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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f247cf5 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50765 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50765) diff --git a/old/50765-8.txt b/old/50765-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index aff9a49..0000000 --- a/old/50765-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3870 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 1, April, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 1, April, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 25, 2015 [EBook #50765] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -Vol. II. No. 1. - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - - - - -PUBLISHED BY THE - -NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -WASHINGTON, D. C. - - -Price 50 Cents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -On the Telegraphic Determinations of Longitude by the Bureau of - Navigation: Lieut. J. A. Norris, U. S. N. - -Reports of the Vice-Presidents: - Geography of the Land: Herbert G. Ogden - Geography of the Air: A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A. - -Annual Report of the Treasurer - -Report of Auditing Committee - -Annual Report of the Secretary - -National Geographic Society: - Abstract of Minutes - Officers for 1890 - Members of the Society - - Published April, 1890. - - - - -PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN. - - - - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - -Vol. II. 1890. No. 1. - - - - -ON THE TELEGRAPHIC DETERMINATIONS OF LONGITUDE BY THE BUREAU OF -NAVIGATION. - -BY LIEUT. J. A. NORRIS, U. S. N. - - -The following definitions are given by Chauvenet in his Spherical and -Practical Astronomy. - -"The longitude of a point on the earth's surface is the angle at the -Pole included between the meridian of that point and some assumed first -meridian. The difference of longitude between any two points is the -angle included between their meridians." To describe the practical -methods of obtaining this difference or angle, by means of the electric -telegraph both overland and submarine, and especially those employed by -the expeditions sent out by the Navy department, is the object of this -paper. - - * * * * * - -Before the invention of the telegraph various methods more or less -accurate in their results were employed, and are still in use where the -telegraph is not available. The one most used and giving the best -results was that in which a number of chronometers were transported -back and forth between two places the difference of whose longitudes -was required. "For," as the author quoted above says, "the -determination of an absolute longitude from the first meridian or of a -difference of longitude in general, resolves itself into the -determination of the difference of the time reckoned at the two -meridians at the same absolute instant." If a chronometer be regulated -to the time at any place _A_, and then transported to a second place -_B_, and the local time at _B_, be determined at any instant, and at -that instant the time at _A_, as shown by the chronometer is noted, the -difference of the times is at once known, and that is the difference of -longitude required. The principal objection to this plan is that the -best chronometers vary. If the variations were constant and regular, -and the chronometer always gained or lost a fixed amount for the same -interval of time, this objection would disappear. But the variation is -not constant, the rate of gain or loss, even in the best instruments, -changes from time to time from various causes. Some of these causes may -be discovered and allowed for in a measure, others are accidental and -unknown. Of the former class are variations due to changes of -temperature. At the Naval Observatory, chronometers are rated at -different temperatures, and the changes due thereto are noted, and -serve to a great extent as a guide in their use. But the transportation -of a chronometer, even when done with great care is liable to cause -sudden changes in its indications, and of course in carrying it long -distances, numerous shocks of greater or less violence are unavoidable. -Still, chronometric measurements, when well carried out with a number -of chronometers and skilled observers have been very successful. Among -notable expeditions of this sort was that undertaken in 1843, by Struve -between Pulkova and Altona, in which eighty-one chronometers were -employed and nine voyages made from Pulkova to Altona and eight the -other way. The results from thirteen of the chronometers were rejected -as being discordant, and the deduced longitude was made to depend on -the remaining 68. The result thus obtained differs from the latest -determination by 0^{s}.2. - -The U. S. Coast Survey instituted chronometric expeditions between -Cambridge, Mass., and Liverpool, England, in the years 1849, '50, '51 -and '55. The probable error of the results of six voyages, three in -each direction, in 1855 was 0^{s}.19, fifty chronometers being carried. - -Among other methods of determining differences of time may be mentioned -the observation of certain celestial phenomena, which are visible at -the same absolute instant by observers in various parts of the globe, -such as the instant of the beginning or end of an eclipse of the moon, -the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites by the shadow of the planet, the -bursting of a meteor, and the appearance or disappearance of a shooting -star. The difficulty of identifying these last mentioned objects and -the impossibility of foretelling their occurrence prevents the extended -use of this method. - -Terrestrial signals may be used and among these can be included those -sent by the electric telegraph. But when two stations are near together -a signal may be made at either or at an intermediate station, which can -be observed at both, the time may be noted at each of the stations and -the difference found directly. These signals may be made by flashes of -gunpowder, or the appearance and disappearance of a strong light, or a -pre-concerted movement of any object easily seen. The heliotrope -reflecting the image of the sun from one station to the other with an -arrangement for suddenly eclipsing it, is a useful and efficient -apparatus. - -Various truly astronomical methods have been employed with good -results, of these may be mentioned moon-culminations, azimuths of the -moon, lunar distances, etc. - -Coming now to the use of the electric telegraph for this purpose the -following is a rough outline of the methods employed. Suppose two -stations A and B connected by wire, and provided with clocks, -chronographs and transit instruments. A list of suitable fixed stars is -compiled and each observer furnished with a copy. The observer at A the -eastern station, selects a star from his list and sets his transit -instrument upon it. He is furnished with a key by which he can send -telegraphic signals over the line and also mark the time on his own -chronograph. The instant he observes the star crossing the spider line -which represents the meridian, he taps his key, thus registering the -time on his own chronograph and on that at station B and this operation -he repeats with as many stars as necessary. B has his instrument set -for the first star, and when it crosses his meridian, he taps his key -marking the time on his own chronograph and also on A's. Then, -disregarding instrumental and personal errors and the rate of the -clock, A has a record of the times at which the star passed both -meridians. The difference of these times is the difference of longitude -sought, except for an error due to the time occupied in the -transmission of the signal over the wire between the stations. B also -has a record of the same difference of time with the same error -affecting it in the opposite way. A mean of these two differences, will -be the true difference with the error of transmission eliminated. This -method has the advantage of not depending upon the computed position of -the star. The instrumental errors may be allowed for, as well as the -rate of the clocks, and the personal error may be eliminated by the -exchange of stations. - -There are disadvantages inseparable from this method, however, -especially when the meridian distance is great. A star observed at the -first station, may be obscured by clouds at the time of its meridian -passage at the second. And the weather generally, at the two stations -may be cloudy, so that while stars can be observed at intervals, yet it -may be impossible to note the meridian passage of the same star at both -places on the same night. Then the telegraph lines are usually the -property of some commercial company and while their use for a short -time might be freely granted, yet a protracted occupation of them as -necessary when the meridians are distant from each other, would prove a -serious hindrance to their regular business. - -The method at this time most generally employed, is to observe at each -station a number of stars entirely independently of the other. From -these stars are deduced the clock errors and rates upon the respective -local times. Then at some prearranged period, communication is opened -between the stations, and a comparison of the clocks made which shows -their exact difference at a given instant. By applying the error to the -time as shown by the clock at this instant, the exact local time at -each station is the result, and applying the difference between the -clocks as shown by the comparison, the required difference of longitude -is readily obtained. - -These methods originated, as did the electric telegraph, in the United -States, and soon after Morse's invention came into practical use, they -were extensively employed by the Coast Survey, in accurately -determining points in every part of the country that could be reached, -no pains being spared to make the determinations as accurate as -possible. Upon the completion of the first successful Atlantic cable in -1866, an expedition was organized and placed in charge of Dr. B. A. -Gould, for the purpose of measuring the meridian distance between -Greenwich and the Naval Observatory at Washington. This was -successfully carried out in spite of numerous difficulties, and the -result proved that the determinations already made upon which the most -reliance was placed were decidedly in error. The result from the -chronometric expedition in 1855 previously referred to differing over a -second of time. - -In constructing charts for use at sea, the accurate determination of -latitude and longitude is of the utmost importance. The navigator -starting on a voyage must know the exact position of his destination as -well as the location of dangers to be avoided. He must know the error -and rate of his chronometer when he sets out, but as the rate is not -constant he should have some means of re-rating it at any place where -he may stop. If the longitude of this place is well determined, the -operation of obtaining the error and rate is an easy one, and may save -his vessel from loss. - -Surveys, of coasts or countries must have well established starting -points, and while the latitude of a place is comparatively easy to -determine, the longitude, except when the telegraphic method is used, -is attended with more or less uncertainty. - -In 1873, Commodore R. H. Wyman, U. S. N. Hydrographer to the Bureau of -Navigation, organized by permission of the Navy Department, an -expedition for the telegraphic determination of longitude in the West -Indies and Central America. The submarine cables of the West India and -Panama Telegraph Co. had just been completed, extending from Key West -through Havana and Santiago de Cuba, south to Jamaica and Aspinwall, -and east through the Virgin and Windward Islands to the northeast coast -of South America, thus affording admirable facilities for the accurate -determination of many points. It had long been known that the -longitudes of various points in the West Indies and in Central and -South America, did not harmonize, there having been no systematic -attempt to determine them with relation to each other or to a common -base. Longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean Sea depended upon -the position of the Morro lighthouse at Havana, which had been -determined by occultations. Further to the eastward, positions depended -upon that of Fort Christian at St. Thomas. This in its turn depended -upon the observatory of Major Lang in the Island of Santa Cruz about -forty miles distant. This position depended upon numerous observations -of moon culminations and occultations. Martinique and Guadeloupe in the -Windward Islands had been surveyed by French officers who based their -positions upon longitudes derived from moon culminations. The absolute -determination of these starting points would of course fix all points -derived from them. - -The U. S. Steamer Fortune was designated by the Navy Department for the -conveyance of the expedition, and Lieut. Commander (now Commander), F. -M. Green, U. S. N. was placed in charge. This officer had given great -attention to the subject, was a practiced observer, and exceptionally -well qualified for the position. The services of Mr. Miles Rock, a -skillful astronomer and computer who is now chief of the boundary -survey of Guatemala, were obtained as principal astronomical assistant. -The breaking out in the autumn of 1873, of the trouble with Spain and -Cuba, over the Virginius affair, delayed the expedition until the next -year, but in November 1874, a start was made from Washington, and after -a short stay in Kingston, Jamaica, Aspinwall was reached early in -December. Mr. Rock with one set of instruments proceeded immediately to -Panama, while Lieut. Commander Green remained in Aspinwall with the -other. The outfit for each party consisted of:--first, a portable -observatory. This was made of wood in sections, framework of ash, -covered with tongued and grooved pine boards. The sections were -connected when set up by iron knees and bolts. When packed it was not -difficult to transport, and it could be put up, or taken down in an -hour. When set up it was about eight feet square, with doors in all -sides, and a shed roof. The roof was made in three sections, the middle -one being hinged so that it could be raised for observing. These -observatories proved to be very strong and serviceable. They remained -in use for a number of years with occasional slight repairs, were -transported many thousand miles and set up in a great number of places -in Europe, Asia, North and South America. They were designed by Mr. J. -A. Rogers, and constructed at the Washington Navy Yard. Upon arriving -at a point where observations were to be made, after obtaining the -necessary permits from the local authorities, a suitable location for -the observatory was the first consideration. The essential requirements -were, a clear view of the heavens in the meridian, firm ground, a spot -secluded enough not to attract attention from inquisitive idlers, and -proximity to the telegraph office, or end of the telegraph line. Such a -spot being found and permission being obtained from the owner for its -use, an approximate meridian line was laid out by compass, and the -house set up with reference to it. Experience soon showed the -advisability of making certain additions to the observatory not -contemplated by the designer, but which added much to convenience and -comfort. A foundation was made, of timbers about six inches square, -mortised together at the ends which could be placed in position and -leveled before the observatory was set up, rendering this operation -much easier and giving greater stability. A floor was laid upon joists -supported by this foundation. Shelves were put up at various points, -affording resting places for tools and small instruments, while a table -in one corner, supported the chronometer, and offered a convenient -place for an assistant to record observations, etc. - -The principal instrument used was the transit. Those furnished for the -use of the expedition were designed by Mr. J. A. Rogers, and -constructed under his supervision in the repair shop of the -Hydrographic office. The object glasses, made by the Clarks at -Cambridge, were of 2½ inches clear aperture with a focal length of -thirty inches. The instruments were of the prismatic or "broken" form -in which the eye-piece is at one end of the axis, and the light is -reflected from the object glass to the eye by a prism placed at the -junction of the telescope tube with the axis. The observer does not -have to change the position of his eye, no matter what the zenith -distance of the star may be. This renders observation much less -fatiguing and conduces to accuracy. The eye-piece was furnished with -the usual spider line reticle and also with a filar micrometer for the -measurement of zenith distances for latitude. A vertical finding circle -was on the eye-piece end of the axis, and the instrument was provided -also with a horizontal circle, fourteen inches in diameter, graduated -to ten seconds. Other necessary parts were the striding and zenith -telescope levels, and the illuminating lamps. The ends of the axis were -supported by Ys at the ends of a transverse arm which in its centre was -screwed to the top of a vertical axis supported in a socket surmounting -the tripod. This vertical axis was slightly conical in shape and -accurately fitted into its socket. A screw was so placed underneath, -that the axis, and with it the instrument, could be raised slightly, -when it was easily revolved horizontally into any desired position, a -reverse movement of the screw then lowered the axis into its seat, when -the instrument was held firmly by the friction. For supporting the -instrument there was used at first, a portable pier made in the shape -of the frustrum of a cone, of strong oak staves, firmly bound with iron -hoops, and when set up, filled with sand or earth. Subsequently a brick -pier was found to be more stable and the wooden ones were discarded. - -Of equal importance with the transit was the Chronometer. The -expedition was supplied with four of these made by Negus of New York. -They were regulated to sidereal time, and provided with a break circuit -arrangement. This consists of a toothed wheel acting on a jewel pallet -attached to a light steel spring. In this spring is a platinum point, -which touches another platinum point, except when the spring is acted -upon by the toothed wheel. These points are connected respectively with -terminals on the outside of the chronometer, and are insulated from -each other except at their point of contact. The electric circuit is -complete through the chronometer except when the teeth of the wheel -acting on the jewel pallet separate the points. The circuit is opened -for about one-fortieth of a second and closed during the rest of the -time. One tooth in the wheel is omitted and the circuit remains -unbroken at that point which is the beginning of each minute. Each -chronometer is provided with a condenser to take up the extra current, -and avoid burning the contact points. These chronometers were most -excellent instruments, the rate was generally small and very regular, -and did not seem to be influenced in any way by the passage of the -current. They are still in use, and are as efficient as ever. - -The expedition was at first provided with a substitute for the -chronograph in the shape of the old fashioned Morse telegraph register. -In this a steel point or stylet was pressed by the action of an -electro-magnet against a long fillet of paper, unwound by clock-work at -a rate more or less regular. This magnet was in circuit with the -chronometer and with a break circuit key in the observer's hand. As -long as the electric circuit was closed the stylet made a continuous -indented straight line on the paper; but as soon as it was broken, -either by the chronometer or the observer's key, the stylet flew back -and left the paper unmarked until the circuit was again closed. The -effect of the action of the chronometer was to graduate the fillet of -paper into a series of straight indentations, from one to two inches in -length, separated by unmarked spaces from 1/16 to 1/8 inch in length. -When the key was pressed an independent clear space was left on the -paper, and by the relation in distance between the beginning of this -space and the beginning of the second spaces immediately preceding and -following, the time of pressing the key was determined. The omission of -the break at the sixtieth second, made the mark of double length, and -hence the beginning of the minute was easily recognized. These -instruments served their purpose very well, but had several -disadvantages. The rate of movement of the paper was not regular; when -the clock-work was first wound up the motion was rapid and the second -spaces long, and as the spring ran down the marks became shorter and -shorter. Another drawback was the great length of the fillet; with -spaces only an inch in length, it required five feet of paper to record -a minute in time, and after a night's observation, there would be -several hundred feet to examine, measure and record, occupying the -greater part of the following day. By stopping the instrument between -the observations something was gained in this respect, but this tended -somewhat to confusion and error in keeping the record. They were only -used for one season's work, and in their stead were procured two -cylinder chronographs, made by Bond of Boston. These were fine -instruments, but somewhat too delicate to stand the necessary -transportation. In these instruments as in most other chronographs, a -cylinder about six inches in diameter is made to revolve by clock-work -once in a minute. An electro-magnet mounted on a carriage actuated by -the same clock-work moves alongside the cylinder, in a direction -parallel with its axis, at the rate of about an eighth of an inch in a -minute. The armature of the magnet carries attached to it a pen, the -point of which rests upon a sheet of the paper wrapped around the -cylinder. While the circuit through the coils of the magnet is -complete, the pen makes a continuous spiral line upon the paper, but -when the circuit is broken by the chronometer, or key, it flies to one -side making an offset, and immediately returns to its position, as soon -as the circuit is again closed. The result is to graduate the whole -surface of the paper into second spaces, from which the observations -can be read off with the greatest ease. - -For supplying the electric current, there was used at first, a -modification of the Smee battery, but this proving very uncertain in -strength, a gravity battery was substituted, and afterwards a number of -LeClanché cells were procured. - -Upon the first expedition, no telegraph instruments were carried, but -the use of such as were needed was easily obtained from the telegraph -companies. The line between Aspinwall and Panama was in good condition -and no trouble was experienced in exchanging the time signals by which -was effected the comparison of the chronometers. Wires were stretched -from the observatories in each place to the respective telegraph -offices, and for the exchange of signals were connected directly to the -ends of the line. - -Everything being ready, the routine of the work was as follows:--The -transit being carefully leveled was placed in the meridian by -observation of zenith and circumpolar stars. From six to ten time -stars, and two or three circumpolars were then observed, the instrument -was reversed in the Ys and nearly the same number of stars observed in -the new position. At some time agreed upon, generally when the regular -work of the telegraph line was over for the day, the wires were -connected up and one of the operators came to the observatory to assist -in holding communication. By a simple arrangement of relays, in the -line and chronograph circuits the chronometer at one station was made -to register its second beats on the chronograph at the other, which was -all the time being graduated into second spaces by its own chronometer. -This was done for about five minutes and the times of beginning and -ending noted. Then the connections were reversed and both chronometers -allowed to beat for five minutes on the chronograph at the first -station. - -This method of exchanging signals was only practicable on land lines or -very short cables. The ordinary relay used on a land line requires a -strong current to work it, and would not be affected in the least by -the delicate impulse sent over a long cable, consequently when the -expedition came to compare chronometers over the 600 miles of cable -between Aspinwall and Kingston, it was necessary to use another method. -At that time the instrument in general use on submarine cable lines was -what is known as Thompson's mirror galvanometer. It consists of a coil -of very fine insulated wire wound with great care on a spool or bobbin -of vulcanite, about three inches in diameter and 1½ inches thick. In a -hole in the centre of the spool is made to slide a small tube, so that -the end of the tube will be in the centre of the coil. In the end of -the tube is mounted a small mirror, swung in a vertical position on a -single upright fibre of silk. Horizontally across the back of this -mirror is secured a small permanent magnet, in length about the -diameter of the mirror or about one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. -The mirror and magnet together weigh only one or two grains. When an -electric current is sent through this coil it deflects the magnet and -with it the mirror to the right or left. The apparatus is exceedingly -sensitive so that it is influenced by very feeble currents. -Communication has been maintained with an instrument of this kind over -the Atlantic cables, by the current proceeding from a battery composed -of a single copper percussion cap with a small scrap of zinc and a drop -of acidulated water. The use of the mirror is to make visible the -movements of the magnet. The coil is mounted upon a standard so as to -be about eight inches above the table. At the distance of eighteen -inches or two feet is placed a lamp. This is surrounded by a screen -which cuts off all the light, except that which passes through a tube -directed towards the mirror. Lenses in the tube focus the light on the -mirror and thence it is reflected to a vertical white surface, a sheet -of paper for instance, at a suitable distance and appears as a small -and brilliant spot. A movement of the magnet causes a horizontal -deflection of this spot to the right or left depending upon the -direction of the current passing through the coil. As these movements -can be produced at will by means of the key at the sending station, it -is only necessary to apply to them the dots and dashes of the Morse -alphabet, to have a very ready and perfect means of communication. To -the uninitiated spectator the facility with which the practiced -operator translates these apparently meaningless movements is -remarkable. If the cable is long and not in good condition the signals -are sometimes almost imperceptible, while any slight jar of the table -or apparatus will produce a large and irregular effect. Earth currents -also will cause vibrations hard to distinguish from the signals, and -if, as sometimes happens, the battery is connected in the wrong way, -the signals will be reversed. In spite of these drawbacks the skillful -operator reads off the message and rarely makes an error. This -instrument is still in use on some of the cable lines, but on most of -them it has been replaced by a recording instrument, also the invention -of Sir Wm. Thompson, which is almost as sensitive, and of which I will -speak later on. The key used in connection with these instruments, both -the mirror and recorder, is arranged with two levers, so connected that -pressing one of them causes a current to be sent over the line in one -direction, while the other sends it in the opposite. - -The method adopted for comparing chronometers by means of these -instruments was as follows:--Everything being ready for the exchange of -signals, the observer at one station seated himself, where he could see -the face of the chronometer, with his hand on the cable key. At ten -seconds before the beginning of a minute as shown by the second hand, -he pressed his key several times in quick succession, thus sending a -series of impulses through the line, which appeared at the other end as -a rapid movement of the light to and fro. This was a warning signal, -and the observer at the second station with his eye on the light, -tapped his chronograph key in the same way making a series of marks, -which indicated the beginning of the comparison. The first observer -exactly at the sixtieth second by his chronometer pressed his key -quickly and firmly and repeated this operation at every fifth second -for one minute. The second observer tapped his key promptly as soon as -he saw the light move, thus registering the time on his chronograph. -The minute at which the first signal was sent, was then telegraphed, -and repeated back, to insure against error, and the operation was -repeated until sixty-five signals had been sent from one station and -received at the other. Then the second observer sent the same number of -signals to the first in precisely the same manner, thus giving -sixty-five comparisons of the chronometers in each direction. The -results derived from this method are affected by errors from two -causes. One is the personal error of the observers in sending and -receiving signals and the other the time consumed by the electric -impulse in traveling over the line and through the instruments. If the -same strength of battery is used at each station, and the resistance of -the instruments is the same, the errors arising from this latter source -will be eliminated by the double exchange. The observer sending the -signals kept his eye on the chronometer and counted the second beats by -both eye and ear, moving the hand which he had on the key slightly in -unison with the beats, and could thus be sure of pressing the key at -the proper time within a very small fraction of a second. At the other -end of the line, considerable time is lost after the actual movement of -the light before the observer can press his chronograph key, and the -principal error affecting the result is the difference of this time in -the two observers, which was found to be very small. - -As I have said, the cable was first used in the measurement between -Kingston and Aspinwall, Lieut. Commander Green occupying the former -station, and Mr. Rock the latter. After the successful completion of -this link, measurements were made from Santiago de Cuba to Kingston, -and to Havana. It was the intention to measure from this last point to -Key West, but about this time yellow fever broke out there and the -expedition was ordered by the Secretary of the Navy to return. The -Fortune arrived at Washington in April, 1875, and the time until -November was spent in working up the winter's observations. Speaking in -a general way this work is as follows:--From observations extending -over many years, the exact positions in the heavens of a large number -of fixed stars have been found, so that their times of passing any -meridian can be computed with great accuracy. The transit instrument is -furnished with an eye-piece containing a number of parallel lines -usually made of spider silk. These are placed in the focus of the -instrument, and it is set in position, so that the middle line of the -group is in the plane of the meridian. The observer provides himself -with a list of desirable stars, and setting his instrument on those he -may choose, records the time at which they pass each of the spider -lines, by tapping his chronograph key. If there were no instrumental -errors to be discovered and allowed for, if the star's place were known -absolutely, and the observer had no personal equation, then it would be -only necessary in order to find the error of the clock, to observe one -star upon the middle line of the reticle. The difference of the clock -time of transit and the real time as already known, would be the clock -error and no further trouble would be required. But as none of these -conditions are fulfilled, it is necessary to multiply observations in -order to eliminate accidental errors, and to obtain instrumental -corrections which may be applied so as to get the most probable result. -Accidental errors of eyesight and perception are nearly eliminated by -taking the star's transit over several lines instead of one and using -the mean. Some of the instrumental errors are from the following -causes. If the pivots which support the telescope are unequal in size -the axis of the tube will be thrown to one side or the other of the -meridian, and the star will be observed either before or after it -crosses. The weight of all transit instruments causes a flexure of the -horizontal axis and this effect is at its maximum in those of the -prismatic pattern. The spider lines must be adjusted so that the middle -one is exactly in the axis of the tube, or as this can seldom be done -the resulting error, called the collimation, must be found. The -horizontal axis of the instrument must be as nearly level as possible, -and the error in this respect must be found by frequent applications of -a delicate spirit level. Finally the instrument must be directed as -nearly as possible to the north and south points of the horizon, and a -correction must be made for any error in this respect. The result of -each of these errors is to cause the star's transit to be recorded too -early or too late, and to get the true result they must all be found -and applied with their proper signs. The inequality of pivots and the -flexure correction are found by delicate measurement and observations, -when the instrument is first used, and are recorded as constants to be -applied in all subsequent work. The level tubes are graduated and the -value of their divisions obtained in angular measure. The collimation -error is found by observing stars near the zenith in one position of -the instrument and then reversing and observing others, or by taking -the transit of a slow moving star over a portion of the spider lines -then reversing and observing the same intervals in the opposite order. -The error of azimuth, or deviation from the north and south line, is -found by comparing the observations of stars whose zenith distances -differ considerably. These corrections all being found and applied to -the observation of each star, the result is the correct time of transit -as shown by the chronometer, and the difference between that time and -the true time, is the error of the chronometer. A mean of the -observations of several stars on the same night, gives a very accurate -value for this clock error, and by comparing the results of several -nights' work, the rate is found. By applying the rate to the clock -error it is reduced to any required epoch, as for instance, the mean -time of the exchange of time signals, and the difference of longitude -is easily found. As may be imagined the computation and application of -all these errors, exercising the greatest care to insure accuracy is a -long and tedious process. The operations described give a very close -result, but in order to arrive at the greatest accuracy obtainable the -computations are made again by the method of least squares. - -In the Autumn of 1875, the expedition again took the field, this time -in the side wheel steamer Gettysburg, which was much better adapted to -the work than the Fortune. The first link measured was between Key West -and Havana. Key West had already been telegraphically determined by the -Coast Survey, and now afforded a base for the system of measurements -completed and for those to follow. The next measurement was between -Kingston and St. Thomas. Then from the latter place to Antigua and to -Port Spain, Trinidad. From Port Spain, measurements were made to -Barbadoes and Martinique. The position at St. Thomas was then -re-occupied, and measurements made thence to San Juan, Porto Rico, and -to Santa Cruz. This ended the work in the West Indies, differences of -longitude having been measured between nearly all the important points -connected by telegraph. The Latitude of all the stations, was also -determined by the zenith telescope method, and the position of the -stations was referred either to the observation spot previously used, -when that could be identified, or to some prominent landmark. - -Between St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, the measurement was made twice, the -observers exchanging stations at the completion of the first series of -observations. This was to eliminate the effect of their personal -errors, and to obtain a value of these, which might be applied to the -other measurements. It has long been known that different people -perceive the same phenomenon at different times, varying with different -individuals, but reasonably constant with the same individual. In the -particular case of observing the transit of a star, most people will -record it on a chronograph from one to three tenths of a second after -it happens. In the method of observing by eye and ear the error is -generally much greater. The whole question of personal equation, -however, is a mixed one and I will not attempt to discuss it, but will -only give some of the results obtained in this particular work. In -longitude measurements the error from this cause is half the difference -of the personal equation of the two observers. If this difference -remained constant, then it would be easy to find it once for all, and -apply it to all measurements made by the same observers. In the West -India work, it was assumed that it did remain constant, and half the -difference between the two measurements made from St. Thomas to Santa -Cruz, was applied to all the other links. The correction was quite -small, being only 0^{s}.025. In subsequent work by the same and other -observers it was deemed wiser not to apply any corrections at all, -rather than one that was probably not exact, and might be much in -error. To show the fluctuations to which this elusive quantity is -subject, I will cite the results of some observations made to determine -it, by observers engaged in this same work at a subsequent period. In -April and May, 1883, at Galveston, Texas, two observers D. and N. -having just completed a telegraphic measurement between that place and -Vera Cruz, Mexico, made some observations for the determination of -their relative personal equation, by observing transits of alternate -stars under the same conditions as near as possible. Both used the same -instruments, transit, chronometer and chronograph. On April 30, two -sets of observations were made, showing the difference of the equations -to be 0^{s}.26. On May 1, one set gave 0^{s}.32, and another 0^{s}.29. -On May 2, only one set was made giving 0^{s}.36, a variation of -0^{s}.07 in two days. In June 1884, one year later, another series of -observations of the same character was made at the Naval Observatory in -Washington, and on the same nights the personal equation machine -invented by Prof. Eastman, was used as a comparison. This is an -instrument in which an artificial star is made to record its own -transit over the wires of a reticle, while the observer records the -same with a chronograph key. The difference is manifestly the personal -error of the observer. This gives the absolute equation of the -observers, and their difference is the relative equation, and should -accord with that found by the method of alternate stars. Some of the -results were as follows:--On June 4, the difference by machine of their -personal errors was 0^{s}.16 and by star observations 0^{s}.24, on the -15th of June the machine gave 0^{s}.10 and the stars 0^{s}.24, on the -16th, machine 0^{s}.14, stars, 0^{s}.13, a very close agreement, on the -17th, machine gave 0^{s}.07 and stars 0^{s}.18. The observer N. -combined with another, C., who had not had as much experience in -observing, gave still more discordant results. On June 20, the machine -gave as their relative equation, 0^{s}.08, while star observations gave -0^{s}.27, on June 23, machine 0^{s}.13, stars 0^{s}.51, and on June 28, -machine, 0^{s}.20, stars 0^{s}.35. In the case of the first two -observers a mean of the determinations amounting to about 0^{s}.20 -might have been applied to the measurements made by them, but as these -were made under all conditions of climate, in latitudes varying from -30° N. to 36° S. and in different states of health and bodily comfort, -it was concluded not to introduce any correction at all rather than one -that might be considerably in error. In all of the work it has been the -custom as far as possible to place the observers alternately east and -west of each other, so that the result of personal error in one -measurement is neutralized to a greater or less extent in the next. Of -course the method of exchanging stations and making two measurements of -each meridian distance would afford the best solution of this problem, -but except in certain favorable conditions, this is precluded by -considerations of time and expense. In the measurement between -Galveston and Vera Cruz mentioned above, it had been the intention to -exchange stations, but by the time the first measurement was finished -the season was rather far advanced, there was danger of yellow fever in -Vera Cruz and an observer going there at that time, if he escaped -disease would have had the certainty of being quarantined from entering -the United States for three weeks or a month after leaving Mexico. - -Upon the completion of the West Indian work, and the publication in -1877, of the results, it was determined by the Bureau of Navigation to -send an Expedition for the same purpose to the east coast of South -America. Cables were in use extending from Para in northern Brazil to -Buenos Ayres in the Argentine Republic. A cable had at one time -connected this system with the West Indies, through British Guiana and -Trinidad, but one of the links was broken and there was no prospect of -its repair, otherwise the Station established at Trinidad in 1874 might -have been taken as the starting point. There was direct communication -however between England and Brazil, by the way of Portugal, and the -Madeira and Cape de Verde Islands. Lisbon seemed to afford the most -convenient place to start from, but its longitude had never been -determined by telegraph and it was decided to request the French Bureau -of Longitudes to coöperate by making this measurement from Paris. This -request was readily granted, but for some reason the agreement was not -kept. For the use of the Expedition the old fashioned sailing ship -_Guard_ was furnished and Lieut. Com. Green was given command. Mr. Rock -being otherwise employed his place was taken by Lieut. Com.