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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9f3d60 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50769 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50769) diff --git a/old/50769-0.txt b/old/50769-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3f51cc9..0000000 --- a/old/50769-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7164 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stone Art, by Gerard Fowke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Stone Art - Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology - to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-1892, - Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 47-178. - -Author: Gerard Fowke - -Release Date: December 26, 2015 [EBook #50769] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - - - - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - - - - - - - - - STONE ART - - BY - - GERARD FOWKE - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - - Introduction 57 - Basis for the work 57 - Classification of objects and materials 57 - - The arts and their distribution 60 - Districts 60 - Descriptive terms 62 - Ground and pecked articles 62 - Grooved axes 62 - Celts 72 - Gouges 82 - Chisels and scrapers 83 - Chipped celts 86 - Hematite celts 86 - Pestles 87 - Pitted stones 91 - Cupped stones 91 - Mullers 93 - Grinding and polishing stones 93 - Hammerstones 94 - Grooved stones other than axes 95 - Mortars 96 - Sinkers 97 - Perforated stones 98 - Discoidal stones 99 - Spuds 109 - Plummets 110 - Cones 113 - Hemispheres 114 - Paint stones 115 - Ceremonial stones 115 - Functions and purposes 115 - Gorgets 116 - Banner stones 120 - Boat-shape stones 124 - Picks 125 - Spool-shape ornaments 125 - Bird-shape stones 125 - Shaft rubbers 126 - Tubes 126 - Pipes 128 - Chipped stone articles 132 - Materials and manufacture 132 - Spades 133 - Turtlebacks 136 - Smaller chipped implements 139 - Materials and modes of manufacture 139 - Classification of the implements 142 - Stemless flints 143 - Characters and uses 143 - Larger implements 144 - Smaller objects 147 - Stemmed flints 150 - Straight or taper stems 150 - Expanding stems 156 - Perforators 164 - Character and uses 164 - Stemless forms 165 - Stemmed forms 167 - Blunt arrowheads, or “bunts” 168 - Scrapers 169 - Stemmed 169 - Stemless 169 - Cores 170 - Flakes 171 - Miscellaneous forms 174 - Notes on beveled flints 177 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Museum number Page - - FIG. 29. Grooved ax, showing groove projections (82379) 63 - - 30. Grooved ax, showing pointed edge (99318) 64 - - 31. Grooved ax, showing groove entirely around (83360) 65 - - 32. Grooved ax, slender, showing groove entirely around - (116240) 65 - - 33. Grooved ax, showing grooved back 66 - - 34. Grooved ax, showing grooved back (90512) 66 - - 35. Grooved ax, showing rounded back (71575) 67 - - 36. Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back 68 - - 37. Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back (71258) 68 - - 38. Grooved ax, Keokuk type (71566) 69 - - 39. Grooved ax, showing adze form (84348) 69 - - 40. Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove (72211) 69 - - 41. Grooved ax, showing wide edge (90862) 69 - - 42. Grooved ax, showing curved edge (91746) 70 - - 43. Grooved ax, showing single groove projection (62907) 70 - - 44. Grooved adze (114526) 71 - - 45. Grooved adze, showing curved blade (131483) 71 - - 46. Notched ax, showing polished edge (62753) 72 - - 47. Celt, showing blade thick near edge (71413) 73 - - 48. Celt, showing blade thick near edge (91518) 73 - - 49. Celt, showing long, slender form (114494) 74 - - 50. Celt, nearly round section (65652) 75 - - 51. Celt, nearly round section (65661) 75 - - 52. Celt, showing nearly diamond section (65698) 76 - - 53. Celt (112509) 77 - - 54. Celt (83111) 77 - - 55. Celt (82917) 77 - - 56. Celt, showing “bell-shape” and roughening for handle - (Tho. 7882) 78 - - 57. Celt, showing rectangular section (114151) 78 - - 58. Celt, showing wedge-shape (98427) 79 - - 59. Celt, showing half-elliptical section (72059) 79 - - 60. Celt, showing half-elliptical section (65440) 81 - - 61. Celt, showing concave sides (115504) 81 - - 62. Thin, polished celt (83056) 82 - - 63. Thin, polished celt (114021) 82 - - 64. Thin, polished celt (114157) 82 - - 65. Celt, showing thin, gouge-form edge (92034) 83 - - 66. Celt, chisel-form (91418) 83 - - 67. Celt, chisel-form (82464) 83 - - 68. Celt, chisel-form (131697) 83 - - 69. Celt, chisel-form (82949) 84 - - 70. Celt, chisel-form (116300) 84 - - 71. Celt, showing scraper-form edge 85 - - 72. Scraper (83346) 85 - - 73. Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge (72289) 85 - - 74. Adze or scraper (90528) 85 - - 75. Chipped celt (87571) 86 - - 76. Chipped celt (83272) 86 - - 77. Chipped celt (113837) 86 - - 78. Hematite celt (91920) 87 - - 79. Hematite celt (113925) 87 - - 80. Hematite celt (87843) 87 - - 81. Hematite celt (90733) 87 - - 82. Handled pestle, with expanding base (90876) 88 - - 83. Pestle, long cylindrical form (115416) 89 - - 84. Pestle, conical (114254) 89 - - 85. Pestle (65452) 90 - - 86. Pestle (71428) 90 - - 87. Pestle, grooved for handle (72276) 90 - - 88. Pestle (131524) 90 - - 89. Cupped stone or paint cup (82509) 93 - - 90. Muller, showing polished surface (116134) 93 - - 91. Muller, showing polished surface (132119) 94 - - 92. Hammerstone (114344) 95 - - 93. Grooved round stone (72277) 95 - - 94. Grooved hammer (107300) 96 - - 95. Discoidal stone (115414) 100 - - 96. Discoidal stone, with perforation (88137) 101 - - 97. Discoidal stone, with perforation (30234) 101 - - 98. Discoidal stone, with secondary depression (82619) 102 - - 99. Discoidal stone, in form of a ring (62708) 102 - - 100. Discoidal stone (90497) 103 - - 101. Discoidal stone (114330) 103 - - 102. Discoidal stone, convex (83142) 104 - - 103. Discoidal stone (91805) 105 - - 104. Discoidal stone (82953) 106 - - 105. Discoidal stone, with V-shaped edges (116198) 108 - - 106. Discoidal stone, used as mortar (131566) 108 - - 107. Discoidal stone, probably used as hammer (97763) 108 - - 108. Discoidal pottery fragment (115873) 109 - - 109. Spud (115544) 110 - - 110. Spud (115925) 110 - - 111. Spud (88130) 111 - - 112. Plummet, grooved near one end (82490) 111 - - 113. Plummet, double-grooved (90746) 111 - - 114. Plummet, grooved near middle (114349) 112 - - 115. Plummet, grooved lengthwise (65318) 112 - - 116. Plummet, grooveless, perforated (65319) 112 - - 117. Plummet, double cone in shape (132140) 112 - - 118. Plummet (131923) 112 - - 119. Plummet (90850) 113 - - 120. Plummet, end ground flat (98659) 113 - - 121. Plummet (116072) 113 - - 122. Plummet, cylindrical (71445) 113 - - 123. Cone (116339) 113 - - 124. Cone (72305) 113 - - 125. Cone (71501) 114 - - 126. Cone (91944) 114 - - 127. Hemispheres 114 - - 128. Hemisphere (90729) 115 - - 129. Paint stone (90731) 115 - - 130. Gorget (88014) 118 - - 131. Gorget (?) (Tho. 7834) 118 - - 132. Gorget, reel-shape (113721) 119 - - 133. Gorget (90649) 119 - - 134. Gorget (72125) 120 - - 135. Gorget, boat shape (114354) 121 - - 136. Gorget, resembling boat-shape stone (107323) 121 - - 137. Banner stone (90657) 121 - - 138. Banner stone (115685) 121 - - 139. Banner stone, reel-shape (63186) 122 - - 140. Banner stone, with horn-like projections (113782) 122 - - 141. Banner stone, crescent-shape (88586) 122 - - 142. Banner stone, crescent-shape (115871) 122 - - 143. Banner stone, crescent-shape (115900) 123 - - 144. Butterfly banner stone 123 - - 145. Butterfly banner stone (90831) 123 - - 146. Banner stone (90714) 123 - - 147. Boat-shape stone (87665) 124 - - 148. Boat-shape stone (72347) 124 - - 149. Pendant (116008) 125 - - 150. Pick (113742) 125 - - 151. Spool-shape ornament (38128) 125 - - 152. Bird-shape stone (88351) 126 - - 153. Shaft rubber 127 - - 154. Tube, one end flattened (90713) 128 - - 155. Tube, conical (88022) 128 - - 156. Tube, hour-glass form (62869) 129 - - 157. Tube, cylindrical (88588) 129 - - 158. Pipe, flat base (90840) 129 - - 159. Pipe (116048) 130 - - 160. Pipe (82390) 130 - - 161. Pipe, ornamented (72134) 130 - - 162. Pipe (115452) 130 - - 163. Pipe, long-stemmed (82832) 131 - - 164. Pipe, short-stemmed (115546) 131 - - 165. Pipe (114168) 131 - - 166. Pipe (114310) 131 - - 167. Pipe (62808) 132 - - 168. Pipe (116024) 132 - - 169. Chipped spade with pointed ends (82661) 134 - - 170. Chipped spade with rounded ends (88155) 134 - - 171. Chipped spade, ovoid (71695) 136 - - 172. Chipped spade (65683) 137 - - 173. Chipped spade, showing handle notches (90925) 138 - - 174. Chipped spade (88428) 138 - - 175. Chipped disk, or “turtleback” (15335) 138 - - 176. Diagram, explaining terms 143 - - 177. Triangular chipped flint (87556_a_) 144 - - 178. Chipped flint (90672) 144 - - 179. Chipped flint (116058) 145 - - 180. Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape (82883) 145 - - 181. Chipped flint, elliptical outline (71562_a_) 145 - - 182. Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline (88353) 145 - - 183. Chipped flint (132186) 146 - - 184. Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical outline - (88122) 146 - - 185. Chipped flint, large, long, sharp point (113767) 146 - - 186. Chipped flint, large (114486) 147 - - 187. Chipped flint (91921_a_) 147 - - 188. Chipped flint (114277) 147 - - 189. Chipped flint, with shoulders (115419) 147 - - 190. Chipped flint, small (62883) 148 - - 191. Chipped flint, triangular (91754_a_) 148 - - 192. Chipped flint, asymmetric (115404) 148 - - 193. Chipped flint, concave edges (82832) 148 - - 194. Chipped flint, triangular (88072) 148 - - 195. Chipped flint, small (131633) 149 - - 196. Chipped flint, short, convex edges (114539) 149 - - 197. Chipped flint, triangular (83235) 149 - - 198. Chipped flint, concave edges (65811) 149 - - 199. Chipped flint, convex base (114405) 149 - - 200. Chipped flint, edges concave (91921_b_) 150 - - 201. Chipped flint, pentagonal (115634) 150 - - 202. Chipped flint, narrow and thick (115665) 150 - - 203. Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless (87555) 151 - - 204. Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless (97754) 151 - - 205. Chipped flint, expanding shoulder (132212) 152 - - 206. Chipped flint, double-curved edges (83409_a_) 152 - - 207. Chipped flint, double-curved edges (113605_a_) 152 - - 208. Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering stem - (72123) 152 - - 209. Chipped flint, with long, tapering stem (82718) 153 - - 210. Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge shape - (91859_a_) 153 - - 211. Stemmed chipped flint (65803) 153 - - 212. Stemmed chipped flint (115405) 154 - - 213. Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid (71562_b_) 154 - - 214. Stemmed chipped flint, short blade (90750) 154 - - 215. Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline (113821) 155 - - 216. Stemmed chipped flint (113726) 155 - - 217. Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem (87847) 156 - - 218. Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or shoulder - (91731) 156 - - 219. Stemmed chipped flint, short (90673) 156 - - 220. Stemmed chipped flint (87664) 156 - - 221. Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made (65817) 157 - - 222. Stemmed chipped flint (65786) 157 - - 223. Stemmed chipped flint (90739_a_) 157 - - 224. Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex (88323) 157 - - 225. Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs (83409_b_) 158 - - 226. Stemmed chipped flint (131775) 158 - - 227. Stemmed chipped flint (71562_c_) 159 - - 228. Stemmed chipped flint, broad point (71562_d_) 159 - - 229. Stemmed chipped flint, slender point (87837) 159 - - 230. Stemmed chipped flint (90760) 159 - - 231. Stemmed chipped flint (114558) 160 - - 232. Stemmed chipped flint, thin (91921_d_) 160 - - 233. Stemmed chipped flint (116059) 160 - - 234. Stemmed chipped flint (113741) 160 - - 235. Stemmed chipped flint (114340) 160 - - 236. Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small stem - (116047) 161 - - 237. Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched (97547) 161 - - 238. Stemmed chipped flint (65614) 162 - - 239. Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem - (113894) 162 - - 240. Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem - (90739_b_) 162 - - 241. Stemmed chipped flint (82686) 163 - - 242. Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders - (91754_b_) 163 - - 243. Stemmed chipped flint (91921_c_) 163 - - 244. Stemmed chipped flint, very rough (91136) 164 - - 245. Perforator, not stemmed (87556_b_) 165 - - 246. Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed (90843) 165 - - 247. Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed (90759) 166 - - 248. Perforator, not stemmed, rough base (91924) 166 - - 249. Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base (87951) 166 - - 250. Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base (88019) 166 - - 251. Perforator, stemmed (113605_b_) 167 - - 252. Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders (91754_c_) 167 - - 253. Perforator, stemmed 167 - - 254. Perforator, stemmed (83409_c_) 167 - - 255. Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point (132226) 168 - - 256. Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt” (132204) 168 - - 257. Stemmed scraper (132190) 169 - - 258. Stemmed scraper (71560) 169 - - 259. Stemless scraper, celt form (131749) 170 - - 260. Stemless scraper, flake (90822) 170 - - 261. Cores (97526) 171 - - 262. Core (97520) 171 - - 263. Flake, chipped for scraper (91968) 173 - - 264. Flake, chipped for knife or arrowhead (97537) 174 - - 265. Flake, slender, probably for lancet (88018) 174 - - 266. Stemmed chipped flint (132176) 174 - - 267. Stemmed chipped flint, winged (132213) 175 - - 268. Stemmed chipped flint (132174) 175 - - 269. Stemmed chipped flint, barbed 175 - - 270. Stemmed chipped flint, broad (132235_b_) 175 - - 271. Stemmed chipped flint 176 - - 272. Stemmed chipped flint, slender (132208) 176 - - 273. Stemmed chipped flint 176 - - 274. Stemmed chipped flint, triangular 176 - - 275. Stemmed chipped flint (132235_a_) 176 - - 276. Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem (63150) 177 - - 277. Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from use 177 - - 278. Stemmed chipped flint 177 - - - - -STONE ART - -By GERARD FOWKE - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -BASIS FOR THE WORK. - -The collection of the Bureau of Ethnology includes almost every type of -stone implement or ornament, and as the investigations and explorations -of the collaborators have extended over nearly all the eastern and -central portions of the Mississippi valley, it furnishes a substantial -basis for showing the geographic distribution of various forms of -objects in use among the aboriginal inhabitants. - -It has not been deemed advisable to utilize material contained in other -collections. Should this be done there would be no reason for drawing -upon one rather than another, and if it were once begun the examination -would finally extend to every collection made from American localities, -a study which, although perhaps desirable, would transcend the scope of -the Bureau plans. - -Much that has been published in regard to the distribution of relics in -various portions of the country is of little value to a paper of this -kind, since few of the objects are sufficiently illustrated or referred -to any class in other than the most general terms; so that it is -frequently impossible to determine the group in which a given article -should be placed. Partly for this reason, partly because the primary -purpose is description of a certain collection made in a definite way, -little space is given to the descriptive work of predecessors in the -field of archeology. The general results of previous work are, however, -carefully weighed in the conclusions reached. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF OBJECTS AND MATERIALS. - -The ordinary division into chipped and pecked or ground implements has -been adopted: the former including all such as are more easily worked -by flaking, and the latter including those made from stone suitable -for working down by pecking into form with stone hammers or by similar -means. The system of nomenclature in general use has been retained, -as it is now familiar to students of North American archeology, and, -while not entirely satisfactory in some respects, is perhaps as good as -can be devised in the present state of knowledge. - -Careful study of the entire collection has failed to show the slightest -difference in the form, finish, or material of implements from the same -locality, whether found in mounds or graves or on the surface; hence no -attempt is made to separate the two classes of objects. Allowance is to -be made for the weathering of a surface specimen, but this is the only -distinction. - -It is not always easy to identify a stone, even with a fresh surface; -in a weathered specimen it is often impossible. For this reason the -material of which a specimen is made may not be correctly named; -frequently the alteration due to exposure will change the appearance of -a rock very much, and in such a case the best that can be done is to -tell what it looks most like. The material of a majority of specimens -however, or at least the classes of rock to which they belong, as -granite, porphyry, etc., are correctly named; to give a more exact name -would be possible only by the destruction or injury of the specimen. -There are a few terms used which may be here explained. - -“Compact quartzite” is a very hard, close-grained, siliceous rock, -sometimes nearly a flint, and again closely approaching novaculite. -“Greenstone” may be diorite or diabase, or it may be a very compact -dark sandstone or quartzite so weathered that its nature can not be -determined from superficial observation. “Argillite” refers to any -slaty rock; it may be so soft as to be easily cut with a knife, or -nearly as hard as quartzite. Usually it is greenish in color. - -A comprehensive study of all available collections will no doubt modify -materially the classification and system of types here presented. - -The quotations from eminent anthropologists given below show the -difficulties in the way of establishing a satisfactory system of types, -or of assigning certain forms to particular localities. In most of -these quotations the substance only of the author’s remarks is given. - -According to Dr. E. B. Tylor, the flint arrows of the Dakota, the -Apache, or the Comanche might easily be mistaken for the weapons dug -up on the banks of the Thames;[1] while cores of flint in Scandinavia -and of obsidian in Mexico are exactly alike,[2] and a tray filled with -European arrowheads can not be distinguished from a tray of American -ones.