p>Everyone admits the correctness of the statement that the amount of
-water which flows through drainage channels to the sea, cannot exceed
-the amount which has evaporated from adjacent oceans and fallen as
-precipitation on the land. Further it is not to be denied that the
-quantity of water available in any way for irrigation must be only a
-very moderate percentage of the total rainfall which occurs at
-elevations <i>above</i>, and perhaps it may be stated <i>considerably above</i>,
-that of the land to be benefited.</p>
-
-<p>Elsewhere it might be appropriate to dwell in detail upon the
-importance of cultivated land in serving as a reservoir which parts
-slowly with the water fallen upon or diverted to it, and in avoiding
-the quick and wasteful drainage which obtains in sections devoid of
-extensive vegetation or cultivation; and also that water thus taken up
-by cultivated lands must later evaporate and may again fall as rain on
-other land. But the pertinence of meteorological investigations in
-connection with irrigation and this annual address, relates much more
-directly to important questions of the manner by, and extent to which,
-precipitation over the catchment basins of the great central valleys
-fails to return in direct and visible form, through the water courses,
-to the Gulf of Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>The inter-relation of rainfall and river outflows is one of peculiar
-interest, in connection with the important matter of irrigation now
-under consideration in this country.</p>
-
-<p>Probably more attention has been paid to this subject in the valley of
-the Seine, by Belgrand and Chateaublanc, than in any other portion of
-the globe. One of the curious outcomes of Chateaublanc's observations,
-is one bearing on the maximum value of the floods in the Seine for the
-cold season, from October to May, by which he says that the reading of
-the river gauge at Port Royal is equal to 12.7 minus the number of
-decimetres of rainfall which has fallen on an average throughout the
-catchment basin during the preceding year. This curiously shows that
-the intensity of the winter floods of the Seine is inversely
-proportional to the quantity of rain of the <i>preceding</i> year.</p>
-
-<p>Sometime since, John Murray, Esq., in the Scottish Geographic Magazine,
-treated generally the question of rainfall and river outflows. The
-annual rainfall of the globe was estimated to be 29,350 cubic miles, of
-which 2,343, falling on inland drainage areas, such as the Sahara
-desert, etc., evaporate. The total annual discharge of rivers was
-estimated at 7,270 cubic miles. In the case of European drainage areas
-between a third and a fourth of the rainfall reaches the sea through
-the rivers. The Nile delivers only one thirty-seventh of the rainfall
-of its catchment basin, while tropical rivers in general deliver
-one-fifth.</p>
-
-<p>The Saale river of Germany, from late data based on 45 rainfall
-stations in its catchment basin, during the years 1883 to 1886,
-discharged 30 per cent. of its rainfall.</p>
-
-<p>During the past year Professor Russell, of the Signal Office, has
-determined carefully the rainfall and river outflow over the most
-important part of the United States, the entire catchment basin of the
-Mississippi river and its tributaries. This work was done as
-preliminary to formulating rules for forecasting the stage of the water
-several days in advance on the more important of the western rivers in
-the United States. The river outflows at various places on the
-Mississippi and Missouri and Ohio rivers, were tabulated from data
-given in the reports of the Mississippi and Missouri River Commissions.
-The tables were largely derived from the results of the measurement of
-current velocities. As gauge readings were taken at the time of
-discharge or outflow measurements, the discharges or outflows can be
-told approximately at other times when only the river gauge readings
-are known. The results for the outflow of rivers derived from
-measurements made under the supervision of these commissions, are of a
-high order of accuracy, and it is not probable that the results deduced
-from the gauge readings are much in error. Of 1881 and 1882, during
-which years measurements were made, 1881 was a year of great flood in
-the Missouri river, while the Mississippi river was not flooded. The
-year 1882, on the other hand, was marked by a great flood in the lower
-Mississippi river, with a stage in the Missouri much above the average.
-The rainfall in the six great valleys of the Mississippi, during the
-entire years 1881 and 1882, was charted from all observations
-available, and its amount in cubic miles of water calculated with the
-aid of a planimeter.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with this investigation, and as a matter of value in
-showing the forces which are in operation to affect the river outflow,
-the fictitious or possible evaporation of the six great valleys
-referred to were calculated, in cubic miles of water, from July, 1887,
-to July, 1888, and also the average amounts of water in the air as
-vapor, and the amount required to saturate the air in the same valleys
-during the same period.</p>
-
-<p>During the year 1882, the year of great flood in the lower Mississippi
-valley, the outflow at Red River Landing, La., was 202.7 cubic miles,
-of which the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis furnished 16 per
-cent., the Ohio 43, and the whole Missouri above Omaha, 4 per cent. The
-upper Missouri valley (that is, from the mouth of the Yellowstone up to
-the sources), and the middle Missouri valley (from the mouth of the
-Platte to the Yellowstone), each furnished only about 2 per cent. of
-the entire amount of the water which passed Red River Landing. The
-lower Mississippi valley, including the Arkansas, etc., furnished 32
-per cent.</p>
-
-<p>During March, April and May, 1882, the time of highest stage of the
-water of the lower Mississippi, the outflow at Red River Landing and
-through the Atchafalaya measured 82.7 cubic miles. During this time
-there flowed through the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis, 14
-per cent. of the amount; through the Ohio, 38 per cent., and through
-the Missouri 6 per cent.; while the rivers of the lower Mississippi
-valley contributed 41 percent. The water that passed Omaha was 1.92
-cubic miles, or 2 per cent. of the flow of the whole Mississippi during
-the same time. The water which flowed from the upper and middle
-Missouri valleys during March, April and May, 1882, was for each