(now -Commander) C. H. Davis, U. S. N. The instruments having been placed in -good order, and new supplies furnished where necessary, the expedition -sailed from New York for Lisbon in the latter part of October, 1877. -The Guard was a slow sailer, the weather was rough and the wind -generally ahead, consequently a month was consumed in making the -passage. It was the intention to make the first measurement between -Lisbon and Funchal, Madeira. Lieut. Com. Davis with party and -instruments occupied the latter station, proceeding by mail steamer at -the first opportunity. The cable from England does not land directly at -Lisbon, but at a small town called Carcavellos on the coast about -twelve miles from the city. As it was not practicable to connect the -land line from Lisbon direct to the cable, it was necessary in making -the exchange of signals to adopt another method, or rather combination -of methods. An officer of the ship was sent to Carcavellos, furnished -with a chronometer and chronograph. When the time came for exchanging -signals, he first compared his chronometer with that at Lisbon, by the -automatic method, in use on land lines, then with the Funchal -chronometer over the cable using the mirror galvanometer. Finally a -second automatic comparison was made with Lisbon. From the data -furnished by these comparisons it was an easy matter to compute the -difference between the chronometers at Lisbon and Funchal. The Lisbon -party had been received with great courtesy by the director of the -Royal Observatory, Capt. Oom of the Portuguese Navy, and had been given -the use of a small detached observatory near the main building. The -party at Funchal selected a site on the ramparts of an old fort, which -afforded a clear view and was near the landing place of the cable. Here -occurred an accident to the transit instrument, which fortunately was -easily remedied. Near the beginning of the observations on the first -night the wind, which was blowing almost a gale, lifted a part of the -roof off the observatory, and dropped one section of it inside. The -transit was knocked off the pier, and was at first thought to be much -injured. Fortunately the precaution had been taken to bring along a -couple of spare instruments, borrowed from the Transit of Venus -Commission for use in case of such an accident. The Funchal party was -provided with one of these, which was set up for use by the next night, -and the injured one was sent to Lisbon for repairs. The injury proved -to be less than supposed and the repairing was an easy matter. Upon the -completion of this measurement the Lisbon party proceeded to St. -Vincent one of the Cape de Verde Islands. This is a barren and desolate -spot of volcanic formation, but being on the route of steamers from -Europe to Africa and South America is of much importance as a coaling -station. Measurements were made from this point to Funchal and to -Pernambuco in Brazil, and the Guard then sailed for Rio Janeiro. Upon -arriving at that point after a long passage, it was found that the -cable between Rio and Pernambuco was broken, and there being no -immediate prospect of its being repaired, the Pernambuco party was -ordered by mail steamer to Rio, and thence to Montevideo. A measurement -was made between Rio and Montevideo and then between the latter place -and Buenos Ayres, Lieut. Com. Green occupying the Montevideo station -for that purpose. The position of the observatory at Buenos Ayres was -referred to that occupied by Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the Argentine -National Observatory, in a similar measurement a short time before -between that place and Cordova. - -Both parties now returned to Rio, only to find that the cable was still -broken. In order to be ready for work as soon as it should be repaired, -Lieut. Com. Green proceeded to Bahia with the ship and established a -station there, Lieut. Com. Davis with his party remaining in Rio. After -waiting a month, and there still seeming to be no prospect of the -repair of the cable, the expedition finally sailed for home, arriving -at Norfolk, Va., after a pleasant and uneventful voyage of forty-five -days. Repairs to the cable were not completed until several months -afterward. In May of the next year, the party was again sent out, to -complete the measurement on the Brazilian Coast, and also to measure -from Greenwich to Lisbon, the French Bureau of Longitudes having failed -to carry out its promise to measure from Paris. There being no ship -available for the purpose the traveling was done by mail steamer. Upon -arrival in England, an interview was had with the Astronomer Royal, who -readily agreed to assist in the work. Lieut. Com. Green accordingly -established his observatory at the landing place of the cable at -Porthcurnow in Cornwall, and Lieut. Com. Davis proceeded to Lisbon and -occupied the station used there the year before. Owing to the foggy and -rainy weather prevalent in England at that season, it was found -impossible to make any astronomical observations at the Porthcurnow -observatory. The work was therefore done in this way:--Observations -were made at Greenwich and at Lisbon, and Porthcurnow and Carcavellos -were used as transmitting stations. The chronometer at Porthcurnow was -compared automatically with the clock at Greenwich, and by cable with -the chronometer at Carcavellos. The latter was compared automatically -with that at Lisbon, before and after the cable exchange. At this time -there were made at Carcavellos, some experiments with a view to making -the receipt of the time signals over the cable automatic, thus doing -away with the personal equation of the receiver. The instrument in use -for the regular business of the cable was what is known as the siphon -recorder, also the invention of Sir Wm. Thompson. In this a small coil -of fine wire is suspended by a fibre of silk, between the poles of a -powerful permanent magnet. The currents from the cable pass through -this coil and the action is to deflect it to the right or left, just as -the mirror is deflected in the instrument already described. Attached -to this coil is a siphon made of a capillary glass tube. One end of the -siphon dips into a reservoir of aniline ink, and the other hangs -immediately over the centre of a fillet of paper, which is unwound by -clock-work. If the siphon touched the paper, the feeble currents sent -through the cable would be powerless to move it, on account of the -friction, and in order to produce a mark some means must be found of -forcing the ink through the capillary tube. This is accomplished by -electrifying the ink positively and the paper negatively, by means of a -small inductive machine, driven by an electric motor. The effort of the -two electricities to unite, forces the ink through the tube and it -appears on the paper as a succession of small dots. When the paper is -in motion and the coil at rest, a straight line is formed along the -middle of the fillet by these dots, but as soon as a current is sent -through the coil the siphon moves to the right or left making an offset -to this line. These offsets on one side or the other are used as the -dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet. A time signal sent over the -cable while this instrument was in circuit, appeared as a single offset -on the paper, and it was only necessary to graduate the paper into -seconds spaces by the local chronometer, in order to have the automatic -record required. The ordinary chronometer circuit could not be put -through the coil directly, as it would then charge the cable and -interfere with the signals, and besides, the current, unless by the -introduction of a high resistance it was reduced in strength, would -infallibly give such a violent motion to the coil as to break the -siphon, if it did no other damage. The result was obtained in this way; -an ordinary telegraph relay was put in the chronometer circuit and the -armature of course moved with the beats. To this armature was fastened -one end of a fine thread. The other end was attached to a slender piece -of elastic brass which was fixed at one end to the framework supporting -the paper, in such a way that the other end touched the metallic vessel -holding the ink, except when the thread was drawn tight enough to pull -it away. This the armature of the relay did while the circuit through -the chronometer was complete, but as soon as it was broken at the -beginning of a second, the tension of the thread was relaxed and the -brass sprung back against the ink well, allowing the positive and -negative electricities to unite independently of the siphon. The ink -then ceased to flow, until the spring was drawn away, thus leaving a -small blank space in the line of dots and forming a very good -chronographic record. This was liable to a small error due to the -length of time that elapsed between the release of the spring by the -armature and its impact on the ink well. Had there been time for more -extensive experiment this difficulty might have been overcome. Or if -the same method had been adopted at both stations, the result would -have been affected by only the difference between the times of movement -of the brass spring which would have been minute. Lack of time for -experiment, and the fact that the observers were averse to introducing -untested methods into a chain of measurements most of the links of -which were already completed, prevented any use being made of this -achievement. The measurement between Greenwich and Lisbon being -satisfactorily completed, Lieut. Com. Green by order of the Navy -Department returned to the United States, and the links between Rio and -Pernambuco and between the latter place and Para, were measured by -Lieut. Com. Davis and the writer, completing the work of the -expedition, after which the party returned to Washington. - -The computation of this work, showed the somewhat surprising fact that -the heretofore accepted position in longitude of Lisbon, differed from -the true one by about two miles. The longitude of Rio Janeiro had -always been more or less in doubt, various determinations had differed -by as much as nine miles, but the position finally decided upon by the -best authorities agreed very closely with that obtained by telegraph. - -The next expedition was sent out by the Bureau of Navigation to China, -Japan and the East Indies, Lieut. Com. Green being still in charge. The -officers composing the party sailed from San Francisco by mail steamer -in April, 1881, for Yokohama, where they joined the U. S. Steamer -Palos. From Hong Kong north to Vladivostok in Eastern Siberia the -cables were owned by a Danish company. From Hong Kong to the south and -west they were the property of English companies. Beginning at -Vladivostok observations were made at all stations on the Asiatic coast -except Penang, as far as Madras, India. It was intended to try and make -some use of the automatic method of receiving time signals, on this -work, but on arriving in Japan it was found that the recording -instrument used by the Danish company was entirely different from that -used by the English lines. It consisted of a series of electro-magnets -acting on a single armature, which carried a siphon made of silver. The -signals consisted of long and short movements, to one side of the -middle line, instead of equal deflections on both sides as in the -Thompson recorder. An attempt was made to convert this instrument into -a relay, by causing the siphon to make and break a circuit, but it was -not successful. The movements of the siphon were not regular enough, -and the contact was not firm. Consequently the mirror method of -exchanging signals was still adhered to. - -The longitude of the position occupied in Vladivostok, had been -determined telegraphically from Pulkova, by the Russians, using the -land lines across Siberia. The English had also determined the position -at Madras, using the cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The -work of the United States Expedition joined these two positions, -completing a chain of measurements extending over many thousand miles, -made by observers of different nationalities in various climates. It -was to be expected that considerable discrepancy would be found in the -final result, but taking the longitude of Vladivostok as brought from -Madras, and comparing it with that determined by the Russians, the -difference was only 0^{s}.39. Taking everything into consideration, -this result was gratifyingly close. Upon the conclusion of this series -of determinations, the connection of Lieut. Commander Green with the -work was severed, he receiving his promotion to the rank of Commander. - -The next work was under the charge of Lieut. Com. Davis, and consisted -in the determination in 1883-84, of positions in Mexico, Central -America and the west coast of South America. Cables had just been -completed, extending from Galveston, Texas, to Vera Cruz, thence across -Mexico to the Pacific and down that coast to Lima, Peru, where -connection was made with another system extending to Valparaiso. -Galveston was a point determined by the Coast Survey, and the -measurement thence to Vera Cruz was the first one made. It was -completed in May '83, and in the Autumn of the same year the party -proceeded to the South American coast, and stations were established -and observations made at various points from Valparaiso to Panama, and -at one point, La Libertad, in Central America. It was at first the -intention to extend the series across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and -connect with Vera Cruz, but lack of time prevented this, and as the -station at Panama determined nearly ten years before, afforded a -convenient starting point, the idea was abandoned. From Valparaiso, a -measurement was made with the coöperation of Dr. Gould to his -observatory at Cordova, using the line across the Andes, and exchanging -signals automatically. These measurements constituted the final links -in a long chain, extending from the prime meridian Greenwich across the -Atlantic to the United States, thence via the West Indies to Panama, -down the west coast of South America to Valparaiso, across the Andes to -Cordova and Buenos Ayres, up the east coast to Pernambuco, across the -Atlantic to Lisbon, and thence to Greenwich, altogether a distance of -eighteen to twenty thousand miles. The two longitudes of Cordova, as -brought from Greenwich by the two routes, differed from each other by -only 0^{s}.048, a result which speaks well for the accuracy of the -methods employed. When preparations were being made for this -expedition, it was determined to accomplish if possible something in -the way of getting rid of the personal equation in exchanging signals. -An idea which had been suggested by work done by Major Campbell, R. E. -in the measurement between Bombay and Aden, seemed to promise well. It -was to be used with the siphon or other form of recorder. The ordinary -double current cable key with two levers, was arranged with an -additional lever in such a manner that while in ordinary use in the -telegraph office, it could also be put in circuit with the chronometer -and chronograph in the observatory, and a signal sent through the cable -would have its time of sending registered on the chronograph. -Ordinarily in speaking over a cable line, connection is made in such a -way that the current sent does not pass through the recorder at the -sending station, as a violent movement of the siphon would result. By -means of a shunt, however, it is possible to control this movement -somewhat. Suppose now, that the connections at each station are made in -such a way, by means of this key and the shunt, that a signal sent from -one, is registered on both recorders and on the sender's chronograph. -The observers leaving their assistants to take care of the -chronographs, go to the respective telegraph offices, and all being -ready, the observer A taps his key. This sends an impulse through the -cable, which appears on A's recorder, as a violent jump or kick of the -siphon. On B's recorder it is registered as a deflection like the -ordinary dot or dash, at the same instant is recorded on A's -chronograph the time of sending. As soon as B sees the signal on his -recorder, he taps his key also registering the signals on both -recorders and on his chronograph. A, seeing B's signal again taps his -key, and so on, as long as desired. The result is that each observer -has a record on his siphon fillet of all signals sent and received, -while the times of those he sent are recorded on his chronograph. By -the use of the diagonal scale and the Rule of Three, he can without -difficulty find the times of the signals received. The siphon recorders -are well made, and the paper moves with great regularity. This system -was used in the measurement between Galveston and Vera Cruz with great -success. It was intended to employ the same method throughout the -measurement on the west coast of America, but on arriving at Lima, it -was found that the company owning the lines south of that point still -used the mirror galvanometer, and it was of course necessary to return -to the old method. The improved key was used however, which eliminated -the error in sending signals. - -After this work was completed and the results published in 1885, -nothing was done in this line by the Bureau of Navigation for some -years. Upon the return of the writer in the spring of 1888, from a -cruise in the South Pacific, he found that the subject of sending an -expedition to complete the measurements in Mexico and Central America -was under consideration in the Bureau of Navigation and the -Hydrographic office. It was finally decided that the work should be -done, and the writer was placed in charge. The instruments were brought -out of their retirement, and by the aid of the Hydrographic Office a -very complete outfit was furnished, and in November of last year a -start was made from New York, the expedition proceeding by mail steamer -to Vera Cruz. Here the spot occupied by Lieut. Com. Davis in '83 was -found, his transit pier, which was still standing was repaired, and -instruments mounted. Lieut. Charles Laird, U. S. N., who had been -identified with the longitude work since the China expedition in 1881, -was left in charge of the observatory at Vera Cruz, and the writer -proceeded with his party to the small town of Coatzacoalcos, at the -mouth of the river of the same name. This point is about one hundred -and twenty miles southeast of Vera Cruz, and is the landing place of -the cable. A land line extends from this point to Salina Cruz on the -Pacific coast, a distance of about two hundred miles. In exchanging -time signals between Vera Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, the automatic method -was employed, the cable being short. The old wooden observatories were -used at these points, but as they were too heavy for transportation -across the Isthmus, tents made especially for astronomical purposes -were substituted for them in the observations made on the Pacific -coast. The journey across the Isthmus was slow, about two weeks being -employed in traveling two hundred miles, though as the route was -devious, the actual distance was nearer three hundred. Some of the -instruments were heavy, and after being taken in canoes a hundred miles -up the Coatzacoalcos river, against a rapid current, they were loaded -on a train of pack mules, and carried the rest of the way by land. -While the first party was crossing the Isthmus, the other was on its -way from Vera Cruz, and being ready at about the same time, a -successful measurement was made between Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, -exchanging signals automatically. The Coatzacoalcos party then crossed -to Salina Cruz, while the other proceeded to La Libertad in Salvador, -where the station established in the Spring of '84, was again occupied. -The measurement between these places being completed, the Libertad -party went on to San Juan del Sur, in Nicaragua, near the terminus of -the proposed interoceanic canal. In the measurement between this point -and Salina Cruz, as well as in the one preceding, the exchange was -effected by mirror signals. This completed the season's work, and the -two parties made the best of their way home via Panama, arriving in -Washington in April and May respectively. The computation of the -observations is not yet complete though well advanced; it was the -intention to publish preliminary results this Fall, but owing to lack -of time that can not be done. - -Another piece of work is laid out for the same party for the coming -winter, which is the measurement from Santiago de Cuba, through Hayti -and San Domingo to La Guayra in Venezuela, over the cables of a French -company, which have just been completed. This work will consume about -six months, and the expedition which is to start almost immediately -will probably return in April or May next. The determination of the -longitude of La Guayra will give a point from which many other -measurements may be made along the north coast of South America, -furnishing material for extensive corrections of the charts of that -region. - - * * * * * - -Having presented an outline of the work done so far, as well as that -proposed for the near future, I will now mention some of the trials and -tribulations, as well as the pleasures experienced in carrying out the -object desired in an expedition of this kind. The greatest politeness -and kindness have always been experienced from the officials and -employees of the various telegraph companies over whose lines work has -been carried on. The government officials of the foreign countries -visited, have also invariably shown the utmost politeness, but -sometimes this politeness has been visibly tinged with suspicion. The -measurements in Peru and Chili were made amid the closing scenes of the -war between the countries. Upon the arrival of the expedition in Lima, -an interview was had with the Chilian Commander-in-Chief who had -possession of the city, and permission was requested and readily -granted to occupy a station in Arica. Upon arriving at the latter place -some days after, the Chilian governor in charge was found to have -instructions to facilitate the work, and readily granted permission to -establish the observatory in a convenient locality, but flatly refused -to allow a wire to be extended to the telegraph office, and also -refused to forward to his immediate superior, a request that it might -be allowed. He evidently supposed the party were emissaries of the -United States, sent to treat secretly with conquered Peru, but how he -expected this was to be done remains a secret. By a vigorous use of the -telegraph in communicating with the U. S. Ministers to both Chili and -Peru, his objections were silenced, and the wire was put up. The -observatory at Arica was erected on the side of a hill to the windward -of the town, because it afforded a clear view, and was less dirty than -other eligible sites. It also was a safe position in case of a possible -earthquake or tidal wave, by which Arica had already been twice visited -with disastrous effect. In digging for a foundation for the transit -pier, several mummies of the ancient Peruvians were unearthed at a -depth of a foot. They had evidently belonged to the poorer class of -people, as their wrappings were composed of coarse mats, instead of the -fine cloth with which the wealthier people were usually interred. One -was the body of a female with long hair, which had been turned to a -reddish yellow color by the alkali in the soil. The whole coast of Peru -is barren and desolate, except in the river valleys, it being seldom -visited by rain, while it is nearly always overhung with heavy clouds -and fog banks, which render astronomical work exceedingly difficult. -Even when partially clear in the day time, it generally becomes cloudy -at night. Many times the observer would be at his place before sunset -ready to seize the first suitable star revealed by the darkness, only -to be baffled by thick banks of cloud which would cover the entire sky -in from five to ten minutes. - -In northern Peru, with a latitude of about five degrees south, is the -town of Paita. It is an assemblage of mud-colored houses, at the foot -of high, mud colored bluffs. On top of these bluffs is a perfectly -barren table land extending inland and up and down the coast for many -miles. Before visiting it the observers were informed that its one good -point was the perfect astronomical weather which always prevailed. -Clouds were unknown, and such a thing as rain had never been heard of. -The extreme dryness of the atmosphere was so favorable to health that -no one ever died, and when a consumptive invalid was imported by the -inhabitants in the hope of starting a cemetery, he blasted their -expectations by recovering. Judge then of their feeling, when upon -arriving at this delightful place, they were met with the information -that while it was true that the sky was, in general, perfectly clear -both by night and day, yet about once in seven years, rain could be -expected, and that the year then present was the rainy one. And sure -enough it did rain. The usually dusty streets became rivers and -quagmires, the rocky valleys in the vicinity were transformed into -roaring torrents, and the table land usually an arid desert became a -swamp with a rank growth of vegetation. However by using every -opportunity and snatching stars between clouds and showers the work was -finally completed. - -Upon arriving in Panama shortly after this experience, the party was -met with the pleasant intelligence that yellow fever was prevalent, and -that the foreigners were dying like sheep. Nearly every day of the -party's stay, some one died of sufficient importance to have the church -bells tolled for his funeral, while of the ordinary people little -notice was taken. Every morning, the writer remembers passing a -carpenter's shop where nothing was made but coffins, and the supply was -evidently not equal to the demand, for finally the proprietor began to -import them, apparently by the ship load. The weather however was -delightful, and the nights were the most perfect, astronomically -speaking, that could be desired. - -The observers who went from Japan to Vladivostok were obliged to wait -several weeks at Nagasaki, before an opportunity offered for proceeding -to their destination, and when they finally arrived, the getting away -again was a problem. Communication with the outside world by water was -only open during the summer months, and even then it was more -accidental than otherwise. The party established the observatory -however, and settled down to work, letting the future take care of -itself. In the early part of the work, rather an amusing incident -occurred. As the community was full of all sorts and conditions of men, -Koreans, Chinamen and Russian exiles, the last not political but -criminal offenders; it was thought wise to have a sentry stationed at -the observatory to guard against any possible harm to the instruments. -So the Governor of the town was asked to furnish a soldier for that -purpose, which request was readily granted, and one night the sentry -was posted with orders to let no one touch the observatory. These -orders he construed literally, and when the observers appeared to -commence their night's work, he kept them off at the point of the -bayonet. His only language being Russian with which the observers were -not familiar, it was impossible to explain the true state of affairs, -and it was only after hunting up an interpreter and communicating with -his commanding officer that an entry was finally effected. A good deal -of bad weather was experienced at this place, but at the end of six -weeks enough observations had been made for the required purpose, and -the party was fortunate enough to secure passage to Nagasaki, in a -small steamer that had brought a load of coal out from Germany. - -In the expedition to the Asiatic coast one of the most interesting -experiences was the trip to Manila in the Philippine Islands. This is -quite a large town when intact, but a great portion of it is usually in -the condition of being shaken down by an earthquake or blown over by a -typhoon. The inhabitants are full of energy, however, and find time -between downfalls to build up again. The cable from Hong Kong lands at -a point about one hundred and twenty miles from Manila, and the writer -was directed to proceed thither, with a chronometer and chronograph for -the purpose of transmitting time signals. The first part of the journey -was made in a small coasting steamer uncommonly dirty, and occupied -about thirty-six hours. At the end of that time the village of Sual in -the Gulf of Lingayen was reached. This was distant from the cable -station about thirty miles, and the remainder of the journey was made -in a native boat, with mat sails, and bamboo outriggers, part of the -time through channels between numerous small islands and for some -distance in the open sea. The progress was slow, but it was a pleasant -way of traveling, except for the sleeping accommodations which were -primitive; consisting of a palm leaf mat thrown over a platform made of -split bamboo, in which all the knots had been carefully preserved. -About three days, including stoppages, were consumed in this thirty -mile voyage, and the traveler finally reached his destination to be -received with the greatest hospitality by the staff at the telegraph -station, and just in time to allay the fears of the observers at Hong -Kong and Manila who had begun to think him lost. About three weeks were -spent here, and as the work only occupied a short time at night, the -days were pleasantly passed in exploring the surrounding country, -making friends with the natives, shooting and photographing the -scenery. The return to Manila was by the same route and occupied nearly -the same length of time. - -The measurement from Singapore to Madras was over one of the longest -lines of cable ever used for this purpose, the distance being about -1600 nautical miles. The Atlantic cables used by Dr. Gould in 1866 were -a little more than 1,850 miles in length. There was an intermediate -station at Penang about 400 miles from Singapore, where all the work of -the line was repeated. For the longitude measurement however the cables -were connected through to form an unbroken line. The mirror was the -only instrument that could be used and even with this the signals were -feeble and much affected by earth currents. - -The observing parties have never been troubled by wild beasts, but -while at Saigon in Cochin, China, a rifle was always kept handy for use -in case of the appearance of a tiger. The observatory here was located -near the edge of a jungle, and alongside the telegraph station, on the -veranda of which a large tiger had been shot by one of the operators -only a short time before. - -In the expedition of last winter to Mexico and Central America, the -principal annoyance was caused by insects which were numerous and -malignant. At Coatzacoalcos they were found in the greatest abundance, -though the whole isthmus of Tehuantepec is alive with them. Fleas and -mosquitoes were expected of course, but added to this were numerous -others much worse. Of the family of "ticks" four varieties were seen -and felt, ranging in size from almost microscopic to a length of a -third of an inch. The most numerous were about as large as a grain of -mustard seed, and one who walked or rode through the bushes or high -grass would find himself literally covered. One of the worst insects -encountered was the "nigua" which is in appearance something like a -small flea. It burrows into the toes and soles of the feet, lays a -number of eggs, which hatch and produce painful sores. A gruesome story -is current in that region, about an enthusiastic English naturalist, -who found specimens of these encamped in his feet, and concluded to -take them home in that way, in order to observe the effect, but died of -them before reaching England. All the party were afflicted with these -pests, but were always fortunate enough to discover them and dig them -out with the point of a knife before any bad results were experienced. -The village of Coatzacoalcos is prettily situated, the climate, -especially in winter, is very agreeable and the river offers a -commodious harbor, but as long as the insects are so unpleasant, few -people will care to live there if they can avoid it. - -There have been directly determined by these various expeditions, about -forty secondary meridians. Many more positions depend upon these, so -they may be said to have made a large addition to our accurate -knowledge of the earth's surface. Telegraphic facilities are being -constantly extended, and as the Bureau of Navigation has now a very -complete outfit for this work, which only needs occasional repairs, it -is hoped that it may be kept up for some time in the future. - - - - -REPORT--GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND. - -BY HERBERT G. OGDEN. - - -In my annual report a year ago, I presented to you briefly our -knowledge of the great geographic divisions of the world. It might be -instructive to continue the subject this evening by relating the -additional information we have acquired during the year; but as the -items are not of great value and the most important are more in the -form of rumors than of facts, I have restricted myself more to the -interests of the western hemisphere, and particularly to those -affecting the United States. - -In Europe we have still the visions of war that have agitated her -peoples for years past; the decapitation of the Turk, and division of -his European empire to appease the ambition of "friendly powers." It is -not until we pass by this civilized section and reach the far east, -that we recognize the dawn of progress in the year; the birth of events -that may in time increase the happiness and welfare of many people. - -The influence of the United States in extending the principle so early -enunciated, "that all men are born free and equal" has been most -marked. The western hemisphere is virtually under the rule of men -chosen by the people, and though we cannot claim that in all instances -the result has been satisfactory, there has, nevertheless, been a -steady advance; political disturbances have become less frequent and -with prolonged tranquillity the arts of peace, commercial enterprise -and internal improvements, have received an impetus that will wed more -strongly the advocates of personal liberty to their ideal God. - -Educated men in both hemispheres predict ultimate success or failure -for our form of government and advance cogent arguments in support of -the views they express. The complications of the great economic -questions that confront us afford texts for arguments that cause many -to doubt the wisdom of entrusting the welfare of a great nation to the -votes of the masses; nevertheless, the people are firm in the belief -that they can conduct their own affairs; and those whom they intrust -with temporary power are seldom so short-sighted as not to realize that -a violation of the trust will meet with certain retribution. Those -appointed to govern must also be teachers, and if in the enthusiasm of -a new creed it shall be shown they have taught the people error instead -of truth, a national uprising sweeps them from control, and for a time -conservatism becomes the guide. To the people of the old world, the -apparent prosperity that has followed our system doubtless receives the -most earnest thought; and the contrast to their own condition excites -their desires to experiment themselves in more liberal forms, and reap -the rewards they believe have followed such measures in America. - -While American methods may extend their influence in this manner to -European nations, and even to the nations of Asia, we should not rest -self-confident of the superiority of our institutions, and that they -alone are the permeating influence that inspire so many with the -thoughts of liberal government that brings disquiet to crowned heads. -The application of recent discoveries and inventions, to the affairs of -every-day life, have raised the power of the individual and caused such -a general increase of intellectual vigor, that independence of rulers -by divine right is no longer a cause for wonder, but is considered by -the intelligent as the natural state for the modern man. - -Since the expedition of Com. Perry our influence in Japan has been -marked, and this most progressive of the Eastern nations has sought -counsel and advice from new America and the men who constitute the -nation. But the progressive people of these isles have been too earnest -in their efforts to advance, to rely solely upon one set of men, or the -example of one nation, and we find they have been gathering in that -which is good from all sections of the civilized world. The record of -their progress, however, bears the stamp of America, and we may justly -claim that it was the influence of freedom that first led these -interesting people into the paths they have followed with such -gratifying results, and which many believe will culminate in the -establishment of a powerful and enlightened nation. Recent advices -announce the formation of a legislative body, organized on the -principle of the Congress of the United States--a step that indicates -Japan may yet find a place in the category of states that are destined -to exert a marked influence in the control of human affairs. - -How different is the neighboring empire of China. Within a stone's -throw, almost, of the advancing civilization of Japan, inhabited by a -people of marked ability but restricted by race traditions to a -condition of inactive conservatism, that seems almost to preclude the -possibility of material advance in centuries to come. The population of -this empire is so great that the density has been averaged at two and -three hundred persons per square mile, and in some districts that it is -as great as seven hundred. We can readily conceive the poverty that -must exist in such an average population for such an extended area. And -we may realize the cries of distress that come from great calamities by -the experiences in our own history, even modified as they have been by -our superior facilities for affording relief, and the comparative -insignificance of the numbers who have required assistance. Recall for -a moment one of the great floods of the Yellow river, where thousands -have perished and tens of thousands have been rendered destitute within -a few hours, and conceive the sufferings, hardships, and greater number -that must yet succumb before those who survived the first great rush of -the waters can be furnished relief; remembering that the means of -intercommunication are the most primitive, and that the immediate -neighbors of the sufferers are in no condition to render more -assistance than will relieve the most urgent necessities of a -comparatively insignificant number. May we not, then, if only from a -humanitarian point of view, greet with pleasure the reception of the -imperial decree authorizing the introduction in the empire of useful -inventions of civilized man, and directing the construction of a great -railroad through the heart of the empire, with Pekin as one of the -termini. This road will cross the Yellow river, affording relief to -this populous district in time of disaster; and it is understood will -eventually be extended to traverse the empire, forming a means of rapid -communication between distant provinces. We may believe, also, that in -time it will be the medium of opening to us a new region for geographic -research, not in the celestial empire alone, but also in the rich -fields of central Asia that are now being occupied by Chinese -emigration. - -Doubtless the greatest geographic discoveries of the age have been made -in central Africa. It was but a few years ago that we were in doubt as -to the true sources of the Nile, and the location of the mouths of -great rivers that had been followed in the interior, was as much a -mystery as though the rivers had flowed into a heated cauldron and the -waters had been dissipated in mist, by the winds, to the four corners -of the earth. It was then that grave fears were aroused for the safety -of Livingstone, who had done so much, and whose efforts it was hoped -would yet solve the great geographic problems his travels had evolved. -A man, patient in suffering, and with a tenacity of purpose that -overcomes the greatest obstacles, he had endeared himself to those who -sought knowledge from his labors, and it was, therefore, with unfeigned -regret that men spoke of the possibility that calamity had overtaken -him, and that the work of the last years of his life would possibly be -lost. The editor of an influential New York journal, sympathizing with -the deep interest that was felt, and doubtless actuated to some extent -by the notoriety success would bring to his journal, determined upon -organizing an expedition to ascertain Livingstone's fate, and thus -brought before the world the hitherto obscure correspondent Henry M. -Stanley. The rare good judgment that selected Mr. Stanley for the -command of such a hazardous expedition was more than demonstrated by -subsequent events. The first reports that Livingstone had been succored -were received with incredulity, but as the facts became known -incredulity gave way to unstinted praise, and Mr. Stanley was accorded -a place among those who had justly earned a reward from the whole -civilized world. - -A few years after his return from his successful mission for the relief -of Livingstone, he was commissioned in the joint interests of the _New -York Herald_ and _London Daily Telegraph_, to command an expedition for -the exploration of central Africa. Traversing the continent from east -to west, he added largely to our knowledge of the lake region and was -the first to bring us facts of the course of the Congo. This expedition -placed him before the world as one of the greatest of explorers, and it -seems, therefore, to have been but natural that, when a great -humanitarian expedition was to be organized nearly ten years later to -penetrate into the still unknown regions of the equatorial belt for the -relief of Emin Pasha, that he should have been selected to command it. -How faithfully he performed this task we are only just learning, and -our admiration increases with every new chapter that is placed before -us. That he was successful in the main object of the expedition is -self-evident, having brought Emin Pasha and the remnant of his -followers to the coast with him. The expedition has also been fruitful -in geographic details, and though we have not as yet the data to change -the maps to accord with all the newly discovered facts, we may feel -assured of their value. Perhaps the best summary of the more important -discoveries can be given in the explorer's own words, which I have -taken from one of his recent letters: - -"Over and above the happy ending of our appointed duties we have not -been unfortunate in geographical discoveries. The Aruwimi is now known -from its source to its bourne. The great Congo forest, covering as -large an area as France and the Iberian peninsula, we can now certify -to be an absolute fact. The Mountains of the Moon, this time beyond the -least doubt, have been located, and Ruwenzori, 'The Cloud King,' robed -in eternal snow, has been seen and its flanks explored and some of its -shoulders ascended, Mounts Gordon Bennett and MacKinnan Cones being but -great sentries warding off the approach to the inner area of 'The Cloud -King.' - -"On the southeast of the range the connection between Albert Edward -Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza has been discovered, and the extent of the -former lake is now known for the first time. Range after range of -mountains has been traversed, separated by such tracts of pasture lands -as would make your cowboys out west mad with envy. And right under the -burning equator we have fed on blackberries and bilberries and quenched -our thirst with crystal water fresh from snow beds. We have also been -able to add nearly six thousand square miles of water to Victoria -Nyanza. - -"Our naturalist will expatiate upon the new species of animals, birds -and plants he has discovered. Our surgeon will tell what he knows of -the climate and its amenities. It will take us all we know how to say -what new store of knowledge has been gathered from this unexpected -field of discoveries. I always suspected that in the central regions, -between the equatorial lakes, something worth seeing would be found, -but I was not prepared for such a harvest of new facts." - -The exploration of Africa, however, has not been confined to the -central belt. Expeditions have been developing the southern section of -the continent; the French have been active in the watershed of the -Niger, and in the east there seems to have been a general advance of -English, Germans, Portuguese and Italians. The latter, it is stated, -have acquired several million square miles of territory in Mozambique, -an acquisition that would indicate our maps have heretofore given this -particular division of territory an area much too insignificant. - -We also learn that Capt. Trevier, a French traveler, has crossed the -continent by ascending the Congo to Stanley Falls, thence southeasterly -through the lake region to the coast at some point in Mozambique, in a -journey of eighteen months; a journey that must bring us a harvest of -new facts. - -On the western hemisphere there has been considerable activity in a -variety of interest, tending to develop the political, commercial and -natural resources. - -Four new states have been admitted to the American Union, and measures -have been introduced in the Congress looking to the admission of two -more. These acts mark an era in the progress of the great northwest -significant of a national prosperity that a generation ago would have -been deemed visionary. We have also to record a tentative union formed -by the Central American states, that at the expiration of the term of -ten years prescribed by the compact, we may hope will be solidified by -a bond to make the union perpetual. In South America a bloodless -revolution presented to the family of nations a new republic in the -United States of Brazil. All thoughtful men must at least feel a throb -of sympathy for Dom Pedro, who in a night lost the allegiance of his -people and the rule of an empire. Sympathy, perhaps, that he does not -crave, for history affords us no parallel of a monarch who taught his -people liberalism, and knowing it could but lead to the downfall of his -empire. It seems to be true, also, that although depriving him of -power, the people whom he loved and ruled with such liberality, have -not forgotten his many virtues, and that the Emperor Dom Pedro will be -revered in republican Brazil as heartily as though his descendants had -been permitted to inherit the empire. We cannot tell if the new order -of affairs will prove permanent, but the education of the Brazilians in -the belief that a republic was inevitable, gives strong grounds to hope -the experiment of self-government will not be a failure. The influence -the successful establishment of this republic is to exert in other -parts of the world is a problem that has already brought new worries to -the rulers of Europe, and not without a reason, for a republican -America is an object lesson that the intelligence of the age will not -be slow to learn. - -The assembly of the "Three Americas Congress" in Washington, is also an -event that may wield an influence in the future. Perhaps it may not be -seen for years to come, but it lays the foundation for commercial and -geographic developments that would redound to the credit of the western -hemisphere. - -We have seen during the year the virtual failure of the Panama Canal -company; for it is unreasonable to believe that a corporation so -heavily involved with such a small proportion of its allotted labor -accomplished, can secure the large sum that would be requisite to -continue operations to completion. The failure of this company has -imparted a fresh impetus to the Nicaragua scheme and ground was broken -on this route in October last. As the Nicaragua route presents many -natural advantages and is free from such stupendous engineering works -as were contemplated at Panama, we may hope for its completion. The -surveys were conducted with deliberation and have evidenced great skill -on the part of those who supervised them, so that we may reasonably -expect the construction will proceed with the same care, and resolve -the question of success into the simple problem of cost. - -A partial account has been furnished by Dr. Nansen of his journey -across Greenland a year ago. The result will be disappointing to those -who anticipated the discovery of open country with green fields and the -general reversal of the Arctic conditions. He describes the region as -being covered with a great shield of ice, dome-like in shape, and which -he estimates to have a maximum thickness of six or seven thousand feet. -For a great part of his journey he traveled at an elevation of about -eight thousand feet, and the cold at times was so intense that he -believes the temperature must have been at least 50° below zero on the -Fahrenheit scale. No land was visible in the interior and he estimates -the highest mountains must be covered with at least several hundred -feet of snow ice. The expedition was one of great danger, and we may -say was accomplished only through the good judgment of the explorer. -The scientific results have not yet been considered, but the explorer -suggests it is an excellent region to study an existing ice field, and -estimates that persistent observations might prove productive of value -in the science of meteorology. - -The Canadians have been active during the year in the exploration of -the vast territory to the northward of their supposed habitable -regions. In the report of Dr. Dawson relating the result of his labors -in the northwest, up to the date of its compilation, we find much that -is new and a great deal that is of interest. We cannot enter into the -details of his itinerary, but we may note as one fact that surely will -excite surprise, the conclusion he reaches that there is a territory of -about 60,000 square miles, the most part to the northward of the -sixtieth parallel, in which agricultural pursuits may be successfully -followed in conjunction with the natural development of the other -resources of the territory. This does not imply that it may become an -agricultural region, and should hardly be construed as more than a -prediction that the pioneers who attempt to develop the region need not -die of starvation. - -We have also to record as a matter of interest in the Arctic region, -the successful establishment of the two parties sent out by the United -States to determine the location of the 141st meridian, the boundary -line between Alaska and the British Provinces north of Mt. St. Elias. -The parties are located on the Yukon and Porcupine rivers above their -confluence at Ft. Yukon. They are well equipped, and it is expected -they will explore a considerable territory and bring back with them -valuable information beyond the special object of the expedition. -Indeed, it may be said, this is but the beginning of a thorough -examination of Alaskan territory, that will eventually form a basis for -the demarkation of the international boundary. This country is full of -surprises in its details, and whatever examinations are made must be -thorough to be effective. Only recently, a small indentation, as it has -been carried on the maps since Vancouver's time, and known as Holkham -Bay, has been found to be a considerable body of water, extending back -from Stephen's passage in two arms, each nearly thirty miles in length -and nearly reaching the assumed location of the Alaska boundary. So -perfectly is the bifurcation and extension of the arms hidden by -islands, that it was only during the past summer when in the regular -course of work the shores of the bay were to be traversed, that the -extent of the bay became known. - -The determination of the boundaries of the land areas on the surface of -the earth has ever been a matter of the greatest interest to the -students of geography. It was the incentive that led the daring -navigators of old to undertake the perilous voyages that in these days -read like romances; and in the light of the more perfect knowledge we -now have of the hidden dangers to which they were exposed, we may pass -by their shortcomings in the admiration we must feel for their heroism -and endurance. To these men we owe our first conception of the probable -distribution of the areas of land and water, but the lines they gave us -were only approximate; and had not scientific effort followed in their -tracks we may reasonably believe the progress of civilization would -have been retarded by generations. True it is, also, that even to-day -we have not that precise knowledge that is requisite for the safety of -quick navigation, nor to calculate the possibility of the future -improvement of undeveloped regions. The commerce of the world in coming -years will demand the accuracy in the location of distant regions as -great as we now have in civilized centres, for time will be too -precious to lose a day of it in the precautions that the navigator must -now follow in approaching undeveloped coasts. That these truths have -guided those who seek to do their share for the future in the labor of -the present, we have ample evidence in the activity of all civilized -governments during the last century. It is a source of shame and -infinite regret that our own government has done so little in this vast -field: that the intelligence of our people has not been awakened to put -forth their energy in so good a cause, that would eventually increase -their own prosperity. But we have not been altogether inactive and -complaint must be in the quantity, not the quality of our labors. The -establishment of "definite locations," for the control of sections and -regions, is the first step in eliminating errors that have been -committed and in providing greater accuracy in the future. At a recent -meeting of the Society we had a paper presented on this subject, from -which we can judge of the good work that has been done by our navy in -these determinations, and gain an insight of the similar labor that has -been prosecuted by other nations. The bands of electric cables that -girdle the earth, afford the most approved means of ascertaining the -longitudes of these positions; and if we but study a cable chart, it -will be found the work yet to be accomplished before the facilities the -cables now afford are exhausted, is not inconsiderable. We hope, -therefore, this good work may be continued, and that surveying and -charting the regions thus approached, will shortly follow. There is -much labor of this character still required on our own continent, and -we will be delinquent in our duty as a progressive people if we do not -follow the good beginning already made to its legitimate conclusion. - -The duties of government are manifold, and for the benefit of those -governed must include legislation that will make manifest the natural -resources of the State. The geographic development and political -advancement of our own country in the century of our national -existence, is a marked instance of the wisdom of preparing for the -future by such acts as legitimately fall within the province of -legislation. - -The new nation began her existence under extraordinary circumstances. -With only an experimental form of government, she was to develop a vast -region of unknown resources; but happily imbued with the belief that -"knowledge is power," it was not long before systematic efforts were -put forth to learn the wealth we had and how it might be utilized. The -congress of the confederation provided the first act in 1785, for the -organization of the land surveys and land parcelling system, that title -to the unoccupied territories in the west might be securely vested in -the individual. We have record of the stimulus this act gave to the -settlement of a large territory, and raised the demand for surveys in -the still further west, developing the geography of a vast region that -has since become the home of millions of people. The original act was -amended as early as 1796, and since then has frequently been added to -in the effort to meet the new conditions evolved in the rapid -development of the country. Other great regions were explored by the -army, sometimes under special acts, until finally we had learned with -some degree of reliability, the general adaptability of our whole -territory. The discovery of the great mineral wealth of the west, and -the improved means of communication afforded by the construction of -continental railways, however, imposed new conditions and it was found -more detailed information would be necessary to meet the demands of the -increasing population. We thus reached another stage where expeditions -equipped for scientific investigation were organized, and through their -labors brought us knowledge of still greater value; and to-day we see -these merged into one body in the geological survey, whose special duty -is the scientific exploration and study of our great territory. - -While this had been passing in the interior, bringing life to -unoccupied regions, the districts on the coast that had long been -settled, were also struggling with new problems. The material progress -of the civilized world, and the pressure from the regions behind them -that had been recently peopled, demanded greater commercial facilities. -Early in the century, almost coincident with the establishment of the -land surveys, provision had been made for the survey of the coasts, and -although through various causes it was not vigorously prosecuted until -a third of the century had passed, when the time came for its economic -use in meeting the new conditions imposed by the general progress of -the nation, the knowledge had been gained that was essential to advance -and develop the great interests affected. The improvements required, -however, could only be secured through active exertion, the actual work -of man; but so pressing has been the want and so persistent has been -the labor, that should we chart the results it would be a surprise to -those who believe the "local geography" has not been changed. - -The demands upon the older communities arising from the increase in -commercial and industrial enterprise, have caused them too, to feel the -want of more detailed information of their surroundings, and they have, -in consequence, undertaken more precise surveys of their territories, -generally availing themselves of the assistance offered by the general -government. This work will doubtless extend in time to all the States, -and be followed, when its value has been made manifest, by the detailed -surveys of precision that have been found necessary as economic -measures in the civilized States of the old world. - -It is rarely we can foresee the full results of great national -enterprises; the special object that calls forth the exertion may be -readily comprehended, but the new conditions evolved from success, and -sometimes from only the partial accomplishment of the original design, -may be factors in governing the future beyond our power to surmise. - -The work of improving the navigation of the Mississippi River, is an -instance of this character so marked, and apparently destined to extend -its influence through so many generations, that a brief record of the -change it has effected in geographic environment will not be without -interest, and, perchance, not without value. - -The area drained by the Mississippi river and tributaries, is forty-one -per cent. of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska; and by -the census of 1880 the population of this great district was -forty-three per cent. of the whole Union. It seems probable that a -large proportion of this population is directly interested in the river -system, and if we add to it the number of those who are indirectly -benefited, we should doubtless find a majority of our people more or -less dependent upon its maintenance. It is only to the alluvial valley, -however, the great strip from Cairo to the Gulf, that I wish -particularly to call your attention this evening. This is really the -great highway for traffic; the cause of the great work that has been -prosecuted; and the scene of the geographic development that will mark -an epoch in the history of the river. - -Ten years ago the importance of the improvement of this water-way was -so forcibly impressed upon Congress, that an act was passed organizing -a "Mississippi River Commission," to make an exhaustive study of the -whole subject and submit plans for the improvement of the river and to -prevent the destructive floods that are of almost annual occurrence. Or -in the language of the act: "It shall be the duty of said Commission to -take into consideration and mature such plan or plans, and estimates, -as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect -the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to -the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and -facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service." - -Large sums of money had already been expended by the general government -in local improvements, but no consistent plan had been developed that -would be an acceptable guide in conducting operations along the whole -river, when this act went into effect. It is not necessary to refer -here to the various systems that were presented to the Commission for -consideration; nor to enter upon the details of the plan finally -adopted; our record being more the effects and primary causes, than the -intermediary processes through which the results have been produced. -The general plan followed by the Commission has been the construction -of works in the bed of the river, to form new banks where a contraction -of the river bed has been deemed necessary; and the erection of levees, -with grading, revetment, and other protection of the banks, in -localities where the natural banks seem particularly liable to give way -under the pressure of a great flood. The object of such works being to -control the river by confining the low water channels in fixed lines, -causing the recurrence of the scour in low water stages in the same -channel in successive low waters; and preventing the diversion of the -stream into new channels during high water stages by overflow of the -banks. A diversion of the stream would leave the works in the bed of -the river below of no greater value than as monuments to the energy and -skill displayed in the details of their construction, and preclude the -ultimate benefit that may be derived from these works in permanently -lowering the bed of the river. The probability of such diversion of the -water, however, seems to have been reduced to a minimum, through the -conservative action of the Commission in coöperating with the States -having jurisdiction over the alluvial bottoms, in reorganizing their -levee systems and thus securing the greatest control over the volume of -water brought down in the flood seasons, that is possible by the -construction of well planned and substantially built levees. It having -been demonstrated that the levees subserve a double purpose, that they -are essential in the general plan to improve the navigation of the -river adopted by the Commission, and are likewise needed to render the -bottom lands habitable, it is not surprising that we find the State -authorities and the Commission jointly engaged in their construction. - -It has thus been brought about that the effort to improve the -navigation of the river for the general welfare, has resulted in such -great changes in the geography of the locality, that a large district -has been reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The alluvial valley of -the Mississippi river has an area of thirty thousand square miles, and -is naturally divided into four great basins that have been designated -the St. Francis, Yazoo, Tensas and Atchafalaya. Two of these basins are -now fairly protected from the overflows of the Mississippi, by the -levees that have been constructed, or repaired, incidental to the work -of the Commission, viz: the Yazoo basin extending from below Memphis to -the mouth of the Yazoo river; and the Tensas basin from the high land -south of the Arkansas river to the mouth of the Red river; and the -Atchafalaya basin, from the Red river to the gulf, has been protected -on the Mississippi fronts. These three basins have an aggregate area of -nearly twenty thousand square miles that is now reasonably secure from -inundation. Measures have also been instituted by the State authorities -looking to the reclamation of the St. Francis basin; and the work is -half accomplished on the White river section. - -Nearly the whole of this valley was under protection thirty years ago, -but the disasters of the late civil war, and subsequent inability of -the people to repair the damaged levees, resulted in the practical -abandonment of many sections, and it was not until about ten or twelve -years ago that the protective works again presented an appearance of -continuity. The supposed security, however, was of short duration, as -the great floods of 1882 overtopped the works in more than one hundred -and forty places, causing such widespread destruction that cultivation -of the soil was rendered impossible over large districts. The floods of -succeeding years but added to the misfortunes of the valley, and land -values became so depreciated that sales were impracticable, taxes could -not be collected, and there was a general feeling that square miles of -fertile land must be given over to the destructive agencies of the -great river that had made it. - -It was while suffering under this distressing situation that the work -of the Mississippi River Commission was brought forward as a possible -means of salvation. With a recuperative power that seems almost -marvelous, the people have contributed of their labor and their means, -until now this great area of nearly twenty thousand square miles has -been once more reclaimed, and seems to have entered upon an era of -prosperity that will eclipse the prophecies of even the most sanguine. -It is believed that the levees that have now been constructed will -prove reasonably secure. They have been built for a double purpose; and -the proportion of the expense incurred by the general government, about -one-third, under the direction of the Commission, has insured a -supervision and inspection by competent engineers such as was not -exercised in the earlier history of such works on the river. - -We cannot foretell the developments that will follow the improvement of -this water way and the reclamation of the alluvial bottoms on an -enduring basis. That the works erected by the Commission will maintain -an increased depth of water at the low stages of the river, seems to be -demonstrated, as during the low water of November last a depth of nine -feet was found on the Lake Providence and Plum Point bars, an increase -of thirty-three and forty-four per cent. respectively. When the depths -on the other bars have been increased in like proportion the free -navigation of the river will be assured, and we may point to the result -as one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times. - -The increased value of the land adjacent to the river redeemed from -waste, more than doubled on the average, and in many instances -quadrupled; the replenishing of the state and county treasuries by the -collection of taxes on land that was before unremunerative; and the -building of railroads through sections where it had been impracticable -to maintain them before in consequence of their liability to -destruction by the periodic floods; are marked evidences of the -material prosperity that has already followed the great work. During -the last four years, forty thousand settlers have taken up lands in the -Yazoo basin alone, and it was estimated that in the fall of 1889 twenty -thousand more would seek homes in the same district. These settlers -have been mostly negroes from the worn out high lands to the eastward. -If the change in their environment proves beneficial to the individual -we may expect an increased migration, that may in turn be an aid in -solving the political problem involved in the citizenship of the negro. - -The settlement of these bottom lands will also influence the prosperity -of many commercial centers, as trade statistics indicate the general -abandonment of the plantations that followed the great floods of 1882, -caused a marked diminution in the shipments by the lower river, as well -as in the receipts from that section; and that the partial reclamation -of the lands and restoration of agricultural pursuits has already -influenced the receipt and distribution of commercial products. - -The project to reclaim by irrigation large districts of the arid region -of the west, if successfully accomplished, may also exert an influence -in the political and commercial relations of the future that cannot now -be foretold. Two-fifths of the territory of the United States has been -classed as arid; not in the sense that there is no water, for the -greatest rivers on the continent have their sources almost in the midst -of the region; but rather that the water is not available for enriching -the ground. The rainfall is generally not in the season when the crops -would require it, or is too small and uncertain for the husbandman to -depend upon it. The whole region is not of this character; many -districts are susceptible of the highest cultivation as nature has left -them, and others have been redeemed by the application of the water -supply through the simpler devices customary in irrigated countries; -until now nearly all the districts have been occupied that are -susceptible of agricultural pursuits, either in the natural state or by -irrigation, unless water is secured by means generally beyond the reach -of the individual or combination of individuals who may use it. And -yet, it is believed there are millions of acres of rich land that may -be redeemed and converted to the support of a large population, by the -application of capital in the construction of works of irrigation. The -progress of the surveys of the region, therefore, that have been -instituted by the general government, are watched with absorbing -interest. The districts susceptible of such extensive improvement are -only approximately known, and as it is only through these surveys their -availability will be made manifest, the importance of the work can -hardly be overestimated. The prosperity of several states will be -largely influenced by the success of operations of this kind within -their borders, and in turn their greater development and increased -wealth, must react upon the older communities and benefit them, on the -principle that the healthful growth of a single member is strength to -all. - -The science of geography, as taught in the present day, is more -comprehensive than the brief descriptions and delineations of the areas -of land and water that satisfied the early explorers. The great strides -that have been made in scientific research during the past century have -opened new fields, and men are no longer content to picture that only -which they can see. The varied features of the earth's surface, -transformations now in progress and those which may be deduced from the -facts we can observe, have led to many theories of the construction of -the earth, ancient forms upon the surface and possibilities, if not -probabilities, in the future. To ascertain the form of the earth has -alone been the cause of heroic labor, and yet we have hardly passed the -point that we can give it in probable terms with the general -dimensions. Observations warrant the assumption that, discarding the -accidents of nature--even the highest mountains--the sphere is far from -being perfect. That it is flattened at the poles is now accepted as the -true condition, but we have reason to believe, too, that this is not -the only departure from the perfect sphere. The more thorough the -research and precise the observations, the more certain does it appear -that the crust has a form as though there had been great waves of -matter that had been solidified. To locate the depressions of these -great waves and measure their depths, to point to the crests and -measure their extent, is a problem for the future to solve. Their study -is claimed to be within the legitimate sphere of geography; and not -until they have been satisfactorily answered can we assert the -geographer is even approaching the end of the facts his science has yet -to utilize. - -In pre-historic geography we have had two papers presented to the -Society during the past year, relating to the orographic features of -the earth's surface in times past compared with the localities as we -may see them to-day. In the first instance the comparison is evolved -from an effort to trace the origin and growth of the rivers of -Pennsylvania; and the second, in a description of the famed district -around Asheville, North Carolina. These have a substantial interest to -us, treating as they do of localities so well known; and they -illustrate, too, the resources of induction in bringing to our view the -probable wonders of ancient geographic forms. - -The constitution of the interior of the earth is a subject of great -interest in the science of geography, as many of the visible forms upon -the crust have been wrought by the power of the agencies within it. The -discussion has been warm in the past, and doubtless will be resumed -with unabated interest as we find new phenomena for the argument. The -apparent lull that has followed the promulgation of the theory, three -years ago, that under the crust we should find a fluid, or semi-fluid, -surrounding a solid nucleus, may not be of long duration. This -hypothesis probably comes nearer to satisfying the conditions imposed -by the physicist and geologist, than those which have preceded it, and -may be accepted for the present; unless the processes of nature by -which it is conceived this state of the interior of the earth has been -produced, shall be demonstrated to have continued for sufficient time -to have caused a condition of equilibrium and possible solidification -of the whole sphere; when we might expect it to be repudiated by those -who oppose the theory of isostacy, but commended by the physicists as -supporting their claim that the earth must be substantially a solid -even now. If we accept Mr. Frederick Wright's suggestion, isostacy may -have an important bearing on the cause of the ice sheets that covered -such great areas; a suggestion that opens to the vision of the -imagination an orography beside which the grandest landscape we may see -to-day would pale into insignificance. This is believed to be a new -application of the isostatic theory, and may be a possible solution of -a much vexed question when an initial cause for such great upheavals -can be advanced that will not be inconsistent with other accepted -conditions. - -Theories are modified by new facts, and in any attempt to demonstrate -the constitution of the interior of the earth, the increase of -temperature with the depth is an important factor. The recent measures, -therefore, in Germany, that indicate the figures generally accepted are -not reliable, may be received with interest. The shaft was sunk -especially for the purpose of observing temperatures at different -depths, and every precaution that former experience had suggested seems -to have been taken to secure accuracy. The greatest depth reached was -about one mile. An elaborate discussion of the results fixes the -increase of temperature at 1° F. for each 65 ft. increase of depth. -This is about 15 ft. greater than the figures that have heretofore been -given; a difference so large that we may question if they will be -generally accepted until verified by further observations made with -equally great care. - -In conclusion permit me to note the fact that the United States was for -the first time represented in the International Geodetic Association, -at the meeting recently held in Paris; and also to record the -successful conclusion of the fourth International Geographical Congress -that assembled in Paris in August last. The reports from the Congress -indicate a wide range of subjects discussed, and lead us to believe the -interest in our science is progressive, and must receive the hearty -appreciation of all who are inspired by the nobler instincts to -develope the great sphere on which we live; that the riches, the -beauties, and above all the grandeur of Nature, may be made manifest to -ourselves and for our posterity. - - - - -REPORT--GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR. - -BY GEN. A. W. GREELY. - - -It is with a feeling of increased responsibility, shared doubtless by -the Presidents of other sections, that the Vice-President of the -Geography of the Air brings before you his modest annual contribution -in one branch of geographical science. - -We live in an age so imbued with earnest thought, and so characterized -by patient investigation, that an eager gleaner in scientific fields -finds at the very outset his mind filled with the garnered grain of -golden facts. The more cautious searcher often follows with uncertain -mind, and doubtless in his backward glances sees many fairer and -heavier sheaves than those he bears with full arms, from the fruitful -harvest. If, then, you do not find here dwelt on such geographical -phases as you judge most important, attribute the fact I pray you, not -to neglect, but to lack of observation, or to the exercise of an -undiscriminating judgment. - -First let us turn to the higher class of investigations, wherein that -handmaid of science, a true and noble imagination, comes to supplement -exact knowledge, to round out and give full form and perfect outline, -either shaping a number of disjointed and apparently heterogeneous -facts into a harmonious series, or evolving from a mass of confusing -and seemingly inexplicable phenomena a theory or law consistent -therewith. - -In this domain Professor Ferrel's book on Winds is probably the most -important theoretical meteorological discussion of the past year. It -owes its value to the fact that it puts into comparatively simple and -popular form the processes and results of his intricate mathematical -investigations of the motions of the air, published by him years since, -and later elaborated during his service with the Signal Office. - -In connection with the subject of winds, Professor William M. Davis has -formulated an excellent classification, depending first, on the -ultimate source of the energy causing the motion; second, on -temperature contrasts which produce and maintain winds; and third, on -their periodicity and the time of the first appearance of the motion. - -Professor Russell, appropriately it seems to me, remarks regarding the -landslide winds, that avalanche would be a better term than landslide -as applied to winds associated with fallen masses of earth or snow. - -With the enormous amounts of accumulated tabulated matter, and numerous -studies bearing on isolated meteorological phenomena, it is a specially -important consideration that some students pay constant attention to -the investigations of the laws of storms. From such researches definite -advances in theoretical meteorology may be made and fixed laws -determined, which may be of practical utility with reference to the -better forecasting of the weather. In the United States Signal Office, -Professor Abbe has brought together the results of his studies and -investigations for the past thirty years, under the title, "Preparatory -studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions." This -report will appear as an appendix to the annual report of the Chief -Signal Officer of the army. Professor Abbe finds that the source and -maintaining power of storms depend on the absorption by clouds of solar -heat, and in the liberation of heat in the cloud during the subsequent -precipitation, which, as he endeavors to show, principally influences -the movement of the storm-centre. - -In this method one takes a chart showing current meteorological -conditions, and the permanent orographic features of the continent; -lines of equal density are also drawn for planes at several elevations -above sea-level. On these latter, and on the lines of the orographic -resistance, are based intermediate lines of flow, which show where -conditions are favorable to cooling and condensation. The amount of -condensation and its character, whether rain or snow, are estimated by -the help of the graphic diagram. Numbers are thus furnished that can be -entered on the chart and show at once the character of the new centre -of buoyancy, or the directions and velocity of progress of the centre -of the indraft and the consequent low barometer. - -It is hoped that this work of Professor Abbe's may be, as he -anticipates, of great practical as well as theoretical value. Steps are -being taken to test the theoretical scheme by practical and exhaustive -applications to current work. - -Tiesserenc de Bort has continued his work, of improving weather -forecasts for France, by studying the distribution of the great and -important centres of high pressures, which prevail generally over the -middle Atlantic ocean, and, at certain periods of the year, over Asia, -Europe, and North America. His studies have proceeded on the theory -that the displacements of centres of high pressure, whether in Asia, -over the Azores, near Bermuda, in North America, or in the Polar -regions, set up a series of secondary displacements, which necessarily -cause storm centres to follow certain routes. M. de Bort concludes that -a daily knowledge of the relation of these centres and their areas of -displacement will eventually enable skilled meteorologists to deduce -the position of unknown and secondary centres. He has endeavored to -reduce these various displacements to a series of types and has made -very considerable progress in this classification. Daily charts -covering many years of observations have been prepared, and these -separated, whenever the characteristics are sufficiently pronounced, -into corresponding types. This plan of forecasting necessitates -extended meteorological information daily, which France obtains not -only from Russia, Algeria, Italy and Great Britain, but, through the -coöperation of United States, from North America. The daily information -sent by the Signal Office shows, in addition to the general weather -over the United States and Canada, the conditions on the western half -of the North Atlantic ocean, as determined by observations made on the -great steamships, and furnished voluntarily by their officers to the -Signal Office through the Hydrographic Office and the New York Herald -weather bureau. - -The study of thunder storms has received very elaborate and extensive -consideration. M. Ciro Ferari in Italy finds that almost invariably the -storms come from directions between north and northwest, the tendency -in northern Italy being directly from the west, and in the more -southern sections from the northwest. The velocities of storm movements -are much greater from the west than from the east, considerably more so -in the centre and south of Italy than in the north; and in the months, -largest in July. - -The velocity of propagation increases with greater velocities of the -winds accompanying the storms, with also greater attendant electrical -intensity. The front line of propagation while more often curved, is -sometimes straight and sometimes zigzag, and appears to undergo a -series of successive transformations, more or less affected by the -topographical nature of the country passed over. - -Ferari thinks their principal cause is to be found in high temperatures -coincident with high vapor pressures. Thunder storms, he considers, are -essentially local phenomena, superposed on the general atmospheric -phenomena. A principal general cause of thunder storms in Italy is the -existence of a deep depression in northwest Europe, with a secondary -depression in Italy dependent on the first. This secondary feeble area -remains for several days over upper Italy, and nearly always is -followed by thunder storms. Minimum relative humidity precedes, and -maximum follows a storm, while the vapor pressure conditions are -exactly reversed. Ferari notes, as one matter of interest, the passage -of fully developed thunder storms from France into Italy over mountains -4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in elevation. - -Dr. Meyer, at Gottingen, has investigated the annual periodicity of -thunder storms, while Carl Prohaska has made a statistical study of -similar storms in the German and Austrian Alps. The latter writer -thinks they are most likely to occur when the barometer is beginning to -rise after a fall, thus resembling heavy down-pours of rain. - -In connection with Schmucher's theory on the origin of thunder storm -electricity, Dr. Less has been able to satisfactorily answer in the -affirmative an important point in the theory, as to whether the -vertical decrement of temperature is especially rapid. Less finds -evidences of very rapid decrement of temperature during thunder storms, -as shown by the examination of records of 120 stations for ten years. - -Mohn and Hildebrandsson have also published a work on the thunder -storms of the Scandinavian peninsula. The rise in the barometer at the -beginning of rain, they agree with Mascart in attributing largely to -the formation of vapor and the evaporation of moisture from rain -falling through relatively dry air. - -A. Croffins has discussed thunder storms at Hamberg from observations -for ten years. He believes that all such storms are due to the -mechanical interaction of at least two barometric depressions. - -As a matter of interest bearing on the much discussed phenomena of -globular lightning, an incident is recounted by F. Roth, where a man -feeding a horse was struck by lightning and lost consciousness. The man -states that he felt no shock, but was suddenly enveloped in light and -that a ball of fire the size of his fist, traveled along the horse's -neck. This points to the fact that "ball" lightning is probably a -physiological phenomenon. - -In view of the recent extended interest in the question as to whether -the climate of the United States is permanently changing, it should be -remarked that this question has lately been under consideration with -regard to Europe. Messrs. Ferrel, Richter, Lang, Bruchen and others -conclude, from an examination of all available data, that there is no -permanent climatic change in Europe. In connection with this discussion -in Europe, long series of vintage records, going back to the year 1400, -have been used. Apart from the ocean borders, extensive simultaneous -climatic changes occur over extended areas, which changes--as might be -expected--are more accentuated in the interior of the continents. These -changes involve barometric pressure, rainfall and temperature, which -all recur to that indefinite and complex phenomenon--the variation in -the amount of heat received by the earth. The idea is advanced that -these oscillations have somewhat the semblance of cycles, the period of -which is thirty-six years. It may easily be questioned, however, in -view of the fragmentary and heterogeneous character of the data on -which this assumption is based, whether the error in the observations -is not greater than the range of variation. Blanford, in one of his -discussions, has pointed out that the temperature or rainfall data in -India can be so arranged as to give a cycle with a period of almost any -number of years, but, unfortunately, the possible error of observation -is greater in value than the variations. - -As to the United States, it is pertinent to remark that the Signal -Office is in possession of temperature observations in Philadelphia, -covering a continuous period of one hundred and thirty-two years. The -mean annual temperature for the past ten years is exactly the same as -for the entire period. - -There have been criticisms in years past that the climatological -conditions of the United States have not received that care and -attention which their importance demanded. Much has been done to remedy -defects in this respect, although, as is well known here in Washington, -the general law which forbids the printing of any works without the -direct authority of Congress, has been an obvious bar to great activity -on the part of the Signal Office. Within the year the rainfall -conditions of twelve Western States and Territories have been published -with elaborate tables of data and fifteen large charts, which set forth -in considerable detail the rainfall conditions for that section of the -country. In addition the climatic characteristics of Oregon and -Washington have been graphically represented; and rainfall -maps,--unfortunately on a small scale,--have been prepared, showing for -each month, the average precipitation of the entire United States, as -determined from observations covering periods varying from fifteen to -eighteen years. - -In Missouri, Professor Nipher has prepared normal rainfall charts for -that State, unfortunately on rather a small scale. In New York, -Professor Fuertes, and in Michigan, Sergeant Conger, of the Signal -Service, have commenced maps showing, by months, the normal -temperatures of their respective States on maps of fairly open scale. -Work of a similar character has been carried on in Pennsylvania under -the supervision of Professor Blodget, well known from his -climatological work. In other directions and in other ways, work of a -similar character is in progress. - -Without doubt too much is anticipated from pending or projected -irrigation enterprises in the very arid regions of the West. These -unwarranted expectations must in part result from a failure on the part -of the investors to consider the general question of these enterprises, -in its varied aspects, with that scientific exactness so essential in -dealing theoretically with extended subjects of such great importance. - -Everyone admits the correctness of the statement that the amount of -water which flows through drainage channels to the sea, cannot exceed -the amount which has evaporated from adjacent oceans and fallen as -precipitation on the land. Further it is not to be denied that the -quantity of water available in any way for irrigation must be only a -very moderate percentage of the total rainfall which occurs at -elevations _above_, and perhaps it may be stated _considerably above_, -that of the land to be benefited. - -Elsewhere it might be appropriate to dwell in detail upon the -importance of cultivated land in serving as a reservoir which parts -slowly with the water fallen upon or diverted to it, and in avoiding -the quick and wasteful drainage which obtains in sections devoid of -extensive vegetation or cultivation; and also that water thus taken up -by cultivated lands must later evaporate and may again fall as rain on -other land. But the pertinence of meteorological investigations in -connection with irrigation and this annual address, relates much more -directly to important questions of the manner by, and extent to which, -precipitation over the catchment basins of the great central valleys -fails to return in direct and visible form, through the water courses, -to the Gulf of Mexico. - -The inter-relation of rainfall and river outflows is one of peculiar -interest, in connection with the important matter of irrigation now -under consideration in this country. - -Probably more attention has been paid to this subject in the valley of -the Seine, by Belgrand and Chateaublanc, than in any other portion of -the globe. One of the curious outcomes of Chateaublanc's observations, -is one bearing on the maximum value of the floods in the Seine for the -cold season, from October to May, by which he says that the reading of -the river gauge at Port Royal is equal to 12.7 minus the number of -decimetres of rainfall which has fallen on an average throughout the -catchment basin during the preceding year. This curiously shows that -the intensity of the winter floods of the Seine is inversely -proportional to the quantity of rain of the _preceding_ year. - -Sometime since, John Murray, Esq., in the Scottish Geographic Magazine, -treated generally the question of rainfall and river outflows. The -annual rainfall of the globe was estimated to be 29,350 cubic miles, of -which 2,343, falling on inland drainage areas, such as the Sahara -desert, etc., evaporate. The total annual discharge of rivers was -estimated at 7,270 cubic miles. In the case of European drainage areas -between a third and a fourth of the rainfall reaches the sea through -the rivers. The Nile delivers only one thirty-seventh of the rainfall -of its catchment basin, while tropical rivers in general deliver -one-fifth. - -The Saale river of Germany, from late data based on 45 rainfall -stations in its catchment basin, during the years 1883 to 1886, -discharged 30 per cent. of its rainfall. - -During the past year Professor Russell, of the Signal Office, has -determined carefully the rainfall and river outflow over the most -important part of the United States, the entire catchment basin of the -Mississippi river and its tributaries. This work was done as -preliminary to formulating rules for forecasting the stage of the water -several days in advance on the more important of the western rivers in -the United States. The river outflows at various places on the -Mississippi and Missouri and Ohio rivers, were tabulated from data -given in the reports of the Mississippi and Missouri River Commissions. -The tables were largely derived from the results of the measurement of -current velocities. As gauge readings were taken at the time of -discharge or outflow measurements, the discharges or outflows can be -told approximately at other times when only the river gauge readings -are known. The results for the outflow of rivers derived from -measurements made under the supervision of these commissions, are of a -high order of accuracy, and it is not probable that the results deduced -from the gauge readings are much in error. Of 1881 and 1882, during -which years measurements were made, 1881 was a year of great flood in -the Missouri river, while the Mississippi river was not flooded. The -year 1882, on the other hand, was marked by a great flood in the lower -Mississippi river, with a stage in the Missouri much above the average. -The rainfall in the six great valleys of the Mississippi, during the -entire years 1881 and 1882, was charted from all observations -available, and its amount in cubic miles of water calculated with the -aid of a planimeter. - -In connection with this investigation, and as a matter of value in -showing the forces which are in operation to affect the river outflow, -the fictitious or possible evaporation of the six great valleys -referred to were calculated, in cubic miles of water, from July, 1887, -to July, 1888, and also the average amounts of water in the air as -vapor, and the amount required to saturate the air in the same valleys -during the same period. - -During the year 1882, the year of great flood in the lower Mississippi -valley, the outflow at Red River Landing, La., was 202.7 cubic miles, -of which the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis furnished 16 per -cent., the Ohio 43, and the whole Missouri above Omaha, 4 per cent. The -upper Missouri valley (that is, from the mouth of the Yellowstone up to -the sources), and the middle Missouri valley (from the mouth of the -Platte to the Yellowstone), each furnished only about 2 per cent. of -the entire amount of the water which passed Red River Landing. The -lower Mississippi valley, including the Arkansas, etc., furnished 32 -per cent. - -During March, April and May, 1882, the time of highest stage of the -water of the lower Mississippi, the outflow at Red River Landing and -through the Atchafalaya measured 82.7 cubic miles. During this time -there flowed through the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis, 14 -per cent. of the amount; through the Ohio, 38 per cent., and through -the Missouri 6 per cent.; while the rivers of the lower Mississippi -valley contributed 41 percent. The water that passed Omaha was 1.92 -cubic miles, or 2 per cent. of the flow of the whole Mississippi during -the same time. The water which flowed from the upper and middle -Missouri valleys during March, April and May, 1882, was for each -valley, probably only 1 per cent. of the water that flowed through the -lower Mississippi river. The flood of the lower Mississippi was -undoubtedly due to the great discharge of the Ohio, supplemented by -heavy river inflow below the mouth of the Ohio, and the unusually heavy -rainfall in the lower Mississippi valley. - -The ratios of river outflow to rainfall over the catchment basins, as -derived by Professor Russell from the two years' observations, 1881 and -1882, were as follows: - -Upper and Middle Missouri valleys, about 335,000 square miles, 13 per -cent. - -Lower Missouri valley, about 210,000 square miles, 12 per cent. - -Entire Missouri valley, about 545,000 square miles, nearly 13 per cent. - -The upper Mississippi valley, about 172,000 square miles, 33 per cent. - -Ohio valley, about 212,000 square miles, 40 per cent. - -Lower Mississippi valley, about 343,000 square miles, about 27 per -cent. - -The above percentages, while showing the averages for two entire years, -and so of decided value, are not to be depended upon for special years -or months. For instance: in the Ohio valley in 1881, the outflow was 33 -per cent., while in 1882 it was 50 per cent., and as the rainfall in -1882 was 180 cubic miles against 151 cubic miles in 1881, it appears -evident that a much greater proportional quantity of water reaches the -rivers during seasons of heavy rainfalls than when the precipitation is -moderate or scanty. - -Evaporation is also a very potent cause in diminishing river outflow, -and as this depends largely on the temperature of the air and the -velocity of the wind, any marked deviation of these meteorological -elements from the normal, must exercise an important influence on the -ratio of outflow to rainfall. - -In connection with Professor Russell's work it is desirable to note -that Professor F. E. Nipher has lately made a report on the Missouri -rainfall based on observations for the ten years ending December, 1887, -in which he points out as an interesting coincidence that the average -annual discharge of the Missouri river closely corresponds in amount to -the rainfall which falls over the State of Missouri. From Professor -Nipher's figures it appears that the discharge of the Missouri river in -the ten years ending 1887, was greatest in 1881 and next greatest in -1882, so that the averages deduced from Professor Russell's report of -the outflow of the Missouri are too large, and should be somewhat -reduced to conform to the average conditions. In different years the -average of the discharge in the outflow of the Missouri varies largely, -as is evidenced by the fact reported by Professor Nipher, that the -discharge in 1879 was only 56 per cent. of the outflow in 1881. - -In New South Wales, under the supervision of H. C. Russell, Esq., -government astronomer, the question of rainfall and river discharge has -also received careful attention, especially in connection with -evaporation. The observations at Lake George are important, owing to -the shallowness of the lake (particularly at