[3] Prof. Otis T. Mason observes that the great variety of form in -such weapons after they are finished is due partly to nature and partly -to the workman’s desire to produce a certain kind of implement. All -sorts of pebbles lie at the hand of the savage mechanic, none of them -just what he wants. He selects the best.[4] Perhaps the truth about the -shape is that the savage found it thus and let it so remain.[5] - -The state of things among the lower tribes which presents itself to the -student is a substantial similarity in knowledge, arts, and customs, -running through the whole world. Not that the whole culture of all -tribes is alike--far from it; but if any art or custom belonging to -a low tribe is selected at random, the likelihood is that something -substantially like it may be found in at least one place thousands -of miles off, though it frequently happens that there are large -intervening areas where it has not been observed.[6] - -On the whole, it seems most probable that many of the simpler weapons, -implements, etc., have been invented independently by various savage -tribes. Though they are remarkably similar, they are at the same time -curiously different. The necessaries of life are simple and similar all -over the world. The materials with which men have to deal are also very -much alike; wood, bone, and to a certain extent stone, have everywhere -the same properties. The obsidian flakes of the Aztecs resemble the -flint flakes of our ancestors, not so much because the ancient Briton -resembled the Aztec, as because the fracture of flint is like that -of obsidian. So also the pointed bones used as awls are necessarily -similar all over the world. Similarity exists, in fact, rather in -the raw material than in the manufactured article, and some even of -the simplest implements of stone are very different among different -races.[7] - -Tylor again says: - - When, however, their full value has been given to the - differences in the productions of the Ground Stone Age, - there remains a residue of a most remarkable kind. In the - first place, a very small number of classes, flakes, knives, - scrapers, spear and arrow heads, celts, and hammers take in - the great mass of specimens in museums; and in the second - place, the prevailing character of these implements, whether - modern or thousands of years old, whether found on this side - of the world or on the other, is a marked uniformity. The - ethnographer who has studied the stone implements of Europe, - Asia, North or South America, or Polynesia, may consider the - specimens from the district he has studied as types from which - those of other districts differ, as a class, by the presence - or absence of a few peculiar instruments, and individually in - more or less important details of shape or finish, unless, as - sometimes happens, they do not differ perceptibly at all. So - great is this uniformity in the stone implements of different - places and times, that it goes far to neutralize their value - as distinctive of different races. It is clear that no great - help in tracing the minute history of the growth and migration - of tribes is to be got from an arrowhead which might have - come from Polynesia, or Siberia, or the Isle of Man, or from - a celt which might be, for all its appearance shows, Mexican, - Irish, or Tahitian. If an observer, tolerably acquainted with - stone implements, had an unticketed collection placed before - him, the largeness of the number of specimens which he would - not confidently assign, by mere inspection, to their proper - countries, would serve as a fair measure of their general - uniformity. Even when aided by mineralogical knowledge, often - a great help, he would have to leave a large fraction of the - whole in an unclassified heap, confessing that he did not know - within thousands of miles or thousands of years where and when - they were made. - - How, then, is this remarkable uniformity to be explained? - The principle that man does the same thing under the same - circumstances will account for much, but it is very doubtful - whether it can be stretched far enough to account for even - the greater proportion of the facts in question. The other - side of the argument is, of course, that resemblance is due to - connection, and the truth is made up of the two, though in what - proportion we do not know.[8] - -While the several authors quoted do not fully agree, and some are -even slightly self-contradictory, still, if the statements are to be -taken at their face value, it would seem that efforts to make such -classifications are mainly a waste of time. - -It may be premised that in every class of implements there are almost -as many forms as specimens, if every variation in size or pattern is to -be considered; and these merge into one another imperceptibly. Not only -is this the case with individual types, but the classes themselves, -totally unlike as their more pronounced forms may be, gradually -approach one another until there is found a medium type whose place can -not be definitely fixed. - - -THE ARTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. - -DISTRICTS. - -As space would be needlessly occupied by attempting to name each -county, the area from which specimens have been obtained is, for -convenience, divided into districts. These divisions are for use in -this article only, and are not intended as archeologic districts. - -In the tables given under each heading, the names of counties or -districts show where the types described are obtained; the columns -following show the number of specimens of each material mentioned in -the collection of the Bureau. - -Where a limited area only has been examined in any division, the name -of the county is usually given; but where specimens of any kind have -been obtained from different counties near one another, they are -assigned to the district including those counties. The districts are as -follows: - -_Arkansas._ - - Northeastern: Between White and Mississippi rivers. - - Southeastern: Between White and Washita rivers from Clarendon - to Arkadelphia. - - Southwestern: West of Washita river and south of Arkadelphia, - including Bowie and Red River counties, Texas. - - Central: From Dardanelles southward and eastward to the above - limits. - -_Alabama._ - - Northeastern: Bordering Tennessee river east of Decatur. - - Northwestern: Bordering Tennessee river west of Decatur. - Coosa: Bordering Coosa river southward to and including Dallas - county. - - Tuscaloosa: Bordering the Tuscaloosa and Little Tombigbee, and - extending a short distance below their confluence. - -_Ohio._ - - Miami valley: The country along the two Miami rivers, including - Shelby county on the north and Madison and Brown counties on - the east. - - Scioto valley: South of Franklin county, including Adams and - Lawrence counties. - - Central: Including Union, Knox, Perry, and Franklin counties, - and the area within these limits. - -_Wisconsin._ - - Southwestern: The counties bordering on either side of - Mississippi river from La Crosse to Dubuque (Iowa). - - Eastern: The portion between Lake Michigan, Lake Winnebago, and - the Illinois line. - - Southern: Dane and adjoining counties. - -_Iowa._ - - Keokuk: The southeastern corner of the state and adjacent - portions of Illinois and Missouri. - -_Tennessee._ - - Eastern: All the mountain district, with the extreme - southwestern part of Virginia. - - Western: From Mississippi river to and including the tier of - counties east of the Tennessee. - - Northern: The northern half of the interior portion. - - Southern: The southern half of this portion. - -_South Carolina._ - - Northwestern: North and west of a line from Lancaster to - Columbia. As no other portion of the state has been examined - under direction of the Bureau, only the name of the state is - used herein, reference being always to this section. - -_Georgia._ - - Northwestern: The portion northwest of the Chattahoochee. - - Southwestern: Area contiguous to the lower Chattahoochee and - Flint river. - - Savannah: The vicinity of the city of Savannah, where a large - collection was gathered. - -_Kentucky._ - - Northeastern: Between Kentucky, Big Sandy, and Ohio rivers. - - Southeastern: From Estill and Cumberland counties to the - Tennessee and Virginia state lines. - - Central: Between Green and Ohio rivers, west of the last - described districts. - - Southern: From Green river southward and as far westward as - Christian county. - - Western: West of Green river and Christian county. - -_North Carolina._ - - Western: West of Charlotte. - - Central: Between Charlotte and Raleigh. - -_Illinois._ - - Southwestern: From the mouth of the Cumberland to Washington - county, and thence to the Mississippi. - - -DESCRIPTIVE TERMS. - -The various forms of implements will now be considered. As stated -above, the names given the various articles are those by which they are -usually known; but it may be well to define some of the terms used. - -In the grooved axes, _edge_ refers to the cutting portion; _blade_, to -the part below the groove; _poll_ or _head_, to that above the groove; -_face_, to the wider or flat portion of the surface; _side_, to the -narrower part; _front_, to that side farther from the hand, and _back_, -to the side nearer the hand when in use. - -In celts, the terms are the same, so far as they are applicable; -_blade_ referring to the lower half of the implement; that is, to the -portion on which the cutting edge is formed. - - -GROUND AND PECKED ARTICLES. - -GROOVED AXES. - -The implements known as grooved axes seem to be of general distribution -throughout the United States; being, so far can be learned from various -writers, much more numerous east of Mississippi river than west of it. -It must be remembered, however, that thousands of diligent collectors -have carefully searched for such things in the east, while in the west -little attention has been paid to them; consequently, deductions are -not to be made concerning their relative abundance or scarcity, until -further knowledge is gained. The same remark will apply to every form -of aboriginal relic. - -In the eastern and interior states, the grooved axes are far more -abundant than the celts of the same size[9], because as a rule only the -larger implements of this class are grooved. All the ordinary varieties -of axes and hatchets are found about Lake Champlain, by far the most -abundant being celts, or grooveless axes.[10] - -According to Adair and other early observers, the southern Indians had -axes of stone, around the grooved heads of which they twisted hickory -withes to serve as handles; with these they deadened timber by girdling -or cutting through the bark.[11] According to travelers of a later -generation among the western Indians, similar implements were used on -the plains to chop up the vertebræ of buffaloes, which were boiled to -obtain the marrow.[12] - -These statements, which might be multiplied, show that such objects -are to be found widely scattered; none, however, give information more -definite than that the axes are “grooved,” no reference being made to -the shape of the ax or the manner of grooving. - -The various modes of mounting axes and celts in handles are illustrated -in the Smithsonian Report for 1879. - -Stone axes were used in Europe by the Germans at as late a period -as the Thirty Years’ war, and are supposed to have been used by the -Anglo-Saxons at the battle of Hastings.[13] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Grooved ax, showing groove projections.] - -Axes having two grooves occur in considerable numbers in the pueblos -of southwestern United States, but they are extremely rare elsewhere -and unknown in most districts; as the objects are generally small, the -utility of the second groove is not evident. - -The arrangement of stone axes may be based upon the manner of forming -the groove. In one class are placed those which in the process of -making had a ridge left encircling the weapon, in which the groove was -formed. This gives the ax greater strength with the same material. -Usually the groove has been worked just deep enough to reach the body -of the ax; that is, to such a depth that should the projections be -ground off there would remain a celt-like implement (as shown in -figure 29, of chlorite-schist, from Sullivan county, Tennessee). The -axes of this class in the Bureau collection are shown in the following -table: - - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - Eastern Tennessee | 9 | 8 | 4 | 5 | | 1 - Western North Carolina | 1 | 1 | | | | - Central North Carolina | | | 1 | 1 | | - Savannah, Georgia | | 4 | | 1 | | - Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1 | 1 | - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - - KEY: - A = Greenstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Granite. - E = Schist. - F = Quartzite. - -In the second class the groove is formed by pecking into the body -of the ax after the latter is dressed into shape; in this pattern a -regular continuous line from edge to poll would touch only the margins -of the groove, leaving it beneath. An apparent medium between the -two is sometimes seen, in which there is a projection on the lower -side of the groove only; this is due, usually, to dressing the blade -down thinner after the implement was originally worked to a symmetric -outline. By continuous or long use the edge of the ax becomes broken -or blunted and requires sharpening, and in order to keep the proper -outline to make the tool efficient, it is necessary to work the blade -thinner as it becomes shorter. No such change is required in the poll, -consequently a projection is formed where originally there was no trace -of one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Grooved ax, showing pointed edge.] - -There are different methods of finishing the ax, which may appear -with either form of groove. The poll may be worked into the shape of -a flattened hemisphere, may be flat on top, with the part between the -groove and the top straight, convex or concave, or may be worked to a -blunt point, with straight or concave lines to the groove. The blade -may taper from the groove to the edge, with straight or curved sides, -which may run almost parallel or may be drawn to a blunt-pointed edge. -This latter form is probably due to breaking or wearing of the blade, -which is reworked, as shown in figure 30, of granite, from Boone -county, Missouri. - -There are a very few specimens, as noted below, in which the ax -gradually increases in width from the poll to the edge; but such -specimens seem to be made of stones which had this form approximately -at the beginning, and were worked into such shape as would give a -suitable implement with the least labor. - -In nearly every instance the groove of an ax with a groove projection -extends entirely around with practically the same depth, and the blade -of the ax has an elliptical section. There are, however, a few with the -back flattened; and while many of the second division may be similar in -section, and in having the groove extend entirely around, yet in this -class are to be placed nearly all of those only partly encircled by a -groove or showing some other section than the ellipse. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Grooved ax, showing groove entirely around.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Grooved ax, slender, showing groove entirely -around.] - -With these exceptions, the second class of grooved stone axes comprises -seven groups, which may be described and tabulated as follows: - -_A._ Grooved entirely around, elliptical section, polls dressed in any -of the ways given above; three or four have the blunt-pointed edge -(figure 31, of granite, from Bradley county, Tennessee). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | | | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 4 | 3 | | 2 | 2 |15 | 4 | 1 | | - |Central North Carolina | | 1 | | | | 1 | | | | - |Western North Carolina | | 2 | | | | 2 | | | | - |Central Arkansas | 1 | | | 1 | | | | | | - |Ross county, Ohio | | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Green River, Kentucky | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | 1 | | - |Keokuk district, Iowa | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | 2 | | 6 | | | 3 | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 2 | 5 | 1 | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Greenstone. - B = Granite. - C = Diorite. - D = Sandstone. - E = Quartzite. - F = Argillite. - G = Slate. - H = Sienite. - I = Porphyry. - -_B._ Long, narrow, and thin, giving a much flattened elliptical -section. These are classed with axes on account of the grooves, -although too thin and usually of material too soft to endure violent -usage. The edges are nicked, striated, or polished, as though from -use as hoes or adzes (figure 32, of argillite, from Bradley county, -Tennessee). - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 18| 1| - |Keokuk district, Iowa | | 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1| | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| | 1| | - |Western North Carolina | 1| | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | 2| - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Slate. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Grooved ax, showing grooved back.