-valley, probably only 1 per cent. of the water that flowed through the
-lower Mississippi river. The flood of the lower Mississippi was
-undoubtedly due to the great discharge of the Ohio, supplemented by
-heavy river inflow below the mouth of the Ohio, and the unusually heavy
-rainfall in the lower Mississippi valley.</p>
-
-<p>The ratios of river outflow to rainfall over the catchment basins, as
-derived by Professor Russell from the two years' observations, 1881 and
-1882, were as follows:</p>
-
-<blockquote>Upper and Middle Missouri valleys, about 335,000 square miles, 13 per
-cent.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>Lower Missouri valley, about 210,000 square miles, 12 per cent.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>Entire Missouri valley, about 545,000 square miles, nearly 13 per cent.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>The upper Mississippi valley, about 172,000 square miles, 33 per cent.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>Ohio valley, about 212,000 square miles, 40 per cent.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>Lower Mississippi valley, about 343,000 square miles, about 27 per
-cent.</blockquote>
-
-<p>The above percentages, while showing the averages for two entire years,
-and so of decided value, are not to be depended upon for special years
-or months. For instance: in the Ohio valley in 1881, the outflow was 33
-per cent., while in 1882 it was 50 per cent., and as the rainfall in
-1882 was 180 cubic miles against 151 cubic miles in 1881, it appears
-evident that a much greater proportional quantity of water reaches the
-rivers during seasons of heavy rainfalls than when the precipitation is
-moderate or scanty.</p>
-
-<p>Evaporation is also a very potent cause in diminishing river outflow,
-and as this depends largely on the temperature of the air and the
-velocity of the wind, any marked deviation of these meteorological
-elements from the normal, must exercise an important influence on the
-ratio of outflow to rainfall.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with Professor Russell's work it is desirable to note
-that Professor F. E. Nipher has lately made a report on the Missouri
-rainfall based on observations for the ten years ending December, 1887,
-in which he points out as an interesting coincidence that the average
-annual discharge of the Missouri river closely corresponds in amount to
-the rainfall which falls over the State of Missouri. From Professor
-Nipher's figures it appears that the discharge of the Missouri river in
-the ten years ending 1887, was greatest in 1881 and next greatest in
-1882, so that the averages deduced from Professor Russell's report of
-the outflow of the Missouri are too large, and should be somewhat
-reduced to conform to the average conditions. In different years the
-average of the discharge in the outflow of the Missouri varies largely,
-as is evidenced by the fact reported by Professor Nipher, that the
-discharge in 1879 was only 56 per cent. of the outflow in 1881.</p>
-
-<p>In New South Wales, under the supervision of H. C. Russell, Esq.,
-government astronomer, the question of rainfall and river discharge has
-also received careful attention, especially in connection with
-evaporation. The observations at Lake George are important, owing to
-the shallowness of the lake (particularly at the margin); its
-considerable surface area (eighty square miles), its moderate elevation
-(2,200 feet), and the fact that it is quite surrounded by high lands.
-Observations of the fluctuations of this lake have been made from 1885
-to 1888, inclusive. In the latter year the evaporation was enormous,
-being 47.7 inches against a rainfall of 23.9 and an in-drainage of 5.3
-inches, so that the total loss in depth was 18.5 inches for the year.
-It appears that the evaporation in different years on this lake varies
-as much as 50 per centum of the minimum amount. According to Russell
-the amount of evaporation depends largely on the state of the soil,
-going on much faster from a wet surface of the ground than from water;
-with dry ground the conditions are reversed. In 1887, the outflow from
-the basin of Lake George, the drainage from which is not subject to
-loss by long river channels, was only 3.12 per centum of the rainfall.</p>
-
-<p>In the Darling river, above Bourke, says Russell, the rainfall is
-measured by 219 gauges. The average river discharge, deduced from
-observations covering seven years, is only 1.45 per centum of the
-rainfall, and in the wettest year known the discharge amounted only to
-2.33 per centum of the rainfall, and has been as low as 0.09 per centum
-in a very dry year. In the Murray basin the average discharge relative
-to the rainfall is estimated to be about 27 per centum from a record of
-seven years, and has risen as high as 36 per centum in a flood year.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with the regimen of rivers, it appears a proper occasion
-to again refute the popular opinion that the spring and summer floods
-of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys result from the melting of the
-winter snows. This is an erroneous impression which I have combatted
-since 1873, when my duties required a study of the floods of the entire
-Mississippi catchment basin. It is only within the last two years,
-however, that the meteorological data has been in such condition that
-the opinion put forth by me could be verified, namely: that the floods
-of the late spring and early summer owe their origin almost entirely to
-the heavy rains immediately before and during the flood period.
-Occasionally a very heavy fall of snow precedes extended general rains;
-but in this case the snow is lately fallen and is not the winter
-precipitation.</p>
-
-<p>Referring to the Missouri valley, the section of the country where the
-winter snowfall has been thought to exercise a dominating influence in
-floods, it has elsewhere been shown by me that about one-third of the
-annual precipitation falls over that valley during the months of May
-and June. In either of the months named the average precipitation over
-the Missouri valley is greater than the entire average precipitation
-for the winter months of December, January and February.</p>
-
-<p>Woiekoff thinks that the anomalies of temperatures shown in forest
-regions, particularly in Brazil&mdash;with its abnormally low temperatures,
-are due to heavy forests promoting evaporation, and by causing the
-prevalence of accompanying fogs thus prevent more intense insolation.