the margin); its -considerable surface area (eighty square miles), its moderate elevation -(2,200 feet), and the fact that it is quite surrounded by high lands. -Observations of the fluctuations of this lake have been made from 1885 -to 1888, inclusive. In the latter year the evaporation was enormous, -being 47.7 inches against a rainfall of 23.9 and an in-drainage of 5.3 -inches, so that the total loss in depth was 18.5 inches for the year. -It appears that the evaporation in different years on this lake varies -as much as 50 per centum of the minimum amount. According to Russell -the amount of evaporation depends largely on the state of the soil, -going on much faster from a wet surface of the ground than from water; -with dry ground the conditions are reversed. In 1887, the outflow from -the basin of Lake George, the drainage from which is not subject to -loss by long river channels, was only 3.12 per centum of the rainfall. - -In the Darling river, above Bourke, says Russell, the rainfall is -measured by 219 gauges. The average river discharge, deduced from -observations covering seven years, is only 1.45 per centum of the -rainfall, and in the wettest year known the discharge amounted only to -2.33 per centum of the rainfall, and has been as low as 0.09 per centum -in a very dry year. In the Murray basin the average discharge relative -to the rainfall is estimated to be about 27 per centum from a record of -seven years, and has risen as high as 36 per centum in a flood year. - -In connection with the regimen of rivers, it appears a proper occasion -to again refute the popular opinion that the spring and summer floods -of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys result from the melting of the -winter snows. This is an erroneous impression which I have combatted -since 1873, when my duties required a study of the floods of the entire -Mississippi catchment basin. It is only within the last two years, -however, that the meteorological data has been in such condition that -the opinion put forth by me could be verified, namely: that the floods -of the late spring and early summer owe their origin almost entirely to -the heavy rains immediately before and during the flood period. -Occasionally a very heavy fall of snow precedes extended general rains; -but in this case the snow is lately fallen and is not the winter -precipitation. - -Referring to the Missouri valley, the section of the country where the -winter snowfall has been thought to exercise a dominating influence in -floods, it has elsewhere been shown by me that about one-third of the -annual precipitation falls over that valley during the months of May -and June. In either of the months named the average precipitation over -the Missouri valley is greater than the entire average precipitation -for the winter months of December, January and February. - -Woiekoff thinks that the anomalies of temperatures shown in forest -regions, particularly in Brazil--with its abnormally low temperatures, -are due to heavy forests promoting evaporation, and by causing the -prevalence of accompanying fogs thus prevent more intense insolation. -He considers this an argument for the maintenance of forests to sustain -humidity and distribute rain over adjacent cultivated land, as well as -to maintain the fertility of the soil, which diminishes rapidly by -washing away of the soil after deforestation. - -W. Koppen has devised a formula for deriving the true daily temperature -from 8 A.M., 2 P.M. and 8 P.M. observations in connection with the -minimum temperature, in which the minimum has a variable weight -dependent on place and month. The results of Koppen's formula tested on -six stations in widely different latitudes, indicate that it is of -value. - -Paulsen's discussion of the warm winter winds of Greenland is -interesting. These unusual storm conditions last three or four days, or -even longer, the temperature being at times from 35° to 40° Fahr. above -the normal, and they appear principally with winds from northeast to -southeast, which Hoffmeyer believes to be _foehn_ winds. Paulsen -contends that the extensive region over which these winds occur make -the _foehn_ theory untenable, and that a more reasonable explanation of -these winds is to be found in the course of low areas passing along the -coast or over Greenland. This appears evident from the fact that not -the easterly winds only but the southerly winds share this high -temperature, and that as low areas approach from the west, at first the -regions of the Greenland coast within its influence have south to -southwest winds. - -The question of wind pressures and wind velocities is a most important -one in these days of great engineering problems, particularly in -connection with the stability of bridges and other large structures. - -Experimental determination of the constants of anemometric formulæ have -recently been made both in England and this country. From results -obtained in the English experiments it was concluded that the very -widely used Robinson anemometer is not as satisfactory and reliable an -instrument as a different form of anemometer devised by Mr. Dines. -These conclusions, however, are not sustained by the American -experiments, which were made by Professor C. F. Marvin, Signal Office, -by means of a whirling apparatus, and under the most favorable -circumstances, which yielded highly satisfactory results. Professor -Marvin has lately made very careful open air comparisons of anemometers -previously tested on the whirling machine, which have shown that, owing -in part to the irregular and gusty character of the wind movement in -the open air, taken in connection with the effects arising from the -moment of inertia of the cups, and the length of the arms of the -anemometer, the constants determined by whirling machine methods need -slight corrections and alterations to conform to the altered conditions -of exposure of the instruments in the open air. This latter problem is -now being experimentally studied at the Signal Office, and final -results will soon be worked out. - -Professor Langley has also made very elaborate observations of -pressures on plane and other surfaces inclined to the normal, which it -is believed will prove important contributions to this question, but -the results have not yet been published. It is important in this -connection to note experiments made by Cooper on the Frith of Forth -Bridge, where a surface of 24 square metres, during a high wind, -experienced a maximum pressure of 132 kilogrammes per square metre, -while a surface of 14 square decimeters showed, under similar -conditions, 200 kilogrammes per square metre, by one instrument, and -170 by another. The opinion expressed by Cooper that in general the -more surface exposed to the wind, the less the pressure per unit of -surface, seems reasonable, and if verified by more elaborate -experiments must have an important bearing. - -There are questions in connection with which even negative results are -of an important character, particularly when such results are quite -definite, and tend to remove one of many unknown elements from physical -problems of an intricate character. In this class may be placed -atmospheric electricity, with particular reference to its value in -connection with the forecast of coming weather. The Signal Office, -through Professor T. C. Mendenhall, a distinguished scientist -peculiarly fitted for work of this character, has been able to carry -out a series of observations, which have received from him careful -attention, both as to the conditions under which the observations were -made and in the elaboration of methods to be followed. - -Professor Mendenhall also supervised the reduction of these -observations, and after careful study presented a full report of the -work to the National Academy of Sciences, in whose proceedings this -detailed report will appear. Professor Mendenhall says, "Taking all the -facts into consideration, it seems to be proved that the electrical -phenomena of the atmosphere are generally local in their character. -They do not promise, therefore, to be useful in weather forecasts, -although a close distribution of a large number of observers over a -comparatively small area would be useful in removing any doubt which -may still exist as to this question." It may be added that Professor -Mendenhall's conclusions bear out the opinions expressed to the -speaker, in a discussion of this question, by Professor Mascart, the -distinguished physicist. - -It has been generally admitted that the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere -plays a most important part in bringing about the formation of storms -and maintaining their energy. It has been frequently commented on by -the forecast officials of the Signal Service, that storms passing over -the United States were in general preceded by an increase in moisture, -but unfortunately little effort had been made on the part of previous -investigators to determine any quantitative relation between the actual -humidity and the amount of precipitation or its relation to the storm -movement. It has long been regretted that the direct relations of this -to other meteorological phenomena were not more fully defined. During -the past year Captain James Allen, of the Signal Office, has endeavored -to apply the results of his investigations and theories to the -practical forecasts of storm conditions. Captain Allen has carefully -studied the relations of the potential energy of the surface air, as -represented by the total quantity of heat it contained, to the movement -of storm centres and the extent of accompanying rain areas. In his -first investigations the potential energy per cubic foot was estimated -as follows: Supposing the air to have been originally 32° and the -moisture in it as water at 32°, the total quantity of heat applied to -reduce to the state of observation will be A = (_t_-32)/6 + Q in which -A is total heat per unit volume; _t_ is the temperature of the air, Q -the total heat of vapor, and the specific heat of air at constant -volume being taken as one-sixth (.168). From Regnault's formula we have -Q = 1091.7 + .305(_t_-32). - -For the mechanical equivalent we have J = 772A. If we divide J by the -pressure estimated in pounds per square foot, it will give the height -through which the pressure can be lifted if all the heat is spent in -work by expanding the air. - -An approximate expression for the upward velocity V may be obtained -from Torrecelli's theorem from which we have V^2 = 2_gh_, _h_ in this -case being the height through which the pressure would be lifted if all -the heat is spent in work. The theory has been that the storm centre -will move over that section of the country where V is the greatest, and -that the time of occurrence and amount of rain have a relation of -conformity to the changes in Q and its actual amount. - -Auxiliary charts were also made showing for each station the following -values of Q: - -1st. Highest Q not followed by rain in 24 hours. - -2d. Greatest plus change in Q not followed by rain in 24 hours. - -3d. Lowest value for Q followed by rain in 12 hours. - -A tentative application of the theory during December, 1889, has given -very encouraging results. The problem can be approached in many -different ways, but the basis of the solution is the determination of -the actual energy of the air, both potential and kinetic, as well as -differences of potential. - -Probably the most important event of the past year to general -meteorological students has been the publication of Part I, -Temperature, and Part II, Moisture, of the Bibliography of Meteorology, -under the supervision of the Signal Office, and edited by Mr. O. L. -Fassig. The two parts cover 8,500 titles out of a total of about -60,000. This publication renders it now possible for any investigator -to review the complete literature of these subjects, not only with a -minimum loss of time, but with the advantage of supplementing his own -work, without duplication, by the investigations of his predecessors. -The publication is a lithographic reproduction of a type-written copy, -the only available method, which leaves much to be desired on the -grounds of appearance, space and clearness. - - * * * * * - -The experiments of Crova and Houdaille on Mount Venteux, elevation -1,907 metres, and at Bedoin, 309 metres, are of more than transient -interest since they fix the solar constant at a height of 1,907 metres, -at about three calories; agreeing with the value obtained by Langley on -Mt. Whitney, Cal. - -With this brief allusion to the important phenomena of sun-heat, -whereon depend not only the subordinate manifestations pertaining to -this section, but those relating to all other departments, this report -may appropriately close. - - - - -TREASURER'S REPORT. - -YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1889. - - -C. J. BELL, TREASURER, in account with NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -Balance on hand as per last account . . . . . . . . . $626.70 - -RECEIPTS. - -To amount of annual dues for 1889 . . . . . . . . . . $865 - " " " " 1890 . . . . . . . . . . 20 -To Life Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 - --- 935.00 - -Note for $1,000 with interest paid off, Nov. 16, 1869 1,032.08 -Sale of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.41 -Surplus from Field Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.35 - -------- - $2,620.54 - -INVESTMENTS ON HAND, DEC. 31, 1889. - -Note dated March 27, 1889, for the sum of $750, with interest @ 6%, due -March 27, 1890. Secured by real estate. - -DISBURSEMENTS. - - By Cost of Magazine, No. 2 . . . . . . . . $174.46 - " " " No. 3 . . . . . . . . 233.66 - " " " No. 4 . . . . . . . . 197.28 - " Directory of Society . . . . . . . . . 28.35 - " Rent of Hall at Cosmos Club . . . . . . 45.00 - " Printing, Stationery and Postage . . . 108.72 - " Sundries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.00 - 1889. ------ 800.47 -Mar. 26. By Loan on collateral . . . . . . . . . . 1,000.00 - " Note for $750 and interest, from - March 27, 1889, for 1 year @ 6%, - due March 27, 1890 . . . . . . . . . 756.25 - Balance in Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.82 - --------- - $2,620.54 - - - - -REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE. - - -December 27, 1889. - -_To the National Geographic Society:_ - -The undersigned, having been appointed an auditing committee to examine -the account of the Treasurer for 1889, make the following report: - -We have examined the Treasurer's books and find that the receipts as -therein stated are correctly reported. We have compared the -disbursements with the vouchers for the same and find them to have been -properly approved and correctly recorded. We have examined the bank -account and compared the checks accompanying the same. We find the -balance (beside the sum of $756.25 invested in real estate note) as -reported by the Treasurer ($63.82) consistent with the balance as shown -by the bankbook ($82.82), the difference being explained by the fact -that there are two outstanding checks for the sum of $19.00 not yet -presented for payment. - - BAILEY WILLIS, - R. BIRNIE, JR., - WILLARD D. JOHNSON, - _Auditing Committee_. - - - - -REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY. - - -The first report of the Secretaries was presented to the Society, -December 28, 1888. At that time the Society had a total membership of -209. Since that date this membership has been increased by the election -of 36 new members; it has been decreased by the death of 3 and by the -resignation of 14. The net increase in membership is thus 19 and the -present membership is 228, including 3 life members. The deceased -members are, Z. L. White, G. W. Dyer and Charles A. Ashburner. - -The number of meetings held during the year was 17, of which 15 were -for the presentation and discussion of papers; one was a field meeting -held at Harper's Ferry, W. Va., on Saturday, May 11, 1889, and one, the -annual meeting. The average attendance was about 65. - -The publication of a magazine begun last year, has been continued, and -three additional numbers have been published, being Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of -Vol. I. Copies of the numbers have been sent to all members and also to -about 75 American and foreign scientific societies and other -institutions interested in Geography. As a result the Society is now -steadily in receipt of geographical publications from various parts of -the world. - -Respectfully submitted, - HENRY GANNETT, _Recording Secretary_. - - - - -NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -ABSTRACT OF MINUTES. - - -_Nov. 1, 1889. Twenty-seventh Meeting._ - -A paper was read entitled, "Telegraphic Determinations of Longitudes by -the Bureau of Navigation," by Lieutenant J. A. Norris, U. S. N. -_Published in the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1._ - - -_Nov. 15, 1889. Twenty-eighth Meeting._ - -A paper was read by Ensign Everett Hayden, U. S. N., entitled, "Law of -Storms considered with Special Reference to the North Atlantic," -illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. Greely and -Hayden. - - -_Nov. 29, 1889. Twenty-ninth Meeting._ - -A paper was read by Mr. H. M. Wilson entitled, "The Irrigation Problem -in Montana." Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Dutton, Greely -and Wilson. - - -_Dec. 13, 1889. Thirtieth Meeting._ - -The paper of the evening was by Mr. I. C. Russell upon "A Trip up the -Yukon River, Alaska," and was illustrated by lantern slides. - - -_Dec. 27, 1889. Thirty-first Meeting--2d Annual Meeting._ - -Vice-President Thompson in the chair. The minutes of the first annual -meeting were read and approved. Annual reports of the secretaries and -treasurer and the report of the auditing committee were presented and -approved. The following officers were then elected for the succeeding -year: - -_President_--GARDINER G. HUBBARD. - -_Vice-Presidents_--HERBERT G. OGDEN, [land]; EVERETT HAYDEN,[sea]; A. -W. GREELY, [air]; C. HART MERRIAM, [life]; A. H. THOMPSON, [art.] - -_Treasurer_--CHARLES J. BELL. - -_Recording Secretary_--HENRY GANNETT. - -_Corresponding Secretary_--O. H. TITTMANN. - -_Managers_--CLEVELAND ABBE, MARCUS BAKER, ROGERS BIRNIE JR., G. BROWN -GOODE, W. D. JOHNSON, C. A. KENASTON, W. B. POWELL and JAMES C. -WELLING. - - -_Jan. 10, 1890. Thirty-second Meeting._ - -The annual reports of Vice-Presidents Ogden and Greely were presented. -_Published in the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1._ - - -_Jan. 24, 1890. Thirty-third Meeting._ - -A paper was read entitled, "The Rivers of Northern New Jersey," with -notes on the "General Classification of Rivers," by Professor William -M. Davis. The subject was discussed by Messrs. Davis, Gilbert and -McGee. - - -_Feb. 7, 1890. Thirty-fourth Meeting._ - -The annual report of Vice-President Merriam was presented. A paper on -"Bering's First Expedition," was read by Dr. W. H. Dall. - - -_Feb. 21st, 1890. Thirty-fifth Meeting._ - -Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. The annual address of -the President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, was delivered, the subject -being "Asia, Its Past and Future." _Published in "Science," Vol. XV, -No. 371._ - - -_Feb. 28th, 1890. Special Meeting._ - -Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. A paper was read by -Lieut. Com'dr Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N., entitled "The Arctic Cruise -of the Thetis During the Summer and Autumn of 1889," which was -illustrated by lantern slides. - - -_March 7th, 1890. Thirty-sixth Meeting._ - -A paper was read by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, entitled "A Glimpse of Chinese -Life in Canton." - - - - -OFFICERS. - -1890. - - -_President._ - GARDINER G. HUBBARD. - -_Vice-Presidents._ - HERBERT G. OGDEN. - EVERETT HAYDEN. - A. W. GREELY. - C. HART MERRIAM. - A. H. THOMPSON. - -_Treasurer._ - CHARLES J. BELL. - -_Secretaries._ - HENRY GANNETT. - O. H. TITTMANN. - -_Managers._ - CLEVELAND ABBE. - MARCUS BAKER. - ROGERS BIRNIE, JR. - G. BROWN GOODE. - W. D. JOHNSON. - C. A. KENASTON. - W. B. POWELL. - JAMES C. WELLING. - - - - -MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY. - - _a_, original members. - _l_, life members. - * Deceased. - -In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is -to be understood. - - -ABBE, PROF. CLEVELAND, _a_, _l_, - Army Signal Office. 2017 I Street. - -ABERT, S. T., - 1928½ Pennsylvania Avenue. - -AHERN, JEREMIAH, - Geological Survey. 804 Tenth Street. - -ALLEN, DR. J. A., - American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y. - -APLIN, S. A., JR., - Geological Survey. 1513 R Street. - -ARRICK, CLIFFORD, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1131 Fourteenth Street. - -*ASHBURNER, PROF. CHARLES A. - -ATKINSON, W. R., _a_, - Geological Survey. 2900 Q Street. - -AYRES, MISS S. C., _a_, - 502 A Street SE. - -BAKER, PROF. FRANK, _a_, - Life Saving Service. 1315 Corcoran Street. - -BAKER, MARCUS, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street. - -BALDWIN, H. L. JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. 125 Sixth Street NE. - -BARCLAY, A. C., - Geological Survey. 1312 G Street. - -BARNARD, E. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1773 Massachusetts Avenue. - -BARTLE, R. F., - 947 Virginia Avenue SW. - -BARTLETT, COMDR. J. R., U. S. N., _a_, - Providence, R. I. - -BARTLETT, P. V. S., - Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street. - -BASSETT, C. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 929 New York Avenue. - -BELL, A. GRAHAM, _a_, - 1336 Nineteenth Street. - -BELL, CHAS. J., _a_, - 1437 Pennsylvania Avenue. 1328 Nineteenth Street. - -BERNADOU, ENS. J. B., U. S. N., - Office of Naval Intelligence. 1908 F. Street. - -BIEN, JULIUS, _a_, - 139 Duane Street, New York, N. Y. - -BIEN, MORRIS, _a_, - Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C. - -BIRNIE, CAPT. ROGERS, JR., U. S. A., _a_, - Ordnance Office. 1341 New Hampshire Avenue. - -BLAIR, H. B., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street. - -BLODGETT, JAMES H., _a_, - Census Office. 1237 Massachusetts Avenue. - -BODFISH, S. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 58 B Street NE. - -BOUTELLE, CAPT. C. O., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 105 Fourth Street NE. - -BRENT, L. D., - Geological Survey. 1741 F Street. - -BREWER, H. G., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. Meridian Avenue, Mt. Pleasant. - -BROWN, MISS E. V., - 1312 R Street. - -BURTON, PROF. A. E., _a_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -CARPENTER, Z. T., _a_, - 1003 F Street. 1009 Thirteenth Street. - -CHAPMAN, R. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1207 L Street. - -CHATARD, DR. THOS. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. The Portland. - -CHESTER, COMDR. COLBY M., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -CHRISTIE, PETER H., - Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street. - -CLARK, A. HOWARD, - National Museum. 1527 S Street. - -CLARK, E. B., _a_, - Geological Survey. Laurel, Md. - -COLONNA, B. A., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 23 Grant Place. - -COLVIN, VERPLANCK, _a_, - Albany, New York. - -COURT, E. E., - Hydrographic Office. Seventeenth Street, Mt. Pleasant. - -CRAVEN, ENS. JOHN E., U. S. N., - Hydrographic Office. 1313 Twenty-second Street. - -CUMMIN, R. D., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1105 Thirteenth Street. - -CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY, _a_, - 513 Fourteenth Street. 1801 Connecticut Avenue. - -DARWIN, CHAS. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1907 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -DAVIDSON, PROF. GEORGE, _a_, - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal. - -DAVIS, ARTHUR P., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park. - -DAVIS, MRS. ARTHUR P., - 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park. - -DAVIS, PROF. WM. M., _a_, - Cambridge, Mass. - -DAY, DR. DAVID T., - Geological Survey. 1411 Chapin Street. - -DENNIS, W. H., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 12 Iowa Circle. - -DILLER, J. S., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1804 Sixteenth Street. - -DOUGLAS, E. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C. - -DOW, JOHN M., - Pacific Mail S. S. Co., Panama, U. S. Colombia. - -DUKE, BASIL, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street. - -DUNNINGTON, A. F., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1000 North Carolina Avenue SE. - -DURAND, JOHN, - 164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France. - -DUTTON, A. H., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. 1338 Nineteenth Street. - -DUTTON, CAPT. C. E., U. S. A., _a_, - Geological Survey. 2024 R Street. - -DYER, LIEUT. G. L., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -EDSON, J. R., _a_, - 1003 F Street. 1705 Q Street. - -ELLICOTT, ENS. JOHN M., U. S. N., - Office of Naval Intelligence. 3009 P Street. - -ELLIOTT, LIEUT. W. P., U. S. N., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FAIRFIELD, G. A., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FAIRFIELD, WALTER B., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FARMER, ROBERT A., - Geological Survey. 1312 G Street. - -FERNOW, B. E., _a_, - Department of Agriculture. 1843 R Street. - -FISCHER, E. G., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 436 New York Avenue. - -FITCH, C. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 3025 N Street. - -FLETCHER, L. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street. - -FLETCHER, DR. ROBERT, _a_, - Army Medical Museum. The Portland. - -FOOT, SAM'L A., - Geological Survey. 918 H Street. - -GAGE, N. P., _a_, - Seaton School. 401 Fourth Street. - -GANNETT, HENRY, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1881 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -GANNETT, S. S., _a_, - Geological Survey. 401 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park. - -GILBERT, G. K., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1424 Corcoran Street. - -GILMAN, DR. D. C., _a_, - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. - -GOODE, G. BROWN, _a_, - National Museum. Lanier Heights. - -GOODE, R. U., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1538 I Street. - -GOODFELLOW, EDWARD, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 7 Dupont Circle. - -GORDON, R. O., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -GRANGER, F. D., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -GREELY, GEN. A. W., U. S. A., _a_, - Army Signal Office. 1914 G Street. - -GRISWOLD, W. T., _a_, - Geological Survey. Cosmos Club. - -GULLIVER, F. P., - Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street. - -HACKETT, MERRILL, _a_, - Geological Survey. 318 Third Street. - -HARRISON, D. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1326 Corcoran Street. - -HARROD, MAJOR B. M., - Miss. River Commission, New Orleans, La. - -HASBROUCK, E. M., - Geological Survey. 1305 R Street. - -HASKELL, E. E., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1418 Fifteenth Street. - -HAYDEN, ENS. EVERETT, U. S. N., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. 1802 Sixteenth Street. - -HAYES, C. WILLARD, - Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place. - -HAYS, J. W., - Geological Survey. 2225 Thirteenth Street. - -HEATON, A. G., - 1618 Seventeenth Street. - -HENRY, A. G., _a_, - Army Signal Office. 948 S Street. - -HENSHAW, H. W., _a_, - Bureau of Ethnology. 13 Iowa Circle. - -HERRLE, GUSTAV, _a_, - Hydrographic Office. 646 C Street NE. - -HERRON, W. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1008 H Street. - -HILL, GEO. A., _a_, - Naval Observatory. 2626 K Street. - -HILL, PROF. R. T., - State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex. - -HINMAN, RUSSELL, - In care Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, O. - -HODGKINS, PROF. H. L., _a_, - Columbian University. 1511 Tenth Street. - -HODGKINS, W. C., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 416 B Street NE. - -HOLLERITH, HERMAN, - Room 48 Atlantic Building. 3107 N Street. - -HOPKINS, C. L., - Department of Agriculture. 1004 H Street. - -HORNADAY, W. T., _a_, - National Museum. 405 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park. - -HOWELL, E. E., _a_, - 48 Oxford Street, Rochester, N. Y. - -HOWELL, D. J., _a_, - District Building. Alexandria, Va. - -HUBBARD, GARDINER G., _a_, - 1328 Connecticut Avenue. - -HYDE, G. E., - Geological Survey. 330 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park. - -IARDELLA, C. T., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1536 I Street. - -JENNINGS, J. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 824 I Street NE. - -JOHNSON, A. B., _a_, - Light House Board. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -JOHNSON, J. B., - Howard University. 2460 Sixth Street. - -JOHNSON, S. P., - Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -JOHNSON, W. D., _a_, - Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -JUNKEN, CHARLES, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 140 B Street NE. - -KARL, ANTON, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1230 Eleventh Street. - -KAUFFMANN, S. H., _a_, - 1421 Massachusetts Avenue. - -KENASTON, PROF. C. A., _a_, - Howard University. - -KENNAN, GEORGE, _a_, - 1318 Massachusetts Avenue. - -KENNEDY, DR. GEORGE G., _l_, - 284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass. - -KERR, MARK B., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1708 M Street. - -KIMBALL, E. F., - Post Office Department. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -KIMBALL, S. I., _a_, - Life Saving Service. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -KING, F. H., - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. - -KING, PROF. HARRY, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1319 Q Street. - -KING, WILLIAM B., - 906 F Street. 1328 Twelfth Street. - -KNIGHT, F. J., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -KNOWLTON, F. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -KOCH, PETER, _a_, - Bozeman, Mont. - -LACKLAND, W. E., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1305 Corcoran Street. - -LAMBERT, M. B., - Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue. - -LEACH, BOYNTON, - Hydrographic Office. 2028 P Street. - -LERCH, R. L., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. 936 K Street. - -LINDENKOHL, ADOLPH, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 19 Fourth Street SE. - -LINDENKOHL, HENRY, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 452 K Street. - -LIPPINCOTT, J. BARLOW, - Geological Survey. 1802 M Street. - -LONGSTREET, R. L., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1536 I Street. - -LOVELL, W. H., - Geological Survey. 413 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park. - -MCCORMICK, JAMES, - Geological Survey. 1001 Eleventh Street. - -MCGEE, W. J., _a_, - Geological Survey. 2410 Fourteenth Street. - -MCGILL, MISS MARY C., - 336 C Street. - -MCKEE, R. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1753 Rhode Island Avenue. - -MCKINNEY, R. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1120 Thirteenth Street. - -MAHER, JAMES A., _a_, - Johnson City, Tenn. - -MANNING, VAN. H., JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1331 N Street. - -MARINDIN, H. L., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MARSHALL, ROBERT B., - Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue. - -MATTHEWS, DR. WASHINGTON, U. S. A., _a_, - Army Medical Museum. 1262 New Hampshire Avenue. - -MELVILLE, ENG. IN CHIEF, GEO. W., U. S. N., _a_, _l_, - Navy Department. 1705 H Street. - -MENDENHALL, PROF. T. C., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 220 New Jersey Avenue SE. - -MENOCAL, CIV. ENG. A. G., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. 2012 Hillyer Place. - -MERRIAM, DR. C. HART, _a_, - Department of Agriculture. 1919 Sixteenth Street. - -MINDELEFF, COSMOS, - Bureau of Ethnology. 1401 Stoughton Street. - -MINDELEFF, VICTOR, - Bureau of Ethnology. 2504 Fourteenth Street. - -MITCHELL, PROF. HENRY, _a_, - 18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass. - -MOSMAN, A. T., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MULDROW, ROBERT, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1511 Rhode Island Avenue. - -MURLIN, A. E., - Geological Survey. 1550 Third Street. - -NATTER, E. W. F., _a_, - Readville, Mass. - -NELL, LOUIS, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1118 Virginia Avenue SW. - -NILES, PROF. W. H., - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -NORDHOFF, CHARLES, _a_, - 701 Fifteenth Street. 1731 K Street. - -OGDEN, HERBERT G., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1324 Nineteenth Street. - -PARSONS, F. H., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 210 First Street SE. - -*PATTON, PRES. W. W., _a_. - -PEALE, DR. A. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1446 Stoughton Street. - -PEARY, CIV. ENG. R. E., U. S. N., - League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa. - -PENROSE, R. A. F., JR., - State Geological Survey, Little Rock, Ark. - -PERKINS, E. T., JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street. - -PETERS, LIEUT. G. H., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -PETERS, WILLIAM J., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street. - -PHILLIPS, R. H., - 1511 Vermont Avenue. - -PICKING, CAPT. HENRY F., U. S. N., - Hydrographic Office. Baltimore, Md. - -PIERCE, JOSIAH, JR., - Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street. - -POWELL, MAJOR J. W., _a_, - Geological Survey. 910 M Street. - -POWELL, PROF. WM. B., _a_, - Franklin School Building. - -PRENTISS, DR. D. W., _a_, - 1101 Fourteenth Street. - -PUMPELLY, PROF. RAPHAEL, - U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I. - -RENSHAWE, JNO. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -RICKSECKER, EUGENE, _a_, - Seattle, Wash. - -RITTER, H. P., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street. - -ROBERTS, A. C., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. - -RODMAN, ENS. HUGH, U. S. N., - Hydrographic Office. 2015 Hillyer Place. - -RUSSELL, I. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place. - -SARGENT, PROF. C. S., _a_, - Brookline, Mass. - -SCHLEY, CAPT. W. S., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -SCUDDER, SAM. H., _a_, - Cambridge, Mass. - -SHALER, PROF. N. S., _a_, - Cambridge, Mass. - -SIEBERT, J. S., - Hydrographic Office. 1911 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -SINCLAIR, C. H., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -SINCLAIR, J. C., - 4 Lafayette Square. - -SMITH, EDWIN, _a_. - Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rockville, Md. - -SMITH, MIDDLETON, _a_, - Army Signal Office. 1616 Nineteenth Street. - -SOMMER, E. J., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 330 A Street SE. - -STEIN, ROBERT, - Geological Survey. 710 Eleventh Street. - -STEJNEGER, LEONHARD, _a_, - National Museum. - -STOCKTON, LT. COMDR. C. H., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -SUTTON, FRANK, - Geological Survey. 702 Nineteenth Street. - -THOMAS, MISS MARY VON E., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -THOMPSON, PROF. A. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -THOMPSON, GILBERT, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1448 Q Street. - -THOMPSON, LAURENCE, _a_, - In care Northern Pacific R. R. Co., Seattle, Wash. - -THOMPSON, LIEUT. R. E., U. S. A., _a_, - Army Signal Office. 2011 N Street. - -TITTMANN, O. H., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1019 Twentieth Street. - -TOWSON, R. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1446 N Street. - -TWEEDY, FRANK, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1311 M Street. - -URQUHART, CHAS. F., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1538 I Street. - -VASEY, DR. GEORGE, _a_, - Department of Agriculture. 2006 Fourteenth Street. - -VINAL, W. I., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 152 D Street SE. - -VON HAAKE, ADOLPH, - Post Office Department. 1215 L Street. - -WALCOTT, C. D., _a_, - Geological Survey. 418 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park. - -WALLACE, HAMILTON S., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1813 M Street. - -WARD, LESTER F., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1464 Rhode Island Avenue. - -WEED, WALTER H., _a_, - Geological Survey. 825 Vermont Avenue. - -WEIR, J. B., _a_, - 1602 L Street. - -WELLING, DR. JAMES C., _a_, - Columbian University. 1302 Connecticut Avenue. - -WHITE, DR. C. H., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -WHITING, HENRY L., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. West Tisbury, Mass. - -WILDER, GEN. J. T., _a_, _l_, - Johnson City, Tenn. - -WILDER, MISS MARY, - Johnson City, Tenn. - -WILLIS, BAILEY, _a_, - Geological Survey. 1617 Riggs Place. - -WILLIS, MRS. BAILEY, - 1617 Riggs Place. - -WILSON, A. E., - Geological Survey. - -WILSON, H. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. Cosmos Club. - -WILSON, THOMAS, - National Museum. 1218 Connecticut Avenue. - -WINSLOW, ARTHUR, - State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo. - -WINSTON, ISAAC, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1325 Corcoran Street. - -WOODWARD, R. S., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1804 Columbia Road. - -YARROW, DR. H. C., _a_, - 814 Seventeenth Street. - -YEATES, CHAS. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. 1706 F Street. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 1, April, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 50765-8.txt or 50765-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/6/50765/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/50765-8.zip b/old/50765-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6dccda1..0000000 --- a/old/50765-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/50765-h.zip b/old/50765-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3876d8f..0000000 --- a/old/50765-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/50765-h/50765-h.htm b/old/50765-h/50765-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 70a7bc6..0000000 --- a/old/50765-h/50765-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4017 +0,0 @@ - -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> - -<html> -<head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> - <title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1, by Various</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/img-cover.jpg"> - <style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body {margin:10%; text-align:justify} - h1 {text-align:center} - h2 {text-align:center} - h3 {text-align:center} - h4 {text-align:center} --> - </style> -</head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 1, April, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 1, April, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 25, 2015 [EBook #50765] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -</pre> - -<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<p><a href="#chap1">On the Telegraphic Determinations of Longitude by the Bureau of - Navigation</a>: Lieut. J. A. Norris, U. S. N.</p> - -<p>Reports of the Vice-Presidents:<br> - <a href="#chap2">Geography of the Land</a>: Herbert G. Ogden<br> - <a href="#chap3">Geography of the Air</a>: -A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A.</p> - -<p><a href="#chap4">Annual Report of the Treasurer</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap5">Report of Auditing Committee</a></p> - -<p><a href="#chap6">Annual Report of the Secretary</a></p> - -<p>National Geographic Society:<br> - <a href="#chap7">Abstract of Minutes</a><br> - <a href="#chap8">Officers for 1890</a><br> - <a href="#chap9">Members of the Society</a></p> - -<blockquote>Published April, 1890.</blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small><small>PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.</small></small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr align="center" width="100%"> -<center>Vol. II. -1890. No. 1.</center> -<hr align="center" width="100%"> -<br> -<br><a name="chap1"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>ON THE TELEGRAPHIC DETERMINATIONS OF LONGITUDE BY THE BUREAU OF -NAVIGATION.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> L<small>IEUT</small>. J. A. N<small>ORRIS</small>, U. S. N.</center> -<br> - -<p>The following definitions are given by Chauvenet in his Spherical and -Practical Astronomy.</p> - -<p>"The longitude of a point on the earth's surface is the angle at the -Pole included between the meridian of that point and some assumed first -meridian. The difference of longitude between any two points is the -angle included between their meridians." To describe the practical -methods of obtaining this difference or angle, by means of the electric -telegraph both overland and submarine, and especially those employed by -the expeditions sent out by the Navy department, is the object of this -paper.</p> -<br> - -<p>Before the invention of the telegraph various methods more or less -accurate in their results were employed, and are still in use where the -telegraph is not available. The one most used and giving the best -results was that in which a number of chronometers were transported -back and forth between two places the difference of whose longitudes -was required. "For," as the author quoted above says, "the -determination of an absolute longitude from the first meridian or of a -difference of longitude in general, resolves itself into the -determination of the difference of the time reckoned at the two -meridians at the same absolute instant." If a chronometer be regulated -to the time at any place <i>A</i>, and then transported to a second place -<i>B</i>, and the local time at <i>B</i>, be determined at any instant, and at -that instant the time at <i>A</i>, as shown by the chronometer is noted, the -difference of the times is at once known, and that is the difference of -longitude required. The principal objection to this plan is that the -best chronometers vary. If the variations were constant and regular, -and the chronometer always gained or lost a fixed amount for the same -interval of time, this objection would disappear. But the variation is -not constant, the rate of gain or loss, even in the best instruments, -changes from time to time from various causes. Some of these causes may -be discovered and allowed for in a measure, others are accidental and -unknown. Of the former class are variations due to changes of -temperature. At the Naval Observatory, chronometers are rated at -different temperatures, and the changes due thereto are noted, and -serve to a great extent as a guide in their use. But the transportation -of a chronometer, even when done with great care is liable to cause -sudden changes in its indications, and of course in carrying it long -distances, numerous shocks of greater or less violence are unavoidable. -Still, chronometric measurements, when well carried out with a number -of chronometers and skilled observers have been very successful. Among -notable expeditions of this sort was that undertaken in 1843, by Struve -between Pulkova and Altona, in which eighty-one chronometers were -employed and nine voyages made from Pulkova to Altona and eight the -other way. The results from thirteen of the chronometers were rejected -as being discordant, and the deduced longitude was made to depend on -the remaining 68. The result thus obtained differs from the latest -determination by 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.2.</p> - -<p>The U. S. Coast Survey instituted chronometric expeditions between -Cambridge, Mass., and Liverpool, England, in the years 1849, '50, '51 -and '55. The probable error of the results of six voyages, three in -each direction, in 1855 was 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.19, -fifty chronometers being carried.</p> - -<p>Among other methods of determining differences of time may be mentioned -the observation of certain celestial phenomena, which are visible at -the same absolute instant by observers in various parts of the globe, -such as the instant of the beginning or end of an eclipse of the moon, -the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites by the shadow of the planet, the -bursting of a meteor, and the appearance or disappearance of a shooting -star. The difficulty of identifying these last mentioned objects and -the impossibility of foretelling their occurrence prevents the extended -use of this method.</p> - -<p>Terrestrial signals may be used and among these can be included those -sent by the electric telegraph. But when two stations are near together -a signal may be made at either or at an intermediate station, which can -be observed at both, the time may be noted at each of the stations and -the difference found directly. These signals may be made by flashes of -gunpowder, or the appearance and disappearance of a strong light, or a -pre-concerted movement of any object easily seen. The heliotrope -reflecting the image of the sun from one station to the other with an -arrangement for suddenly eclipsing it, is a useful and efficient -apparatus.</p> - -<p>Various truly astronomical methods have been employed with good -results, of these may be mentioned moon-culminations, azimuths of the -moon, lunar distances, etc.</p> - -<p>Coming now to the use of the electric telegraph for this purpose the -following is a rough outline of the methods employed. Suppose two -stations A and B connected by wire, and provided with clocks, -chronographs and transit instruments. A list of suitable fixed stars is -compiled and each observer furnished with a copy. The observer at A the -eastern station, selects a star from his list and sets his transit -instrument upon it. He is furnished with a key by which he can send -telegraphic signals over the line and also mark the time on his own -chronograph. The instant he observes the star crossing the spider line -which represents the meridian, he taps his key, thus registering the -time on his own chronograph and on that at station B and this operation -he repeats with as many stars as necessary. B has his instrument set -for the first star, and when it crosses his meridian, he taps his key -marking the time on his own chronograph and also on A's. Then, -disregarding instrumental and personal errors and the rate of the -clock, A has a record of the times at which the star passed both -meridians. The difference of these times is the difference of longitude -sought, except for an error due to the time occupied in the -transmission of the signal over the wire between the stations. B also -has a record of the same difference of time with the same error -affecting it in the opposite way. A mean of these two differences, will -be the true difference with the error of transmission eliminated. This -method has the advantage of not depending upon the computed position of -the star. The instrumental errors may be allowed for, as well as the -rate of the clocks, and the personal error may be eliminated by the -exchange of stations.