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Grooved ax, showing grooved back.] - -_C._ Grooved on both faces and one side; back hollowed, usually in a -straight line the whole length; front drawn in from the groove to give -a narrower edge (figures 33, of porphyry, from Brown county, Ohio, and -34, of granite, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | 1| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 1 | | 1 | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | 1 | | - |Brown county, Ohio | | | |1 | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Porphyry. - -_D._ Same method of grooving; back is rounded, and may be in a straight -or curved line the entire length, or a broken line straight in each -direction from the groove. The type is illustrated by figure 35, of -granite, from Keokuk, Iowa. This specimen is unusually wide and thin; -generally the outlines are similar to those last described. - - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 5 | | - |Butler county, Ohio | 2 | | | - |Keokuk district, Iowa | 1 | | 1 | - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Grooved ax, showing rounded back.] - -_E._ Grooved like the last; same general form, except that the back -is flat (figures 36, of sienite, from Brown county, Ohio, and 37, of -granite, from Drew county, Arkansas). - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Miami valley, Ohio | | 2 | 3 | | 5 | - |Brown county, Ohio | | | | 1 | | - |Keokuk district, Ohio | | 1 | | 1 | | - |Brown county, Illinois | | | 1 | 2 | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 2 | | | 2 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 4 | 1 | 2 | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | | 1 | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | 1 | | | - |Licking county, Ohio | | | 1 | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Granite. - D = Sienite. - E = Greenstone. - -_F._ Grooved on both faces and one side, with both sides flat. There -is only one of this form in the collection; it is of argillite, from -Keokuk, Iowa. - -_G._ Grooved on faces only, with both sides flat (figure 38, of -granite, from Keokuk, Iowa). There are from the same place one of -porphyry, one of argillite, and three of sienite. This and the -preceding form seem peculiar to that locality. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back.] - -There are a few exceptional forms which are not placed with those just -given, since they may have some features common to all except the -Keokuk type, while in other respects they differ from all. Among them -are some entire-grooved or grooved only on the two sides and one face; -the general outline may correspond with some of the regular forms, but -one face is curved from poll to edge, while the other is straight or -nearly so (figure 39, of granite, from Wilkes county, North Carolina). -This specimen has a depression, as if worn by the end of a handle, on -the straight face at the lower edge of the groove. - -None of this form are long enough for hoes, and although they may have -been used for axes and hatchets, their shape seems to indicate use as -adzes. Besides the one figured there are two from Savannah, Georgia; -three from eastern Tennessee, one with a slight groove and very deep -side notches; and three from western North Carolina, two of them -entire-grooved with groove projections. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Grooved ax, Keokuk type.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Grooved ax, showing adze form.] - -Another unusual form, which may come under any of the foregoing -figures, has the groove crossing the implement diagonally, in such a -way as to cause the blade to incline backward (figure 40, of granite, -from Carter county, Tennessee). Besides the specimen illustrated, this -form is also represented by one of granite from northwestern North -Carolina with projection for groove; two of argillite from southwestern -Tennessee; one, widest at edge, from Savannah, Georgia; one from Ross -county, Ohio; and two of granite, highly polished, grooved on faces and -one side, with backs flat, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -Of the axes wider at the edge than at any point above (of which -the specimen illustrated in figure 41, of granite, from a grave at -Kingsport, Tennessee, may be taken as a type,) there are one of diorite -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, which seems to have been of -ordinary pattern but broken and redressed to its present form; and from -Savannah, Georgia, one of uniform taper with diagonal groove, and one -widening irregularly until the blade is fully twice the width of the -poll. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Grooved ax, showing wide edge.] - -Many, if not a majority, of the entire-grooved axes have the groove -wide enough for a very large handle, or for an ordinary withe to be -twisted twice around. In those which have one side ungrooved, the -intention was to admit a wedge between the stone and the curve of -the handle. The handles were very firmly fastened; two axes in the -collection have been broken in such a way that on one side, from the -top half way down, the blade is gone, carrying away the groove on that -side; yet the polish of the groove extends over the fractured surface, -which has never been reworked, showing that the tool was long used -after this accident. As the handles could easily slip off over the top -in specimens thus broken, they must have been tightly lashed; perhaps -gum or glue was used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Grooved ax, showing curved edge.] - -Partly finished specimens show that the groove was pecked out and the -edge ground before the remaining parts of the ax were worked. Some -have the edge ground sharp and the groove worn smooth or even polished -by long use, while all the rest of the implement retains the original -weathered surface. A stone was always chosen that could be brought to -the desired form with the least labor, and very often one could be -found that required but little work to make a very satisfactory weapon -or implement or even ornament. - -Occasionally specimens indicate by the manner of wear their application -to certain kinds of work. Sometimes the edge is curved by the wearing -away of one face until it has almost a gouge form; sometimes the side -of the blade next the hand, again that farthest away, is more worn. -This in time would give the blunt-pointed edge. A peculiar finish of -the lower part of the blade, which is also seen in a few celts, is -shown in figure 42, of sienite, from Carter county, Tennessee. One -half of each face has been left full, and the part opposite hollowed -out, giving an ogee curve to the edge. Figure 43, of granite, from -Jefferson county, Tennessee, seems to have a ridge on the upper side -of the groove; but closer examination shows that it once had a groove -projection, and that afterwards the poll was nearly all broken away and -a new groove made lower down, so that what was originally the lower -projection is now above the groove, the remainder of the poll being -worked down to a point. - -There are a few hammers which differ from the ordinary ax only in being -blunt instead of sharp. They may be nothing more than broken axes, -utilized as hammers instead of being resharpened. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Grooved ax, showing single groove projection.] - -Under this head may be placed implements plainly used as adzes. They -are much longer than axes in proportion to their other dimensions, have -one face convex, the other straight or concave. They may be placed -in the same class as the specimen shown in figure 39, and also those -represented in figures 44 and 45, from McMinn county, Tennessee. There -is also a similar adze from Saline county, Arkansas. All the specimens -of this class are of argillite. - -With the grooved axes is also placed a class of implements that may -be called axes notched on the sides. Many of them were no doubt used -as sinkers; but some of the same form, size, and material have the -notches and sometimes portions of the face worn perfectly smooth, while -frequently they are ground to a sharp edge. Again, even in those that -have not the least polish, the edge shows marks that would seem to -result from use as axes, adzes, or hoes. - -There are three divisions of this class of implements, as follows: - -_A._ Unworked, except notches; probably sinkers. - - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | 5 | | | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina | | | 1 | | - |Northeastern Alabama | | | | 5 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | | | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Quartzite. - D = Limestone. - -_B._ Partly ground sharp edges, mostly with polished notches, -sometimes with faces polished from one notch to the other (figure 46, -of argillite, from Cocke county, Tennessee). In addition there are -11 examples of argillite, besides one of mica-schist from eastern -Tennessee and another of sandstone from Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Grooved adze.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Grooved adze, showing curved blade.] - -_C._ Roughly chipped, with notches often at the middle but sometimes -nearer one end. Probably most of these were sinkers; but as above -stated the edges show marks of use, apparently in scraping, digging, or -striking. Of these the following examples are in the Bureau collection: -From several localities in eastern Tennessee, 40 of argillite; from -Montgomery county, North Carolina, 24 of argillite and quartzite; -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and from Savannah, Georgia, a few -specimens of the same materials. - - -CELTS. - -What is true of the uses and distribution of stone axes applies with -much the same force to what are called celts--not a good descriptive -term, but one which is now given to the implement in lieu of something -better. It would appear difficult or impossible to do with these rude -tools any work for which we commonly use an ax or hatchet; and yet, -by the aid of fire, or even without it, the aborigines contrived to -accomplish a great deal with them. - -The Maori of New Zealand do all their wonderful work of wood carving -with only a chisel or adze (of stone or shell).[14] Among the Iroquois, -in cutting trees, fire was applied at the root, the coals were scraped -away with a chisel, and this process was repeated until the tree was -felled. The trunk was divided into lengths in the same way. Similarly -canoes and mortars were hollowed out.[15] The Virginia Indians at an -early day employed a similar process. They also cleared ground for -cultivation by deadening trees with their tomahawks,[16] and used adzes -made of shell in cleaning out the charred wood in making canoes.[17] -The Nootka of the northwestern part of the continent in felling a tree -use a flint or elkhorn set in a handle, this being struck with a stone -mallet. In hollowing canoes a musselshell also is used as an adze, and -sometimes fire is applied. The outside is shaped by similar means.[18] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Notched ax, showing polished edge.] - -Stone chisels have been found in various steatite quarries, where -vessels and other utensils of this material were made, and the marks of -their use is plain both on the vessels in an unfinished state and on -the cores, as well as on the quarry face.[19] - -The different ways of hafting, as shown by specimens in the Bureau -collection, were as follows: - -(1) A hole was cut entirely through a stick and the celt was inserted -so that it would project on both sides; - -(2) The hole was cut partly through, and the celt was pushed in as far -as it would go; - -(3) The top of the celt was set in a socket of deer horn, which was put -into a handle as in form 2; - -(4) Small celt-shaped knives or scrapers were set into the end of a -piece of antler long enough to be used as a handle; - -(5) A forked branch was so cut as to make two prongs of nearly equal -length, and the celt was fastened to the end of one, parallel with it, -the other being used to guide and steady it, a prong being held in each -hand; - -(6) The fork of a root or branch was trimmed so as to make a flat face -at any desired angle, to which the celt was lashed, a shoulder, against -which the end of the celt was set, being sometimes cut in the wood; - -(7) A stick was split its entire length and a single turn taken around -the celt, the ends being brought together and tied, forming a round -handle; - -(8) A stick was split part way, one fork cut off and the other wrapped -once or twice and tied, thus forming a round handle of solid wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Celt, showing blade thick near edge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Celt, showing blade thick near edge.] - -Forms 5 and 6 were used as adzes; forms 7 and 8 are the same methods as -employed in hafting grooved axes. - -A mounting similar to form 4 is seen in some Alaska specimens of -celt-scrapers in which the implement is fastened to a piece of wood so -as to project a short distance, and used like a plane. In all these, -the celt is very firmly fastened to the handle with sinew or rawhide, -which, when put on green, contracts with great force and binds like -wire. - -As to the forms of celts, no division is practicable based on anything -but their entire appearance. The following descriptions and tabulations -represent the material of this kind in the Bureau collection: - -_A._ Round or nearly round section, pointed or flattened at the top, -blade rapidly thickening from the edge; a few are polished at the top, -but most of them show marks of a maul or hammer; all have been highly -polished; all of this class were probably used as wedges, as their -shape renders them more fit for this purpose than for any other; the -battered tops indicate such usage. The few not showing such marks -may have been set into a bumper of wood or horn, or used with wooden -mauls. They vary in length from 2½ to 7½ inches. They are represented -by the specimen shown in figure 47, of argillite, from Lincoln county, -Arkansas; there are also one from a mound in Sumter county, Alabama -(figure 48), and one from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, both of -serpentine and elliptical in section, though the form of the edge puts -them in this class. The following specimens are typical representations -of the class: - - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northwestern North Carolina | 3 | 7 | 2 | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 3 | | | | - |Western Tennessee | | | | 1 | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | 2 | | | | - |Union county, Mississippi | 1 | | | | | - |Madison county, Illinois | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 2 | | | | 1 | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sienite. - B = Argillite. - C = Granite. - D = Rotten limestone. - E = Sandstone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Celt, showing long, slender form.] - -_B._ Long, narrow, elliptical section, pointed top, curved or straight -edges, sides straight or gently curved. None of these seem to have -been put to any rough use, as the edges are quite sharp and the entire -surface is well polished; length from 4¼ to 12½ inches. The type is -illustrated by figure 49, of argillite, from a mound in Monroe county, -Tennessee. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 8 | 3 | | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | 1 | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 6 | 1 | 3 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | 1 | - |Northeastern Alabama | | | | | 1 | - |Western North Carolina | 1 | | | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Granite. - C = Sandstone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sienite. - -_C._ Thick, almost round section, round-pointed top, nearly straight -to sharp-curved edge, sides gently curved, widest at edge or just -above. Most of these show marks of use as cutting tools or hatchets. -In many the top has been roughened as if for insertion into a hole -cut in a piece of wood; others have this roughening around the middle -or immediately above, leaving a polish at both ends, and these were -hafted probably by means of a stick or withe twisted around them. The -roughening is a secondary operation, having no relation to the making -of the implement; it was produced by pecking after the surface was -polished. In a few cases it extends from the top well down the sides; -but usually it reaches but a little way below the top, or else is in -a circle around the body of the celt. Most of them have sharp edges; -a few have edges either chipped or blunted and polished, showing long -usage. Two from Kanawha valley (one roughened for handle) have the -edges worn in on one of the faces until they almost resemble gouges; -but that they were not intended as such is shown by the concavity being -nearer one side and not reaching entirely across. The length ranges -from 4½ to 10 inches. The type is illustrated by figures 50 and 51, -both of sienite, from Lauderdale county, Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Celt, nearly round section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Celt, nearly round section.] - -This may be regarded as the typical form of celt for eastern United -States, and its geographic distribution is exceptionally wide, as shown -in the table. - -The Bureau collection includes the following specimens of this class: - - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Western North Carolina | 4 | 2 | 9 |16 | | | | | - Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | | | | - Coosa district, Alabama | | 1 | | | | | | | - Ross county, Ohio | | | 1 | | | | | | - Knox county, Ohio | | | | | | 1 | | | - Miami valley, Ohio | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | - Eastern Tennessee | | 5 | | 1 | | | | | - Green river, Kentucky | | | 1 | | | | | | - Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 1 | | 2 | | - Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 4 | 4 | | | | 3 | 1 | - Crawford county, Wisconsin | | | 1 | | | | | | - Southwestern Illinois | | | 2 | | | | | 1 | - Savannah, Georgia | | 3 | 2 | | | 2 | | | - Western Tennessee | | 2 | | | | | | | - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Porphyry. - B = Sienite. - C = Granite. - D = Argillite. - E = Greenstone. - F = Sandstone. - G = Diorite. - H = Compact quartzite. - -_D._ Of the form last described, except in being much thinner; some -have the tops battered, showing use as wedges; length from 3 to 9 -inches. - - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Eastern Tennessee |11 | 3 | 2 | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | | - Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2 | 5 | 2 | 6 | | | | | - Northwestern Georgia | | | 3 | | | | | 1 | | | - Savannah, Georgia | | | | | 2 | | | | | | - Green river, Kentucky | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | | 2 | | | | | - Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1 | | | - Central Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | 1 | - Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | - Butler county, Ohio | | | | 2 | | | | | | | - Northwestern North Carolina | 8 | 2 | 1 | | | 4 | | | | | - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Porphyry. - C = Sienite. - D = Diorite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Granite. - G = Hornblende. - H = Greenstone. - I = Serpentine. - J = Compact quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Celt, showing nearly diamond section.] - -_E._ Pointed oval, or nearly diamond section, sides straight or -slightly curved; length 6 to 12½ inches. Few as these are, they vary -considerably in appearance. The group is illustrated by figure 52, -showing a specimen of brown flint, containing numerous small deposits -of chalcedony, from Benton county, Tennessee; polished over the entire -surface, the edge highly so. - -In addition, there are the following examples: From Caldwell county, -North Carolina, one of porphyry and one of granite, the latter -roughened on sides for handle; from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of -gray flint, highly polished over its surface, except the top, which is -much battered; from Cocke county, Tennessee, one of argillite. - -_F._ Elliptical section, flattened or rounded top, edge curved or -nearly straight, sides straight or gently curved, tapering from edge to -top or in a few cases nearly parallel. These present many variations -in finish and in evidence of use. Some are well polished over the -entire surface; some have only the lower part polished; while some are -entirely without polish except at the extreme edge. In some the top -is battered; some have the surface roughened for handle at the top, -others around the middle, still others all over the upper half or even -more than half. One from McMinn county, Tennessee, has a roughly pecked -shallow groove at the middle. Several have the edge very blunt, the -faces at the edge form almost a right angle; these are thickest very -near the edge and become gradually thinner toward the top. Most of this -kind are from Caldwell county, North Carolina; the same form coming also -from Monroe county, Tennessee, and from Savannah, Georgia. The length -is from 3 to 7½ inches. Figure 53, of compact quartzite, from Monroe -county, Tennessee; figure 54, of granite; and figure 55, of sienite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Celt.] - - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Eastern Tennessee | | 4 | 4 |20 | 7 | | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | - Western North Carolina | 1 | | 4 |22 | 4 | 3 | 5 | | | | | | - Montgomery county, N. C.| | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - Coosa district, Alabama | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | | - Southwestern Illinois | | | 1 | | | | 7 | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, W. Va. | | | | 3 | 7 | | 5 | |10 | | 1 | 1 | - Keokuk, Iowa | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | - Southwestern Wisconsin | | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | - Miami valley, Ohio | | | | | | 2 | 3 | | | | | | - Northeastern Arkansas | 1 | | | 1 | | | 2 | | | 2 | | | - Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | - Northwestern Georgia | | | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | | | - Savannah, Georgia | | 2 | | | 2 | | 1 | | | | 7 | | - Yazoo county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mississippi | | | | | 5 | | 2 | | | | | | - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Hornblende. - B = Serpentine. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Argillite. - E = Sienite. - F = Porphyry. - G = Granite. - H = Micaceous sandstone. - I = Diorite. - J = Greenstone. - K = Sandstone. - L = Flint. - -_G._ Of the same general pattern as the last, except that the sides -widen just before reaching the edge, giving a “bell shape” (figure -56). The length is from 6¼ to 8 inches. In this group there are two -specimens of granite, two of porphyry, and one of sienite, all from -Yazoo county, Mississippi. Two have their tops roughened. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Celt, showing “bell shape” and roughening for -handle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Celt, showing rectangular section.] - -_H._ Rectangular section, occasionally with the corners sufficiently -rounded to give a somewhat elliptical section; top flattened or -rounded; sides straight and parallel or nearly so, sometimes very -slightly curved. Most have polished surfaces; only three or four show -any battering, or roughening for handle. A large one of hornblende from -Lauderdale county, Tennessee, has the edge dulled and polished by use. -Length is from 2 to 9 inches. Figure 57, of argillite, from a mound in -Monroe county, Tennessee. The distribution of this class of celts is -wide, as shown by the following table: - - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 10| 10| 2| 1| | | | | 1| | - |Western Tennessee | | | | | | | 1| | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | 1| 1| 1| | 1| 1| | | - |Green River, Kentucky | | | | | 1| | | | | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | | | 2| 1| | | | | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | | | | 2| 2| 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, W. V. | 1| | | 8| 4| 4| 1| | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | | | | | | | | 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Central Arkansas | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Northwestern North Carolina | | | | | | | | | | 1| - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Porphyry. - D = Granite. - E = Sienite. - F = Diorite. - G = Hornblende. - H = Limestone. - I = Jasper. - J = Serpentine. - -_I._ Thickest at top (wedge form), section elliptical or nearly -rectangular; sides straight or curved, widest at edge or nearly -parallel. A few are roughened for handling, and one or two are battered -at top by hammering; most are small. The type is shown in figure 58, -of granite, from Carroll county, Indiana. This class of celts also is -widely distributed and diverse in material. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 3| 4| | 1| | | | | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | | | | 1| | | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | 1| | 1| | | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1| | | | | | | - |Green river, Kentucky | | | 1| | | | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | 3| | | | | | 1| 1| | - |Crawford county, Wis. | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Southwestern Illinois | | 3| 1| | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | | 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| 7| 5| | | 1| | 5| 2| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Hornblende. - B = Granite. - C = Sienite. - D = Comp. quartzite. - E = Argillite. - F = Greenstone. - G = Sandstone. - H = Diorite. - I = Porphyry. - J = Basalt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Celt, showing wedge-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Celt, showing half-elliptical section.] - -_J._ Flat on one side, convex on the other, giving a semi-elliptical -section; sides nearly parallel; top flat or rounded. These were -evidently intended for scrapers; none are at all chipped or battered -from use, and with very few exceptions the whole surface is highly -polished. The flint and jasper specimens, which have been first chipped -into shape, have the facets and edge as smooth as though finished on -an emery wheel. Similar forms, except with flat instead of convex -upper surfaces, are known to have been used as adzes, but these have no -marks of such use. The length ranges from 2 to 8 inches, but most are -small. The type is shown in figure 59, of brown flint, from a grave in -Alexander county, Illinois. - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | | - |Central Arkansas | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | 4 | 1 | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | 1 | | - |Southwestern Illinois | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | 2 | | | | | | | | - |Tuscaloosa district, Alabama | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northwestern North Carolina | 1 | 2| | | | | | 1 | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Graphite. - B = Argillite. - C = Porphyry. - D = Compt. quartzite. - E = Yellow jasper. - F = Gray jasper. - G = Novaculite. - H = Sienite. - -_K._ Similar to last, except that the sides come to a point at the top; -length, 3½ to 9 inches. Very few of either pattern are above 5 inches -long, the larger ones being mostly of flint (figure 60, of sienite, -from Warren county, Ohio). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northeastern Arkansas | 2 | | | | | | - |Western Tennessee | | 1 | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | | | 2 | 5 | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | | 1 | | | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | | | 2 | | 1 | - |Warren county, Ohio | | 2 | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow jasper. - B = Sienite. - C = Diorite. - D = Gray jasper. - E = Argillite. - F = Compt. quartzite. - -_L._ Sides concave, top narrow. Nearly every specimen has the upper -portion pecked rough; one from Bradley county, Tennessee, and another -from Mississippi county, Arkansas, are entirely polished. The latter -has the scraper-form edge to be described later and is of exceptionally -large size; it measures 5½ inches, being the only one exceeding 5 -inches in length. - -_M._ Top flat, round, or pointed; the blade usually begins a little -below the middle, and is perfectly smooth in every case; in some the -blade is not over an inch in length, probably reduced by continual -sharpening. They may have been scrapers, though they do not have that -form; if used as weapons they were probably set into the end of a -piece of antler, which, in turn, was set in a club. The type is shown -in figure 61, of argillite, from Monroe county, Tennessee. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 7| 1| 2| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1| 1| | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | | 1| | 1| | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | 1| - |Southwestern Illinois | 1| | 2| | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Sienite. - C = Granite. - D = Quartzite. - E = Hornblende.KEY - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Celt showing half-elliptical section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Celt, showing concave sides.] - -_N._ Ground down thin, with a flat-elliptical or nearly rectangular -section; sides straight or slightly curved, nearly parallel or tapering -considerably to the top, which is either rounded or flattened. All -are polished over the entire surface; none show any marks of use as -wedges or hatchets, and most of them are too delicate for such use. The -longer ones can be readily grasped in the hand, and are as well adapted -to stripping off the hide of an animal, dividing the skeleton at the -joints, or stripping the flesh from the bones, as anything made of -stone can be; while the smaller ones, set in a handle to afford a grip, -would answer the same purpose. There are three which are sharp at both -ends, one having one symmetrical and one scraper-form edge; one having -a scraper-form edge at each end on opposite sides; and one of rather -soft argillite, unfinished, which has marks of pecking, chipping, and -grinding, showing that any of these methods were practiced, as was -most convenient. All these are from eastern Tennessee. The features -are illustrated in figures 62, of argillite, from a mound, Caldwell -county, North Carolina; 63, of black flinty slate, very hard, from a -mound, Poinsett county, Arkansas; and 64, of argillite, from a mound, -Monroe county, Tennessee. - - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northwestern | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | 2 | 2 | 1 | | | | | | | | | | - |Montgomery county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 |53 | | | 5 | | 1 | | 4 | | 7 | 2 | | - |Western Tennessee | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | 2 | 1 | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | - |Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mississippi | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | - |Northeastern Arkansas| | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | - |Southeastern Arkansas| | | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | West Virginia | | | 2 | | | 6 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky| | | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | - |Green river, Kentucky| | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | - |Coosa district, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Alabama | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Marble. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Quartzite. - E = Serpentine. - F = Diorite. - G = Porphyry. - H = Granite. - I = Sandstone. - J = Hornblende. - K = Compact quartzite. - L = Slate. - M = Chert. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Thin polished celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Thin polished celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Thin polished celt.] - - -GOUGES. - -While there are perhaps no true gouges in the collection, there are -some examples of a form between a celt and a gouge, illustrated in -figure 65, of serpentine, from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -Implements of this form are known to have been used to tap sugar -maples, and also to hollow out wooden troughs, and are very common -in the north, though less abundant in the south.[20] It is in those -localities in which bark instead of logs was used for canoes that -they are most numerous. Sometimes they were hollowed the whole length -and used as spiles.[21] They were also employed instead of celts in -hollowing wooden mortars and the like when a more regular concavity was -desired.[22] - - -CHISELS AND SCRAPERS. - -The aboriginal implements known as “chisels” are round, elliptical, or -rectangular in section. The flint and jasper specimens are generally -widest at the edge, the reverse being usually the case with those -of other material. Most of them have marks of hammers at the blunt -end, though some are polished at the top and a few, from eastern -Tennessee, are sharp at both ends. The top (except in the double-edged -ones) is usually flat, though a few are pointed or very thin, almost -with cutting edges. Jaspers and flints are chipped, with the facets -polished, the edges highly so. Any form may occur in any locality. -Almost invariably they have scraper-form edges. The length is from 2 to -6 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Celt, showing thin, gouge-form edge.] - -Typical examples are shown in figure 66, of yellow jasper, from a -grave in Mississippi county, Arkansas; figure 67, of novaculite, -from an unknown locality in Arkansas; figure 68, of serpentine, from -Bradley county, Tennessee; figure 69, of sienite, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina; and figure 70, of gray jasper, from Bradley county, -Tennessee. Some specimens are sharp and worn at both ends, and could -have been used only with handles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -The Bureau collection includes the following specimens: - - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - | District. | A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - Northwestern | | | 1| 2| 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | - North Carolina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Northeastern | | | | | |32| 5| 2| 4| 1| 1| 1| | | | | | - Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Southeastern | | | 1| | | 2| | | | | | | 3| | | | | - Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Coosa district, | | 1| | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | - Alabama | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Warren county, | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ohio | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Southwestern | 2| | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Illinois | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eastern Tennessee| | | |40| | | 1| | | | | | | 2| 1| 3| 1| - Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | - Mississippi | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | 5| | | | | | - West Virginia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Northwestern | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Georgia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Savannah, Georgia| | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - - KEY: - A = White flint. - B = Serpentine. - C = Sienite. - D = Argillite. - E = Granite. - F = Yellow jasper. - G = Gray jasper. - H = Mottled jasper. - I = Red jasper. - J = Silicified wood. - K = Quartzite. - L = Black flint. - M = Novaculite. - N = Compact quartzite. - O = Porphyry. - P = Sandstone. - Q = Hornblende. - -The high polish sometimes found on the top of a round-pointed celt may -be due to its working slightly in the socket in its handle of wood, -deerhorn, or other material. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -By celts having a scraper-form edge is meant those having the edge to -one side of the median line, due to constant use of one face. This -face, at the edge, is in a straight line from side to side; it may have -a chisel-like flattening, or may curve toward the middle of the celt -for a short distance and then have the same form to the top as the -other face, which is convex or curved, as in the ordinary hatchet-celt. -They form a medium between celts whose faces gradually curve from top -to edge, and the celt-scrapers which are flat on one side. Among the -thicker celts this form is quite rare, though several, especially one -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia (represented in figure 74), are -quite pronounced. In the thinner specimens, however, a majority are of -this pattern, while in some types, nearly all indeed, even those up -to 6 inches long, are so beveled. The type, of which an illustration -is shown in figure 71, is of very hard black slate; the same form is -presented in figures 66 and 70. - -From Bartow county, Georgia, is a scraper made from the edge of a celt -which has been broken diagonally across from one face to the other. A -stem like that of a spear-head has been formed by chipping away the -sides of the part broken, which gives a convenient attachment for a -handle; the original edge is unchanged except in the wear which has -resulted from its new use. - -The specimen shown in figure 72 (of argillite, from McMinn county, -Tennessee) is introduced on account of its undoubted use as a scraper, -and because it is much smaller than some of the chipped flints thus -classified, the edge being less than an inch wide; the sides are -roughly incurved. - -In Bradley county, Tennessee, there were found over 200 specimens of -very small, thin, flat, waterworn sandstone pebbles, which were mostly -in their natural condition, except that they had one side rubbed to a -sharp edge. A few, more slender, were ground to a point. Some of them -have a handle chipped out on the side opposite the edge, sometimes with -nicks in it, made for attachment to a handle by means of a cord. Most -of these specimens are less than 2 inches in length. No suggestion is -offered as to their use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Celt, showing scraper-form edge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Scraper.] - -A granite implement from Union county, Illinois, with nearly -rectangular section, slightly curved sides, rounded corners, and high -polish over the entire surface, having nearly the same thickness -(about an inch) at every part, would seem to be a polishing or rubbing -stone. There are, however, one from Warren county, Ohio, and three -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of almost exactly the same size -and pattern, which have had one end ground off to a sharp edge; so the -specimen may be only an unfinished celt. One of those from Kanawha -valley has had the edge partly broken away, and one face has been -pecked considerably in an attempt to restore it for use; but the -intention was not carried out. Some celts, not of the scraper pattern, -which have the edge to one side of the median line, are perhaps broken -or blunted specimens redressed on one side only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Adze or scraper.] - -Figure 73 exhibits a specimen of argillite from Carter county, -Tennessee, probably an adze or scraper, with a projection to keep the -implement from being forced into the handle. The edge is symmetrical, -though much striated. The specimen shown in figure 74 (of granite, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia) represents a peculiar form. There are -several like it in the collection, all but this one from islands in the -Pacific. - - -CHIPPED CELTS. - -On account of their shape and undoubted use, a class of celts, although -neither pecked nor ground, is introduced. Many of them resemble, in -most respects, the so-called paleolithic implements, though sometimes -of better finish. They are made with a rounded top and nearly parallel -sides; rudely triangular; or with the sides curved to a point at the -top. The edge may be straight or curved, and is usually chipped, -though sometimes ground; a few are chisel-shaped. Usually they show -no signs of wear; when they do, it is always in the form of a polish -at the larger end, or on the exposed facets. One of black flint, 8 -inches long, from Kanawha valley, has a scraper-form edge, smoothly -polished. Many, even of those scarcely changed from their original form -and natural surface, have the edges dulled and polished from use as -scrapers or adzes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--chipped celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Chipped celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Chipped celt.] - -The collection includes the following examples: 36 of argillite, -flint, porphyry, and compact quartzite, from Montgomery county, North -Carolina, some with the wider edge sharp (figure 75, of flint); 12 -of limestone and flint from Mason county, Kentucky; 70 of argillite, -a few with the edges ground, from southeastern Tennessee (figure 76, -from McMinn county); over 300 from Kanawha valley, nearly all of black -flint, a few being of diorite or quartzite--some are partly polished, -or have ground edges (figure 77, of black flint, from a mound). - - -HEMATITE CELTS. - -With the exception of two from Iowa and a few from Preston county, West -Virginia, the hematite celts in the collection are from Kanawha valley, -and are small, ranging in length from 1 to 2¾ inches, except one 4½ -and one 5½ inches. They are illustrated in figures 78, 79, 80, and 81, -the last from a mound. Nearly all have been ground directly from the -nodule or concretion in which this ore of iron so frequently appears. -Occasionally one of homogeneous structure has been chipped into form -before grinding, the facets in some cases being rubbed nearly away. -Sometimes they have a rectangular outline, but usually the sides taper -from the edge to the top by a gradual curve, or are parallel a part of -the way and then taper either by a straight or, oftener, by a curved -line. The section is rectangular or elliptical. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Hematite celt.] - -These implements were probably used as knives or scrapers, being set -into the end of a piece of antler, which may in turn have been set -into a larger handle of wood. That some were knives is shown by the -edge which is dulled to a flat polished surface extending from side to -side; and that many were scrapers is shown by their celt-scraper shape, -a half elliptical section, or by the scraper-form edge, seen in the -largest specimen. Some, however, have the edge symmetrical, as in the -hatchet-celts. One has incurved sides, and is roughened on the sides -and on the faces near the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Hematite celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Hematite celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Hematite celt.] - - -PESTLES. - -The fact of the ordinary conical or bell-shaped, long-cylindrical, or -somewhat pear-shaped stones having been used for pestles is so well -settled that no confirmatory references are needed. A few citations -may be given in regard to certain forms sometimes differently classed, -especially some of the discoidal stones to be hereafter described. - -According to Stevens, the corn crushers used by the Swiss lake dwellers -are spherical; some are flattened on two sides, like an orange, others -almost round with depressions on four sides. They are about the size -of a man’s fist or rather smaller. The Africans have a piece of quartz -or other hard stone as large as half a brick, one side of which is -convex, to fit the hollow of a larger stone used as a mortar.[23] -Evans observes that disks sometimes show marks of use as hammers or -pestles;[24] one found at Ty Mawr was thick, with a cavity on each -face.[25] In preparing pemmican, the American Indians are known to -have pounded the dried meat to a powder between two stones.[26] This -gives the impression that any suitable stones may have been used; and -the ancient California Indians worked out a round stone as an acorn -sheller, modern tribes using any smooth stone.[27] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Handled pestle, with expanding base.] - -The pestles which have the bottom round or convex are generally found -in the same localities as the hollowed stone mortars. Several forms of -pestles are represented in the collection. They may be grouped as in -the following description and tabulation. - -_A._ With expanding base; bottom flat or slightly convex, often with -a slight depression in the middle. Handle tapering, or of uniform -diameter to the top; in a few, slightly swelling above as if to give a -firmer hold. Top rounded, flat, or pointed. Bottom may be very little -expanded or may have twice the diameter of the handle. Probably used -for pounding grain or seeds on a flat stone, as it could not be used -in a mortar even slightly hollowed. None seem to have been used as -mullers or rubbers. They may have served for hammers, and would be -excellent for cracking nuts, as the pit in the bottom would tend to -keep them from flying out to the side. The type is shown in figure 82, -of quartzite, from Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is -moderately wide, and the material chiefly granite and quartzite, with a -few of other rock varieties, as shown in the table: - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northeastern Kentucky | 2| 2| | | 1| | - |Eastern Tennessee | 3| 6| | | | 1| - |Ross county, Ohio | 2| 1| | | | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 1| 7| 1| 2| | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | 1| | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| 1| | 1| 1| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Granite - C = Sienite - D = Diorite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Argillite. - -_B._ Almost cylindrical, from 6 to 18 inches long and about two inches -in diameter. Some of the larger ones were probably rolling-pins, as -the ends, either from some fancy finish, or because worked to a point, -are of a shape that would make their use as pestles impracticable. -Even as rollers, some must have been used for crushing grain that had -previously been softened or was not fully matured, as they are of a -soft stone that would wear very easily. The shorter ones are blunt at -the ends, and may have been used in a shallow wooden mortar; none are -adapted for use in stone. The class is illustrated by figure 83, of -soft clay slate, from Cherokee county, Georgia. - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Montgomery county, North Carolina | 1| | | | | - |Northwestern North Carolina | 1| | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 3| 2| 3| 1| | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1| | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | 1| 1| | - |Hopkins county, Kentucky | | | | | 1| - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Soft slate. - C = Clay slate. - D = Mica-schist. - E = Quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Pestle, long cylindrical form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Pestle, conical.] - -_C._ Conical, or truncated cone, bottom flat, convex or curved from -one side to the opposite. Some are quite smooth on the bottom as if -from rubbing either back and forth or with a rotary motion; while many -have the bottom pecked rough, showing use as hammers or pounders. For -those with curved bottoms a rocking motion seems best adapted; with -the palm resting on the longer side, good work could be done in any of -these ways. Typical specimens are shown in figures 84, of quartzite, -from Monroe county, Tennessee; 85, of granite, from Warren county, -Ohio; and 86, of quartzite, from Saline county, Arkansas. A somewhat -aberrant specimen, shown in figure 87, of granite, from Carter county, -Tennessee, has an elliptical base, rounded top, and flat bottom; the -longer sides grooved for handle. A similar one, of quartzite, came -from Warren county, Ohio. There is considerable variety of material, -quartzite largely predominating. Although the geographic range is -wide, the distribution is rather sparse, and several districts are not -represented. - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Arkansas | 2| | | | | | | - |Central Arkansas | 1| | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | 12| 1| | | 1| | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 3| | 1| | 3| 2| | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| | | 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | | | | 1| - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Marble. - C = Sienite. - D = Hornblende. - E = Granite. - F = Diorite. - G = Sandstone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Pestle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Pestle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Pestle, grooved for handle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Pestle.] - -_D._ Conical, or truncated cone, with top more or less rounded, very -little worked, a stone of approximate form having been chosen and the -angles and corners pecked off; bottom flat, and in some quite smooth; -used as pestles or mullers. The group is represented by 17 specimens of -quartzite, all from southeastern Tennessee. - -_E._ Not dressed at all on the sides, but with both ends worn to -a convex shape. Represented by two specimens of quartzite from -southeastern Tennessee. - -_F._ Cylindrical, flat bottom, dome-shaped top, these portions having -been carefully pecked into shape. Some are smoothly polished on the -bottom, but none elsewhere. Those from Miami valley, and one from -Kanawha valley are much longer than the others. The type illustrated in -figure 88 is of quartzite, from McMinn county, Tennessee. - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 5| 1| 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 1| | 3| | - |Miami valley, Ohio | | | 1| 1| - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Porphyry. - C = Sandstone. - D = Limestone. - - -PITTED STONES. - -There is scarcely a locality in the country where pitted stones are not -found; they are indeed of such frequent occurrence that they are seldom -considered worth the trouble of gathering. - -There can be no “type” among such crude implements; they are almost -invariably waterworn sandstone pebbles, with a pit varying from a -slight roughening of the surface to a hollow half an inch in depth -pecked in each face. They probably belong with hammerstones, as they -seldom show other marks of work, the edge in some being only slightly -marked in one or two places, while in others it is much worn. - -Various numbers of the Journal of the Anthropological Society of Great -Britain and Ireland refer to pitted stones as found in every part -of the world. According to Evans, slight pits aid in holding stone -hammers; they also prevent the jar to a large extent. If used to pound -meat or break bones, it would be hard to hold them when greasy without -pits.[28] Such implements may have had handles of wood with projections -to fit the pits,[29] though this is not probable; but if so a piece of -buckskin on the handle opposite the pits would do better and be more -convenient to apply. - - -CUPPED STONES. - -Conjecture and theory have had full sway in regard to the uses of -cupped stones; but the question is apparently far from solution. There -is a prevalent idea that they were used for cracking nuts; but why -should an Indian make a large number of holes in a great many stones -for such purpose? It is true there would be an advantage in having the -nut stand on one end; but very few stones have depressions that will -allow this. - -Of the southern Indians Adair observes: - - They gather a number of hiccory-nuts, which they pound with a - round stone, upon a stone, thick and hollowed for the purpose. - When they are beat fine enough, they mix them with cold water, - in a clay basin, where the shells subside. The other part is - an oily, tough, thick, white substance ... with which they eat - their bread.[30] - -Lawson’s language regarding the Indians of North Carolina is even more -definite. He says: - - [They gather] likewise hickerie nuts, which they beat betwixt - two great stones, then sift them, so thicken their venison - broth therewith, the small shells precipitating to the bottom - of the pot, whilst the kernel, in the form of flour, mixes it - with the liquor, both these nuts [hickory and chinquapin] made - into meal makes a curious soup, either with clear water, or in - any meat broth.