-He considers this an argument for the maintenance of forests to sustain
-humidity and distribute rain over adjacent cultivated land, as well as
-to maintain the fertility of the soil, which diminishes rapidly by
-washing away of the soil after deforestation.</p>
-
-<p>W. Koppen has devised a formula for deriving the true daily temperature
-from 8 <small>A.M.</small>, 2 <small>P.M.</small> and 8 <small>P.M.</small> observations in connection with the
-minimum temperature, in which the minimum has a variable weight
-dependent on place and month. The results of Koppen's formula tested on
-six stations in widely different latitudes, indicate that it is of
-value.</p>
-
-<p>Paulsen's discussion of the warm winter winds of Greenland is
-interesting. These unusual storm conditions last three or four days, or
-even longer, the temperature being at times from 35° to 40° Fahr. above
-the normal, and they appear principally with winds from northeast to
-southeast, which Hoffmeyer believes to be <i>foehn</i> winds. Paulsen
-contends that the extensive region over which these winds occur make
-the <i>foehn</i> theory untenable, and that a more reasonable explanation of
-these winds is to be found in the course of low areas passing along the
-coast or over Greenland. This appears evident from the fact that not
-the easterly winds only but the southerly winds share this high
-temperature, and that as low areas approach from the west, at first the
-regions of the Greenland coast within its influence have south to
-southwest winds.</p>
-
-<p>The question of wind pressures and wind velocities is a most important
-one in these days of great engineering problems, particularly in
-connection with the stability of bridges and other large structures.</p>
-
-<p>Experimental determination of the constants of anemometric formulæ have
-recently been made both in England and this country. From results
-obtained in the English experiments it was concluded that the very
-widely used Robinson anemometer is not as satisfactory and reliable an
-instrument as a different form of anemometer devised by Mr. Dines.
-These conclusions, however, are not sustained by the American
-experiments, which were made by Professor C. F. Marvin, Signal Office,
-by means of a whirling apparatus, and under the most favorable
-circumstances, which yielded highly satisfactory results. Professor
-Marvin has lately made very careful open air comparisons of anemometers
-previously tested on the whirling machine, which have shown that, owing
-in part to the irregular and gusty character of the wind movement in
-the open air, taken in connection with the effects arising from the
-moment of inertia of the cups, and the length of the arms of the
-anemometer, the constants determined by whirling machine methods need
-slight corrections and alterations to conform to the altered conditions
-of exposure of the instruments in the open air. This latter problem is
-now being experimentally studied at the Signal Office, and final
-results will soon be worked out.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Langley has also made very elaborate observations of
-pressures on plane and other surfaces inclined to the normal, which it
-is believed will prove important contributions to this question, but
-the results have not yet been published. It is important in this
-connection to note experiments made by Cooper on the Frith of Forth
-Bridge, where a surface of 24 square metres, during a high wind,
-experienced a maximum pressure of 132 kilogrammes per square metre,
-while a surface of 14 square decimeters showed, under similar
-conditions, 200 kilogrammes per square metre, by one instrument, and
-170 by another. The opinion expressed by Cooper that in general the
-more surface exposed to the wind, the less the pressure per unit of
-surface, seems reasonable, and if verified by more elaborate
-experiments must have an important bearing.</p>
-
-<p>There are questions in connection with which even negative results are
-of an important character, particularly when such results are quite
-definite, and tend to remove one of many unknown elements from physical
-problems of an intricate character. In this class may be placed
-atmospheric electricity, with particular reference to its value in
-connection with the forecast of coming weather. The Signal Office,
-through Professor T. C. Mendenhall, a distinguished scientist
-peculiarly fitted for work of this character, has been able to carry
-out a series of observations, which have received from him careful
-attention, both as to the conditions under which the observations were
-made and in the elaboration of methods to be followed.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Mendenhall also supervised the reduction of these
-observations, and after careful study presented a full report of the
-work to the National Academy of Sciences, in whose proceedings this
-detailed report will appear. Professor Mendenhall says, "Taking all the
-facts into consideration, it seems to be proved that the electrical
-phenomena of the atmosphere are generally local in their character.