</p> - -<p>There are disadvantages inseparable from this method, however, -especially when the meridian distance is great. A star observed at the -first station, may be obscured by clouds at the time of its meridian -passage at the second. And the weather generally, at the two stations -may be cloudy, so that while stars can be observed at intervals, yet it -may be impossible to note the meridian passage of the same star at both -places on the same night. Then the telegraph lines are usually the -property of some commercial company and while their use for a short -time might be freely granted, yet a protracted occupation of them as -necessary when the meridians are distant from each other, would prove a -serious hindrance to their regular business.</p> - -<p>The method at this time most generally employed, is to observe at each -station a number of stars entirely independently of the other. From -these stars are deduced the clock errors and rates upon the respective -local times. Then at some prearranged period, communication is opened -between the stations, and a comparison of the clocks made which shows -their exact difference at a given instant. By applying the error to the -time as shown by the clock at this instant, the exact local time at -each station is the result, and applying the difference between the -clocks as shown by the comparison, the required difference of longitude -is readily obtained.</p> - -<p>These methods originated, as did the electric telegraph, in the United -States, and soon after Morse's invention came into practical use, they -were extensively employed by the Coast Survey, in accurately -determining points in every part of the country that could be reached, -no pains being spared to make the determinations as accurate as -possible. Upon the completion of the first successful Atlantic cable in -1866, an expedition was organized and placed in charge of Dr. B. A. -Gould, for the purpose of measuring the meridian distance between -Greenwich and the Naval Observatory at Washington. This was -successfully carried out in spite of numerous difficulties, and the -result proved that the determinations already made upon which the most -reliance was placed were decidedly in error. The result from the -chronometric expedition in 1855 previously referred to differing over a -second of time.</p> - -<p>In constructing charts for use at sea, the accurate determination of -latitude and longitude is of the utmost importance. The navigator -starting on a voyage must know the exact position of his destination as -well as the location of dangers to be avoided. He must know the error -and rate of his chronometer when he sets out, but as the rate is not -constant he should have some means of re-rating it at any place where -he may stop. If the longitude of this place is well determined, the -operation of obtaining the error and rate is an easy one, and may save -his vessel from loss.</p> - -<p>Surveys, of coasts or countries must have well established starting -points, and while the latitude of a place is comparatively easy to -determine, the longitude, except when the telegraphic method is used, -is attended with more or less uncertainty.</p> - -<p>In 1873, Commodore R. H. Wyman, U. S. N. Hydrographer to the Bureau of -Navigation, organized by permission of the Navy Department, an -expedition for the telegraphic determination of longitude in the West -Indies and Central America. The submarine cables of the West India and -Panama Telegraph Co. had just been completed, extending from Key West -through Havana and Santiago de Cuba, south to Jamaica and Aspinwall, -and east through the Virgin and Windward Islands to the northeast coast -of South America, thus affording admirable facilities for the accurate -determination of many points. It had long been known that the -longitudes of various points in the West Indies and in Central and -South America, did not harmonize, there having been no systematic -attempt to determine them with relation to each other or to a common -base. Longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean Sea depended upon -the position of the Morro lighthouse at Havana, which had been -determined by occultations. Further to the eastward, positions depended -upon that of Fort Christian at St. Thomas. This in its turn depended -upon the observatory of Major Lang in the Island of Santa Cruz about -forty miles distant. This position depended upon numerous observations -of moon culminations and occultations. Martinique and Guadeloupe in the -Windward Islands had been surveyed by French officers who based their -positions upon longitudes derived from moon culminations. The absolute -determination of these starting points would of course fix all points -derived from them.</p> - -<p>The U. S. Steamer Fortune was designated by the Navy Department for the -conveyance of the expedition, and Lieut. Commander (now Commander), F. -M. Green, U. S. N. was placed in charge. This officer had given great -attention to the subject, was a practiced observer, and exceptionally -well qualified for the position. The services of Mr. Miles Rock, a -skillful astronomer and computer who is now chief of the boundary -survey of Guatemala, were obtained as principal astronomical assistant. -The breaking out in the autumn of 1873, of the trouble with Spain and -Cuba, over the Virginius affair, delayed the expedition until the next -year, but in November 1874, a start was made from Washington, and after -a short stay in Kingston, Jamaica, Aspinwall was reached early in -December. Mr. Rock with one set of instruments proceeded immediately to -Panama, while Lieut. Commander Green remained in Aspinwall with the -other. The outfit for each party consisted of:—first, a portable -observatory. This was made of wood in sections, framework of ash, -covered with tongued and grooved pine boards. The sections were -connected when set up by iron knees and bolts. When packed it was not -difficult to transport, and it could be put up, or taken down in an -hour. When set up it was about eight feet square, with doors in all -sides, and a shed roof. The roof was made in three sections, the middle -one being hinged so that it could be raised for observing. These -observatories proved to be very strong and serviceable. They remained -in use for a number of years with occasional slight repairs, were -transported many thousand miles and set up in a great number of places -in Europe, Asia, North and South America. They were designed by Mr. J. -A. Rogers, and constructed at the Washington Navy Yard. Upon arriving -at a point where observations were to be made, after obtaining the -necessary permits from the local authorities, a suitable location for -the observatory was the first consideration. The essential requirements -were, a clear view of the heavens in the meridian, firm ground, a spot -secluded enough not to attract attention from inquisitive idlers, and -proximity to the telegraph office, or end of the telegraph line. Such a -spot being found and permission being obtained from the owner for its -use, an approximate meridian line was laid out by compass, and the -house set up with reference to it. Experience soon showed the -advisability of making certain additions to the observatory not -contemplated by the designer, but which added much to convenience and -comfort. A foundation was made, of timbers about six inches square, -mortised together at the ends which could be placed in position and -leveled before the observatory was set up, rendering this operation -much easier and giving greater stability. A floor was laid upon joists -supported by this foundation. Shelves were put up at various points, -affording resting places for tools and small instruments, while a table -in one corner, supported the chronometer, and offered a convenient -place for an assistant to record observations, etc.</p> - -<p>The principal instrument used was the transit. Those furnished for the -use of the expedition were designed by Mr. J. A. Rogers, and -constructed under his supervision in the repair shop of the -Hydrographic office. The object glasses, made by the Clarks at -Cambridge, were of 2½ inches clear aperture with a focal length of -thirty inches. The instruments were of the prismatic or "broken" form -in which the eye-piece is at one end of the axis, and the light is -reflected from the object glass to the eye by a prism placed at the -junction of the telescope tube with the axis. The observer does not -have to change the position of his eye, no matter what the zenith -distance of the star may be. This renders observation much less -fatiguing and conduces to accuracy. The eye-piece was furnished with -the usual spider line reticle and also with a filar micrometer for the -measurement of zenith distances for latitude. A vertical finding circle -was on the eye-piece end of the axis, and the instrument was provided -also with a horizontal circle, fourteen inches in diameter, graduated -to ten seconds. Other necessary parts were the striding and zenith -telescope levels, and the illuminating lamps. The ends of the axis were -supported by Ys at the ends of a transverse arm which in its centre was -screwed to the top of a vertical axis supported in a socket surmounting -the tripod. This vertical axis was slightly conical in shape and -accurately fitted into its socket. A screw was so placed underneath, -that the axis, and with it the instrument, could be raised slightly, -when it was easily revolved horizontally into any desired position, a -reverse movement of the screw then lowered the axis into its seat, when -the instrument was held firmly by the friction. For supporting the -instrument there was used at first, a portable pier made in the shape -of the frustrum of a cone, of strong oak staves, firmly bound with iron -hoops, and when set up, filled with sand or earth. Subsequently a brick -pier was found to be more stable and the wooden ones were discarded.</p> - -<p>Of equal importance with the transit was the Chronometer. The -expedition was supplied with four of these made by Negus of New York. -They were regulated to sidereal time, and provided with a break circuit -arrangement. This consists of a toothed wheel acting on a jewel pallet -attached to a light steel spring. In this spring is a platinum point, -which touches another platinum point, except when the spring is acted -upon by the toothed wheel. These points are connected respectively with -terminals on the outside of the chronometer, and are insulated from -each other except at their point of contact. The electric circuit is -complete through the chronometer except when the teeth of the wheel -acting on the jewel pallet separate the points. The circuit is opened -for about one-fortieth of a second and closed during the rest of the -time. One tooth in the wheel is omitted and the circuit remains -unbroken at that point which is the beginning of each minute. Each -chronometer is provided with a condenser to take up the extra current, -and avoid burning the contact points. These chronometers were most -excellent instruments, the rate was generally small and very regular, -and did not seem to be influenced in any way by the passage of the -current. They are still in use, and are as efficient as ever.</p> - -<p>The expedition was at first provided with a substitute for the -chronograph in the shape of the old fashioned Morse telegraph register. -In this a steel point or stylet was pressed by the action of an -electro-magnet against a long fillet of paper, unwound by clock-work at -a rate more or less regular. This magnet was in circuit with the -chronometer and with a break circuit key in the observer's hand. As -long as the electric circuit was closed the stylet made a continuous -indented straight line on the paper; but as soon as it was broken, -either by the chronometer or the observer's key, the stylet flew back -and left the paper unmarked until the circuit was again closed. The -effect of the action of the chronometer was to graduate the fillet of -paper into a series of straight indentations, from one to two inches in -length, separated by unmarked spaces from -<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small>/<small><small>16</small></small> -to <small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small>/<small><small>8</small></small> inch in length. -When the key was pressed an independent clear space was left on the -paper, and by the relation in distance between the beginning of this -space and the beginning of the second spaces immediately preceding and -following, the time of pressing the key was determined. The omission of -the break at the sixtieth second, made the mark of double length, and -hence the beginning of the minute was easily recognized. These -instruments served their purpose very well, but had several -disadvantages. The rate of movement of the paper was not regular; when -the clock-work was first wound up the motion was rapid and the second -spaces long, and as the spring ran down the marks became shorter and -shorter. Another drawback was the great length of the fillet; with -spaces only an inch in length, it required five feet of paper to record -a minute in time, and after a night's observation, there would be -several hundred feet to examine, measure and record, occupying the -greater part of the following day. By stopping the instrument between -the observations something was gained in this respect, but this tended -somewhat to confusion and error in keeping the record. They were only -used for one season's work, and in their stead were procured two -cylinder chronographs, made by Bond of Boston. These were fine -instruments, but somewhat too delicate to stand the necessary -transportation. In these instruments as in most other chronographs, a -cylinder about six inches in diameter is made to revolve by clock-work -once in a minute. An electro-magnet mounted on a carriage actuated by -the same clock-work moves alongside the cylinder, in a direction -parallel with its axis, at the rate of about an eighth of an inch in a -minute. The armature of the magnet carries attached to it a pen, the -point of which rests upon a sheet of the paper wrapped around the -cylinder. While the circuit through the coils of the magnet is -complete, the pen makes a continuous spiral line upon the paper, but -when the circuit is broken by the chronometer, or key, it flies to one -side making an offset, and immediately returns to its position, as soon -as the circuit is again closed. The result is to graduate the whole -surface of the paper into second spaces, from which the observations -can be read off with the greatest ease.</p> - -<p>For supplying the electric current, there was used at first, a -modification of the Smee battery, but this proving very uncertain in -strength, a gravity battery was substituted, and afterwards a number of -LeClanché cells were procured.</p> - -<p>Upon the first expedition, no telegraph instruments were carried, but -the use of such as were needed was easily obtained from the telegraph -companies. The line between Aspinwall and Panama was in good condition -and no trouble was experienced in exchanging the time signals by which -was effected the comparison of the chronometers. Wires were stretched -from the observatories in each place to the respective telegraph -offices, and for the exchange of signals were connected directly to the -ends of the line.</p> - -<p>Everything being ready, the routine of the work was as follows:—The -transit being carefully leveled was placed in the meridian by -observation of zenith and circumpolar stars. From six to ten time -stars, and two or three circumpolars were then observed, the instrument -was reversed in the Ys and nearly the same number of stars observed in -the new position. At some time agreed upon, generally when the regular -work of the telegraph line was over for the day, the wires were -connected up and one of the operators came to the observatory to assist -in holding communication. By a simple arrangement of relays, in the -line and chronograph circuits the chronometer at one station was made -to register its second beats on the chronograph at the other, which was -all the time being graduated into second spaces by its own chronometer. -This was done for about five minutes and the times of beginning and -ending noted. Then the connections were reversed and both chronometers -allowed to beat for five minutes on the chronograph at the first -station.</p> - -<p>This method of exchanging signals was only practicable on land lines or -very short cables. The ordinary relay used on a land line requires a -strong current to work it, and would not be affected in the least by -the delicate impulse sent over a long cable, consequently when the -expedition came to compare chronometers over the 600 miles of cable -between Aspinwall and Kingston, it was necessary to use another method. -At that time the instrument in general use on submarine cable lines was -what is known as Thompson's mirror galvanometer. It consists of a coil -of very fine insulated wire wound with great care on a spool or bobbin -of vulcanite, about three inches in diameter and 1½ inches thick. In a -hole in the centre of the spool is made to slide a small tube, so that -the end of the tube will be in the centre of the coil. In the end of -the tube is mounted a small mirror, swung in a vertical position on a -single upright fibre of silk. Horizontally across the back of this -mirror is secured a small permanent magnet, in length about the -diameter of the mirror or about one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. -The mirror and magnet together weigh only one or two grains. When an -electric current is sent through this coil it deflects the magnet and -with it the mirror to the right or left. The apparatus is exceedingly -sensitive so that it is influenced by very feeble currents. -Communication has been maintained with an instrument of this kind over -the Atlantic cables, by the current proceeding from a battery composed -of a single copper percussion cap with a small scrap of zinc and a drop -of acidulated water. The use of the mirror is to make visible the -movements of the magnet. The coil is mounted upon a standard so as to -be about eight inches above the table. At the distance of eighteen -inches or two feet is placed a lamp. This is surrounded by a screen -which cuts off all the light, except that which passes through a tube -directed towards the mirror. Lenses in the tube focus the light on the -mirror and thence it is reflected to a vertical white surface, a sheet -of paper for instance, at a suitable distance and appears as a small -and brilliant spot. A movement of the magnet causes a horizontal -deflection of this spot to the right or left depending upon the -direction of the current passing through the coil. As these movements -can be produced at will by means of the key at the sending station, it -is only necessary to apply to them the dots and dashes of the Morse -alphabet, to have a very ready and perfect means of communication. To -the uninitiated spectator the facility with which the practiced -operator translates these apparently meaningless movements is -remarkable. If the cable is long and not in good condition the signals -are sometimes almost imperceptible, while any slight jar of the table -or apparatus will produce a large and irregular effect. Earth currents -also will cause vibrations hard to distinguish from the signals, and -if, as sometimes happens, the battery is connected in the wrong way, -the signals will be reversed. In spite of these drawbacks the skillful -operator reads off the message and rarely makes an error. This -instrument is still in use on some of the cable lines, but on most of -them it has been replaced by a recording instrument, also the invention -of Sir Wm. Thompson, which is almost as sensitive, and of which I will -speak later on. The key used in connection with these instruments, both -the mirror and recorder, is arranged with two levers, so connected that -pressing one of them causes a current to be sent over the line in one -direction, while the other sends it in the opposite.</p> - -<p>The method adopted for comparing chronometers by means of these -instruments was as follows:—Everything being ready for the exchange of -signals, the observer at one station seated himself, where he could see -the face of the chronometer, with his hand on the cable key. At ten -seconds before the beginning of a minute as shown by the second hand, -he pressed his key several times in quick succession, thus sending a -series of impulses through the line, which appeared at the other end as -a rapid movement of the light to and fro. This was a warning signal, -and the observer at the second station with his eye on the light, -tapped his chronograph key in the same way making a series of marks, -which indicated the beginning of the comparison. The first observer -exactly at the sixtieth second by his chronometer pressed his key -quickly and firmly and repeated this operation at every fifth second -for one minute. The second observer tapped his key promptly as soon as -he saw the light move, thus registering the time on his chronograph. -The minute at which the first signal was sent, was then telegraphed, -and repeated back, to insure against error, and the operation was -repeated until sixty-five signals had been sent from one station and -received at the other. Then the second observer sent the same number of -signals to the first in precisely the same manner, thus giving -sixty-five comparisons of the chronometers in each direction. The -results derived from this method are affected by errors from two -causes. One is the personal error of the observers in sending and -receiving signals and the other the time consumed by the electric -impulse in traveling over the line and through the instruments. If the -same strength of battery is used at each station, and the resistance of -the instruments is the same, the errors arising from this latter source -will be eliminated by the double exchange. The observer sending the -signals kept his eye on the chronometer and counted the second beats by -both eye and ear, moving the hand which he had on the key slightly in -unison with the beats, and could thus be sure of pressing the key at -the proper time within a very small fraction of a second. At the other -end of the line, considerable time is lost after the actual movement of -the light before the observer can press his chronograph key, and the -principal error affecting the result is the difference of this time in -the two observers, which was found to be very small.</p> - -<p>As I have said, the cable was first used in the measurement between -Kingston and Aspinwall, Lieut. Commander Green occupying the former -station, and Mr. Rock the latter. After the successful completion of -this link, measurements were made from Santiago de Cuba to Kingston, -and to Havana. It was the intention to measure from this last point to -Key West, but about this time yellow fever broke out there and the -expedition was ordered by the Secretary of the Navy to return. The -Fortune arrived at Washington in April, 1875, and the time until -November was spent in working up the winter's observations. Speaking in -a general way this work is as follows:—From observations extending -over many years, the exact positions in the heavens of a large number -of fixed stars have been found, so that their times of passing any -meridian can be computed with great accuracy. The transit instrument is -furnished with an eye-piece containing a number of parallel lines -usually made of spider silk. These are placed in the focus of the -instrument, and it is set in position, so that the middle line of the -group is in the plane of the meridian. The observer provides himself -with a list of desirable stars, and setting his instrument on those he -may choose, records the time at which they pass each of the spider -lines, by tapping his chronograph key. If there were no instrumental -errors to be discovered and allowed for, if the star's place were known -absolutely, and the observer had no personal equation, then it would be -only necessary in order to find the error of the clock, to observe one -star upon the middle line of the reticle. The difference of the clock -time of transit and the real time as already known, would be the clock -error and no further trouble would be required. But as none of these -conditions are fulfilled, it is necessary to multiply observations in -order to eliminate accidental errors, and to obtain instrumental -corrections which may be applied so as to get the most probable result. -Accidental errors of eyesight and perception are nearly eliminated by -taking the star's transit over several lines instead of one and using -the mean. Some of the instrumental errors are from the following -causes. If the pivots which support the telescope are unequal in size -the axis of the tube will be thrown to one side or the other of the -meridian, and the star will be observed either before or after it -crosses. The weight of all transit instruments causes a flexure of the -horizontal axis and this effect is at its maximum in those of the -prismatic pattern. The spider lines must be adjusted so that the middle -one is exactly in the axis of the tube, or as this can seldom be done -the resulting error, called the collimation, must be found. The -horizontal axis of the instrument must be as nearly level as possible, -and the error in this respect must be found by frequent applications of -a delicate spirit level. Finally the instrument must be directed as -nearly as possible to the north and south points of the horizon, and a -correction must be made for any error in this respect. The result of -each of these errors is to cause the star's transit to be recorded too -early or too late, and to get the true result they must all be found -and applied with their proper signs. The inequality of pivots and the -flexure correction are found by delicate measurement and observations, -when the instrument is first used, and are recorded as constants to be -applied in all subsequent work. The level tubes are graduated and the -value of their divisions obtained in angular measure. The collimation -error is found by observing stars near the zenith in one position of -the instrument and then reversing and observing others, or by taking -the transit of a slow moving star over a portion of the spider lines -then reversing and observing the same intervals in the opposite order. -The error of azimuth, or deviation from the north and south line, is -found by comparing the observations of stars whose zenith distances -differ considerably. These corrections all being found and applied to -the observation of each star, the result is the correct time of transit -as shown by the chronometer, and the difference between that time and -the true time, is the error of the chronometer. A mean of the -observations of several stars on the same night, gives a very accurate -value for this clock error, and by comparing the results of several -nights' work, the rate is found. By applying the rate to the clock -error it is reduced to any required epoch, as for instance, the mean -time of the exchange of time signals, and the difference of longitude -is easily found. As may be imagined the computation and application of -all these errors, exercising the greatest care to insure accuracy is a -long and tedious process. The operations described give a very close -result, but in order to arrive at the greatest accuracy obtainable the -computations are made again by the method of least squares.</p> - -<p>In the Autumn of 1875, the expedition again took the field, this time -in the side wheel steamer Gettysburg, which was much better adapted to -the work than the Fortune. The first link measured was between Key West -and Havana. Key West had already been telegraphically determined by the -Coast Survey, and now afforded a base for the system of measurements -completed and for those to follow. The next measurement was between -Kingston and St. Thomas. Then from the latter place to Antigua and to -Port Spain, Trinidad. From Port Spain, measurements were made to -Barbadoes and Martinique. The position at St. Thomas was then -re-occupied, and measurements made thence to San Juan, Porto Rico, and -to Santa Cruz. This ended the work in the West Indies, differences of -longitude having been measured between nearly all the important points -connected by telegraph. The Latitude of all the stations, was also -determined by the zenith telescope method, and the position of the -stations was referred either to the observation spot previously used, -when that could be identified, or to some prominent landmark.</p> - -<p>Between St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, the measurement was made twice, the -observers exchanging stations at the completion of the first series of -observations. This was to eliminate the effect of their personal -errors, and to obtain a value of these, which might be applied to the -other measurements. It has long been known that different people -perceive the same phenomenon at different times, varying with different -individuals, but reasonably constant with the same individual. In the -particular case of observing the transit of a star, most people will -record it on a chronograph from one to three tenths of a second after -it happens. In the method of observing by eye and ear the error is -generally much greater. The whole question of personal equation, -however, is a mixed one and I will not attempt to discuss it, but will -only give some of the results obtained in this particular work. In -longitude measurements the error from this cause is half the difference -of the personal equation of the two observers. If this difference -remained constant, then it would be easy to find it once for all, and -apply it to all measurements made by the same observers. In the West -India work, it was assumed that it did remain constant, and half the -difference between the two measurements made from St. Thomas to Santa -Cruz, was applied to all the other links. The correction was quite -small, being only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.025. In subsequent work by the same and other -observers it was deemed wiser not to apply any corrections at all, -rather than one that was probably not exact, and might be much in -error. To show the fluctuations to which this elusive quantity is -subject, I will cite the results of some observations made to determine -it, by observers engaged in this same work at a subsequent period. In -April and May, 1883, at Galveston, Texas, two observers D. and N. -having just completed a telegraphic measurement between that place and -Vera Cruz, Mexico, made some observations for the determination of -their relative personal equation, by observing transits of alternate -stars under the same conditions as near as possible. Both used the same -instruments, transit, chronometer and chronograph. On April 30, two -sets of observations were made, showing the difference of the equations -to be 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.26. On May 1, one set gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.32, and another 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.29. -On May 2, only one set was made giving 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.36, a variation of -0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.07 in two days. In June 1884, one year later, another series of -observations of the same character was made at the Naval Observatory in -Washington, and on the same nights the personal equation machine -invented by Prof. Eastman, was used as a comparison. This is an -instrument in which an artificial star is made to record its own -transit over the wires of a reticle, while the observer records the -same with a chronograph key. The difference is manifestly the personal -error of the observer. This gives the absolute equation of the -observers, and their difference is the relative equation, and should -accord with that found by the method of alternate stars. Some of the -results were as follows:—On June 4, the difference by machine of their -personal errors was 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.16 and by star observations 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.24, on the -15th of June the machine gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.10 and the stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.24, on the -16th, machine 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.14, stars, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.13, a very close agreement, on the -17th, machine gave 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.07 and stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.18. The observer N. -combined with another, C., who had not had as much experience in -observing, gave still more discordant results. On June 20, the machine -gave as their relative equation, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.08, while star observations gave -0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.27, on June 23, machine 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.13, stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.51, and on June 28, -machine, 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.20, stars 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.35. In the case of the first two -observers a mean of the determinations amounting to about 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.20 -might have been applied to the measurements made by them, but as these -were made under all conditions of climate, in latitudes varying from -30° N. to 36° S. and in different states of health and bodily comfort, -it was concluded not to introduce any correction at all rather than one -that might be considerably in error. In all of the work it has been the -custom as far as possible to place the observers alternately east and -west of each other, so that the result of personal error in one -measurement is neutralized to a greater or less extent in the next. Of -course the method of exchanging stations and making two measurements of -each meridian distance would afford the best solution of this problem, -but except in certain favorable conditions, this is precluded by -considerations of time and expense. In the measurement between -Galveston and Vera Cruz mentioned above, it had been the intention to -exchange stations, but by the time the first measurement was finished -the season was rather far advanced, there was danger of yellow fever in -Vera Cruz and an observer going there at that time, if he escaped -disease would have had the certainty of being quarantined from entering -the United States for three weeks or a month after leaving Mexico.</p> - -<p>Upon the completion of the West Indian work, and the publication in -1877, of the results, it was determined by the Bureau of Navigation to -send an Expedition for the same purpose to the east coast of South -America. Cables were in use extending from Para in northern Brazil to -Buenos Ayres in the Argentine Republic. A cable had at one time -connected this system with the West Indies, through British Guiana and -Trinidad, but one of the links was broken and there was no prospect of -its repair, otherwise the Station established at Trinidad in 1874 might -have been taken as the starting point. There was direct communication -however between England and Brazil, by the way of Portugal, and the -Madeira and Cape de Verde Islands. Lisbon seemed to afford the most -convenient place to start from, but its longitude had never been -determined by telegraph and it was decided to request the French Bureau -of Longitudes to coöperate by making this measurement from Paris. This -request was readily granted, but for some reason the agreement was not -kept. For the use of the Expedition the old fashioned sailing ship -<i>Guard</i> was furnished and Lieut. Com. Green was given command. Mr. Rock -being otherwise employed his place was taken by Lieut. Com.(now -Commander) C. H. Davis, U. S. N. The instruments having been placed in -good order, and new supplies furnished where necessary, the expedition -sailed from New York for Lisbon in the latter part of October, 1877. -The Guard was a slow sailer, the weather was rough and the wind -generally ahead, consequently a month was consumed in making the -passage. It was the intention to make the first measurement between -Lisbon and Funchal, Madeira. Lieut. Com. Davis with party and -instruments occupied the latter station, proceeding by mail steamer at -the first opportunity. The cable from England does not land directly at -Lisbon, but at a small town called Carcavellos on the coast about -twelve miles from the city. As it was not practicable to connect the -land line from Lisbon direct to the cable, it was necessary in making -the exchange of signals to adopt another method, or rather combination -of methods. An officer of the ship was sent to Carcavellos, furnished -with a chronometer and chronograph. When the time came for exchanging -signals, he first compared his chronometer with that at Lisbon, by the -automatic method, in use on land lines, then with the Funchal -chronometer over the cable using the mirror galvanometer. Finally a -second automatic comparison was made with Lisbon. From the data -furnished by these comparisons it was an easy matter to compute the -difference between the chronometers at Lisbon and Funchal. The Lisbon -party had been received with great courtesy by the director of the -Royal Observatory, Capt. Oom of the Portuguese Navy, and had been given -the use of a small detached observatory near the main building. The -party at Funchal selected a site on the ramparts of an old fort, which -afforded a clear view and was near the landing place of the cable. Here -occurred an accident to the transit instrument, which fortunately was -easily remedied. Near the beginning of the observations on the first -night the wind, which was blowing almost a gale, lifted a part of the -roof off the observatory, and dropped one section of it inside. The -transit was knocked off the pier, and was at first thought to be much -injured. Fortunately the precaution had been taken to bring along a -couple of spare instruments, borrowed from the Transit of Venus -Commission for use in case of such an accident. The Funchal party was -provided with one of these, which was set up for use by the next night, -and the injured one was sent to Lisbon for repairs. The injury proved -to be less than supposed and the repairing was an easy matter. Upon the -completion of this measurement the Lisbon party proceeded to St. -Vincent one of the Cape de Verde Islands. This is a barren and desolate -spot of volcanic formation, but being on the route of steamers from -Europe to Africa and South America is of much importance as a coaling -station. Measurements were made from this point to Funchal and to -Pernambuco in Brazil, and the Guard then sailed for Rio Janeiro. Upon -arriving at that point after a long passage, it was found that the -cable between Rio and Pernambuco was broken, and there being no -immediate prospect of its being repaired, the Pernambuco party was -ordered by mail steamer to Rio, and thence to Montevideo. A measurement -was made between Rio and Montevideo and then between the latter place -and Buenos Ayres, Lieut. Com. Green occupying the Montevideo station -for that purpose. The position of the observatory at Buenos Ayres was -referred to that occupied by Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the Argentine -National Observatory, in a similar measurement a short time before -between that place and Cordova.</p> - -<p>Both parties now returned to Rio, only to find that the cable was still -broken. In order to be ready for work as soon as it should be repaired, -Lieut. Com. Green proceeded to Bahia with the ship and established a -station there, Lieut. Com. Davis with his party remaining in Rio. After -waiting a month, and there still seeming to be no prospect of the -repair of the cable, the expedition finally sailed for home, arriving -at Norfolk, Va., after a pleasant and uneventful voyage of forty-five -days. Repairs to the cable were not completed until several months -afterward. In May of the next year, the party was again sent out, to -complete the measurement on the Brazilian Coast, and also to measure -from Greenwich to Lisbon, the French Bureau of Longitudes having failed -to carry out its promise to measure from Paris. There being no ship -available for the purpose the traveling was done by mail steamer. Upon -arrival in England, an interview was had with the Astronomer Royal, who -readily agreed to assist in the work. Lieut. Com. Green accordingly -established his observatory at the landing place of the cable at -Porthcurnow in Cornwall, and Lieut. Com. Davis proceeded to Lisbon and -occupied the station used there the year before. Owing to the foggy and -rainy weather prevalent in England at that season, it was found -impossible to make any astronomical observations at the Porthcurnow -observatory. The work was therefore done in this way:—Observations -were made at Greenwich and at Lisbon, and Porthcurnow and Carcavellos -were used as transmitting stations. The chronometer at Porthcurnow was -compared automatically with the clock at Greenwich, and by cable with -the chronometer at Carcavellos. The latter was compared automatically -with that at Lisbon, before and after the cable exchange. At this time -there were made at Carcavellos, some experiments with a view to making -the receipt of the time signals over the cable automatic, thus doing -away with the personal equation of the receiver. The instrument in use -for the regular business of the cable was what is known as the siphon -recorder, also the invention of Sir Wm. Thompson. In this a small coil -of fine wire is suspended by a fibre of silk, between the poles of a -powerful permanent magnet. The currents from the cable pass through -this coil and the action is to deflect it to the right or left, just as -the mirror is deflected in the instrument already described. Attached -to this coil is a siphon made of a capillary glass tube. One end of the -siphon dips into a reservoir of aniline ink, and the other hangs -immediately over the centre of a fillet of paper, which is unwound by -clock-work. If the siphon touched the paper, the feeble currents sent -through the cable would be powerless to move it, on account of the -friction, and in order to produce a mark some means must be found of -forcing the ink through the capillary tube. This is accomplished by -electrifying the ink positively and the paper negatively, by means of a -small inductive machine, driven by an electric motor. The effort of the -two electricities to unite, forces the ink through the tube and it -appears on the paper as a succession of small dots. When the paper is -in motion and the coil at rest, a straight line is formed along the -middle of the fillet by these dots, but as soon as a current is sent -through the coil the siphon moves to the right or left making an offset -to this line. These offsets on one side or the other are used as the -dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet. A time signal sent over the -cable while this instrument was in circuit, appeared as a single offset -on the paper, and it was only necessary to graduate the paper into -seconds spaces by the local chronometer, in order to have the automatic -record required. The ordinary chronometer circuit could not be put -through the coil directly, as it would then charge the cable and -interfere with the signals, and besides, the current, unless by the -introduction of a high resistance it was reduced in strength, would -infallibly give such a violent motion to the coil as to break the -siphon, if it did no other damage. The result was obtained in this way; -an ordinary telegraph relay was put in the chronometer circuit and the -armature of course moved with the beats. To this armature was fastened -one end of a fine thread. The other end was attached to a slender piece -of elastic brass which was fixed at one end to the framework supporting -the paper, in such a way that the other end touched the metallic vessel -holding the ink, except when the thread was drawn tight enough to pull -it away. This the armature of the relay did while the circuit through -the chronometer was complete, but as soon as it was broken at the -beginning of a second, the tension of the thread was relaxed and the -brass sprung back against the ink well, allowing the positive and -negative electricities to unite independently of the siphon. The ink -then ceased to flow, until the spring was drawn away, thus leaving a -small blank space in the line of dots and forming a very good -chronographic record. This was liable to a small error due to the -length of time that elapsed between the release of the spring by the -armature and its impact on the ink well. Had there been time for more -extensive experiment this difficulty might have been overcome. Or if -the same method had been adopted at both stations, the result would -have been affected by only the difference between the times of movement -of the brass spring which would have been minute. Lack of time for -experiment, and the fact that the observers were averse to introducing -untested methods into a chain of measurements most of the links of -which were already completed, prevented any use being made of this -achievement. The measurement between Greenwich and Lisbon being -satisfactorily completed, Lieut. Com. Green by order of the Navy -Department returned to the United States, and the links between Rio and -Pernambuco and between the latter place and Para, were measured by -Lieut. Com. Davis and the writer, completing the work of the -expedition, after which the party returned to Washington.</p> - -<p>The computation of this work, showed the somewhat surprising fact that -the heretofore accepted position in longitude of Lisbon, differed from -the true one by about two miles. The longitude of Rio Janeiro had -always been more or less in doubt, various determinations had differed -by as much as nine miles, but the position finally decided upon by the -best authorities agreed very closely with that obtained by telegraph.</p> - -<p>The next expedition was sent out by the Bureau of Navigation to China, -Japan and the East Indies, Lieut. Com. Green being still in charge. The -officers composing the party sailed from San Francisco by mail steamer -in April, 1881, for Yokohama, where they joined the U. S. Steamer -Palos. From Hong Kong north to Vladivostok in Eastern Siberia the -cables were owned by a Danish company. From Hong Kong to the south and -west they were the property of English companies. Beginning at -Vladivostok observations were made at all stations on the Asiatic coast -except Penang, as far as Madras, India. It was intended to try and make -some use of the automatic method of receiving time signals, on this -work, but on arriving in Japan it was found that the recording -instrument used by the Danish company was entirely different from that -used by the English lines. It consisted of a series of electro-magnets -acting on a single armature, which carried a siphon made of silver. The -signals consisted of long and short movements, to one side of the -middle line, instead of equal deflections on both sides as in the -Thompson recorder. An attempt was made to convert this instrument into -a relay, by causing the siphon to make and break a circuit, but it was -not successful. The movements of the siphon were not regular enough, -and the contact was not firm. Consequently the mirror method of -exchanging signals was still adhered to.