[31] - -Neither of these statements seems to have any reference to cupped -stones. The first is a good description of a mortar with a round -pestle, while the second says nothing about any particular form of -stone; yet they have been referred to time and again as proof of the -nut-stone theory. There would be some difficulty in pounding nuts fine -in small holes half an inch or more below where the pounding stone -could reach. - -C. C. Jones[32] was satisfied that cupped stones were used for cracking -nuts because great numbers of nut-bearing trees grow where they are -found; while Whittlesey, noting the fact that hundreds of them are -found throughout northern Ohio, considered them as sockets in which -the end of a spindle rested. Dawson[33] speaks of “stones having deep -hollows in the sides which were mortars for grinding pigments, or -sockets for fire drills.” - -The cupped stones in the Bureau collection are almost invariably of -reddish sandstone, of varying texture, from a few ounces to 30 pounds -in weight. The holes are from one to twenty-five in number, of various -sizes even in the same stone, and follow the natural contour of the -surface even when that is quite irregular; the stone is never dressed -or flattened to bring the cups on a level; none show any marks of work, -but are the rough blocks or slabs in their natural state. - -Many of the holes are roughly pecked in, but the larger ones -are usually quite smooth, as if ground out, and almost complete -hemispheres. They range from a pit only started or going scarcely -beyond the surface to one 2 inches in diameter. The smaller ones with -one cup pass into the pitted stones. Occasionally at the bottom of a -large cup there is a small secondary hole as though made by a flint -drill. - -The polished cups may have been used for fire-drill or spindle sockets, -though why there should be a number of holes when but one could be used -at a time awaits explanation. The rough ones may have been for holding -nuts, and so long as they were on the same plane any number could be -utilized; but when they are on different parts of the stone, even on -opposite sides, as many of them are, the question remains open. Slabs -or thin pieces nearly always have cups on both sides, while blocks or -thick slabs have them on one side only. On the former a number of -nuts could be cracked with one blow of a flat stone and thrown into -a receptacle of some kind, either side of the stone being used at -pleasure; but there would be no economy of time or work in this method, -and it would be very strange that any one should not learn with so -much experience that a nut should never be laid on the flat side in -cracking. No theory yet advanced accounts for the greater number of -such relics, namely, the irregular fragments of stone with cups at -varying intervals and different levels. - -No division can be made in regard either to size or material of the -stone, or to form or finish of the cups. Many of the smaller ones were -no doubt paint mortars. One well finished specimen of this class is -shown in figure 89; it is of quartzite from 4 feet beneath the surface -in Crittenden county, Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Cupped stone or paint cup.] - -Cupped stones are found wherever representatives of the Bureau have -worked, and numerous references might be given concerning their -existence in other localities. - - -MULLERS. - -The objects known as mullers are generally flat and smooth on one side -and convex on the other, sometimes with a pit in one side or both, -mostly of granite, quartzite, or sandstone; rarely of other materials. - -A fine specimen of white quartz from Elmore county, Alabama, has the -bottom flat and highly polished, the edge perpendicular to bottom and -rounding off into the slightly convex top, with a pit at center. Figure -90 represents a muller of marble or crystalline limestone from a grave -in Randolph county, Illinois. It has a smooth, flat bottom, with convex -top somewhat smaller than the base; around the circumference there is -a depression polished by wear. A similar specimen, of diorite, from -Carter county, Tennessee, seems to be the lower part of a pestle with -expanding base, whose top or handle has been lost, the part remaining -having a place for a handle pecked around it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Muller, showing polished surface.] - -The discoidal stones with this shape were probably used as mullers; -they were also used as pestles in the hollow mortars, as the edge -is often chipped or pecked, which would account for the pits on the -faces. Figure 91 represents a muller of granite from Savannah, Georgia. -Sometimes the base has an elliptical instead of a circular outline, as -seen in other specimens from Savannah. - -Mullers are found wherever there are indications of occupancy for any -considerable length of time. - - -GRINDING AND POLISHING STONES. - -Stones evidently used for grinding and polishing need only to be -mentioned, as they are of widespread occurrence. Implements used for -the former purpose are made of any siliceous stone of convenient -size and suitable texture, from a coarse quartzite to a very fine -close-grained sandstone, according to the class of work to be done. The -markings on them range from the narrow, sharp, incised lines due to -shaping a small ornament, to the broad grooves resulting from grinding -an ax or celt into form. Nearly all of those in museums are small -specimens used for rubbing; but there are many large blocks in various -localities, sometimes several feet square, marked and scored in every -direction by grinding or sharpening the large implements on them. - -Among the polishers may be included a number of small pebbles of very -hard siliceous stone, generally some form of quartz, which by the high -polish show long use. The larger ones may have been used for rubbing -skins in tanning, as they can easily be grasped in the hand. Very -few have changed from their primitive form to a greater degree than -would naturally result from the wear upon them. A few very small ones, -long-ovoid in shape, usually not over 2½ or 3 inches in length, were -probably paint mullers, as they are well fitted for use in small paint -cups. Many of the discoidal stones--which will be spoken of under -the proper head--may have had these functions. The highly polished -specimens are all from the southern states. There is one rubbing stone -of pumice from Craighead county, Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Muller, showing polished surface.] - - -HAMMERSTONES. - -Hammers or hammerstones show every stage of work, from the ordinary -pebble or fragment, with its surface scarcely altered, to the highly -polished round or ovoid “ball.” They are usually of the hardest -available material, and seem to be of more frequent occurrence in -the northern districts than in the southern states, though found -everywhere. Used in their earlier stages merely as tools with which to -fashion other implements, they were assigned to specified purposes when -brought to a better finish or form. A typical example, shown in figure -92, is of granite, from Ross county, Ohio. - -The Sioux used an oval stone, with a piece of rawhide covering all but -the point and attaching it to a withe handle,[34] while the Shoshoni -and Ojibwa made use of a round stone, wrapped in leather, attached by -a string of 2 inches to a handle 22 inches long covered with leather; -this was called a poggamoggan.[35] Rounded stones are said to have -been used by the California Indians as bolas,[36] though it is more -probable that they were slung-shots. The ancient Californians worked -out a round stone for an acorn-sheller; the present Indians use any -smooth stone.[37] Elaborately carved round stones, mounted in handles -as clubs, are known to have been used by the Queen Charlotte Island -Indians for killing fish,[38] and other northwestern Indians have been -observed to use a round stone inclosed in a net and attached to a line -as a sinker.[39] - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Hammerstone.] - -It is not necessary to quote references to the well-known fact that the -Eskimo and the Patagonians made use of round stones of various sizes as -bolas. There is no evidence that our Indians ever used anything of the -sort. - - -GROOVED STONES OTHER THAN AXES. - -Three subclasses of grooved stones, differing in essential features -from axes, may be discriminated. They are as follows: - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Grooved round stone.] - -_A._ Slightly or not at all worked, except the groove; often showing -marks of violent usage. With these may be classed the large stone -hammers of the Lake Superior region. - -_B._ Round or ellipsoid stones; in the latter the groove may follow -either axis. The type (figure 93) is of sandstone from Carter county, -Tennessee. - -_C._ Resembling axes in all but the edge. Of class _A_ there are none -in the collection; their form and size are such that they could have -been for no other purpose than hammerstones. Of class _B_ there are -some from Savannah, which may be sinkers or club heads. According to -Morgan, oval stones with grooves were secured in the heads of war -clubs,[40] and Carver observed that the southwestern Indians used as -a slung-shot a curiously worked stone, with a string a yard and a -half long tied to it, the other end being tied to the arm above the -elbow.[41] - -The specimens of class _C_ may be broken axes. Figure 94 (granite, -from Butler county, Ohio) shows a form quite common throughout central -and western Ohio. They are generally small, have evidently never been -sharp, and were in all probability intended for hammers from the -beginning. - - -MORTARS. - -The Indian mortars in the collection are nearly always of sandstone of -varying degrees of fineness. As is the case with cupped stones, when -made of slabs, both sides have been worked; when of rough blocks, only -one. - -The Senecas and Cayugas are said by Morgan to have used wooden mortars -in which to pound corn after it was hulled,[42] and it is possible that -the long pestles of soft stone were used with wooden mortars, though -some are not well adapted to this use. The Iroquois women pounded in -stone mortars the stony material used in tempering the clay for their -pottery.[43] The California Indians made mortars by knocking a segment -off a bowlder, making a flat surface, and working out with a hammer -and chisel,[44] while the tribes of the interior worked directly from -the surface of a suitable rock. The Yokuts, according to Powers, use -tolerably well made stone mortars, and sometimes place a basket-like -arrangement around the top to prevent the acorns from flying out.[45] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Grooved hammer.] - -No two specimens of the mortars and metate-like stones in the Bureau -collection are alike; the nearest approach that can be made to a -classification is as follows: - -_A._ Smooth and flat on one or both sides; for use with mullers; from -McMinn county, Tennessee, and Allamakee county, Iowa. - -_B._ With round cavities on one or both sides; for round or cylindrical -pestles; from McMinn county, Tennessee. A cobblestone from Bradley -county, Tennessee, has a shallow cavity in either side and a pit in the -center of each. From Kanawha valley there is a slab weighing about 25 -pounds, flat and smooth on one side, as though primarily used with a -muller and the regular even cavity afterward made; on the other side a -cavity and a cupped hole have been worked in from the natural surface. -A slab from Warren county, Ohio, has a shallow cavity worked into one -side and a cupped hole in the other. From Union county, Mississippi, -there is a flattened bowlder with a shallow cavity on each side; a -shallow cup has been pecked on the edge of one of them. From Caldwell -county, North Carolina, comes a bowlder of water-worn mica-schist, -with a shallow cavity and a deeper one on one side, and on the other a -cupped hole opposite each of these cavities. - -_C._ With one side hollowed out, the other flat and smooth. Specimens -of this type come from Caldwell county, North Carolina; McMinn county, -Tennessee, and Bradley county, Tennessee, the last with a pit in the -center and another on the edge of the flat side. - -_D._ With a long, narrow depression on each side. A very large specimen -of fine-grained sandstone from Lincoln county, Arkansas, represents -this type. - -There are, in addition, two pieces of fine-grained sandstone with -uniform thickness of less than an inch and about 10 inches across, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Hale county, Alabama, respectively. -Both sides are ground perfectly smooth, and flat. The objects were -probably for some culinary purpose. - - -SINKERS. - -The sinkers in the collection may be divided into four classes, viz: -_A_, entirely unworked; _B_, notched on the sides; _C_, encircled by -a groove; and _D_, perforated. Conversely, stones under all these -different heads may have served other and widely different purposes. - -Of the functions of class _A_, only those who have seen them in use -can speak. Stevens mentions that some tribes inclose a round stone in -a sort of net and attach it to a line in fishing;[46] and no other use -can be imagined for some of the specimens in the Bureau collection. - -Specimens of class _B_ are found along water courses in such situations -as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers;[47] they were attached to -grapevines and dragged on the bottom of streams to frighten fish into -nets or traps.[48] Those in the collection are made of ordinary flat -water-worn pebbles, with notches rudely chipped in the sides; a number -are from southeastern Tennessee. - -Of class _C_, while many were perhaps sinkers, more were club heads -and slungshots or hammers. A number have been obtained from Savannah, -Georgia, more or less worked, some being rounded, with grooves of -varying depths and sizes. Small stones of this form are used by -Greenland fishermen as sinkers;[49] and according to Thatcher, a large -stone is by the Indians made fast to a sinking line at each end of a -net, and the net is spread in the water by sinkers at different parts -of it.[50] - -Class _D_ will be referred to under the head “Perforated stones,” from -which they can be discriminated only arbitrarily. - -A number of roughly chipped, somewhat crescent-shaped specimens of -argillite, from half a pound to 2 pounds in weight, collected in -Montgomery county, North Carolina, may have been used as sinkers. - - -PERFORATED STONES. - -Only the larger or rougher perforated stones used as implements are -included in this class. - -Several perforated pieces of steatite, some mere rough fragments, -others with the edges smooth and dressed to a somewhat symmetrical -outline, have been collected about Savannah, Georgia. Some of these -have been drilled, others gouged through apparently with a slender -flint. In the latter group the little projections left by the tool have -been worn smooth. The hole may be near one end or about the center. -Similar pieces have been found in Forsyth county, Georgia; one of -these is worked to an irregular pentagon and smoothly finished. From -Haywood county, North Carolina, there are some very rough fragments, -apparently just as they were picked up, except for the perforation; and -a number of pieces of perforated pottery are from Montgomery county, -North Carolina. - -Perforated stones were used by the southern Indians to drag along the -bottoms of streams and frighten fish into their nets and traps.[51] -Four disks 4 to 5½ inches in diameter, with handles from 13 to 17 -inches long, were found in a cave at Los Angeles, California,[52] and -objects of this character were, according to Schumacher, used by the -Santa Barbara Indians as weights for wooden spades.[53] According to -Abbott many perforated stones are found close to rivers and on shores -in such positions as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers.[54] -Similar stones were used as sinkers by the Scandinavians in -comparatively recent times; by the Bechuanas for grinding grasshoppers, -spiders, etc., and also as weights for digging-sticks; by some savages -in the Pacific islands as clubs; by the Icelanders for breaking up -salted fish.[55] They were used by the Iroquois as weights for fire -drills;[56] by the Eskimo as clubs, having a rawhide handle secured -by a knot.[57] According to Dale,[58] Layard,[59] Griesbach,[60] and -Gooch,[61] they were used by natives of southern Africa as root-diggers -(to remove earth from the roots), as weapons, and to give weight to -digging-sticks. They were also used by the Peruvian Indians to be -thrown with a stick. Disk-shaped and cylindrical throwing stones, -perforated for the stick, are found among the Swiss lake dwellings.[62] -According to Evans[63] they were used mostly as hammers or clubs. They -are hard and battered on the edges; sinkers would be of softer stone. - -The most complete article that has yet been given concerning the forms -and uses of perforated stones is that by H. W. Henshaw.[64] - - -DISCOIDAL STONES. - -There are numerous references to discoidal stones by various writers, -but a majority of the objects do not fall under any explanation that -has so far been given. - -The Choctaw Indians used disks two fingers wide and two spans around -in playing “chungke,”[65] and the Indians of North Carolina were -much addicted to a sport called “chenco,” played with a staff and a -bowl made with stone.[66] The same kind of game was, or still is, -played with hoops or rings of wood or rawhide by the Iroquois,[67] -the Pawnee,[68] the Apache,[69] the Navajo,[70] the Mohave,[71] and -the Omaha;[72] also, with rings of stone, by the Arikara,[73] the -Mandan,[74] and other tribes. - -The game of chungke, however, will account for only a small part of -the great number of stones of this form. The Indians of southern -California, in manufacturing pottery, make the clay compact and smooth -by holding a rounded and smooth stone against the inside.[75] The -Fijians, in making pottery, use a small, round flat stone to shape the -inside,[76] while the Indians of Guiana use ancient axes or smooth -stones for polishing the clay in making their vessels.[77] According to -Evans,[78] pitted disks were used as pestles, hammers, or mullers; a -thick one with pitted ends was found in a mortar at Holyhead.