-They do not promise, therefore, to be useful in weather forecasts,
-although a close distribution of a large number of observers over a
-comparatively small area would be useful in removing any doubt which
-may still exist as to this question." It may be added that Professor
-Mendenhall's conclusions bear out the opinions expressed to the
-speaker, in a discussion of this question, by Professor Mascart, the
-distinguished physicist.</p>
-
-<p>It has been generally admitted that the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere
-plays a most important part in bringing about the formation of storms
-and maintaining their energy. It has been frequently commented on by
-the forecast officials of the Signal Service, that storms passing over
-the United States were in general preceded by an increase in moisture,
-but unfortunately little effort had been made on the part of previous
-investigators to determine any quantitative relation between the actual
-humidity and the amount of precipitation or its relation to the storm
-movement. It has long been regretted that the direct relations of this
-to other meteorological phenomena were not more fully defined. During
-the past year Captain James Allen, of the Signal Office, has endeavored
-to apply the results of his investigations and theories to the
-practical forecasts of storm conditions. Captain Allen has carefully
-studied the relations of the potential energy of the surface air, as
-represented by the total quantity of heat it contained, to the movement
-of storm centres and the extent of accompanying rain areas. In his
-first investigations the potential energy per cubic foot was estimated
-as follows: Supposing the air to have been originally 32° and the
-moisture in it as water at 32°, the total quantity of heat applied to
-reduce to the state of observation will be A = (<i>t</i>-32)/6 + Q in which
-A is total heat per unit volume; <i>t</i> is the temperature of the air, Q
-the total heat of vapor, and the specific heat of air at constant
-volume being taken as one-sixth (.168). From Regnault's formula we have
-Q = 1091.7 + .305(<i>t</i>-32).</p>
-
-<p>For the mechanical equivalent we have J = 772A. If we divide J by the
-pressure estimated in pounds per square foot, it will give the height
-through which the pressure can be lifted if all the heat is spent in
-work by expanding the air.</p>
-
-<p>An approximate expression for the upward velocity V may be obtained
-from Torrecelli's theorem from which we have V<small><sup>2</sup></small> = 2<i>gh</i>, <i>h</i> in this
-case being the height through which the pressure would be lifted if all
-the heat is spent in work. The theory has been that the storm centre
-will move over that section of the country where V is the greatest, and
-that the time of occurrence and amount of rain have a relation of
-conformity to the changes in Q and its actual amount.</p>
-
-<p>Auxiliary charts were also made showing for each station the following
-values of Q:</p>
-
-<blockquote>1st. Highest Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>2d. Greatest plus change in Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>3d. Lowest value for Q followed by rain in 12 hours.</blockquote>
-
-<p>A tentative application of the theory during December, 1889, has given
-very encouraging results. The problem can be approached in many
-different ways, but the basis of the solution is the determination of
-the actual energy of the air, both potential and kinetic, as well as
-differences of potential.</p>
-
-<p>Probably the most important event of the past year to general
-meteorological students has been the publication of Part I,
-Temperature, and Part II, Moisture, of the Bibliography of Meteorology,
-under the supervision of the Signal Office, and edited by Mr. O. L.
-Fassig. The two parts cover 8,500 titles out of a total of about
-60,000. This publication renders it now possible for any investigator
-to review the complete literature of these subjects, not only with a
-minimum loss of time, but with the advantage of supplementing his own
-work, without duplication, by the investigations of his predecessors.
-The publication is a lithographic reproduction of a type-written copy,
-the only available method, which leaves much to be desired on the
-grounds of appearance, space and clearness.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>The experiments of Crova and Houdaille on Mount Venteux, elevation
-1,907 metres, and at Bedoin, 309 metres, are of more than transient
-interest since they fix the solar constant at a height of 1,907 metres,
-at about three calories; agreeing with the value obtained by Langley on
-Mt. Whitney, Cal.</p>
-
-<p>With this brief allusion to the important phenomena of sun-heat,
-whereon depend not only the subordinate manifestations pertaining to
-this section, but those relating to all other departments, this report
-may appropriately close.</p>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap4"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>TREASURER'S REPORT.</h3>
-
-<h4>YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1889.</h4>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<center>C. J. B<small>ELL</small>, T<small>REASURER</small>, in account
-with N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> S<small>OCIETY</small>.</center>
-<br>
-<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="treasurerreport">
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">Balance on hand as per last account</td>
-		<td align="right">$626.70</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td align="center" colspan="4">R<small>ECEIPTS</small>.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="2">To amount of annual dues for 1889</td>
-		<td align="right">$865</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="2">To amount of annual dues for 1890</td>
-		<td align="right">20</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="2">To Life Members</td>
-		<td align="right"><u>&nbsp;&nbsp;50</u></td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right">935.00</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">Note for $1,000 with interest paid off, Nov. 16, 1869</td>
-		<td align="right">1,032.08</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">Sale of Maps</td>
-		<td align="right">1.41</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">Surplus from Field Meeting</td>
-		<td align="right"><u>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;25.35</u></td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right">$2,620.54</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td align="center" colspan="4">I<small>NVESTMENTS ON</small>
-		H<small>AND</small>, D<small>EC</small>. 31, 1889.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="4">Note dated March 27, 1889, for the sum of $750, with interest @ 6%, due
-		March 27, 1890. Secured by real estate.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td align="center" colspan="4">D<small>ISBURSEMENTS</small>.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 2</td>
-		<td align="right">$174.46</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 3</td>
-		<td align="right">233.66</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 4</td>
-		<td align="right">197.28</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Directory of Society</td>
-		<td align="right">28.35</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Rent of Hall at Cosmos Club</td>