</p> - -<p>The longitude of the position occupied in Vladivostok, had been -determined telegraphically from Pulkova, by the Russians, using the -land lines across Siberia. The English had also determined the position -at Madras, using the cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The -work of the United States Expedition joined these two positions, -completing a chain of measurements extending over many thousand miles, -made by observers of different nationalities in various climates. It -was to be expected that considerable discrepancy would be found in the -final result, but taking the longitude of Vladivostok as brought from -Madras, and comparing it with that determined by the Russians, the -difference was only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.39. Taking everything into consideration, -this result was gratifyingly close. Upon the conclusion of this series -of determinations, the connection of Lieut. Commander Green with the -work was severed, he receiving his promotion to the rank of Commander.</p> - -<p>The next work was under the charge of Lieut. Com. Davis, and consisted -in the determination in 1883-84, of positions in Mexico, Central -America and the west coast of South America. Cables had just been -completed, extending from Galveston, Texas, to Vera Cruz, thence across -Mexico to the Pacific and down that coast to Lima, Peru, where -connection was made with another system extending to Valparaiso. -Galveston was a point determined by the Coast Survey, and the -measurement thence to Vera Cruz was the first one made. It was -completed in May '83, and in the Autumn of the same year the party -proceeded to the South American coast, and stations were established -and observations made at various points from Valparaiso to Panama, and -at one point, La Libertad, in Central America. It was at first the -intention to extend the series across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and -connect with Vera Cruz, but lack of time prevented this, and as the -station at Panama determined nearly ten years before, afforded a -convenient starting point, the idea was abandoned. From Valparaiso, a -measurement was made with the coöperation of Dr. Gould to his -observatory at Cordova, using the line across the Andes, and exchanging -signals automatically. These measurements constituted the final links -in a long chain, extending from the prime meridian Greenwich across the -Atlantic to the United States, thence via the West Indies to Panama, -down the west coast of South America to Valparaiso, across the Andes to -Cordova and Buenos Ayres, up the east coast to Pernambuco, across the -Atlantic to Lisbon, and thence to Greenwich, altogether a distance of -eighteen to twenty thousand miles. The two longitudes of Cordova, as -brought from Greenwich by the two routes, differed from each other by -only 0<small><sup>s</sup></small>.048, a result which speaks well for the accuracy of the -methods employed. When preparations were being made for this -expedition, it was determined to accomplish if possible something in -the way of getting rid of the personal equation in exchanging signals. -An idea which had been suggested by work done by Major Campbell, R. E. -in the measurement between Bombay and Aden, seemed to promise well. It -was to be used with the siphon or other form of recorder. The ordinary -double current cable key with two levers, was arranged with an -additional lever in such a manner that while in ordinary use in the -telegraph office, it could also be put in circuit with the chronometer -and chronograph in the observatory, and a signal sent through the cable -would have its time of sending registered on the chronograph. -Ordinarily in speaking over a cable line, connection is made in such a -way that the current sent does not pass through the recorder at the -sending station, as a violent movement of the siphon would result. By -means of a shunt, however, it is possible to control this movement -somewhat. Suppose now, that the connections at each station are made in -such a way, by means of this key and the shunt, that a signal sent from -one, is registered on both recorders and on the sender's chronograph. -The observers leaving their assistants to take care of the -chronographs, go to the respective telegraph offices, and all being -ready, the observer A taps his key. This sends an impulse through the -cable, which appears on A's recorder, as a violent jump or kick of the -siphon. On B's recorder it is registered as a deflection like the -ordinary dot or dash, at the same instant is recorded on A's -chronograph the time of sending. As soon as B sees the signal on his -recorder, he taps his key also registering the signals on both -recorders and on his chronograph. A, seeing B's signal again taps his -key, and so on, as long as desired. The result is that each observer -has a record on his siphon fillet of all signals sent and received, -while the times of those he sent are recorded on his chronograph. By -the use of the diagonal scale and the Rule of Three, he can without -difficulty find the times of the signals received. The siphon recorders -are well made, and the paper moves with great regularity. This system -was used in the measurement between Galveston and Vera Cruz with great -success. It was intended to employ the same method throughout the -measurement on the west coast of America, but on arriving at Lima, it -was found that the company owning the lines south of that point still -used the mirror galvanometer, and it was of course necessary to return -to the old method. The improved key was used however, which eliminated -the error in sending signals.</p> - -<p>After this work was completed and the results published in 1885, -nothing was done in this line by the Bureau of Navigation for some -years. Upon the return of the writer in the spring of 1888, from a -cruise in the South Pacific, he found that the subject of sending an -expedition to complete the measurements in Mexico and Central America -was under consideration in the Bureau of Navigation and the -Hydrographic office. It was finally decided that the work should be -done, and the writer was placed in charge. The instruments were brought -out of their retirement, and by the aid of the Hydrographic Office a -very complete outfit was furnished, and in November of last year a -start was made from New York, the expedition proceeding by mail steamer -to Vera Cruz. Here the spot occupied by Lieut. Com. Davis in '83 was -found, his transit pier, which was still standing was repaired, and -instruments mounted. Lieut. Charles Laird, U. S. N., who had been -identified with the longitude work since the China expedition in 1881, -was left in charge of the observatory at Vera Cruz, and the writer -proceeded with his party to the small town of Coatzacoalcos, at the -mouth of the river of the same name. This point is about one hundred -and twenty miles southeast of Vera Cruz, and is the landing place of -the cable. A land line extends from this point to Salina Cruz on the -Pacific coast, a distance of about two hundred miles. In exchanging -time signals between Vera Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, the automatic method -was employed, the cable being short. The old wooden observatories were -used at these points, but as they were too heavy for transportation -across the Isthmus, tents made especially for astronomical purposes -were substituted for them in the observations made on the Pacific -coast. The journey across the Isthmus was slow, about two weeks being -employed in traveling two hundred miles, though as the route was -devious, the actual distance was nearer three hundred. Some of the -instruments were heavy, and after being taken in canoes a hundred miles -up the Coatzacoalcos river, against a rapid current, they were loaded -on a train of pack mules, and carried the rest of the way by land. -While the first party was crossing the Isthmus, the other was on its -way from Vera Cruz, and being ready at about the same time, a -successful measurement was made between Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, -exchanging signals automatically. The Coatzacoalcos party then crossed -to Salina Cruz, while the other proceeded to La Libertad in Salvador, -where the station established in the Spring of '84, was again occupied. -The measurement between these places being completed, the Libertad -party went on to San Juan del Sur, in Nicaragua, near the terminus of -the proposed interoceanic canal. In the measurement between this point -and Salina Cruz, as well as in the one preceding, the exchange was -effected by mirror signals. This completed the season's work, and the -two parties made the best of their way home via Panama, arriving in -Washington in April and May respectively. The computation of the -observations is not yet complete though well advanced; it was the -intention to publish preliminary results this Fall, but owing to lack -of time that can not be done.</p> - -<p>Another piece of work is laid out for the same party for the coming -winter, which is the measurement from Santiago de Cuba, through Hayti -and San Domingo to La Guayra in Venezuela, over the cables of a French -company, which have just been completed. This work will consume about -six months, and the expedition which is to start almost immediately -will probably return in April or May next. The determination of the -longitude of La Guayra will give a point from which many other -measurements may be made along the north coast of South America, -furnishing material for extensive corrections of the charts of that -region.</p> -<br> - -<p>Having presented an outline of the work done so far, as well as that -proposed for the near future, I will now mention some of the trials and -tribulations, as well as the pleasures experienced in carrying out the -object desired in an expedition of this kind. The greatest politeness -and kindness have always been experienced from the officials and -employees of the various telegraph companies over whose lines work has -been carried on. The government officials of the foreign countries -visited, have also invariably shown the utmost politeness, but -sometimes this politeness has been visibly tinged with suspicion. The -measurements in Peru and Chili were made amid the closing scenes of the -war between the countries. Upon the arrival of the expedition in Lima, -an interview was had with the Chilian Commander-in-Chief who had -possession of the city, and permission was requested and readily -granted to occupy a station in Arica. Upon arriving at the latter place -some days after, the Chilian governor in charge was found to have -instructions to facilitate the work, and readily granted permission to -establish the observatory in a convenient locality, but flatly refused -to allow a wire to be extended to the telegraph office, and also -refused to forward to his immediate superior, a request that it might -be allowed. He evidently supposed the party were emissaries of the -United States, sent to treat secretly with conquered Peru, but how he -expected this was to be done remains a secret. By a vigorous use of the -telegraph in communicating with the U. S. Ministers to both Chili and -Peru, his objections were silenced, and the wire was put up. The -observatory at Arica was erected on the side of a hill to the windward -of the town, because it afforded a clear view, and was less dirty than -other eligible sites. It also was a safe position in case of a possible -earthquake or tidal wave, by which Arica had already been twice visited -with disastrous effect. In digging for a foundation for the transit -pier, several mummies of the ancient Peruvians were unearthed at a -depth of a foot. They had evidently belonged to the poorer class of -people, as their wrappings were composed of coarse mats, instead of the -fine cloth with which the wealthier people were usually interred. One -was the body of a female with long hair, which had been turned to a -reddish yellow color by the alkali in the soil. The whole coast of Peru -is barren and desolate, except in the river valleys, it being seldom -visited by rain, while it is nearly always overhung with heavy clouds -and fog banks, which render astronomical work exceedingly difficult. -Even when partially clear in the day time, it generally becomes cloudy -at night. Many times the observer would be at his place before sunset -ready to seize the first suitable star revealed by the darkness, only -to be baffled by thick banks of cloud which would cover the entire sky -in from five to ten minutes.</p> - -<p>In northern Peru, with a latitude of about five degrees south, is the -town of Paita. It is an assemblage of mud-colored houses, at the foot -of high, mud colored bluffs. On top of these bluffs is a perfectly -barren table land extending inland and up and down the coast for many -miles. Before visiting it the observers were informed that its one good -point was the perfect astronomical weather which always prevailed. -Clouds were unknown, and such a thing as rain had never been heard of. -The extreme dryness of the atmosphere was so favorable to health that -no one ever died, and when a consumptive invalid was imported by the -inhabitants in the hope of starting a cemetery, he blasted their -expectations by recovering. Judge then of their feeling, when upon -arriving at this delightful place, they were met with the information -that while it was true that the sky was, in general, perfectly clear -both by night and day, yet about once in seven years, rain could be -expected, and that the year then present was the rainy one. And sure -enough it did rain. The usually dusty streets became rivers and -quagmires, the rocky valleys in the vicinity were transformed into -roaring torrents, and the table land usually an arid desert became a -swamp with a rank growth of vegetation. However by using every -opportunity and snatching stars between clouds and showers the work was -finally completed.</p> - -<p>Upon arriving in Panama shortly after this experience, the party was -met with the pleasant intelligence that yellow fever was prevalent, and -that the foreigners were dying like sheep. Nearly every day of the -party's stay, some one died of sufficient importance to have the church -bells tolled for his funeral, while of the ordinary people little -notice was taken. Every morning, the writer remembers passing a -carpenter's shop where nothing was made but coffins, and the supply was -evidently not equal to the demand, for finally the proprietor began to -import them, apparently by the ship load. The weather however was -delightful, and the nights were the most perfect, astronomically -speaking, that could be desired.</p> - -<p>The observers who went from Japan to Vladivostok were obliged to wait -several weeks at Nagasaki, before an opportunity offered for proceeding -to their destination, and when they finally arrived, the getting away -again was a problem. Communication with the outside world by water was -only open during the summer months, and even then it was more -accidental than otherwise. The party established the observatory -however, and settled down to work, letting the future take care of -itself. In the early part of the work, rather an amusing incident -occurred. As the community was full of all sorts and conditions of men, -Koreans, Chinamen and Russian exiles, the last not political but -criminal offenders; it was thought wise to have a sentry stationed at -the observatory to guard against any possible harm to the instruments. -So the Governor of the town was asked to furnish a soldier for that -purpose, which request was readily granted, and one night the sentry -was posted with orders to let no one touch the observatory. These -orders he construed literally, and when the observers appeared to -commence their night's work, he kept them off at the point of the -bayonet. His only language being Russian with which the observers were -not familiar, it was impossible to explain the true state of affairs, -and it was only after hunting up an interpreter and communicating with -his commanding officer that an entry was finally effected. A good deal -of bad weather was experienced at this place, but at the end of six -weeks enough observations had been made for the required purpose, and -the party was fortunate enough to secure passage to Nagasaki, in a -small steamer that had brought a load of coal out from Germany.</p> - -<p>In the expedition to the Asiatic coast one of the most interesting -experiences was the trip to Manila in the Philippine Islands. This is -quite a large town when intact, but a great portion of it is usually -in the condition of being shaken down by an earthquake or blown over by -a typhoon. The inhabitants are full of energy, however, and find time -between downfalls to build up again. The cable from Hong Kong lands at -a point about one hundred and twenty miles from Manila, and the writer -was directed to proceed thither, with a chronometer and chronograph for -the purpose of transmitting time signals. The first part of the journey -was made in a small coasting steamer uncommonly dirty, and occupied -about thirty-six hours. At the end of that time the village of Sual in -the Gulf of Lingayen was reached. This was distant from the cable -station about thirty miles, and the remainder of the journey was made -in a native boat, with mat sails, and bamboo outriggers, part of the -time through channels between numerous small islands and for some -distance in the open sea. The progress was slow, but it was a pleasant -way of traveling, except for the sleeping accommodations which were -primitive; consisting of a palm leaf mat thrown over a platform made of -split bamboo, in which all the knots had been carefully preserved. -About three days, including stoppages, were consumed in this thirty -mile voyage, and the traveler finally reached his destination to be -received with the greatest hospitality by the staff at the telegraph -station, and just in time to allay the fears of the observers at Hong -Kong and Manila who had begun to think him lost. About three weeks were -spent here, and as the work only occupied a short time at night, the -days were pleasantly passed in exploring the surrounding country, -making friends with the natives, shooting and photographing the -scenery. The return to Manila was by the same route and occupied nearly -the same length of time.</p> - -<p>The measurement from Singapore to Madras was over one of the longest -lines of cable ever used for this purpose, the distance being about -1600 nautical miles. The Atlantic cables used by Dr. Gould in 1866 were -a little more than 1,850 miles in length. There was an intermediate -station at Penang about 400 miles from Singapore, where all the work of -the line was repeated. For the longitude measurement however the cables -were connected through to form an unbroken line. The mirror was the -only instrument that could be used and even with this the signals were -feeble and much affected by earth currents.</p> - -<p>The observing parties have never been troubled by wild beasts, but -while at Saigon in Cochin, China, a rifle was always kept handy for use -in case of the appearance of a tiger. The observatory here was located -near the edge of a jungle, and alongside the telegraph station, on the -veranda of which a large tiger had been shot by one of the operators -only a short time before.</p> - -<p>In the expedition of last winter to Mexico and Central America, the -principal annoyance was caused by insects which were numerous and -malignant. At Coatzacoalcos they were found in the greatest abundance, -though the whole isthmus of Tehuantepec is alive with them. Fleas and -mosquitoes were expected of course, but added to this were numerous -others much worse. Of the family of "ticks" four varieties were seen -and felt, ranging in size from almost microscopic to a length of a -third of an inch. The most numerous were about as large as a grain of -mustard seed, and one who walked or rode through the bushes or high -grass would find himself literally covered. One of the worst insects -encountered was the "nigua" which is in appearance something like a -small flea. It burrows into the toes and soles of the feet, lays a -number of eggs, which hatch and produce painful sores. A gruesome story -is current in that region, about an enthusiastic English naturalist, -who found specimens of these encamped in his feet, and concluded to -take them home in that way, in order to observe the effect, but died of -them before reaching England. All the party were afflicted with these -pests, but were always fortunate enough to discover them and dig them -out with the point of a knife before any bad results were experienced. -The village of Coatzacoalcos is prettily situated, the climate, -especially in winter, is very agreeable and the river offers a -commodious harbor, but as long as the insects are so unpleasant, few -people will care to live there if they can avoid it.</p> - -<p>There have been directly determined by these various expeditions, about -forty secondary meridians. Many more positions depend upon these, so -they may be said to have made a large addition to our accurate -knowledge of the earth's surface. Telegraphic facilities are being -constantly extended, and as the Bureau of Navigation has now a very -complete outfit for this work, which only needs occasional repairs, it -is hoped that it may be kept up for some time in the future.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap2"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>REPORT—GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> H<small>ERBERT</small> G. O<small>GDEN</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>In my annual report a year ago, I presented to you briefly our -knowledge of the great geographic divisions of the world. It might be -instructive to continue the subject this evening by relating the -additional information we have acquired during the year; but as the -items are not of great value and the most important are more in the -form of rumors than of facts, I have restricted myself more to the -interests of the western hemisphere, and particularly to those -affecting the United States.</p> - -<p>In Europe we have still the visions of war that have agitated her -peoples for years past; the decapitation of the Turk, and division of -his European empire to appease the ambition of "friendly powers." It is -not until we pass by this civilized section and reach the far east, -that we recognize the dawn of progress in the year; the birth of events -that may in time increase the happiness and welfare of many people.</p> - -<p>The influence of the United States in extending the principle so early -enunciated, "that all men are born free and equal" has been most -marked. The western hemisphere is virtually under the rule of men -chosen by the people, and though we cannot claim that in all instances -the result has been satisfactory, there has, nevertheless, been a -steady advance; political disturbances have become less frequent and -with prolonged tranquillity the arts of peace, commercial enterprise -and internal improvements, have received an impetus that will wed more -strongly the advocates of personal liberty to their ideal God.</p> - -<p>Educated men in both hemispheres predict ultimate success or failure -for our form of government and advance cogent arguments in support of -the views they express. The complications of the great economic -questions that confront us afford texts for arguments that cause many -to doubt the wisdom of entrusting the welfare of a great nation to the -votes of the masses; nevertheless, the people are firm in the belief -that they can conduct their own affairs; and those whom they intrust -with temporary power are seldom so short-sighted as not to realize that -a violation of the trust will meet with certain retribution. Those -appointed to govern must also be teachers, and if in the enthusiasm of -a new creed it shall be shown they have taught the people error instead -of truth, a national uprising sweeps them from control, and for a time -conservatism becomes the guide. To the people of the old world, the -apparent prosperity that has followed our system doubtless receives the -most earnest thought; and the contrast to their own condition excites -their desires to experiment themselves in more liberal forms, and reap -the rewards they believe have followed such measures in America.</p> - -<p>While American methods may extend their influence in this manner to -European nations, and even to the nations of Asia, we should not rest -self-confident of the superiority of our institutions, and that they -alone are the permeating influence that inspire so many with the -thoughts of liberal government that brings disquiet to crowned heads. -The application of recent discoveries and inventions, to the affairs of -every-day life, have raised the power of the individual and caused such -a general increase of intellectual vigor, that independence of rulers -by divine right is no longer a cause for wonder, but is considered by -the intelligent as the natural state for the modern man.</p> - -<p>Since the expedition of Com. Perry our influence in Japan has been -marked, and this most progressive of the Eastern nations has sought -counsel and advice from new America and the men who constitute the -nation. But the progressive people of these isles have been too earnest -in their efforts to advance, to rely solely upon one set of men, or the -example of one nation, and we find they have been gathering in that -which is good from all sections of the civilized world. The record of -their progress, however, bears the stamp of America, and we may justly -claim that it was the influence of freedom that first led these -interesting people into the paths they have followed with such -gratifying results, and which many believe will culminate in the -establishment of a powerful and enlightened nation. Recent advices -announce the formation of a legislative body, organized on the -principle of the Congress of the United States—a step that indicates -Japan may yet find a place in the category of states that are destined -to exert a marked influence in the control of human affairs.</p> - -<p>How different is the neighboring empire of China. Within a stone's -throw, almost, of the advancing civilization of Japan, inhabited by a -people of marked ability but restricted by race traditions to a -condition of inactive conservatism, that seems almost to preclude the -possibility of material advance in centuries to come. The population of -this empire is so great that the density has been averaged at two and -three hundred persons per square mile, and in some districts that it is -as great as seven hundred. We can readily conceive the poverty that -must exist in such an average population for such an extended area. And -we may realize the cries of distress that come from great calamities by -the experiences in our own history, even modified as they have been by -our superior facilities for affording relief, and the comparative -insignificance of the numbers who have required assistance. Recall for -a moment one of the great floods of the Yellow river, where thousands -have perished and tens of thousands have been rendered destitute within -a few hours, and conceive the sufferings, hardships, and greater number -that must yet succumb before those who survived the first great rush of -the waters can be furnished relief; remembering that the means of -intercommunication are the most primitive, and that the immediate -neighbors of the sufferers are in no condition to render more -assistance than will relieve the most urgent necessities of a -comparatively insignificant number. May we not, then, if only from a -humanitarian point of view, greet with pleasure the reception of the -imperial decree authorizing the introduction in the empire of useful -inventions of civilized man, and directing the construction of a great -railroad through the heart of the empire, with Pekin as one of the -termini. This road will cross the Yellow river, affording relief to -this populous district in time of disaster; and it is understood will -eventually be extended to traverse the empire, forming a means of rapid -communication between distant provinces. We may believe, also, that in -time it will be the medium of opening to us a new region for geographic -research, not in the celestial empire alone, but also in the rich -fields of central Asia that are now being occupied by Chinese emigration.</p> - -<p>Doubtless the greatest geographic discoveries of the age have been made -in central Africa. It was but a few years ago that we were in doubt as -to the true sources of the Nile, and the location of the mouths of -great rivers that had been followed in the interior, was as much a -mystery as though the rivers had flowed into a heated cauldron and the -waters had been dissipated in mist, by the winds, to the four corners -of the earth. It was then that grave fears were aroused for the safety -of Livingstone, who had done so much, and whose efforts it was hoped -would yet solve the great geographic problems his travels had evolved. -A man, patient in suffering, and with a tenacity of purpose that -overcomes the greatest obstacles, he had endeared himself to those who -sought knowledge from his labors, and it was, therefore, with unfeigned -regret that men spoke of the possibility that calamity had overtaken -him, and that the work of the last years of his life would possibly be -lost. The editor of an influential New York journal, sympathizing with -the deep interest that was felt, and doubtless actuated to some extent -by the notoriety success would bring to his journal, determined upon -organizing an expedition to ascertain Livingstone's fate, and thus -brought before the world the hitherto obscure correspondent Henry M. -Stanley. The rare good judgment that selected Mr. Stanley for the -command of such a hazardous expedition was more than demonstrated by -subsequent events. The first reports that Livingstone had been succored -were received with incredulity, but as the facts became known -incredulity gave way to unstinted praise, and Mr. Stanley was accorded -a place among those who had justly earned a reward from the whole -civilized world.</p> - -<p>A few years after his return from his successful mission for the relief -of Livingstone, he was commissioned in the joint interests of the <i>New -York Herald</i> and <i>London Daily Telegraph</i>, to command an expedition for -the exploration of central Africa. Traversing the continent from east -to west, he added largely to our knowledge of the lake region and was -the first to bring us facts of the course of the Congo. This expedition -placed him before the world as one of the greatest of explorers, and it -seems, therefore, to have been but natural that, when a great -humanitarian expedition was to be organized nearly ten years later to -penetrate into the still unknown regions of the equatorial belt for the -relief of Emin Pasha, that he should have been selected to command it. -How faithfully he performed this task we are only just learning, and -our admiration increases with every new chapter that is placed before -us. That he was successful in the main object of the expedition is -self-evident, having brought Emin Pasha and the remnant of his -followers to the coast with him. The expedition has also been fruitful -in geographic details, and though we have not as yet the data to change -the maps to accord with all the newly discovered facts, we may feel -assured of their value. Perhaps the best summary of the more important -discoveries can be given in the explorer's own words, which I have -taken from one of his recent letters:</p> - -<blockquote>"Over and above the happy ending of our appointed duties we have not -been unfortunate in geographical discoveries. The Aruwimi is now known -from its source to its bourne. The great Congo forest, covering as -large an area as France and the Iberian peninsula, we can now certify -to be an absolute fact. The Mountains of the Moon, this time beyond the -least doubt, have been located, and Ruwenzori, 'The Cloud King,' robed -in eternal snow, has been seen and its flanks explored and some of its -shoulders ascended, Mounts Gordon Bennett and MacKinnan Cones being but -great sentries warding off the approach to the inner area of 'The Cloud -King.'</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"On the southeast of the range the connection between Albert Edward -Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza has been discovered, and the extent of the -former lake is now known for the first time. Range after range of -mountains has been traversed, separated by such tracts of pasture lands -as would make your cowboys out west mad with envy. And right under the -burning equator we have fed on blackberries and bilberries and quenched -our thirst with crystal water fresh from snow beds. We have also been -able to add nearly six thousand square miles of water to Victoria -Nyanza.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Our naturalist will expatiate upon the new species of animals, birds -and plants he has discovered. Our surgeon will tell what he knows of -the climate and its amenities. It will take us all we know how to say -what new store of knowledge has been gathered from this unexpected -field of discoveries. I always suspected that in the central regions, -between the equatorial lakes, something worth seeing would be found, -but I was not prepared for such a harvest of new facts."</blockquote> - -<p>The exploration of Africa, however, has not been confined to the -central belt. Expeditions have been developing the southern section of -the continent; the French have been active in the watershed of the -Niger, and in the east there seems to have been a general advance of -English, Germans, Portuguese and Italians. The latter, it is stated, -have acquired several million square miles of territory in Mozambique, -an acquisition that would indicate our maps have heretofore given this -particular division of territory an area much too insignificant.</p> - -<p>We also learn that Capt. Trevier, a French traveler, has crossed the -continent by ascending the Congo to Stanley Falls, thence southeasterly -through the lake region to the coast at some point in Mozambique, in a -journey of eighteen months; a journey that must bring us a harvest of -new facts.</p> - -<p>On the western hemisphere there has been considerable activity in a -variety of interest, tending to develop the political, commercial and -natural resources.</p> - -<p>Four new states have been admitted to the American Union, and measures -have been introduced in the Congress looking to the admission of two -more. These acts mark an era in the progress of the great northwest -significant of a national prosperity that a generation ago would have -been deemed visionary. We have also to record a tentative union formed -by the Central American states, that at the expiration of the term of -ten years prescribed by the compact, we may hope will be solidified by -a bond to make the union perpetual. In South America a bloodless -revolution presented to the family of nations a new republic in the -United States of Brazil. All thoughtful men must at least feel a throb -of sympathy for Dom Pedro, who in a night lost the allegiance of his -people and the rule of an empire. Sympathy, perhaps, that he does not -crave, for history affords us no parallel of a monarch who taught his -people liberalism, and knowing it could but lead to the downfall of his -empire. It seems to be true, also, that although depriving him of -power, the people whom he loved and ruled with such liberality, have -not forgotten his many virtues, and that the Emperor Dom Pedro will be -revered in republican Brazil as heartily as though his descendants had -been permitted to inherit the empire. We cannot tell if the new order -of affairs will prove permanent, but the education of the Brazilians in -the belief that a republic was inevitable, gives strong grounds to hope -the experiment of self-government will not be a failure. The influence -the successful establishment of this republic is to exert in other -parts of the world is a problem that has already brought new worries to -the rulers of Europe, and not without a reason, for a republican -America is an object lesson that the intelligence of the age will not -be slow to learn.</p> - -<p>The assembly of the "Three Americas Congress" in Washington, is also an -event that may wield an influence in the future. Perhaps it may not be -seen for years to come, but it lays the foundation for commercial and -geographic developments that would redound to the credit of the western -hemisphere.</p> - -<p>We have seen during the year the virtual failure of the Panama Canal -company; for it is unreasonable to believe that a corporation so -heavily involved with such a small proportion of its allotted labor -accomplished, can secure the large sum that would be requisite to -continue operations to completion. The failure of this company has -imparted a fresh impetus to the Nicaragua scheme and ground was broken -on this route in October last. As the Nicaragua route presents many -natural advantages and is free from such stupendous engineering works -as were contemplated at Panama, we may hope for its completion. The -surveys were conducted with deliberation and have evidenced great skill -on the part of those who supervised them, so that we may reasonably -expect the construction will proceed with the same care, and resolve -the question of success into the simple problem of cost.</p> - -<p>A partial account has been furnished by Dr. Nansen of his journey -across Greenland a year ago. The result will be disappointing to those -who anticipated the discovery of open country with green fields and the -general reversal of the Arctic conditions. He describes the region as -being covered with a great shield of ice, dome-like in shape, and which -he estimates to have a maximum thickness of six or seven thousand feet. -For a great part of his journey he traveled at an elevation of about -eight thousand feet, and the cold at times was so intense that he -believes the temperature must have been at least 50° below zero on the -Fahrenheit scale. No land was visible in the interior and he estimates -the highest mountains must be covered with at least several hundred -feet of snow ice. The expedition was one of great danger, and we may -say was accomplished only through the good judgment of the explorer. -The scientific results have not yet been considered, but the explorer -suggests it is an excellent region to study an existing ice field, and -estimates that persistent observations might prove productive of value -in the science of meteorology.</p> - -<p>The Canadians have been active during the year in the exploration of -the vast territory to the northward of their supposed habitable -regions. In the report of Dr. Dawson relating the result of his labors -in the northwest, up to the date of its compilation, we find much that -is new and a great deal that is of interest. We cannot enter into the -details of his itinerary, but we may note as one fact that surely will -excite surprise, the conclusion he reaches that there is a territory of -about 60,000 square miles, the most part to the northward of the -sixtieth parallel, in which agricultural pursuits may be successfully -followed in conjunction with the natural development of the other -resources of the territory. This does not imply that it may become an -agricultural region, and should hardly be construed as more than a -prediction that the pioneers who attempt to develop the region need not -die of starvation.</p> - -<p>We have also to record as a matter of interest in the Arctic region, -the successful establishment of the two parties sent out by the United -States to determine the location of the 141st meridian, the boundary -line between Alaska and the British Provinces north of Mt. St. Elias. -The parties are located on the Yukon and Porcupine rivers above their -confluence at Ft. Yukon. They are well equipped, and it is expected -they will explore a considerable territory and bring back with them -valuable information beyond the special object of the expedition. -Indeed, it may be said, this is but the beginning of a thorough -examination of Alaskan territory, that will eventually form a basis for -the demarkation of the international boundary. This country is full of -surprises in its details, and whatever examinations are made must be -thorough to be effective. Only recently, a small indentation, as it has -been carried on the maps since Vancouver's time, and known as Holkham -Bay, has been found to be a considerable body of water, extending back -from Stephen's passage in two arms, each nearly thirty miles in length -and nearly reaching the assumed location of the Alaska boundary. So -perfectly is the bifurcation and extension of the arms hidden by -islands, that it was only during the past summer when in the regular -course of work the shores of the bay were to be traversed, that the -extent of the bay became known.</p> - -<p>The determination of the boundaries of the land areas on the surface of -the earth has ever been a matter of the greatest interest to the -students of geography. It was the incentive that led the daring -navigators of old to undertake the perilous voyages that in these days -read like romances; and in the light of the more perfect knowledge we -now have of the hidden dangers to which they were exposed, we may pass -by their shortcomings in the admiration we must feel for their heroism -and endurance. To these men we owe our first conception of the probable -distribution of the areas of land and water, but the lines they gave us -were only approximate; and had not scientific effort followed in their -tracks we may reasonably believe the progress of civilization would -have been retarded by generations. True it is, also, that even to-day -we have not that precise knowledge that is requisite for the safety of -quick navigation, nor to calculate the possibility of the future -improvement of undeveloped regions. The commerce of the world in coming -years will demand the accuracy in the location of distant regions as -great as we now have in civilized centres, for time will be too -precious to lose a day of it in the precautions that the navigator must -now follow in approaching undeveloped coasts. That these truths have -guided those who seek to do their share for the future in the labor of -the present, we have ample evidence in the activity of all civilized -governments during the last century. It is a source of shame and -infinite regret that our own government has done so little in this vast -field: that the intelligence of our people has not been awakened to put -forth their energy in so good a cause, that would eventually increase -their own prosperity. But we have not been altogether inactive and -complaint must be in the quantity, not the quality of our labors. The -establishment of "definite locations," for the control of sections and -regions, is the first step in eliminating errors that have been -committed and in providing greater accuracy in the future. At a recent -meeting of the Society we had a paper presented on this subject, from -which we can judge of the good work that has been done by our navy in -these determinations, and gain an insight of the similar labor that has -been prosecuted by other nations. The bands of electric cables that -girdle the earth, afford the most approved means of ascertaining the -longitudes of these positions; and if we but study a cable chart, it -will be found the work yet to be accomplished before the facilities the -cables now afford are exhausted, is not inconsiderable. We hope, -therefore, this good work may be continued, and that surveying and -charting the regions thus approached, will shortly follow. There is -much labor of this character still required on our own continent, and -we will be delinquent in our duty as a progressive people if we do not -follow the good beginning already made to its legitimate conclusion.</p> - -<p>The duties of government are manifold, and for the benefit of those -governed must include legislation that will make manifest the natural -resources of the State. The geographic development and political -advancement of our own country in the century of our national -existence, is a marked instance of the wisdom of preparing for the -future by such acts as legitimately fall within the province of -legislation.</p> - -<p>The new nation began her existence under extraordinary circumstances. -With only an experimental form of government, she was to develop a vast -region of unknown resources; but happily imbued with the belief that -"knowledge is power," it was not long before systematic efforts were -put forth to learn the wealth we had and how it might be utilized. The -congress of the confederation provided the first act in 1785, for the -organization of the land surveys and land parcelling system, that title -to the unoccupied territories in the west might be securely vested in -the individual. We have record of the stimulus this act gave to the -settlement of a large territory, and raised the demand for surveys in -the still further west, developing the geography of a vast region that -has since become the home of millions of people. The original act was -amended as early as 1796, and since then has frequently been added to -in the effort to meet the new conditions evolved in the rapid -development of the country. Other great regions were explored by the -army, sometimes under special acts, until finally we had learned with -some degree of reliability, the general adaptability of our whole -territory. The discovery of the great mineral wealth of the west, and -the improved means of communication afforded by the construction of -continental railways, however, imposed new conditions and it was found -more detailed information would be necessary to meet the demands of the -increasing population. We thus reached another stage where expeditions -equipped for scientific investigation were organized, and through their -labors brought us knowledge of still greater value; and to-day we see -these merged into one body in the geological survey, whose special duty -is the scientific exploration and study of our great territory.</p> - -<p>While this had been passing in the interior, bringing life to -unoccupied regions, the districts on the coast that had long been -settled, were also struggling with new problems. The material progress -of the civilized world, and the pressure from the regions behind them -that had been recently peopled, demanded greater commercial facilities. -Early in the century, almost coincident with the establishment of the -land surveys, provision had been made for the survey of the coasts, and -although through various causes it was not vigorously prosecuted until -a third of the century had passed, when the time came for its economic -use in meeting the new conditions imposed by the general progress of -the nation, the knowledge had been gained that was essential to advance -and develop the great interests affected. The improvements required, -however, could only be secured through active exertion, the actual work -of man; but so pressing has been the want and so persistent has been -the labor, that should we chart the results it would be a surprise to -those who believe the "local geography" has not been changed.</p> - -<p>The demands upon the older communities arising from the increase in -commercial and industrial enterprise, have caused them too, to feel the -want of more detailed information of their surroundings, and they have, -in consequence, undertaken more precise surveys of their territories, -generally availing themselves of the assistance offered by the general -government. This work will doubtless extend in time to all the States, -and be followed, when its value has been made manifest, by the detailed -surveys of precision that have been found necessary as economic -measures in the civilized States of the old world.</p> - -<p>It is rarely we can foresee the full results of great national -enterprises; the special object that calls forth the exertion may be -readily comprehended, but the new conditions evolved from success, and -sometimes from only the partial accomplishment of the original design, -may be factors in governing the future beyond our power to surmise.</p> - -<p>The work of improving the navigation of the Mississippi River, is an -instance of this character so marked, and apparently destined to extend -its influence through so many generations, that a brief record of the -change it has effected in geographic environment will not be without -interest, and, perchance, not without value.</p> - -<p>The area drained by the Mississippi river and tributaries, is forty-one -per cent. of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska; and by -the census of 1880 the population of this great district was -forty-three per cent. of the whole Union. It seems probable that a -large proportion of this population is directly interested in the river -system, and if we add to it the number of those who are indirectly -benefited, we should doubtless find a majority of our people more or -less dependent upon its maintenance. It is only to the alluvial valley, -however, the great strip from Cairo to the Gulf, that I wish -particularly to call your attention this evening. This is really the -great highway for traffic; the cause of the great work that has been -prosecuted; and the scene of the geographic development that will mark -an epoch in the history of the river.</p> - -<p>Ten years ago the importance of the improvement of this water-way was -so forcibly impressed upon Congress, that an act was passed organizing -a "Mississippi River Commission," to make an exhaustive study of the -whole subject and submit plans for the improvement of the river and to -prevent the destructive floods that are of almost annual occurrence. Or -in the language of the act: "It shall be the duty of said Commission to -take into consideration and mature such plan or plans, and estimates, -as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect -the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to -the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and -facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service."</p> - -<p>Large sums of money had already been expended by the general government -in local improvements, but no consistent plan had been developed that -would be an acceptable guide in conducting operations along the whole -river, when this act went into effect. It is not necessary to refer -here to the various systems that were presented to the Commission for -consideration; nor to enter upon the details of the plan finally -adopted; our record being more the effects and primary causes, than the -intermediary processes through which the results have been produced. -The general plan followed by the Commission has been the construction -of works in the bed of the river, to form new banks where a contraction -of the river bed has been deemed necessary; and the erection of levees, -with grading, revetment, and other protection of the banks, in -localities where the natural banks seem particularly liable to give way -under the pressure of a great flood. The object of such works being to -control the river by confining the low water channels in fixed lines, -causing the recurrence of the scour in low water stages in the same -channel in successive low waters; and preventing the diversion of the -stream into new channels during high water stages by overflow of the -banks. A diversion of the stream would leave the works in the bed of -the river below of no greater value than as monuments to the energy and -skill displayed in the details of their construction, and preclude the -ultimate benefit that may be derived from these works in permanently -lowering the bed of the river. The probability of such diversion of the -water, however, seems to have been reduced to a minimum, through the -conservative action of the Commission in coöperating with the States -having jurisdiction over the alluvial bottoms, in reorganizing their -levee systems and thus securing the greatest control over the volume of -water brought down in the flood seasons, that is possible by the -construction of well planned and substantially built levees. It having -been demonstrated that the levees subserve a double purpose, that they -are essential in the general plan to improve the navigation of the -river adopted by the Commission, and are likewise needed to render the -bottom lands habitable, it is not surprising that we find the State -authorities and the Commission jointly engaged in their construction.</p> - -<p>It has thus been brought about that the effort to improve the -navigation of the river for the general welfare, has resulted in such -great changes in the geography of the locality, that a large district -has been reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The alluvial valley of -the Mississippi river has an area of thirty thousand square miles, and -is naturally divided into four great basins that have been designated -the St. Francis, Yazoo, Tensas and Atchafalaya. Two of these basins are -now fairly protected from the overflows of the Mississippi, by the -levees that have been constructed, or repaired, incidental to the work -of the Commission, viz: the Yazoo basin extending from below Memphis to -the mouth of the Yazoo river; and the Tensas basin from the high land -south of the Arkansas river to the mouth of the Red river; and the -Atchafalaya basin, from the Red river to the gulf, has been protected -on the Mississippi fronts. These three basins have an aggregate area of -nearly twenty thousand square miles that is now reasonably secure from -inundation. Measures have also been instituted by the State authorities -looking to the reclamation of the St. Francis basin; and the work is -half accomplished on the White river section.</p> - -<p>Nearly the whole of this valley was under protection thirty years ago, -but the disasters of the late civil war, and subsequent inability of -the people to repair the damaged levees, resulted in the practical -abandonment of many sections, and it was not until about ten or twelve -years ago that the protective works again presented an appearance of -continuity. The supposed security, however, was of short duration, as -the great floods of 1882 overtopped the works in more than one hundred -and forty places, causing such widespread destruction that cultivation -of the soil was rendered impossible over large districts. The floods of -succeeding years but added to the misfortunes of the valley, and land -values became so depreciated that sales were impracticable, taxes could -not be collected, and there was a general feeling that square miles of -fertile land must be given over to the destructive agencies of the -great river that had made it.</p> - -<p>It was while suffering under this distressing situation that the work -of the Mississippi River Commission was brought forward as a possible -means of salvation. With a recuperative power that seems almost -marvelous, the people have contributed of their labor and their means, -until now this great area of nearly twenty thousand square miles has -been once more reclaimed, and seems to have entered upon an era of -prosperity that will eclipse the prophecies of even the most sanguine. -It is believed that the levees that have now been constructed will -prove reasonably secure. They have been built for a double purpose; and -the proportion of the expense incurred by the general government, about -one-third, under the direction of the Commission, has insured a -supervision and inspection by competent engineers such as was not -exercised in the earlier history of such works on the river.</p> - -<p>We cannot foretell the developments that will follow the improvement of -this water way and the reclamation of the alluvial bottoms on an -enduring basis. That the works erected by the Commission will maintain -an increased depth of water at the low stages of the river, seems to be -demonstrated, as during the low water of November last a depth of nine -feet was found on the Lake Providence and Plum Point bars, an increase -of thirty-three and forty-four per cent. respectively. When the depths -on the other bars have been increased in like proportion the free -navigation of the river will be assured, and we may point to the result -as one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times.</p> - -<p>The increased value of the land adjacent to the river redeemed from -waste, more than doubled on the average, and in many instances -quadrupled; the replenishing of the state and county treasuries by the -collection of taxes on land that was before unremunerative; and the -building of railroads through sections where it had been impracticable -to maintain them before in consequence of their liability to -destruction by the periodic floods; are marked evidences of the -material prosperity that has already followed the great work. During -the last four years, forty thousand settlers have taken up lands in the -Yazoo basin alone, and it was estimated that in the fall of 1889 twenty -thousand more would seek homes in the same district. These settlers -have been mostly negroes from the worn out high lands to the eastward. -If the change in their environment proves beneficial to the individual -we may expect an increased migration, that may in turn be an aid in -solving the political problem involved in the citizenship of the negro.</p> - -<p>The settlement of these bottom lands will also influence the prosperity -of many commercial centers, as trade statistics indicate the general -abandonment of the plantations that followed the great floods of 1882, -caused a marked diminution in the shipments by the lower river, as well -as in the receipts from that section; and that the partial reclamation -of the lands and restoration of agricultural pursuits has already -influenced the receipt and distribution of commercial products.</p> - -<p>The project to reclaim by irrigation large districts of the arid region -of the west, if successfully accomplished, may also exert an influence -in the political and commercial relations of the future that cannot now -be foretold. Two-fifths of the territory of the United States has been -classed as arid; not in the sense that there is no water, for the -greatest rivers on the continent have their sources almost in the midst -of the region; but rather that the water is not available for enriching -the ground. The rainfall is generally not in the season when the crops -would require it, or is too small and uncertain for the husbandman to -depend upon it. The whole region is not of this character; many -districts are susceptible of the highest cultivation as nature has left -them, and others have been redeemed by the application of the water -supply through the simpler devices customary in irrigated countries; -until now nearly all the districts have been occupied that are -susceptible of agricultural pursuits, either in the natural state or by -irrigation, unless water is secured by means generally beyond the reach -of the individual or combination of individuals who may use it. And -yet, it is believed there are millions of acres of rich land that may -be redeemed and converted to the support of a large population, by the -application of capital in the construction of works of irrigation. The -progress of the surveys of the region, therefore, that have been -instituted by the general government, are watched with absorbing -interest. The districts susceptible of such extensive improvement are -only approximately known, and as it is only through these surveys their -availability will be made manifest, the importance of the work can -hardly be overestimated. The prosperity of several states will be -largely influenced by the success of operations of this kind within -their borders, and in turn their greater development and increased -wealth, must react upon the older communities and benefit them, on the -principle that the healthful growth of a single member is strength to -all.</p> - -<p>The science of geography, as taught in the present day, is more -comprehensive than the brief descriptions and delineations of the areas -of land and water that satisfied the early explorers. The great strides -that have been made in scientific research during the past century have -opened new fields, and men are no longer content to picture that only -which they can see. The varied features of the earth's surface, -transformations now in progress and those which may be deduced from the -facts we can observe, have led to many theories of the construction of -the earth, ancient forms upon the surface and possibilities, if not -probabilities, in the future. To ascertain the form of the earth has -alone been the cause of heroic labor, and yet we have hardly passed the -point that we can give it in probable terms with the general -dimensions. Observations warrant the assumption that, discarding the -accidents of nature—even the highest mountains—the sphere is far from -being perfect. That it is flattened at the poles is now accepted as the -true condition, but we have reason to believe, too, that this is not -the only departure from the perfect sphere. The more thorough the -research and precise the observations, the more certain does it appear -that the crust has a form as though there had been great waves of -matter that had been solidified. To locate the depressions of these -great waves and measure their depths, to point to the crests and -measure their extent, is a problem for the future to solve. Their study -is claimed to be within the legitimate sphere of geography; and not -until they have been satisfactorily answered can we assert the -geographer is even approaching the end of the facts his science has yet -to utilize.</p> - -<p>In pre-historic geography we have had two papers presented to the -Society during the past year, relating to the orographic features of -the earth's surface in times past compared with the localities as we -may see them to-day. In the first instance the comparison is evolved -from an effort to trace the origin and growth of the rivers of -Pennsylvania; and the second, in a description of the famed district -around Asheville, North Carolina. These have a substantial interest to -us, treating as they do of localities so well known; and they -illustrate, too, the resources of induction in bringing to our view the -probable wonders of ancient geographic forms.</p> - -<p>The constitution of the interior of the earth is a subject of great -interest in the science of geography, as many of the visible forms upon -the crust have been wrought by the power of the agencies within it. The -discussion has been warm in the past, and doubtless will be resumed -with unabated interest as we find new phenomena for the argument. The -apparent lull that has followed the promulgation of the theory, three -years ago, that under the crust we should find a fluid, or semi-fluid, -surrounding a solid nucleus, may not be of long duration. This -hypothesis probably comes nearer to satisfying the conditions imposed -by the physicist and geologist, than those which have preceded it, and -may be accepted for the present; unless the processes of nature by -which it is conceived this state of the interior of the earth has been -produced, shall be demonstrated to have continued for sufficient time -to have caused a condition of equilibrium and possible solidification -of the whole sphere; when we might expect it to be repudiated by those -who oppose the theory of isostacy, but commended by the physicists as -supporting their claim that the earth must be substantially a solid -even now. If we accept Mr. Frederick Wright's suggestion, isostacy may -have an important bearing on the cause of the ice sheets that covered -such great areas; a suggestion that opens to the vision of the -imagination an orography beside which the grandest landscape we may see -to-day would pale into insignificance. This is believed to be a new -application of the isostatic theory, and may be a possible solution of -a much vexed question when an initial cause for such great upheavals -can be advanced that will not be inconsistent with other accepted -conditions.</p> - -<p>Theories are modified by new facts, and in any attempt to demonstrate -the constitution of the interior of the earth, the increase of -temperature with the depth is an important factor. The recent measures, -therefore, in Germany, that indicate the figures generally accepted are -not reliable, may be received with interest. The shaft was sunk -especially for the purpose of observing temperatures at different -depths, and every precaution that former experience had suggested seems -to have been taken to secure accuracy. The greatest depth reached was -about one mile. An elaborate discussion of the results fixes the -increase of temperature at 1° F. for each 65 ft. increase of depth. -This is about 15 ft. greater than the figures that have heretofore been -given; a difference so large that we may question if they will be -generally accepted until verified by further observations made with -equally great care.</p> - -<p>In conclusion permit me to note the fact that the United States was for -the first time represented in the International Geodetic Association, -at the meeting recently held in Paris; and also to record the -successful conclusion of the fourth International Geographical Congress -that assembled in Paris in August last. The reports from the Congress -indicate a wide range of subjects discussed, and lead us to believe the -interest in our science is progressive, and must receive the hearty -appreciation of all who are inspired by the nobler instincts to -develope the great sphere on which we live; that the riches, the -beauties, and above all the grandeur of Nature, may be made manifest to -ourselves and for our posterity.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap3"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>REPORT—GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> G<small>EN</small>. A. W. G<small>REELY</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>It is with a feeling of increased responsibility, shared doubtless by -the Presidents of other sections, that the Vice-President of the -Geography of the Air brings before you his modest annual contribution -in one branch of geographical science.</p> - -<p>We live in an age so imbued with earnest thought, and so characterized -by patient investigation, that an eager gleaner in scientific fields -finds at the very outset his mind filled with the garnered grain of -golden facts. The more cautious searcher often follows with uncertain -mind, and doubtless in his backward glances sees many fairer and -heavier sheaves than those he bears with full arms, from the fruitful -harvest. If, then, you do not find here dwelt on such geographical -phases as you judge most important, attribute the fact I pray you, not -to neglect, but to lack of observation, or to the exercise of an -undiscriminating judgment.</p> - -<p>First let us turn to the higher class of investigations, wherein that -handmaid of science, a true and noble imagination, comes to supplement -exact knowledge, to round out and give full form and perfect outline, -either shaping a number of disjointed and apparently heterogeneous -facts into a harmonious series, or evolving from a mass of confusing -and seemingly inexplicable phenomena a theory or law consistent -therewith.</p> - -<p>In this domain Professor Ferrel's book on Winds is probably the most -important theoretical meteorological discussion of the past year. It -owes its value to the fact that it puts into comparatively simple and -popular form the processes and results of his intricate mathematical -investigations of the motions of the air, published by him years since, -and later elaborated during his service with the Signal Office.</p> - -<p>In connection with the subject of winds, Professor William M. Davis has -formulated an excellent classification, depending first, on the -ultimate source of the energy causing the motion; second, on -temperature contrasts which produce and maintain winds; and third, on -their periodicity and the time of the first appearance of the motion.</p> - -<p>Professor Russell, appropriately it seems to me, remarks regarding the -landslide winds, that avalanche would be a better term than landslide -as applied to winds associated with fallen masses of earth or snow.</p> - -<p>With the enormous amounts of accumulated tabulated matter, and numerous -studies bearing on isolated meteorological phenomena, it is a specially -important consideration that some students pay constant attention to -the investigations of the laws of storms. From such researches definite -advances in theoretical meteorology may be made and fixed laws -determined, which may be of practical utility with reference to the -better forecasting of the weather. In the United States Signal Office, -Professor Abbe has brought together the results of his studies and -investigations for the past thirty years, under the title, "Preparatory -studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions." This -report will appear as an appendix to the annual report of the Chief -Signal Officer of the army. Professor Abbe finds that the source and -maintaining power of storms depend on the absorption by clouds of solar -heat, and in the liberation of heat in the cloud during the subsequent -precipitation, which, as he endeavors to show, principally influences -the movement of the storm-centre.</p> - -<p>In this method one takes a chart showing current meteorological -conditions, and the permanent orographic features of the continent; -lines of equal density are also drawn for planes at several elevations -above sea-level. On these latter, and on the lines of the orographic -resistance, are based intermediate lines of flow, which show where -conditions are favorable to cooling and condensation. The amount of -condensation and its character, whether rain or snow, are estimated by -the help of the graphic diagram. Numbers are thus furnished that can be -entered on the chart and show at once the character of the new centre -of buoyancy, or the directions and velocity of progress of the centre -of the indraft and the consequent low barometer.</p> - -<p>It is hoped that this work of Professor Abbe's may be, as he -anticipates, of great practical as well as theoretical value. Steps are -being taken to test the theoretical scheme by practical and exhaustive -applications to current work.</p> - -<p>Tiesserenc de Bort has continued his work, of improving weather -forecasts for France, by studying the distribution of the great and -important centres of high pressures, which prevail generally over the -middle Atlantic ocean, and, at certain periods of the year, over Asia, -Europe, and North America. His studies have proceeded on the theory -that the displacements of centres of high pressure, whether in Asia, -over the Azores, near Bermuda, in North America, or in the Polar -regions, set up a series of secondary displacements, which necessarily -cause storm centres to follow certain routes. M. de Bort concludes that -a daily knowledge of the relation of these centres and their areas of -displacement will eventually enable skilled meteorologists to deduce -the position of unknown and secondary centres. He has endeavored to -reduce these various displacements to a series of types and has made -very considerable progress in this classification. Daily charts -covering many years of observations have been prepared, and these -separated, whenever the characteristics are sufficiently pronounced, -into corresponding types. This plan of forecasting necessitates -extended meteorological information daily, which France obtains not -only from Russia, Algeria, Italy and Great Britain, but, through the -coöperation of United States, from North America. The daily information -sent by the Signal Office shows, in addition to the general weather -over the United States and Canada, the conditions on the western half -of the North Atlantic ocean, as determined by observations made on the -great steamships, and furnished voluntarily by their officers to the -Signal Office through the Hydrographic Office and the New York Herald -weather bureau.</p> - -<p>The study of thunder storms has received very elaborate and extensive -consideration. M. Ciro Ferari in Italy finds that almost invariably the -storms come from directions between north and northwest, the tendency -in northern Italy being directly from the west, and in the more -southern sections from the northwest. The velocities of storm movements -are much greater from the west than from the east, considerably more so -in the centre and south of Italy than in the north; and in the months, -largest in July.</p> - -<p>The velocity of propagation increases with greater velocities of the -winds accompanying the storms, with also greater attendant electrical -intensity. The front line of propagation while more often curved, is -sometimes straight and sometimes zigzag, and appears to undergo a -series of successive transformations, more or less affected by the -topographical nature of the country passed over.</p> - -<p>Ferari thinks their principal cause is to be found in high temperatures -coincident with high vapor pressures. Thunder storms, he considers, are -essentially local phenomena, superposed on the general atmospheric -phenomena. A principal general cause of thunder storms in Italy is the -existence of a deep depression in northwest Europe, with a secondary -depression in Italy dependent on the first. This secondary feeble area -remains for several days over upper Italy, and nearly always is -followed by thunder storms. Minimum relative humidity precedes, and -maximum follows a storm, while the vapor pressure conditions are -exactly reversed. Ferari notes, as one matter of interest, the passage -of fully developed thunder storms from France into Italy over mountains -4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in elevation.</p> - -<p>Dr. Meyer, at Gottingen, has investigated the annual periodicity of -thunder storms, while Carl Prohaska has made a statistical study of -similar storms in the German and Austrian Alps. The latter writer -thinks they are most likely to occur when the barometer is beginning to -rise after a fall, thus resembling heavy down-pours of rain.</p> - -<p>In connection with Schmucher's theory on the origin of thunder storm -electricity, Dr. Less has been able to satisfactorily answer in the -affirmative an important point in the theory, as to whether the -vertical decrement of temperature is especially rapid. Less finds -evidences of very rapid decrement of temperature during thunder storms, -as shown by the examination of records of 120 stations for ten years.</p> - -<p>Mohn and Hildebrandsson have also published a work on the thunder -storms of the Scandinavian peninsula. The rise in the barometer at the -beginning of rain, they agree with Mascart in attributing largely to -the formation of vapor and the evaporation of moisture from rain -falling through relatively dry air.</p> - -<p>A. Croffins has discussed thunder storms at Hamberg from observations -for ten years. He believes that all such storms are due to the -mechanical interaction of at least two barometric depressions.</p> - -<p>As a matter of interest bearing on the much discussed phenomena of -globular lightning, an incident is recounted by F. Roth, where a man -feeding a horse was struck by lightning and lost consciousness. The man -states that he felt no shock, but was suddenly enveloped in light and -that a ball of fire the size of his fist, traveled along the horse's -neck. This points to the fact that "ball" lightning is probably a -physiological phenomenon.</p> - -<p>In view of the recent extended interest in the question as to whether -the climate of the United States is permanently changing, it should be -remarked that this question has lately been under consideration with -regard to Europe. Messrs. Ferrel, Richter, Lang, Bruchen and others -conclude, from an examination of all available data, that there is no -permanent climatic change in Europe. In connection with this discussion -in Europe, long series of vintage records, going back to the year 1400, -have been used. Apart from the ocean borders, extensive simultaneous -climatic changes occur over extended areas, which changes—as might be -expected—are more accentuated in the interior of the continents. These -changes involve barometric pressure, rainfall and temperature, which -all recur to that indefinite and complex phenomenon—the variation in -the amount of heat received by the earth. The idea is advanced that -these oscillations have somewhat the semblance of cycles, the period of -which is thirty-six years. It may easily be questioned, however, in -view of the fragmentary and heterogeneous character of the data on -which this assumption is based, whether the error in the observations -is not greater than the range of variation. Blanford, in one of his -discussions, has pointed out that the temperature or rainfall data in -India can be so arranged as to give a cycle with a period of almost any -number of years, but, unfortunately, the possible error of observation -is greater in value than the variations.</p> - -<p>As to the United States, it is pertinent to remark that the Signal -Office is in possession of temperature observations in Philadelphia, -covering a continuous period of one hundred and thirty-two years. The -mean annual temperature for the past ten years is exactly the same as -for the entire period.</p> - -<p>There have been criticisms in years past that the climatological -conditions of the United States have not received that care and -attention which their importance demanded. Much has been done to remedy -defects in this respect, although, as is well known here in Washington, -the general law which forbids the printing of any works without the -direct authority of Congress, has been an obvious bar to great activity -on the part of the Signal Office. Within the year the rainfall -conditions of twelve Western States and Territories have been published -with elaborate tables of data and fifteen large charts, which set forth -in considerable detail the rainfall conditions for that section of the -country. In addition the climatic characteristics of Oregon and -Washington have been graphically represented; and rainfall -maps,—unfortunately on a small scale,—have been prepared, showing for -each month, the average precipitation of the entire United States, as -determined from observations covering periods varying from fifteen to -eighteen years.</p> - -<p>In Missouri, Professor Nipher has prepared normal rainfall charts for -that State, unfortunately on rather a small scale. In New York, -Professor Fuertes, and in Michigan, Sergeant Conger, of the Signal -Service, have commenced maps showing, by months, the normal -temperatures of their respective States on maps of fairly open scale. -Work of a similar character has been carried on in Pennsylvania under -the supervision of Professor Blodget, well known from his -climatological work. In other directions and in other ways, work of a -similar character is in progress.</p> - -<p>Without doubt too much is anticipated from pending or projected -irrigation enterprises in the very arid regions of the West. These -unwarranted expectations must in part result from a failure on the part -of the investors to consider the general question of these enterprises, -in its varied aspects, with that scientific exactness so essential in -dealing theoretically with extended subjects of such great importance.</p> - -<p>Everyone admits the correctness of the statement that the amount of -water which flows through drainage channels to the sea, cannot exceed -the amount which has evaporated from adjacent oceans and fallen as -precipitation on the land. Further it is not to be denied that the -quantity of water available in any way for irrigation must be only a -very moderate percentage of the total rainfall which occurs at -elevations <i>above</i>, and perhaps it may be stated <i>considerably above</i>, -that of the land to be benefited.</p> - -<p>Elsewhere it might be appropriate to dwell in detail upon the -importance of cultivated land in serving as a reservoir which parts -slowly with the water fallen upon or diverted to it, and in avoiding -the quick and wasteful drainage which obtains in sections devoid of -extensive vegetation or cultivation; and also that water thus taken up -by cultivated lands must later evaporate and may again fall as rain on -other land. But the pertinence of meteorological investigations in -connection with irrigation and this annual address, relates much more -directly to important questions of the manner by, and extent to which, -precipitation over the catchment basins of the great central valleys -fails to return in direct and visible form, through the water courses, -to the Gulf of Mexico.</p> - -<p>The inter-relation of rainfall and river outflows is one of peculiar -interest, in connection with the important matter of irrigation now -under consideration in this country.</p> - -<p>Probably more attention has been paid to this subject in the valley of -the Seine, by Belgrand and Chateaublanc, than in any other portion of -the globe. One of the curious outcomes of Chateaublanc's observations, -is one bearing on the maximum value of the floods in the Seine for the -cold season, from October to May, by which he says that the reading of -the river gauge at Port Royal is equal to 12.7 minus the number of -decimetres of rainfall which has fallen on an average throughout the -catchment basin during the preceding year. This curiously shows that -the intensity of the winter floods of the Seine is inversely -proportional to the quantity of rain of the <i>preceding</i> year.</p> - -<p>Sometime since, John Murray, Esq., in the Scottish Geographic Magazine, -treated generally the question of rainfall and river outflows. The -annual rainfall of the globe was estimated to be 29,350 cubic miles, of -which 2,343, falling on inland drainage areas, such as the Sahara -desert, etc., evaporate. The total annual discharge of rivers was -estimated at 7,270 cubic miles. In the case of European drainage areas -between a third and a fourth of the rainfall reaches the sea through -the rivers. The Nile delivers only one thirty-seventh of the rainfall -of its catchment basin, while tropical rivers in general deliver -one-fifth.</p> - -<p>The Saale river of Germany, from late data based on 45 rainfall -stations in its catchment basin, during the years 1883 to 1886, -discharged 30 per cent. of its rainfall.</p> - -<p>During the past year Professor Russell, of the Signal Office, has -determined carefully the rainfall and river outflow over the most -important part of the United States, the entire catchment basin of the -Mississippi river and its tributaries. This work was done as -preliminary to formulating rules for forecasting the stage of the water -several days in advance on the more important of the western rivers in -the United States. The river outflows at various places on the -Mississippi and Missouri and Ohio rivers, were tabulated from data -given in the reports of the Mississippi and Missouri River Commissions. -The tables were largely derived from the results of the measurement of -current velocities. As gauge readings were taken at the time of -discharge or outflow measurements, the discharges or outflows can be -told approximately at other times when only the river gauge readings -are known. The results for the outflow of rivers derived from -measurements made under the supervision of these commissions, are of a -high order of accuracy, and it is not probable that the results deduced -from the gauge readings are much in error. Of 1881 and 1882, during -which years measurements were made, 1881 was a year of great flood in -the Missouri river, while the Mississippi river was not flooded. The -year 1882, on the other hand, was marked by a great flood in the lower -Mississippi river, with a stage in the Missouri much above the average. -The rainfall in the six great valleys of the Mississippi, during the -entire years 1881 and 1882, was charted from all observations -available, and its amount in cubic miles of water calculated with the -aid of a planimeter.</p> - -<p>In connection with this investigation, and as a matter of value in -showing the forces which are in operation to affect the river outflow, -the fictitious or possible evaporation of the six great valleys -referred to were calculated, in cubic miles of water, from July, 1887, -to July, 1888, and also the average amounts of water in the air as -vapor, and the amount required to saturate the air in the same valleys -during the same period.</p> - -<p>During the year 1882, the year of great flood in the lower Mississippi -valley, the outflow at Red River Landing, La., was 202.7 cubic miles, -of which the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis furnished 16 per -cent., the Ohio 43, and the whole Missouri above Omaha, 4 per cent. The -upper Missouri valley (that is, from the mouth of the Yellowstone up to -the sources), and the middle Missouri valley (from the mouth of the -Platte to the Yellowstone), each furnished only about 2 per cent. of -the entire amount of the water which passed Red River Landing. The -lower Mississippi valley, including the Arkansas, etc., furnished 32 -per cent.</p> - -<p>During March, April and May, 1882, the time of highest stage of the -water of the lower Mississippi, the outflow at Red River Landing and -through the Atchafalaya measured 82.7 cubic miles. During this time -there flowed through the upper Mississippi river above St. Louis, 14 -per cent. of the amount; through the Ohio, 38 per cent., and through -the Missouri 6 per cent.; while the rivers of the lower Mississippi -valley contributed 41 percent. The water that passed Omaha was 1.92 -cubic miles, or 2 per cent. of the flow of the whole Mississippi during -the same time. The water which flowed from the upper and middle -Missouri valleys during March, April and May, 1882, was for each -valley, probably only 1 per cent. of the water that flowed through the -lower Mississippi river. The flood of the lower Mississippi was -undoubtedly due to the great discharge of the Ohio, supplemented by -heavy river inflow below the mouth of the Ohio, and the unusually heavy -rainfall in the lower Mississippi valley.</p> - -<p>The ratios of river outflow to rainfall over the catchment basins, as -derived by Professor Russell from the two years' observations, 1881 and -1882, were as follows:</p> - -<blockquote>Upper and Middle Missouri valleys, about 335,000 square miles, 13 per -cent.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Lower Missouri valley, about 210,000 square miles, 12 per cent.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Entire Missouri valley, about 545,000 square miles, nearly 13 per cent.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The upper Mississippi valley, about 172,000 square miles, 33 per cent.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Ohio valley, about 212,000 square miles, 40 per cent.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>Lower Mississippi valley, about 343,000 square miles, about 27 per -cent.</blockquote> - -<p>The above percentages, while showing the averages for two entire years, -and so of decided value, are not to be depended upon for special years -or months. For instance: in the Ohio valley in 1881, the outflow was 33 -per cent., while in 1882 it was 50 per cent., and as the rainfall in -1882 was 180 cubic miles against 151 cubic miles in 1881, it appears -evident that a much greater proportional quantity of water reaches the -rivers during seasons of heavy rainfalls than when the precipitation is -moderate or scanty.</p> - -<p>Evaporation is also a very potent cause in diminishing river outflow, -and as this depends largely on the temperature of the air and the -velocity of the wind, any marked deviation of these meteorological -elements from the normal, must exercise an important influence on the -ratio of outflow to rainfall.</p> - -<p>In connection with Professor Russell's work it is desirable to note -that Professor F. E. Nipher has lately made a report on the Missouri -rainfall based on observations for the ten years ending December, 1887, -in which he points out as an interesting coincidence that the average -annual discharge of the Missouri river closely corresponds in amount to -the rainfall which falls over the State of Missouri. From Professor -Nipher's figures it appears that the discharge of the Missouri river in -the ten years ending 1887, was greatest in 1881 and next greatest in -1882, so that the averages deduced from Professor Russell's report of -the outflow of the Missouri are too large, and should be somewhat -reduced to conform to the average conditions. In different years the -average of the discharge in the outflow of the Missouri varies largely, -as is evidenced by the fact reported by Professor Nipher, that the -discharge in 1879 was only 56 per cent. of the outflow in 1881.</p> - -<p>In New South Wales, under the supervision of H. C. Russell, Esq., -government astronomer, the question of rainfall and river discharge has -also received careful attention, especially in connection with -evaporation. The observations at Lake George are important, owing to -the shallowness of the lake (particularly at the margin); its -considerable surface area (eighty square miles), its moderate elevation -(2,200 feet), and the fact that it is quite surrounded by high lands. -Observations of the fluctuations of this lake have been made from 1885 -to 1888, inclusive. In the latter year the evaporation was enormous, -being 47.7 inches against a rainfall of 23.9 and an in-drainage of 5.3 -inches, so that the total loss in depth was 18.5 inches for the year. -It appears that the evaporation in different years on this lake varies -as much as 50 per centum of the minimum amount. According to Russell -the amount of evaporation depends largely on the state of the soil, -going on much faster from a wet surface of the ground than from water; -with dry ground the conditions are reversed. In 1887, the outflow from -the basin of Lake George, the drainage from which is not subject to -loss by long river channels, was only 3.12 per centum of the rainfall.</p> - -<p>In the Darling river, above Bourke, says Russell, the rainfall is -measured by 219 gauges. The average river discharge, deduced from -observations covering seven years, is only 1.45 per centum of the -rainfall, and in the wettest year known the discharge amounted only to -2.33 per centum of the rainfall, and has been as low as 0.09 per centum -in a very dry year. In the Murray basin the average discharge relative -to the rainfall is estimated to be about 27 per centum from a record of -seven years, and has risen as high as 36 per centum in a flood year.</p> - -<p>In connection with the regimen of rivers, it appears a proper occasion -to again refute the popular opinion that the spring and summer floods -of the Missouri and Mississippi valleys result from the melting of the -winter snows. This is an erroneous impression which I have combatted -since 1873, when my duties required a study of the floods of the entire -Mississippi catchment basin. It is only within the last two years, -however, that the meteorological data has been in such condition that -the opinion put forth by me could be verified, namely: that the floods -of the late spring and early summer owe their origin almost entirely to -the heavy rains immediately before and during the flood period. -Occasionally a very heavy fall of snow precedes extended general rains; -but in this case the snow is lately fallen and is not the winter -precipitation.</p> - -<p>Referring to the Missouri valley, the section of the country where the -winter snowfall has been thought to exercise a dominating influence in -floods, it has elsewhere been shown by me that about one-third of the -annual precipitation falls over that valley during the months of May -and June. In either of the months named the average precipitation over -the Missouri valley is greater than the entire average precipitation -for the winter months of December, January and February.</p> - -<p>Woiekoff thinks that the anomalies of temperatures shown in forest -regions, particularly in Brazil—with its abnormally low temperatures, -are due to heavy forests promoting evaporation, and by causing the -prevalence of accompanying fogs thus prevent more intense insolation. -He considers this an argument for the maintenance of forests to sustain -humidity and distribute rain over adjacent cultivated land, as well as -to maintain the fertility of the soil, which diminishes rapidly by -washing away of the soil after deforestation.</p> - -<p>W. Koppen has devised a formula for deriving the true daily temperature -from 8 <small>A.M.</small>, 2 <small>P.M.</small> and 8 <small>P.M.</small> observations in connection with the -minimum temperature, in which the minimum has a variable weight -dependent on place and month. The results of Koppen's formula tested on -six stations in widely different latitudes, indicate that it is of -value.</p> - -<p>Paulsen's discussion of the warm winter winds of Greenland is -interesting. These unusual storm conditions last three or four days, or -even longer, the temperature being at times from 35° to 40° Fahr. above -the normal, and they appear principally with winds from northeast to -southeast, which Hoffmeyer believes to be <i>foehn</i> winds. Paulsen -contends that the extensive region over which these winds occur make -the <i>foehn</i> theory untenable, and that a more reasonable explanation of -these winds is to be found in the course of low areas passing along the -coast or over Greenland. This appears evident from the fact that not -the easterly winds only but the southerly winds share this high -temperature, and that as low areas approach from the west, at first the -regions of the Greenland coast within its influence have south to -southwest winds.</p> - -<p>The question of wind pressures and wind velocities is a most important -one in these days of great engineering problems, particularly in -connection with the stability of bridges and other large structures.</p> - -<p>Experimental determination of the constants of anemometric formulæ have -recently been made both in England and this country. From results -obtained in the English experiments it was concluded that the very -widely used Robinson anemometer is not as satisfactory and reliable an -instrument as a different form of anemometer devised by Mr. Dines. -These conclusions, however, are not sustained by the American -experiments, which were made by Professor C. F. Marvin, Signal Office, -by means of a whirling apparatus, and under the most favorable -circumstances, which yielded highly satisfactory results. Professor -Marvin has lately made very careful open air comparisons of anemometers -previously tested on the whirling machine, which have shown that, owing -in part to the irregular and gusty character of the wind movement in -the open air, taken in connection with the effects arising from the -moment of inertia of the cups, and the length of the arms of the -anemometer, the constants determined by whirling machine methods need -slight corrections and alterations to conform to the altered conditions -of exposure of the instruments in the open air. This latter problem is -now being experimentally studied at the Signal Office, and final -results will soon be worked out.