-		<td align="right">45.00</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Printing, Stationery and Postage</td>
-		<td align="right">108.72</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Sundries</td>
-		<td align="right"><u>13.00</u></td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1889.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-		<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right">800.47</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Mar. 26.</td>
-		<td>By Loan on collateral</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right">1000.00</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>By Note for $750 and interest, from March 27, 1889,
-		for 1 year @&nbsp;6%, due March 27, 1890</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right" valign="bottom">756.25</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>Balance in Bank</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right"><u>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;63.82</u></td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td align="right">$2,620.54</td>
-	</tr>
-</table>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap5"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.</h3>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<div align="right">December 27, 1889.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
-
-<p><i>To the National Geographic Society:</i></p>
-
-<p>The undersigned, having been appointed an auditing committee to examine
-the account of the Treasurer for 1889, make the following report:</p>
-
-<p>We have examined the Treasurer's books and find that the receipts as
-therein stated are correctly reported. We have compared the
-disbursements with the vouchers for the same and find them to have been
-properly approved and correctly recorded. We have examined the bank
-account and compared the checks accompanying the same. We find the
-balance (beside the sum of $756.25 invested in real estate note) as
-reported by the Treasurer ($63.82) consistent with the balance as shown
-by the bankbook ($82.82), the difference being explained by the fact
-that there are two outstanding checks for the sum of $19.00 not yet
-presented for payment.</p>
-
-<div align="right">B<small>AILEY</small> W<small>ILLIS</small>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>
-  R. B<small>IRNIE</small>, J<small>R</small>.,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>
-  W<small>ILLARD</small> D. J<small>OHNSON</small>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>
-    <i>Auditing Committee</i>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap6"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h4>REPORT</h4>
-<center>OF THE</center>
-<h3>RECORDING SECRETARY.</h3>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<p>The first report of the Secretaries was presented to the Society,
-December 28, 1888. At that time the Society had a total membership of
-209. Since that date this membership has been increased by the election
-of 36 new members; it has been decreased by the death of 3 and by the
-resignation of 14. The net increase in membership is thus 19 and the
-present membership is 228, including 3 life members. The deceased
-members are, Z. L. White, G. W. Dyer and Charles A. Ashburner.</p>
-
-<p>The number of meetings held during the year was 17, of which 15 were
-for the presentation and discussion of papers; one was a field meeting
-held at Harper's Ferry, W. Va., on Saturday, May 11, 1889, and one, the
-annual meeting. The average attendance was about 65.</p>
-
-<p>The publication of a magazine begun last year, has been continued, and
-three additional numbers have been published, being Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of
-Vol. I. Copies of the numbers have been sent to all members and also to
-about 75 American and foreign scientific societies and other
-institutions interested in Geography. As a result the Society is now
-steadily in receipt of geographical publications from various parts of
-the world.</p>
-
-<div align="right">Respectfully submitted,
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>
-H<small>ENRY</small> G<small>ANNETT</small>, <i>Recording Secretary</i>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap7"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.</h3>
-
-<h4>ABSTRACT OF MINUTES.</h4>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Nov. 1, 1889. Twenty-seventh Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>A paper was read entitled, "Telegraphic Determinations of Longitudes by
-the Bureau of Navigation," by Lieutenant J. A. Norris, U. S. N.
-<i>Published in the <a href="#chap1">National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1.</a></i></p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Nov. 15, 1889. Twenty-eighth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>A paper was read by Ensign Everett Hayden, U. S. N., entitled, "Law of
-Storms considered with Special Reference to the North Atlantic,"
-illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. Greely and
-Hayden.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Nov. 29, 1889. Twenty-ninth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>A paper was read by Mr. H. M. Wilson entitled, "The Irrigation Problem
-in Montana." Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Dutton, Greely
-and Wilson.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Dec. 13, 1889. Thirtieth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>The paper of the evening was by Mr. I. C. Russell upon "A Trip up the
-Yukon River, Alaska," and was illustrated by lantern slides.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Dec. 27, 1889. Thirty-first Meeting&mdash;2d Annual Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>Vice-President Thompson in the chair. The minutes of the first annual
-meeting were read and approved. Annual reports of the secretaries and
-treasurer and the report of the auditing committee were presented and
-approved. The following officers were then elected for the succeeding
-year:</p>
-
-<blockquote><i>President</i>&mdash;G<small>ARDINER</small> G. H<small>UBBARD</small>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><i>Vice-Presidents</i>&mdash;H<small>ERBERT</small> G.
-O<small>GDEN</small>, [land]; E<small>VERETT</small> H<small>AYDEN</small>,[sea]; A.
-W. G<small>REELY</small>, [air]; C. H<small>ART</small> M<small>ERRIAM</small>,
-[life]; A. H. T<small>HOMPSON</small>, [art.]</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><i>Treasurer</i>&mdash;C<small>HARLES</small> J. B<small>ELL</small>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><i>Recording Secretary</i>&mdash;H<small>ENRY</small> G<small>ANNETT</small>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><i>Corresponding Secretary</i>&mdash;O. H. T<small>ITTMANN</small>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><i>Managers</i>&mdash;C<small>LEVELAND</small> A<small>BBE</small>,
-M<small>ARCUS</small> B<small>AKER</small>, R<small>OGERS</small> B<small>IRNIE</small>
-J<small>R</small>., G. B<small>ROWN</small>
-G<small>OODE</small>, W. D. J<small>OHNSON</small>, C. A. K<small>ENASTON</small>,
-W. B. P<small>OWELL</small> and J<small>AMES</small> C. W<small>ELLING</small>.</blockquote>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Jan. 10, 1890. Thirty-second Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>The annual reports of Vice-Presidents Ogden and Greely were presented.
-<i>Published in the <a href="#chap2">National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1.</a></i></p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Jan. 24, 1890. Thirty-third Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>A paper was read entitled, "The Rivers of Northern New Jersey," with
-notes on the "General Classification of Rivers," by Professor William
-M. Davis. The subject was discussed by Messrs. Davis, Gilbert and
-McGee.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Feb. 7, 1890. Thirty-fourth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>The annual report of Vice-President Merriam was presented. A paper on
-"Bering's First Expedition," was read by Dr. W. H. Dall.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Feb. 21st, 1890. Thirty-fifth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. The annual address of
-the President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, was delivered, the subject
-being "Asia, Its Past and Future." <i>Published in "Science," Vol. XV,
-No. 371.</i></p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>Feb. 28th, 1890. Special Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. A paper was read by
-Lieut. Com'dr Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N., entitled "The Arctic Cruise
-of the Thetis During the Summer and Autumn of 1889," which was
-illustrated by lantern slides.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>March 7th, 1890. Thirty-sixth Meeting.</i></center>
-
-<p>A paper was read by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, entitled "A Glimpse of Chinese
-Life in Canton."</p>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap8"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>OFFICERS.</h3>
-
-<center>1890.</center>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<center><i>President.</i><br>
-  GARDINER G. HUBBARD.<br>
-<br>
-<i>Vice-Presidents.</i><br>
-  HERBERT G. OGDEN.<br>
-  EVERETT HAYDEN.<br>
-  A. W. GREELY.<br>
-  C. HART MERRIAM.<br>
-  A. H. THOMPSON.<br>
-<br>
-<i>Treasurer.</i><br>
-  CHARLES J. BELL.<br>
-<br>
-<i>Secretaries.</i><br>
-  HENRY GANNETT.<br>
-  O. H. TITTMANN.<br>
-<br>
-<i>Managers.</i><br>
-  CLEVELAND ABBE.<br>
-  MARCUS BAKER.<br>
-  ROGERS BIRNIE, JR.<br>
-  G. BROWN GOODE.<br>
-  W. D. JOHNSON.<br>
-  C. A. KENASTON.<br>
-  W. B. POWELL.<br>
-  JAMES C. WELLING.</center>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap9"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.</h3>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-
-<p><i>a</i>, original members.<br>
-  <i>l</i>, life members.<br>
-  * Deceased.<br></p>
-
-<p>In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is
-to be understood.</p>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-
-
-<p>A<small>BBE</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C<small>LEVELAND</small>, <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Signal Office. 2017 I Street.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>BERT</small>, S. T.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1928½ Pennsylvania Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>HERN</small>, J<small>EREMIAH</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 804 Tenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>LLEN</small>, D<small>R</small>. J. A.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>PLIN</small>, S. A., J<small>R</small>.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1513 R Street.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>RRICK</small>, C<small>LIFFORD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1131 Fourteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>*A<small>SHBURNER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C<small>HARLES</small> A.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>TKINSON</small>, W. R., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 2900 Q Street.</p>
-
-<p>A<small>YRES</small>, M<small>ISS</small> S. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;502 A Street SE.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>AKER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Life Saving Service. 1315 Corcoran Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>AKER</small>, M<small>ARCUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ALDWIN</small>, H. L. J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 125 Sixth Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ARCLAY</small>, A. C.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ARNARD</small>, E. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1773 Massachusetts Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ARTLE</small>, R. F.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;947 Virginia Avenue SW.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ARTLETT</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. J. R., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Providence, R. I.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ARTLETT</small>, P. V. S.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ASSETT</small>, C. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 929 New York Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ELL</small>, A. G<small>RAHAM</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1336 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ELL</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1437 Pennsylvania Avenue. 1328 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ERNADOU</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J. B., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Office of Naval Intelligence. 1908 F. Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>IEN</small>, J<small>ULIUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;139 Duane Street, New York, N. Y.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>IEN</small>, M<small>ORRIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>IRNIE</small>, C<small>APT</small>. R<small>OGERS</small>, J<small>R</small>., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ordnance Office. 1341 New Hampshire Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>LAIR</small>, H. B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>LODGETT</small>, J<small>AMES</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Census Office. 1237 Massachusetts Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ODFISH</small>, S. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 58 B Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>OUTELLE</small>, C<small>APT</small>. C. O., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 105 Fourth Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>RENT</small>, L. D.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1741 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>REWER</small>, H. G., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. Meridian Avenue, Mt. Pleasant.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>ROWN</small>, M<small>ISS</small> E. V.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1312 R Street.</p>
-
-<p>B<small>URTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>ARPENTER</small>, Z. T., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1003 F Street. 1009 Thirteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>HAPMAN</small>, R. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1207 L Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>HATARD</small>, D<small>R</small>. T<small>HOS</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. The Portland.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>HESTER</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. C<small>OLBY</small> M., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>HRISTIE</small>, P<small>ETER</small> H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>LARK</small>, A. H<small>OWARD</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;National Museum. 1527 S Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>LARK</small>, E. B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. Laurel, Md.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>OLONNA</small>, B. A.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 23 Grant Place.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>OLVIN</small>, V<small>ERPLANCK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Albany, New York.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>OURT</small>, E. E.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. Seventeenth Street, Mt. Pleasant.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>RAVEN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> E., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 1313 Twenty-second Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>UMMIN</small>, R. D., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1105 Thirteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>C<small>URTIS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> E<small>LEROY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;513 Fourteenth Street. 1801 Connecticut Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>ARWIN</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1907 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>AVIDSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small> P., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, M<small>RS</small>. A<small>RTHUR</small> P.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cambridge, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>AY</small>, D<small>R</small>. D<small>AVID</small> T.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1411 Chapin Street.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>ENNIS</small>, W. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 12 Iowa Circle.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>ILLER</small>, J. S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1804 Sixteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>OUGLAS</small>, E. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>OW</small>, J<small>OHN</small> M.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pacific Mail S. S. Co., Panama, U. S. Colombia.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>UKE</small>, B<small>ASIL</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>UNNINGTON</small>, A. F., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1000 North Carolina Avenue SE.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>URAND</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>UTTON</small>, A. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 1338 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>UTTON</small>, C<small>APT</small>. C. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 2024 R Street.</p>
-
-<p>D<small>YER</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. L., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>E<small>DSON</small>, J. R., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1003 F Street. 1705 Q Street.</p>
-
-<p>E<small>LLICOTT</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> M., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Office of Naval Intelligence. 3009 P Street.</p>
-