</p> - -<p>Professor Langley has also made very elaborate observations of -pressures on plane and other surfaces inclined to the normal, which it -is believed will prove important contributions to this question, but -the results have not yet been published. It is important in this -connection to note experiments made by Cooper on the Frith of Forth -Bridge, where a surface of 24 square metres, during a high wind, -experienced a maximum pressure of 132 kilogrammes per square metre, -while a surface of 14 square decimeters showed, under similar -conditions, 200 kilogrammes per square metre, by one instrument, and -170 by another. The opinion expressed by Cooper that in general the -more surface exposed to the wind, the less the pressure per unit of -surface, seems reasonable, and if verified by more elaborate -experiments must have an important bearing.</p> - -<p>There are questions in connection with which even negative results are -of an important character, particularly when such results are quite -definite, and tend to remove one of many unknown elements from physical -problems of an intricate character. In this class may be placed -atmospheric electricity, with particular reference to its value in -connection with the forecast of coming weather. The Signal Office, -through Professor T. C. Mendenhall, a distinguished scientist -peculiarly fitted for work of this character, has been able to carry -out a series of observations, which have received from him careful -attention, both as to the conditions under which the observations were -made and in the elaboration of methods to be followed.</p> - -<p>Professor Mendenhall also supervised the reduction of these -observations, and after careful study presented a full report of the -work to the National Academy of Sciences, in whose proceedings this -detailed report will appear. Professor Mendenhall says, "Taking all the -facts into consideration, it seems to be proved that the electrical -phenomena of the atmosphere are generally local in their character. -They do not promise, therefore, to be useful in weather forecasts, -although a close distribution of a large number of observers over a -comparatively small area would be useful in removing any doubt which -may still exist as to this question." It may be added that Professor -Mendenhall's conclusions bear out the opinions expressed to the -speaker, in a discussion of this question, by Professor Mascart, the -distinguished physicist.</p> - -<p>It has been generally admitted that the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere -plays a most important part in bringing about the formation of storms -and maintaining their energy. It has been frequently commented on by -the forecast officials of the Signal Service, that storms passing over -the United States were in general preceded by an increase in moisture, -but unfortunately little effort had been made on the part of previous -investigators to determine any quantitative relation between the actual -humidity and the amount of precipitation or its relation to the storm -movement. It has long been regretted that the direct relations of this -to other meteorological phenomena were not more fully defined. During -the past year Captain James Allen, of the Signal Office, has endeavored -to apply the results of his investigations and theories to the -practical forecasts of storm conditions. Captain Allen has carefully -studied the relations of the potential energy of the surface air, as -represented by the total quantity of heat it contained, to the movement -of storm centres and the extent of accompanying rain areas. In his -first investigations the potential energy per cubic foot was estimated -as follows: Supposing the air to have been originally 32° and the -moisture in it as water at 32°, the total quantity of heat applied to -reduce to the state of observation will be A = (<i>t</i>-32)/6 + Q in which -A is total heat per unit volume; <i>t</i> is the temperature of the air, Q -the total heat of vapor, and the specific heat of air at constant -volume being taken as one-sixth (.168). From Regnault's formula we have -Q = 1091.7 + .305(<i>t</i>-32).</p> - -<p>For the mechanical equivalent we have J = 772A. If we divide J by the -pressure estimated in pounds per square foot, it will give the height -through which the pressure can be lifted if all the heat is spent in -work by expanding the air.</p> - -<p>An approximate expression for the upward velocity V may be obtained -from Torrecelli's theorem from which we have V<small><sup>2</sup></small> = 2<i>gh</i>, <i>h</i> in this -case being the height through which the pressure would be lifted if all -the heat is spent in work. The theory has been that the storm centre -will move over that section of the country where V is the greatest, and -that the time of occurrence and amount of rain have a relation of -conformity to the changes in Q and its actual amount.</p> - -<p>Auxiliary charts were also made showing for each station the following -values of Q:</p> - -<blockquote>1st. Highest Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2d. Greatest plus change in Q not followed by rain in 24 hours.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3d. Lowest value for Q followed by rain in 12 hours.</blockquote> - -<p>A tentative application of the theory during December, 1889, has given -very encouraging results. The problem can be approached in many -different ways, but the basis of the solution is the determination of -the actual energy of the air, both potential and kinetic, as well as -differences of potential.</p> - -<p>Probably the most important event of the past year to general -meteorological students has been the publication of Part I, -Temperature, and Part II, Moisture, of the Bibliography of Meteorology, -under the supervision of the Signal Office, and edited by Mr. O. L. -Fassig. The two parts cover 8,500 titles out of a total of about -60,000. This publication renders it now possible for any investigator -to review the complete literature of these subjects, not only with a -minimum loss of time, but with the advantage of supplementing his own -work, without duplication, by the investigations of his predecessors. -The publication is a lithographic reproduction of a type-written copy, -the only available method, which leaves much to be desired on the -grounds of appearance, space and clearness.</p> -<br> - -<p>The experiments of Crova and Houdaille on Mount Venteux, elevation -1,907 metres, and at Bedoin, 309 metres, are of more than transient -interest since they fix the solar constant at a height of 1,907 metres, -at about three calories; agreeing with the value obtained by Langley on -Mt. Whitney, Cal.</p> - -<p>With this brief allusion to the important phenomena of sun-heat, -whereon depend not only the subordinate manifestations pertaining to -this section, but those relating to all other departments, this report -may appropriately close.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap4"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>TREASURER'S REPORT.</h3> - -<h4>YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1889.</h4> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<center>C. J. B<small>ELL</small>, T<small>REASURER</small>, in account -with N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> S<small>OCIETY</small>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="treasurerreport"> - <tr> - <td colspan="3">Balance on hand as per last account</td> - <td align="right">$626.70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center" colspan="4">R<small>ECEIPTS</small>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">To amount of annual dues for 1889</td> - <td align="right">$865</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">To amount of annual dues for 1890</td> - <td align="right">20</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">To Life Members</td> - <td align="right"><u> 50</u></td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> </td> - <td align="right">935.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3">Note for $1,000 with interest paid off, Nov. 16, 1869</td> - <td align="right">1,032.08</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3">Sale of Maps</td> - <td align="right">1.41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3">Surplus from Field Meeting</td> - <td align="right"><u> 25.35</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> </td> - <td align="right">$2,620.54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center" colspan="4">I<small>NVESTMENTS ON</small> - H<small>AND</small>, D<small>EC</small>. 31, 1889.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Note dated March 27, 1889, for the sum of $750, with interest @ 6%, due - March 27, 1890. Secured by real estate.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center" colspan="4">D<small>ISBURSEMENTS</small>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 2</td> - <td align="right">$174.46</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 3</td> - <td align="right">233.66</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Cost of Magazine, No. 4</td> - <td align="right">197.28</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Directory of Society</td> - <td align="right">28.35</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Rent of Hall at Cosmos Club</td> - <td align="right">45.00</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Printing, Stationery and Postage</td> - <td align="right">108.72</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Sundries</td> - <td align="right"><u>13.00</u></td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> 1889. </td> - <td colspan="2"> </td> - <td align="right">800.47</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mar. 26.</td> - <td>By Loan on collateral</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">1000.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>By Note for $750 and interest, from March 27, 1889, - for 1 year @ 6%, due March 27, 1890</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="right" valign="bottom">756.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>Balance in Bank</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="right"><u> 63.82</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> </td> - <td align="right">$2,620.54</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> -<br><a name="chap5"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<div align="right">December 27, 1889. </div> - -<p><i>To the National Geographic Society:</i></p> - -<p>The undersigned, having been appointed an auditing committee to examine -the account of the Treasurer for 1889, make the following report:</p> - -<p>We have examined the Treasurer's books and find that the receipts as -therein stated are correctly reported. We have compared the -disbursements with the vouchers for the same and find them to have been -properly approved and correctly recorded. We have examined the bank -account and compared the checks accompanying the same. We find the -balance (beside the sum of $756.25 invested in real estate note) as -reported by the Treasurer ($63.82) consistent with the balance as shown -by the bankbook ($82.82), the difference being explained by the fact -that there are two outstanding checks for the sum of $19.00 not yet -presented for payment.</p> - -<div align="right">B<small>AILEY</small> W<small>ILLIS</small>, <br> - R. B<small>IRNIE</small>, J<small>R</small>., <br> - W<small>ILLARD</small> D. J<small>OHNSON</small>, <br> - <i>Auditing Committee</i>. </div> -<br> -<br><a name="chap6"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h4>REPORT</h4> -<center>OF THE</center> -<h3>RECORDING SECRETARY.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<p>The first report of the Secretaries was presented to the Society, -December 28, 1888. At that time the Society had a total membership of -209. Since that date this membership has been increased by the election -of 36 new members; it has been decreased by the death of 3 and by the -resignation of 14. The net increase in membership is thus 19 and the -present membership is 228, including 3 life members. The deceased -members are, Z. L. White, G. W. Dyer and Charles A. Ashburner.</p> - -<p>The number of meetings held during the year was 17, of which 15 were -for the presentation and discussion of papers; one was a field meeting -held at Harper's Ferry, W. Va., on Saturday, May 11, 1889, and one, the -annual meeting. The average attendance was about 65.</p> - -<p>The publication of a magazine begun last year, has been continued, and -three additional numbers have been published, being Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of -Vol. I. Copies of the numbers have been sent to all members and also to -about 75 American and foreign scientific societies and other -institutions interested in Geography. As a result the Society is now -steadily in receipt of geographical publications from various parts of -the world.</p> - -<div align="right">Respectfully submitted, - - - <br> -H<small>ENRY</small> G<small>ANNETT</small>, <i>Recording Secretary</i>. </div> -<br> -<br><a name="chap7"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.</h3> - -<h4>ABSTRACT OF MINUTES.</h4> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<center><i>Nov. 1, 1889. Twenty-seventh Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>A paper was read entitled, "Telegraphic Determinations of Longitudes by -the Bureau of Navigation," by Lieutenant J. A. Norris, U. S. N. -<i>Published in the <a href="#chap1">National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1.</a></i></p> -<br> - -<center><i>Nov. 15, 1889. Twenty-eighth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>A paper was read by Ensign Everett Hayden, U. S. N., entitled, "Law of -Storms considered with Special Reference to the North Atlantic," -illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by Messrs. Greely and -Hayden.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Nov. 29, 1889. Twenty-ninth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>A paper was read by Mr. H. M. Wilson entitled, "The Irrigation Problem -in Montana." Discussion was participated in by Messrs. Dutton, Greely -and Wilson.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Dec. 13, 1889. Thirtieth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>The paper of the evening was by Mr. I. C. Russell upon "A Trip up the -Yukon River, Alaska," and was illustrated by lantern slides.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Dec. 27, 1889. Thirty-first Meeting—2d Annual Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>Vice-President Thompson in the chair. The minutes of the first annual -meeting were read and approved. Annual reports of the secretaries and -treasurer and the report of the auditing committee were presented and -approved. The following officers were then elected for the succeeding -year:</p> - -<blockquote><i>President</i>—G<small>ARDINER</small> G. H<small>UBBARD</small>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Vice-Presidents</i>—H<small>ERBERT</small> G. -O<small>GDEN</small>, [land]; E<small>VERETT</small> H<small>AYDEN</small>,[sea]; A. -W. G<small>REELY</small>, [air]; C. H<small>ART</small> M<small>ERRIAM</small>, -[life]; A. H. T<small>HOMPSON</small>, [art.]</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Treasurer</i>—C<small>HARLES</small> J. B<small>ELL</small>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Recording Secretary</i>—H<small>ENRY</small> G<small>ANNETT</small>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Corresponding Secretary</i>—O. H. T<small>ITTMANN</small>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Managers</i>—C<small>LEVELAND</small> A<small>BBE</small>, -M<small>ARCUS</small> B<small>AKER</small>, R<small>OGERS</small> B<small>IRNIE</small> -J<small>R</small>., G. B<small>ROWN</small> -G<small>OODE</small>, W. D. J<small>OHNSON</small>, C. A. K<small>ENASTON</small>, -W. B. P<small>OWELL</small> and J<small>AMES</small> C. W<small>ELLING</small>.</blockquote> -<br> - -<center><i>Jan. 10, 1890. Thirty-second Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>The annual reports of Vice-Presidents Ogden and Greely were presented. -<i>Published in the <a href="#chap2">National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 1.</a></i></p> -<br> - -<center><i>Jan. 24, 1890. Thirty-third Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>A paper was read entitled, "The Rivers of Northern New Jersey," with -notes on the "General Classification of Rivers," by Professor William -M. Davis. The subject was discussed by Messrs. Davis, Gilbert and -McGee.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Feb. 7, 1890. Thirty-fourth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>The annual report of Vice-President Merriam was presented. A paper on -"Bering's First Expedition," was read by Dr. W. H. Dall.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>Feb. 21st, 1890. Thirty-fifth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. The annual address of -the President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, was delivered, the subject -being "Asia, Its Past and Future." <i>Published in "Science," Vol. XV, -No. 371.</i></p> -<br> - -<center><i>Feb. 28th, 1890. Special Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>Held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. A paper was read by -Lieut. Com'dr Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N., entitled "The Arctic Cruise -of the Thetis During the Summer and Autumn of 1889," which was -illustrated by lantern slides.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>March 7th, 1890. Thirty-sixth Meeting.</i></center> - -<p>A paper was read by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock, entitled "A Glimpse of Chinese -Life in Canton."</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap8"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>OFFICERS.</h3> - -<center>1890.</center> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<center><i>President.</i><br> - GARDINER G. HUBBARD.<br> -<br> -<i>Vice-Presidents.</i><br> - HERBERT G. OGDEN.<br> - EVERETT HAYDEN.<br> - A. W. GREELY.<br> - C. HART MERRIAM.<br> - A. H. THOMPSON.<br> -<br> -<i>Treasurer.</i><br> - CHARLES J. BELL.<br> -<br> -<i>Secretaries.</i><br> - HENRY GANNETT.<br> - O. H. TITTMANN.<br> -<br> -<i>Managers.</i><br> - CLEVELAND ABBE.<br> - MARCUS BAKER.<br> - ROGERS BIRNIE, JR.<br> - G. BROWN GOODE.<br> - W. D. JOHNSON.<br> - C. A. KENASTON.<br> - W. B. POWELL.<br> - JAMES C. WELLING.</center> -<br> -<br><a name="chap9"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<p><i>a</i>, original members.<br> - <i>l</i>, life members.<br> - * Deceased.<br></p> - -<p>In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is -to be understood.</p> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> - - -<p>A<small>BBE</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C<small>LEVELAND</small>, <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Army Signal Office. 2017 I Street.</p> - -<p>A<small>BERT</small>, S. T.,<br> - 1928½ Pennsylvania Avenue.</p> - -<p>A<small>HERN</small>, J<small>EREMIAH</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 804 Tenth Street.</p> - -<p>A<small>LLEN</small>, D<small>R</small>. J. A.,<br> - American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y.</p> - -<p>A<small>PLIN</small>, S. A., J<small>R</small>.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1513 R Street.</p> - -<p>A<small>RRICK</small>, C<small>LIFFORD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1131 Fourteenth Street.</p> - -<p>*A<small>SHBURNER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C<small>HARLES</small> A.</p> - -<p>A<small>TKINSON</small>, W. R., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 2900 Q Street.</p> - -<p>A<small>YRES</small>, M<small>ISS</small> S. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - 502 A Street SE.</p> - -<p>B<small>AKER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Life Saving Service. 1315 Corcoran Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>AKER</small>, M<small>ARCUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>ALDWIN</small>, H. L. J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 125 Sixth Street NE.</p> - -<p>B<small>ARCLAY</small>, A. C.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>ARNARD</small>, E. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1773 Massachusetts Avenue.</p> - -<p>B<small>ARTLE</small>, R. F.,<br> - 947 Virginia Avenue SW.</p> - -<p>B<small>ARTLETT</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. J. R., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Providence, R. I.</p> - -<p>B<small>ARTLETT</small>, P. V. S.,<br> - Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>ASSETT</small>, C. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 929 New York Avenue.</p> - -<p>B<small>ELL</small>, A. G<small>RAHAM</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1336 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>ELL</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1437 Pennsylvania Avenue. 1328 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>ERNADOU</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J. B., U. S. N.,<br> - Office of Naval Intelligence. 1908 F. Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>IEN</small>, J<small>ULIUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 139 Duane Street, New York, N. Y.</p> - -<p>B<small>IEN</small>, M<small>ORRIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.</p> - -<p>B<small>IRNIE</small>, C<small>APT</small>. R<small>OGERS</small>, J<small>R</small>., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Ordnance Office. 1341 New Hampshire Avenue.</p> - -<p>B<small>LAIR</small>, H. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>LODGETT</small>, J<small>AMES</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Census Office. 1237 Massachusetts Avenue.</p> - -<p>B<small>ODFISH</small>, S. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 58 B Street NE.</p> - -<p>B<small>OUTELLE</small>, C<small>APT</small>. C. O., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 105 Fourth Street NE.</p> - -<p>B<small>RENT</small>, L. D.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1741 F Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>REWER</small>, H. G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. Meridian Avenue, Mt. Pleasant.</p> - -<p>B<small>ROWN</small>, M<small>ISS</small> E. V.,<br> - 1312 R Street.</p> - -<p>B<small>URTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.</p> - -<p>C<small>ARPENTER</small>, Z. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1003 F Street. 1009 Thirteenth Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>HAPMAN</small>, R. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1207 L Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>HATARD</small>, D<small>R</small>. T<small>HOS</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. The Portland.</p> - -<p>C<small>HESTER</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. C<small>OLBY</small> M., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>C<small>HRISTIE</small>, P<small>ETER</small> H.,<br> - Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>LARK</small>, A. H<small>OWARD</small>,<br> - National Museum. 1527 S Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>LARK</small>, E. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. Laurel, Md.</p> - -<p>C<small>OLONNA</small>, B. A.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 23 Grant Place.</p> - -<p>C<small>OLVIN</small>, V<small>ERPLANCK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Albany, New York.</p> - -<p>C<small>OURT</small>, E. E.,<br> - Hydrographic Office. Seventeenth Street, Mt. Pleasant.</p> - -<p>C<small>RAVEN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> E., U. S. N.,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 1313 Twenty-second Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>UMMIN</small>, R. D., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1105 Thirteenth Street.</p> - -<p>C<small>URTIS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> E<small>LEROY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 513 Fourteenth Street. 1801 Connecticut Avenue.</p> - -<p>D<small>ARWIN</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1907 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>D<small>AVIDSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal.</p> - -<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small> P., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, M<small>RS</small>. A<small>RTHUR</small> P.,<br> - 1910 Larch Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>D<small>AVIS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Cambridge, Mass.</p> - -<p>D<small>AY</small>, D<small>R</small>. D<small>AVID</small> T.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1411 Chapin Street.</p> - -<p>D<small>ENNIS</small>, W. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 12 Iowa Circle.</p> - -<p>D<small>ILLER</small>, J. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1804 Sixteenth Street.</p> - -<p>D<small>OUGLAS</small>, E. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. Takoma Park, D. C.</p> - -<p>D<small>OW</small>, J<small>OHN</small> M.,<br> - Pacific Mail S. S. Co., Panama, U. S. Colombia.</p> - -<p>D<small>UKE</small>, B<small>ASIL</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p> - -<p>D<small>UNNINGTON</small>, A. F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1000 North Carolina Avenue SE.</p> - -<p>D<small>URAND</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - 164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France.</p> - -<p>D<small>UTTON</small>, A. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 1338 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>D<small>UTTON</small>, C<small>APT</small>. C. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 2024 R Street.</p> - -<p>D<small>YER</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. L., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>E<small>DSON</small>, J. R., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1003 F Street. 1705 Q Street.</p> - -<p>E<small>LLICOTT</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> M., U. S. N.,<br> - Office of Naval Intelligence. 3009 P Street.</p> - -<p>E<small>LLIOTT</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. W. P., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, G. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>F<small>ARMER</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> A.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1312 G Street.</p> - -<p>F<small>ERNOW</small>, B. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture. 1843 R Street.</p> - -<p>F<small>ISCHER</small>, E. G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 436 New York Avenue.</p> - -<p>F<small>ITCH</small>, C. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 3025 N Street.</p> - -<p>F<small>LETCHER</small>, L. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p> - -<p>F<small>LETCHER</small>, D<small>R</small>. R<small>OBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Medical Museum. The Portland.</p> - -<p>F<small>OOT</small>, S<small>AM</small>'<small>L</small> A.,<br> - Geological Survey. 918 H Street.</p> - -<p>G<small>AGE</small>, N. P., <i>a</i>,<br> - Seaton School. 401 Fourth Street.</p> - -<p>G<small>ANNETT</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1881 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>G<small>ANNETT</small>, S. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 401 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>G<small>ILBERT</small>, G. K., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1424 Corcoran Street.</p> - -<p>G<small>ILMAN</small>, D<small>R</small>. D. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.</p> - -<p>G<small>OODE</small>, G. B<small>ROWN</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - National Museum. Lanier Heights.</p> - -<p>G<small>OODE</small>, R. U., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.</p> - -<p>G<small>OODFELLOW</small>, E<small>DWARD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 7 Dupont Circle.</p> - -<p>G<small>ORDON</small>, R. O., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>G<small>RANGER</small>, F. D.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>G<small>REELY</small>, G<small>EN</small>. A. W., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Signal Office. 1914 G Street.</p> - -<p>G<small>RISWOLD</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.</p> - -<p>G<small>ULLIVER</small>, F. P.,<br> - Geological Survey. 811 Ninth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ACKETT</small>, M<small>ERRILL</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 318 Third Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ARRISON</small>, D. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1326 Corcoran Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ARROD</small>, M<small>AJOR</small> B. M.,<br> - Miss. River Commission, New Orleans, La.</p> - -<p>H<small>ASBROUCK</small>, E. M.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1305 R Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ASKELL</small>, E. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1418 Fifteenth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>AYDEN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. E<small>VERETT</small>, U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 1802 Sixteenth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>AYES</small>, C. W<small>ILLARD</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.</p> - -<p>H<small>AYS</small>, J. W.,<br> - Geological Survey. 2225 Thirteenth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>EATON</small>, A. G.,<br> - 1618 Seventeenth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ENRY</small>, A. G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Signal Office. 948 S Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ENSHAW</small>, H. W., <i>a</i>,<br> - Bureau of Ethnology. 13 Iowa Circle.</p> - -<p>H<small>ERRLE</small>, G<small>USTAV</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 646 C Street NE.</p> - -<p>H<small>ERRON</small>, W. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1008 H Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ILL</small>, G<small>EO</small>. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Naval Observatory. 2626 K Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ILL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R. T.,<br> - State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex.</p> - -<p>H<small>INMAN</small>, R<small>USSELL</small>,<br> - In care Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, O.</p> - -<p>H<small>ODGKINS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H. L., <i>a</i>,<br> - Columbian University. 1511 Tenth Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ODGKINS</small>, W. C.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 416 B Street NE.</p> - -<p>H<small>OLLERITH</small>, H<small>ERMAN</small>,<br> - Room 48 Atlantic Building. 3107 N Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>OPKINS</small>, C. L.,<br> - Department of Agriculture. 1004 H Street.</p> - -<p>H<small>ORNADAY</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - National Museum. 405 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>H<small>OWELL</small>, E. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - 48 Oxford Street, Rochester, N. Y.</p> - -<p>H<small>OWELL</small>, D. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - District Building. Alexandria, Va.</p> - -<p>H<small>UBBARD</small>, G<small>ARDINER</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1328 Connecticut Avenue.</p> - -<p>H<small>YDE</small>, G. E.,<br> - Geological Survey. 330 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>I<small>ARDELLA</small>, C. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1536 I Street.</p> - -<p>J<small>ENNINGS</small>, J. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 824 I Street NE.</p> - -<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, A. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Light House Board. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, J. B.,<br> - Howard University. 2460 Sixth Street.</p> - -<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, S. P.,<br> - Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>J<small>OHNSON</small>, W. D., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 501 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>J<small>UNKEN</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 140 B Street NE.</p> - -<p>K<small>ARL</small>, A<small>NTON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1230 Eleventh Street.</p> - -<p>K<small>AUFFMANN</small>, S. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1421 Massachusetts Avenue.</p> - -<p>K<small>ENASTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Howard University.</p> - -<p>K<small>ENNAN</small>, G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1318 Massachusetts Avenue.</p> - -<p>K<small>ENNEDY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EORGE</small> G., <i>l</i>,<br> - 284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass.</p> - -<p>K<small>ERR</small>, M<small>ARK</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1708 M Street.</p> - -<p>K<small>IMBALL</small>, E. F.,<br> - Post Office Department. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>K<small>IMBALL</small>, S. I., <i>a</i>,<br> - Life Saving Service. 411 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>K<small>ING</small>, F. H.,<br> - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.</p> - -<p>K<small>ING</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ARRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1319 Q Street.</p> - -<p>K<small>ING</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> B.,<br> - 906 F Street. 1328 Twelfth Street.</p> - -<p>K<small>NIGHT</small>, F. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>K<small>NOWLTON</small>, F. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>K<small>OCH</small>, P<small>ETER</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Bozeman, Mont.</p> - -<p>L<small>ACKLAND</small>, W. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1305 Corcoran Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>AMBERT</small>, M. B.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.</p> - -<p>L<small>EACH</small>, B<small>OYNTON</small>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 2028 P Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>ERCH</small>, R. L., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 936 K Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, A<small>DOLPH</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 19 Fourth Street SE.</p> - -<p>L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 452 K Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>IPPINCOTT</small>, J. B<small>ARLOW</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1802 M Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>ONGSTREET</small>, R. L., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1536 I Street.</p> - -<p>L<small>OVELL</small>, W. H.,<br> - Geological Survey. 413 Spruce Street, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>M<small>C</small>C<small>ORMICK</small>, J<small>AMES</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1001 Eleventh Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>C</small>G<small>EE</small>, W. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 2410 Fourteenth Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>C</small>G<small>ILL</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small> C.,<br> - 336 C Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>C</small>K<small>EE</small>, R. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1753 Rhode Island Avenue.</p> - -<p>M<small>C</small>K<small>INNEY</small>, R. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1120 Thirteenth Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>AHER</small>, J<small>AMES</small> A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Johnson City, Tenn.</p> - -<p>M<small>ANNING</small>, V<small>AN</small>. H., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1331 N Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>ARINDIN</small>, H. L.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>M<small>ARSHALL</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> B.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1431 Rhode Island Avenue.</p> - -<p>M<small>ATTHEWS</small>, D<small>R</small>. W<small>ASHINGTON</small>, U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Medical Museum. 1262 New Hampshire Avenue.</p> - -<p>M<small>ELVILLE</small>, E<small>NG</small>. <small>IN</small> C<small>HIEF</small>, G<small>EO</small>. W., U. S. N., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Navy Department. 1705 H Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>ENDENHALL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. T. C.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 220 New Jersey Avenue SE.</p> - -<p>M<small>ENOCAL</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. A. G., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department. 2012 Hillyer Place.</p> - -<p>M<small>ERRIAM</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H<small>ART</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture. 1919 Sixteenth Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>INDELEFF</small>, C<small>OSMOS</small>,<br> - Bureau of Ethnology. 1401 Stoughton Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>INDELEFF</small>, V<small>ICTOR</small>,<br> - Bureau of Ethnology. 2504 Fourteenth Street.</p> - -<p>M<small>ITCHELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass.</p> - -<p>M<small>OSMAN</small>, A. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>M<small>ULDROW</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1511 Rhode Island Avenue.</p> - -<p>M<small>URLIN</small>, A. E.,<br> - Geological Survey. 1550 Third Street.</p> - -<p>N<small>ATTER</small>, E. W. F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Readville, Mass.</p> - -<p>N<small>ELL</small>, L<small>OUIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1118 Virginia Avenue SW.</p> - -<p>N<small>ILES</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W. H.,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.</p> - -<p>N<small>ORDHOFF</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 701 Fifteenth Street. 1731 K Street.</p> - -<p>O<small>GDEN</small>, H<small>ERBERT</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1324 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>ARSONS</small>, F. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 210 First Street SE.</p> - -<p>*P<small>ATTON</small>, P<small>RES</small>. W. W., <i>a</i>.<br></p> - -<p>P<small>EALE</small>, D<small>R</small>. A. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1446 Stoughton Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>EARY</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. R. E., U. S. N.,<br> - League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.</p> - -<p>P<small>ENROSE</small>, R. A. F., J<small>R</small>.,<br> - State Geological Survey, Little Rock, Ark.</p> - -<p>P<small>ERKINS</small>, E. T., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>ETERS</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>P<small>ETERS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1831 F Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>HILLIPS</small>, R. H.,<br> - 1511 Vermont Avenue.</p> - -<p>P<small>ICKING</small>, C<small>APT</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> F., U. S. N.,<br> - Hydrographic Office. Baltimore, Md.</p> - -<p>P<small>IERCE</small>, J<small>OSIAH</small>, J<small>R</small>.,<br> - Geological Survey. 806 Seventeenth Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>OWELL</small>, M<small>AJOR</small> J. W., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 910 M Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>OWELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Franklin School Building.</p> - -<p>P<small>RENTISS</small>, D<small>R</small>. D. W., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1101 Fourteenth Street.</p> - -<p>P<small>UMPELLY</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R<small>APHAEL</small>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I.</p> - -<p>R<small>ENSHAWE</small>, J<small>NO</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>R<small>ICKSECKER</small>, E<small>UGENE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Seattle, Wash.</p> - -<p>R<small>ITTER</small>, H. P., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1905 Sixteenth Street.</p> - -<p>R<small>OBERTS</small>, A. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.</p> - -<p>R<small>ODMAN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. H<small>UGH</small>, U. S. N.,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 2015 Hillyer Place.</p> - -<p>R<small>USSELL</small>, I. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1616 Riggs Place.</p> - -<p>S<small>ARGENT</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Brookline, Mass.</p> - -<p>S<small>CHLEY</small>, C<small>APT</small>. W. S., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>S<small>CUDDER</small>, S<small>AM</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Cambridge, Mass.</p> - -<p>S<small>HALER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. N. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Cambridge, Mass.</p> - -<p>S<small>IEBERT</small>, J. S.,<br> - Hydrographic Office. 1911 Harewood Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>S<small>INCLAIR</small>, C. H.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>S<small>INCLAIR</small>, J. C.,<br> - 4 Lafayette Square.</p> - -<p>S<small>MITH</small>, E<small>DWIN</small>, <i>a</i>.<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rockville, Md.</p> - -<p>S<small>MITH</small>, M<small>IDDLETON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Signal Office. 1616 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>S<small>OMMER</small>, E. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 330 A Street SE.</p> - -<p>S<small>TEIN</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 710 Eleventh Street.</p> - -<p>S<small>TEJNEGER</small>, L<small>EONHARD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - National Museum.</p> - -<p>S<small>TOCKTON</small>, L<small>T</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. C. H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>S<small>UTTON</small>, F<small>RANK</small>,<br> - Geological Survey. 702 Nineteenth Street.</p> - -<p>T<small>HOMAS</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY VON</small> E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.</p> - -<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, G<small>ILBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1448 Q Street.</p> - -<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, L<small>AURENCE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - In care Northern Pacific R. R. Co., Seattle, Wash.</p> - -<p>T<small>HOMPSON</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. R. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Signal Office. 2011 N Street.</p> - -<p>T<small>ITTMANN</small>, O. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1019 Twentieth Street.</p> - -<p>T<small>OWSON</small>, R. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1446 N Street.</p> - -<p>T<small>WEEDY</small>, F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1311 M Street.</p> - -<p>U<small>RQUHART</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1538 I Street.</p> - -<p>V<small>ASEY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture. 2006 Fourteenth Street.</p> - -<p>V<small>INAL</small>, W. I., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 152 D Street SE.</p> - -<p>V<small>ON</small> H<small>AAKE</small>, A<small>DOLPH</small>,<br> - Post Office Department. 1215 L Street.</p> - -<p>W<small>ALCOTT</small>, C. D., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 418 Maple Avenue, Le Droit Park.</p> - -<p>W<small>ALLACE</small>, H<small>AMILTON</small> S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1813 M Street.</p> - -<p>W<small>ARD</small>, L<small>ESTER</small> F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1464 Rhode Island Avenue.</p> - -<p>W<small>EED</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 825 Vermont Avenue.</p> - -<p>W<small>EIR</small>, J. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1602 L Street.</p> - -<p>W<small>ELLING</small>, D<small>R</small>. J<small>AMES</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Columbian University. 1302 Connecticut Avenue.</p> - -<p>W<small>HITE</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.</p> - -<p>W<small>HITING</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> L.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. West Tisbury, Mass.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILDER</small>, G<small>EN</small>. J. T., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Johnson City, Tenn.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILDER</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small>,<br> - Johnson City, Tenn.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILLIS</small>, B<small>AILEY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1617 Riggs Place.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILLIS</small>, M<small>RS</small>. B<small>AILEY</small>,<br> - 1617 Riggs Place.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, A. E.,<br> - Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, H. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. Cosmos Club.</p> - -<p>W<small>ILSON</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>,<br> - National Museum. 1218 Connecticut Avenue.</p> - -<p>W<small>INSLOW</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small>,<br> - State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo.</p> - -<p>W<small>INSTON</small>, I<small>SAAC</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1325 Corcoran Street.</p> - -<p>W<small>OODWARD</small>, R. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1804 Columbia Road.</p> - -<p>Y<small>ARROW</small>, D<small>R</small>. H. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - 814 Seventeenth Street.</p> - -<p>Y<small>EATES</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey. 1706 F Street.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 1, April, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, APRIL 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 50765-h.htm or 50765-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/6/50765/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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