-<p>E<small>LLIOTT</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. W. P., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, G. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>ARMER</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> A.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>ERNOW</small>, B. E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Department of Agriculture. 1843 R Street.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>ISCHER</small>, E. G., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 436 New York Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>ITCH</small>, C. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 3025 N Street.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>LETCHER</small>, L. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>LETCHER</small>, D<small>R</small>. R<small>OBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Medical Museum. The Portland.</p>
-
-<p>F<small>OOT</small>, S<small>AM</small>'<small>L</small> A.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 918 H Street.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>AGE</small>, N. P., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Seaton School. 401 Fourth Street.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ANNETT</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1881 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ANNETT</small>, S. S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 401 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ILBERT</small>, G. K., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1424 Corcoran Street.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ILMAN</small>, D<small>R</small>. D. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>OODE</small>, G. B<small>ROWN</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;National Museum. Lanier Heights.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>OODE</small>, R. U., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>OODFELLOW</small>, E<small>DWARD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 7 Dupont Circle.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ORDON</small>, R. O., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>RANGER</small>, F. D.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>REELY</small>, G<small>EN</small>. A. W., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Signal Office. 1914 G Street.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>RISWOLD</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.</p>
-
-<p>G<small>ULLIVER</small>, F. P.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ACKETT</small>, M<small>ERRILL</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 318 Third Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ARRISON</small>, D. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1326 Corcoran Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ARROD</small>, M<small>AJOR</small> B. M.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Miss. River Commission, New Orleans, La.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ASBROUCK</small>, E. M.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1305 R Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ASKELL</small>, E. E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1418 Fifteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>AYDEN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. E<small>VERETT</small>, U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 1802 Sixteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>AYES</small>, C. W<small>ILLARD</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>AYS</small>, J. W.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 2225 Thirteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>EATON</small>, A. G.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1618 Seventeenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ENRY</small>, A. G., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Signal Office. 948 S Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ENSHAW</small>, H. W., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bureau of Ethnology. 13 Iowa Circle.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ERRLE</small>, G<small>USTAV</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 646 C Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ERRON</small>, W. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1008 H Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ILL</small>, G<small>EO</small>. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Naval Observatory. 2626 K Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ILL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R. T.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>INMAN</small>, R<small>USSELL</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In care Van Antwerp, Bragg &amp; Co., Cincinnati, O.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ODGKINS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H. L., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Columbian University. 1511 Tenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ODGKINS</small>, W. C.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 416 B Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>OLLERITH</small>, H<small>ERMAN</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Room 48 Atlantic Building. 3107 N Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>OPKINS</small>, C. L.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Department of Agriculture. 1004 H Street.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>ORNADAY</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;National Museum. 405 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>OWELL</small>, E. E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;48 Oxford Street, Rochester, N. Y.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>OWELL</small>, D. J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;District Building. Alexandria, Va.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>UBBARD</small>, G<small>ARDINER</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1328 Connecticut Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>H<small>YDE</small>, G. E.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 330 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>I<small>ARDELLA</small>, C. T., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1536 I Street.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>ENNINGS</small>, J. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 824 I Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, A. B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Light House Board. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, J. B.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Howard University. 2460 Sixth Street.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, S. P.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, W. D., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>J<small>UNKEN</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 140 B Street NE.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ARL</small>, A<small>NTON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1230 Eleventh Street.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>AUFFMANN</small>, S. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1421 Massachusetts Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ENASTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Howard University.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ENNAN</small>, G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1318 Massachusetts Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ENNEDY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EORGE</small> G., <i>l</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ERR</small>, M<small>ARK</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1708 M Street.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>IMBALL</small>, E. F.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Post Office Department. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>IMBALL</small>, S. I., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Life Saving Service. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ING</small>, F. H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ING</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ARRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1319 Q Street.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>ING</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> B.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;906 F Street. 1328 Twelfth Street.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>NIGHT</small>, F. J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>NOWLTON</small>, F. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>K<small>OCH</small>, P<small>ETER</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bozeman, Mont.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>ACKLAND</small>, W. E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1305 Corcoran Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>AMBERT</small>, M. B.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>EACH</small>, B<small>OYNTON</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 2028 P Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>ERCH</small>, R. L., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 936 K Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, A<small>DOLPH</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 19 Fourth Street SE.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 452 K Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>IPPINCOTT</small>, J. B<small>ARLOW</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1802 M Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>ONGSTREET</small>, R. L., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1536 I Street.</p>
-
-<p>L<small>OVELL</small>, W. H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 413 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>C</small>C<small>ORMICK</small>, J<small>AMES</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1001 Eleventh Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>C</small>G<small>EE</small>, W. J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 2410 Fourteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>C</small>G<small>ILL</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small> C.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;336 C Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>C</small>K<small>EE</small>, R. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1753 Rhode Island Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>C</small>K<small>INNEY</small>, R. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1120 Thirteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>AHER</small>, J<small>AMES</small> A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Johnson City, Tenn.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ANNING</small>, V<small>AN</small>. H., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1331 N Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ARINDIN</small>, H. L.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ARSHALL</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> B.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ATTHEWS</small>, D<small>R</small>. W<small>ASHINGTON</small>, U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Medical Museum. 1262 New Hampshire Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ELVILLE</small>, E<small>NG</small>. <small>IN</small> C<small>HIEF</small>, G<small>EO</small>. W., U. S. N., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department. 1705 H Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ENDENHALL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. T. C.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 220 New Jersey Avenue SE.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ENOCAL</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. A. G., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department. 2012 Hillyer Place.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ERRIAM</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H<small>ART</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Department of Agriculture. 1919 Sixteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>INDELEFF</small>, C<small>OSMOS</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bureau of Ethnology. 1401 Stoughton Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>INDELEFF</small>, V<small>ICTOR</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bureau of Ethnology. 2504 Fourteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ITCHELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>OSMAN</small>, A. T., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>ULDROW</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1511 Rhode Island Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>M<small>URLIN</small>, A. E.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1550 Third Street.</p>
-
-<p>N<small>ATTER</small>, E. W. F., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Readville, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>N<small>ELL</small>, L<small>OUIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1118 Virginia Avenue SW.</p>
-
-<p>N<small>ILES</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W. H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>N<small>ORDHOFF</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;701 Fifteenth Street. 1731 K Street.</p>
-
-<p>O<small>GDEN</small>, H<small>ERBERT</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1324 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ARSONS</small>, F. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 210 First Street SE.</p>
-
-<p>*P<small>ATTON</small>, P<small>RES</small>. W. W., <i>a</i>.<br></p>
-
-<p>P<small>EALE</small>, D<small>R</small>. A. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1446 Stoughton Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>EARY</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. R. E., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ENROSE</small>, R. A. F., J<small>R</small>.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;State Geological Survey, Little Rock, Ark.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ERKINS</small>, E. T., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ETERS</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ETERS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>HILLIPS</small>, R. H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1511 Vermont Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>ICKING</small>, C<small>APT</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> F., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. Baltimore, Md.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>IERCE</small>, J<small>OSIAH</small>, J<small>R</small>.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>OWELL</small>, M<small>AJOR</small> J. W., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 910 M Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>OWELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Franklin School Building.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>RENTISS</small>, D<small>R</small>. D. W., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1101 Fourteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>P<small>UMPELLY</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R<small>APHAEL</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>ENSHAWE</small>, J<small>NO</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>ICKSECKER</small>, E<small>UGENE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Seattle, Wash.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>ITTER</small>, H. P., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>OBERTS</small>, A. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>ODMAN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. H<small>UGH</small>, U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 2015 Hillyer Place.</p>
-
-<p>R<small>USSELL</small>, I. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>ARGENT</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Brookline, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>CHLEY</small>, C<small>APT</small>. W. S., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>CUDDER</small>, S<small>AM</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cambridge, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>HALER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. N. S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cambridge, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>IEBERT</small>, J. S.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrographic Office. 1911 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>INCLAIR</small>, C. H.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>INCLAIR</small>, J. C.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4 Lafayette Square.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>MITH</small>, E<small>DWIN</small>, <i>a</i>.<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rockville, Md.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>MITH</small>, M<small>IDDLETON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Signal Office. 1616 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>OMMER</small>, E. J., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 330 A Street SE.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>TEIN</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 710 Eleventh Street.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>TEJNEGER</small>, L<small>EONHARD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;National Museum.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>TOCKTON</small>, L<small>T</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. C. H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>S<small>UTTON</small>, F<small>RANK</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 702 Nineteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>HOMAS</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY VON</small> E., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, G<small>ILBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1448 Q Street.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, L<small>AURENCE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In care Northern Pacific R. R. Co., Seattle, Wash.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. R. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Army Signal Office. 2011 N Street.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>ITTMANN</small>, O. H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1019 Twentieth Street.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>OWSON</small>, R. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1446 N Street.</p>
-
-<p>T<small>WEEDY</small>, F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1311 M Street.</p>
-
-<p>U<small>RQUHART</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. F., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.</p>
-
-<p>V<small>ASEY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Department of Agriculture. 2006 Fourteenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>V<small>INAL</small>, W. I., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 152 D Street SE.</p>
-
-<p>V<small>ON</small> H<small>AAKE</small>, A<small>DOLPH</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Post Office Department. 1215 L Street.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ALCOTT</small>, C. D., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 418 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ALLACE</small>, H<small>AMILTON</small> S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1813 M Street.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ARD</small>, L<small>ESTER</small> F., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1464 Rhode Island Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>EED</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 825 Vermont Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>EIR</small>, J. B., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1602 L Street.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ELLING</small>, D<small>R</small>. J<small>AMES</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Columbian University. 1302 Connecticut Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>HITE</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H., U. S. N.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Navy Department.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>HITING</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> L.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. West Tisbury, Mass.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILDER</small>, G<small>EN</small>. J. T., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Johnson City, Tenn.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILDER</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Johnson City, Tenn.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILLIS</small>, B<small>AILEY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1617 Riggs Place.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILLIS</small>, M<small>RS</small>. B<small>AILEY</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1617 Riggs Place.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, A. E.,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, H. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;National Museum. 1218 Connecticut Avenue.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>INSLOW</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>INSTON</small>, I<small>SAAC</small>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1325 Corcoran Street.</p>
-
-<p>W<small>OODWARD</small>, R. S., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1804 Columbia Road.</p>
-
-<p>Y<small>ARROW</small>, D<small>R</small>. H. C., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;814 Seventeenth Street.</p>
-
-<p>Y<small>EATES</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Geological Survey. 1706 F Street.</p>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-II., No. 1, April, 1890, by Various
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