[79] Under -the head of pestles and of perforated stones further references will be -found that may apply as well to this form of implements. - -No kind of relic is more difficult to classify. From the smooth, -symmetrical, highly-polished chungke stone they gradually merge into -mullers, pestles, pitted stones, polishers, hammers,[80] ornaments, -and the ordinary sinker or club-head, so that no dividing line is -possible. Theories constructed on a basis of their use may be far from -correct. - -They present various forms and degrees of finish; many have the -natural surface on both sides with the edge worked off by grinding or -pecking, the latter being produced probably by use as a hammer; the -sides may be ground down while the edge remains untouched; or the sides -may be pecked and the edge ground, being probably of a thick pebble -originally. Some of the finer grades, as chalcedony and quartz, that -have received the highest finish, appear to have had all the work done -by grinding or rubbing, as even those only slightly worked bear no -signs of hammering or pecking. When of the harder materials they are -generally made of water-worn pebbles as nearly the desired form as can -be found; in fact, some specimens which are in their natural state, -entirely unworked, require a very close examination to distinguish them -from others whose whole surface has been artificially produced. In the -jasper conglomerates from Arkansas, however, there is a regular series -from a roughly chipped disk to one of the highest polish and symmetry. -The larger ones of quartz, particularly those with concavities in the -sides, must have been patiently wrought for years before brought to -their present state. Many of the smaller ones, especially sandstone, -seem to have been designed for grinding or polishing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Discoidal stone.] - -The following groups are represented in the collection: - -_A._ Sides hollowed out, edge convex; 2 to 6 inches diameter, -seven-eighths to 2¾ thick. - -1. Edges of concavity sharp. - -_a._ Cavity a regular curve from side to side. The type (figure 95) is -of quartz, from Cherokee county, Georgia. There are also, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia, one of sandstone, of which one side has been -worked out by a flint, the little pits being distinctly visible, while -the other side has natural surface; from Loudon county, Tennessee, one -of quartzite, 6 inches diameter, which has been used as a mortar, the -cavities being roughened, with their edges broken and scarred (the -edge of the stone is battered entirely around midway between the sides -as though used for a hammer); from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of -quartzite, about the same size as last, with a slight pit in the center -of each cavity, the edges of the concavity being considerably chipped, -and the edge of the implement very smooth; from Polk county, Tennessee, -one of quartzite, 3½ inches in diameter, with the edge polished except -in one spot, where it shows marks of use as a hammer or pestle--it -has been used also as a mortar, the edges of the concavity being much -chipped and broken; one each from Craighead county, Arkansas, of -novaculite; Randolph county, Illinois, of granite; Cherokee county, -Georgia, of quartz; and Obion county, Tennessee, of sandstone. In the -four last mentioned the entire surface is quite smooth or even highly -polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Discoidal stone, with perforation.] - -_b._ With a small perforation at the center. The type is shown in -figures 96 (of sandstone, from a grave in Union county, Illinois), -and 97 (of granite, from Virginia). There is another specimen, of -sandstone, from Red River county, Texas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Discoidal stone, with perforation.] - -_c._ With a secondary depression in each cavity. Figure 98 (yellow -quartz, highly polished, from Fulton county, Georgia) is typical. There -is also one of quartzite, with a secondary depression in one side only, -from Roane county, Tennessee, which may be supposed, from this and -other imperfections, to be unfinished. - -2. Edges of concavity rubbed off blunt. These are grouped simply -by form, as the specimens from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and -northeastern Kentucky are nearly all roughly finished, quite different -from the smooth or polished ones from farther south. Some are worked -out into the form of a ring, and there is every stage between that -form and the flat disk whose sides show no trace of pecking. Figure -99 (quartzite, from Sevier county, Tennessee) illustrates a typical -example, roughly worked but entirely perforated, and figure 97 shows -the same type in another form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Discoidal stone, with secondary depression.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Discoidal stone, in form of a ring.] - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| 1| | | | | | - |Crittenden county, Arkansas | | 1| | | | | - |Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | | - |Randolph county, Illinois | | | 1| 2| | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| | | 1| | | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | | | 1| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | 1| 1| 1| - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 22| | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartz. - B = Novaculite. - C = Flint. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Granite. - -_B._ Flat or slightly concave sides, edges straight and at right angles -to the sides; diameter, 1⅝ to 5 inches. The type shown in figure 100 is -of sandstone from Lauderdale county, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Discoidal stone.] - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Lauderdale county, Alabama | 1| | | | | - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | 1| 1| 1| | - |McMinn county, Tennessee | 1| | | | 4| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartzite. - C = Very fine schist. - D = Yellow jasper. - E = Argillite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Discoidal stone.] - -_C._ Sides flat; edges straight, sometimes rounding off into the sides; -diameter, 2¼ to 6 inches; thickness, three-quarters to 2¼ inches. -A number from southeastern Tennessee, especially the smaller ones, -are quite rough, being merely pecked or chipped into shape with no -subsequent rubbing. Figure 101 (chalcedony, from a mound in Monroe -county, Tennessee) represents the type. The material is variable. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Tennessee | | 5| 5| 1| 3| 1| | | 9| - |Western Tennessee | | 1| | | 1| | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| | | | | | 7| | 1| - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartz. - B = Sandstone. - C = Argillite. - D = Chalcedony. - E = Limestone. - F = Marble. - G = Granite. - H = Jasper conglomerate. - I = Quartzite. - -_D._ Like the last, except much smaller. Very few are polished over -the entire surface; some are rubbed more or less on the edges or -sides, but a majority have the edge rough as it was chipped or pecked -out; many have either the edge or sides in the natural state. From -those smoothly polished to those very rudely worked the gradation is -such that no dividing line can be drawn. This is true, also, of the -smaller specimens of other types. Some of the quartzite specimens are -very loose in texture. From seven-eighths to 2 inches in diameter and -one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch thick. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 54| 64| | | 32| 1| 12| 4| | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | 1| 1| 4| | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 7| | | | 20| | | | 1| - |Northeastern Kentucky | | 14| | | | | | 5| | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Marble. - B = Sandstone. - C = Argillite. - D = Granite. - E = Red jasper. - F = Quartzite. - G = Micaceous sandstone. - H = Limestone. - I = Quartz. - J = Cannel coal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Discoidal stone, convex.] - -_E._ Convex on both sides, edges straight. One of white quartz from -Caldwell county, North Carolina, has the sides much curved, making the -stone very thick in proportion to its width; there is a deep pit on -each side, the entire surface being highly polished. Diameter, 2 to 3½ -inches; thickness, three-fourths to an inch and a half. Illustrated -by figure 102 (of porphyry, from a grave in Caldwell county, North -Carolina). - - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - | District. | A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| R| S| - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - |Eastern Arkansas | 3| 1| 1| 1| 4| 7| | 1| | | | 7| 1| | | 1| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (many of these | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | rough and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | entirely | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | without | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | polish) | | | 1| | |88|29| | 1| 1|31|27| 8| 1| 1| 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | West Virginia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (rough) | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mississippi | | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | - |Caldwell county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | | | | | 1|10| | | | | 4| | | 1| 2| 1| 2| 1| - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow jasper. - B = Iron ore. - C = Mica schist. - D = Novaculite. - E = Jasper conglomerate. - F = Quartzite. - G = Quartz. - H = Hornblende. - I = Marble. - J = Clayey limestone. - K = Argillite. - L = Sandstone. - M = Limestone. - N = Sienite. - O = Granite. - P = Chalcedony. - Q = Steatite. - R = Black flint. - S = Porphyry. - -_F._ Same form as the above; 1¼ to 2 inches in diameter, one-half to -seven-eighths of an inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Elmore county, Alabama | | | | 2| 1| | | 1| | 1| - |Western North Carolina | | | | 1| | | 2| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | | 2| | 1| 9| | 1| | - |Bartow county, Georgia | 1| 1| 1| 2| | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | 3| | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | | 4| | | | - |Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | | | | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Jasper. - B = Mica schist. - C = Micaceous sandstone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Quartz. - F = Marble. - G = Argillite. - H = Sandstone. - I = Limestone. - J = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Discoidal stone.] - -_G._ Flat or slightly convex on one or both sides, edge straight, one -side wider than the other. Some have the edge battered or chipped and -it is always at the angle of the edge with the wider side. From 1⅝ to -3½ inches in diameter, and three-fourths to an inch and a half thick. -The specimen shown in figure 103 (of compact quartzite, from Bartow -county, Georgia) is typical. The material is quite diverse. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1| 2| | | 2| | 1| | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | | | | | | 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | | 1| | | | | | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | 3| | | | 1| 1| 2| - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Marble. - C = Quartzite. - D = Quartz hornblende. - E = Granite. - F = Quartz. - G = Compact quartzite. - H = Sienite. - I = Chalcedony. - J = Schist. - K = Flint. - -There are also of this type, one of very hard black stone (not -identified) from Red River county, Texas, three-fourths of an inch -in diameter; one of barite from Bartow county, Georgia, one inch in -diameter, three-fourths inch thick; and one of granite, from Chester -county, South Carolina, an inch in diameter. There are also one of -quartzite from Drew county, Arkansas, with a shallow pit on each side; -one of the same material from southeastern Tennessee, with a deep pit -gouged in smaller side; and from the same locality, three of quartzite, -one of quartz, and one of sandstone, each with a deep pit in the larger -side. All of these are small and none of them polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Discoidal stone.] - -_H._ Convex sides and curved edges; size as in group _G_. The type -(figure 104) is of quartz, from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Catahoula parish, Louisiana | | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | | 1| 2| 3| | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 2| | | 1| | - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 1| | | | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Jasper conglomerate. - B = Quartz. - C = Limestone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Conglomerate. - -_I._ Same form, rough and not polished; 1 to 2¾ inches in diameter, -one-half to 1 inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 50| | | 3| 11| 10| - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 3| | | 3| - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | | 1| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 36| 1| | | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Flint. - C = Yellow jasper. - D = Argillite. - E = Quartz. - F = Sandstone. - -_J._ Sides slightly convex, edge slightly curved; 2¼ to 3½ inches in -diameter, three-quarters to an inch and a half thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West | 1| | | | | | | | - | Virginia (evidently | | | | | | | | | - | used for a hammerstone) | | | | | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 3| 4| 1| 2| 1| | | - |Lauderdale county, Tennessee | | | 1| | | | | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | 2| | | | | 1| | - |Fulton county, Georgia | | | | | | | | 1| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartz. - C = Quartzite. - D = Chalcedony. - E = Argillite. - F = Clayey limestone. - G = Steatite. - H = Sienite. - -_K._ Sides flat; edges convex; roughly finished, no polish; 1⅛ to 2¼ -inches in diameter, three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | 4| 1| 7| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartz. - C = Quartzite. - -_L._ Not polished; roughly chipped edges; 2 to 3½ inches in diameter. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | 1| 1| 1| 3| - |Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | | - |Union county, Mississippi | 3| | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartzite. - C = Chalcedony. - D = Yellow jasper. - -_M._ Edges V-shape; 1¾ to 2½ inches diameter, 1 to 1½ inches thick. The -type (figure 105) is of granite, from Randolph county, Illinois, with -insunk pecked sides and polished edge. A specimen from Kanawha valley, -West Virginia, is of flint, with only the edge worked; apparently a -hammer. One from Craighead county, Arkansas, has flat sides and the -entire surface polished; another from McMinn county, Tennessee, is also -polished entire. A good specimen from Cocke county, Tennessee, is of -flint, one side rubbed flat, the other a rounded cone, highly polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Discoidal stone, with V-shaped edges.] - -_N._ Sides hollowed out; edges straight or slightly curved; very thick; -used as mortars, hammers, or pestles. This form gradually merges into -disk-shaped, pitted, or entire dressed hammers, which in turn run into -the ordinary hammerstones. The types are figures 106 (quartzite, from -Bradley county, Tennessee) and 107 (quartzite, from Nicholas county, -Kentucky). There are in this group from eastern Tennessee three of -quartzite, 2¼ by 4½ inches, 4¼ by 5¾ inches, and 1¾ by 3¼ inches, and -one of granite, 2¾ by 3 inches; from Caldwell county, North Carolina, -one of granite; and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, three of -quartzite. The last four are evidently hammers or pestles. In addition -there is a specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, of ferruginous -sandstone, 3 inches in diameter. On one side there is a pit and on the -other a shallow, mortar-like cavity extending entirely across. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Discoidal stone, used as mortar.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Discoidal stone, probably used as hammer.] - -_O._ One side flat, the other rounded; of convenient size for grasping. -In some the bottom is quite smooth. There is sometimes a pit in one or -both sides, more frequently in the bottom. They were used as mullers -or pestles; in the latter, either the side or the edge may have been -the pounding surface. The line between these implements and the -cylindrical, dome-topped pestles can not be drawn (see figure 91). - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 2| | | - |Southwestern Wisconsin | 2| | 1| 1| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | - |Crittenden county, Arkansas | 1| | | | - |Jackson county, North Carolina| 1| | | | - |Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | 2| 1| 2| 8| - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Quartz. - C = Sandstone. - D = Granite. - -_P._ Sides flat; edge convex; same size and use as last. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Tennessee | | 1 | 1 | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | 5 | | - |Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1 | - |Madison county, Alabama | | | 1 | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Quartz. - C = Sandstone. - D = Granite. - -_Q._ From southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia there are -many disk-shape fragments of pottery, small, thin, and coarse, with -the edges roughly chipped; and from northeastern Kentucky there are -similar pieces, except that they have been fashioned from fragments of -limestone and sandstone. These specimens are illustrated by figure 108 -(pottery, from a mound in Bartow county, Georgia). - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Discoidal pottery fragment.] - - -SPUDS. - -It has been a puzzle to archeologists to assign to any class the -peculiar stones called “spuds.” They are usually of a comparatively -soft material, carefully worked and polished, and bear no marks of -rough usage. On the other hand, they seem too large for ornament. -Perhaps their office may have been in some ceremony or game. Something -similar in form seems to be denoted in the following extracts: - -Col. James Smith[81] says, speaking of the Indians of western -Pennsylvania, that as soon as the elm bark will strip in spring, the -squaws, after finding a tree that will do, cut it down, and with a -crooked stick, broad and sharp at the end, take the bark off the tree, -and of this bark make vessels. The Twana Indians, who formerly lived at -the south end of Hoods canal, Washington, in barking logs use a heavy -iron implement about 3 feet long, widened and sharpened at the end;[82] -and the tanbark workers of our day use an instrument of somewhat -similar form. - -The ordinary spud is too weak to endure such usage, though it is -claimed by old people living in the Shenandoah valley, Virginia, that -in the last century the Indians in that locality used an implement of -this pattern for stripping the bark from trees. The implement may have -been used in dressing hides, the hole being for attachment of a handle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Spud.] - -A celt of argillite, highly polished, from Loudon county, Tennessee, of -the pattern shown in figure 64, has a neatly drilled cylindrical hole -about a third of the way from the top; but such cases are unusual. The -spuds may be divided into three general classes, as follows: - -_A._ Blade circular in outline, including 180 degrees or more, or -semielliptical with either axis transverse; sides of stem straight or -slightly curved, parallel or slightly tapering to top, which is either -straight or slightly rounded; shoulder nearly at right angles to stem, -with sharp or rounded corners or sometimes barbed; stem and blade not -differing greatly in length. The type of the class, presented in figure -109, is of clay slate, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee. The -other six specimens in the collection were distributed as shown in the -table. - - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Western North Carolina | 1| 1| | | 1| - |Monroe county, Tennessee | | | 1| 1| | - |Phillips county, Arkansas | | | | | 1| - |Pulaski county, Arkansas | | | | | 1| - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Green slate. - B = Mica-schist. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Clay slate. - E = Quartzite. - -_B._ Lower part of the blade a half circle or less; top square or -slightly rounded; stem rapidly widening, with increasing curve to the -blade, making an angle with it; stem and blade nearly the same length. -A specimen of green slate, from Mississippi county, Arkansas, is -illustrated in figure 110. Another, of compact quartzite, comes from -Loudon county, Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Spud.] - -_C._ Handle or stem round; very much longer than the blade, which -is semicircular or semielliptical, with square or barbed shoulders. -Illustrated in figure 111 (probably of chloritic slate, from Prairie -county, Arkansas). - - -PLUMMETS. - -The specimens known as plummets vary considerably in form, size, and -degree of finish, indicating diversity of purpose, and different -writers have assigned to them various uses. - -According to Abbott, one of these relics was found at Salem, in a -mortar.[83] Stevens says, quoting from Schoolcraft, that the Pennacook -Indians used sinkers very much like a plummet in shape.[84] In -Florida very rough plummets with deep grooves are found in the shell -mounds, which were no doubt used as sinkers. The Indians of southern -California use them as medicine stones to bring rain; the Eskimo use -similar stones as sinkers, but have them perforated at the end. The -larger objects of this form may have been used as pestles.[85] They -might be made very efficient in twisting thread, as they revolve for a -considerable time when set in motion. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Spud.] - -The general form is ovoid, sometimes quite slender, sometimes almost -round; the ends may be either blunt or pointed. They may be grooved -near the middle or near either the larger or smaller end. Some have two -grooves, some are only partially grooved, while others have the groove -extending lengthwise. There are forms that differ somewhat from this -description, but such are rare. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Plummet, grooved near one end.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Plummet, double-grooved.] - -Many small and otherwise unworked waterworn pebbles and pieces of -steatite pots from southeastern Tennessee and from Montgomery county, -North Carolina, have grooves near the middle or near one end; they were -probably applied to some of the uses for which plummets were intended. - -The plummets in the Bureau collection may be grouped as follows: - -_A._ Grooved near smaller end. The types are illustrated in figure -112 (sandy limestone, from a mound in Catahoula parish, Louisiana), -and figure 113 (hematite, double grooved, with notches cut in various -places, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). Other specimens -are, one from Arkansas county, Arkansas, of sandstone, and one each -from Brown and Randolph counties, Illinois, both of hematite. - -_B._ Grooved near larger end. A good example, of hematite, is from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, with a second groove partially around -the middle. - -_C._ Grooved near the middle. The class is represented by a beautiful -specimen (figure 114) of hematite, with the groove much polished and -irregular, and a deep notch cut in one end, from Ross county, Ohio. -Another specimen, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is a double -conical implement of hematite, elliptical in section with both ends -ground off on flatter sides only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Plummet, grooved near middle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Plummet, grooved lengthwise.] - -_D._ Grooved lengthwise. This class includes a plummet of quartzite, -from Yellowstone park (figure 115), and another of hematite, much -shorter than the Yellowstone specimen and with blunt ends, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Plummet, grooveless, perforated.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Plummet, double cone in shape.] - -_E._ Grooveless. A good specimen (figure 116) is of quartz and mica, -elliptical in section, pointed at ends with one end perforated, from -Yellowstone park; another, from Randolph county, Illinois, of hematite, -rough, perhaps unfinished. - -_F._ Double cone, with one end ground off flat and hollowed out. The -type (figure 117) is of granite, one of three from Savannah, Georgia. - -_G._ Top flattened and hollowed out; sides incurving to the middle; -lower half a hemisphere. The class is represented by figure 118 -(quartzite, from Randolph county, Illinois), and figure 119 (sandstone, -from Adams county, Ohio). From Kanawha valley there is one of hematite, -similar in form to the last. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Plummet.] - -_H._ Ovoid, with the smaller end ground off flat.[86] A good specimen -of this class (figure 120) is of magnetite, from Caldwell county, North -Carolina. From Savannah, Georgia, there are two of sandstone, both -smaller than the type and rough; from Kanawha valley there is one of -quartzite, nearly half ground away, leaving almost a hemisphere; and -from eastern Tennessee there are one of magnetite and one of quartzite, -the latter nearly round. - -_I._ Cylindrical. A unique specimen, from a mound in Loudon county, -Tennessee, is illustrated in figure 121. It is of sandstone; a short -cylinder with incurved sides, each end terminating in a blunt cone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Plummet.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Plummet, end ground flat.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Plummet.] - -Figure 122 represents a piece of smoothly dressed steatite from Desha -county, Arkansas, with a two-thirds round section, the ends rounded, -with a groove near one end, which may be classed with the plummets. -There are pieces of sandstone from the same locality which connect -this pattern with the simpler “boat-form” stones, except that the flat -side is ground smooth instead of being hollowed. This is only one of -numerous examples where the shapes of implements whose “typical forms” -seem utterly dissimilar merge into one another so gradually that no -line of demarkation can be drawn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Plummet, cylindrical.] - - -CONES. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Cone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Cone.] - -The relics known as “cones” have the base flat and the side curving -slightly; usually the curve extends regularly over the top, but -sometimes the apex is rubbed off flat. The conic surface may form -an angle with the base, or the line of junction may be rounded into -a curve. They vary considerably in thickness, some being nearly -flat, others having a height equal to the diameter of the base. One -of steatite from Savannah, as also one of sandstone from Kanawha -valley, has a slight pit or depression on the flat side. Among the -best examples are one (figure 123) of steatite from Bradley county, -Tennessee, and another (figure 124) of hematite from Loudon county, in -the same state; one (figure 125) of compact quartzite from a mound in -Ogle county, Illinois, and a fourth specimen (figure 126) of granite -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. The distribution is as follows: - -FIG. 125.--Cone. - -FIG. 126.--Cone. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 3 | 4 | | | | - |Ogle county, Illinois | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | | | - |Haywood county, North Carolina| | 1 | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Hematite. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Granite. - E = Sandstone. - - -HEMISPHERES. - -Hemispheric stones, like the cones, can receive a name only from the -form and not from any known or imagined use to which they could have -been applied. - -All such specimens in the collection, except one, are from Kanawha -valley, and of hematite; many if not most of them have been ground -down from the nodule, and were probably paint stones originally; at -least, the material rubbed from them was used as paint while the maker -had their final form in view. One, however, has been pecked into shape -and is entirely without polish. In all, the base is flat and varies -in outline from almost a circle to a narrow ellipse. A section of the -stone parallel to either axis of the base varies from a little more -to a little less than a semicircle. Typical forms, both from Bracken -county, Kentucky, are illustrated in figure 127. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Hemispheres.] - -The specimen, illustrated in figure 128 (yellow quartz, from a mound -in Kanawha valley) is intermediate between cones and hemispheres. -The sides are polished, while the flat bottom and rounded top are -roughened. As it has faint red stains, it may have been used as a -paint-muller. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Hemisphere.] - - -PAINT STONES. - -The articles known as paint stones scarcely come under the head -of implements. Some of the hematite pieces are incipient celts, -hemispheres, or cones; but most of them were used merely to furnish -paint, at any rate until rubbed down quite small. They are of every -degree of firmness, some being as brittle as dry clay, others like -iron. Most pieces in the collection are from Kanawha valley, but others -are from southeastern Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, and Caldwell -county, North Carolina. From the last-named section, as well as from -Chester county, South Carolina, and McMinn county, Tennessee, come -pieces of graphite more or less rubbed; and one has been sent in from -Elmore county, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Paint stone.] - -The specimen illustrated in figure 129, from a mound, is a good example -of the manner in which the harder hematite was ground. - - -CEREMONIAL STONES. - -FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES. - -The so-called “ceremonial stones” are variously subdivided and named by -different writers. They are supposed to have been devoted to religious, -superstitious, medical, emblematic, or ceremonial purposes; to be -badges of authority, insignia of rank, tokens of valorous deeds, or -perhaps some sort of heraldic device; in short, the uses to which they -might, in their different forms, be assigned, are limited only by the -imagination. - -According to Nilsson the ancient Scandinavians wore “victory stones” -suspended around their necks,[87] and the Eskimo wear charms and -amulets to bring success in fishing and hunting.[88] Adair (1775) -says that the American Archi-magus wore a breastplate made of a white -conch-shell, with two holes bored in the middle of it, through which -he put the ends of an otter-skin strap and fastened a buck-horn button -to the outside of each.[89] An explanation of the purpose of many of -the smaller perforated stones also may be found in Nilsson’s remark[90] -that the small ovoid or ellipsoid ones were used as buttons; a string -being tied to the robe at one end, run through the hole and tied in a -knot. - -The various Indians of Guiana in their leisure hours often fashion -highly ornamental weapons and implements which they never use except -ceremonially, but keep proudly at home for show.[91] - -So, too, the Yurok and Hupa Indians of California, as well as some -of the tribes of Oregon, have very large spearheads or knives, which -are not designed for use, but only to be produced on the occasion of -a great dance. The larger weapons are wrapped in skin to protect the -hand; the smaller ones are glued to a handle. Some are said to be 15 -inches long.[92] The Oregon Indians believed the possession of a large -obsidian knife brought long life and prosperity to the tribe owning -it.[93] - -Some of the wild tribes of the interior have something which they -regard as the Jews did the Ark of the Covenant. Sometimes it is known; -again it is kept secret. The Cheyenne had a bundle of arrows; the Ute -a little stone image, and the Osage a similar stone.[94] The Kiowa had -a carved wooden image, representing a human face; the Ute captured it, -and the Kiowa offered very great rewards for its return; but the Ute, -believing the Kiowa powerless to harm them so long as it was retained, -refused to give it up.[95] - -The North Carolina Indians, when they went to war, carried with -them their idol, of which they told incredible stories and asked -counsel;[96] and as a token of rank or authority, the Virginia Indians -suspended on their breasts, by a string of beads about their neck, a -square plate of copper.[97] These were worn as badges of authority. -The native tribes, from our first acquaintance with them, evinced a -fondness for insignia of this kind.[98] - -Simply for convenience the ceremonial stones in the Bureau collection -will here be divided into two general classes. The first, comprising -those pierced through the shortest diameter, will be called gorgets, -which name, like that of celt, has no particular meaning, but is in -common use. The second class will comprise all others, which will have -some name that may or may not be suitable to their form, but by which -they are usually called. In this class are included boat-shape stones, -banner stones, picks, spool-shape ornaments, and bird-shape stones, as -well as engraved tablets or stones.[99] - - -GORGETS. - -The relics commonly called gorgets have been found in Europe; they may -be convex on one side, concave on the other, and are supposed to be -for bracers.[100] It is said that the Miami Indians wore similar plates -of stone to protect their wrists from the bowstring.[101] Herndon and -Gibbon remark that a gold ornament in shape like a gorget, but not -pierced, is worn on the forehead by some of the Amazon Indians.[102] -According to Schoolcraft the so-called gorgets were sometimes used as -twine-twisters;[103] but Abbott holds that while some may have been -twine-twisters, or may have been used for condensing sinews or evening -bowstrings (that is, reducing the strings to a uniform diameter), most -were simply ornaments, as they are generally found on the breast of -a buried body.[104] Stevens is even more conservative, holding that -they were neither twine-twisters nor devices for condensing sinews or -evening bowstrings, as they show no marks of wear in the holes.[105] - -Some writers suppose the gorgets to have been shuttles; but this -supposition can hardly be entertained, although it is true, according -to Chase, that the Oregon Indians passed thread with a curved bone -needle.[106] As twine-twisters they would be about as awkward as -anything that could be devised. As to evening bowstrings, it would seem -that if a string were too large in places to pass through a hole it -could not be pulled through; pounding and rolling the wet string with -a smooth stone, or some such means, would be the remedy. The bracer -theory is plausible; but no one seems ever to have seen a gorget used -for this purpose. - -Few of the gorgets in the Bureau collection show such marks of wear -around the edges of the hole as would be made by a cord; but the -majority are thus worn at the middle, where the hole is smallest. Some -specimens among every lot are not perforated, or only partially so; -the drilling seems to have been the last stage of the work. The hole -is almost always drilled from both sides, and the few in which it goes -entirely through from one side would probably have had it enlarged -later from the other. A number are fragments of larger gorgets, the -pieces having been redrilled. - -Some of the specimens have various notches and incised lines, the -latter being sometimes in tolerably regular order; but there is not the -slightest indication that these marks had any meaning or were intended -for any other purpose than to add to the ornamental appearance of the -stone. - -If they were to be worn at the belt or on any part of the dress they -could easily have been fastened by a knotted string, or if the wearer -desired he could have an ornamental button of some kind. If suspended -around the neck, in order to make them lie flat against the breast they -probably had a short cord passed through the perforation and tied -above the top of the object, the suspending cord being passed through -the loop thus formed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Gorget.] - -The principal division is into group _A_ with one hole and group _B_ -with two holes, though in many cases this forms the only difference -between two specimens. - -_A._ General outline rectangular, or perhaps slightly elliptical, -sometimes with one end somewhat narrower than the other, or with one -end rounded off, or with the corners slightly rounded. Perforation -commonly near one end. The form is represented by the specimen with two -perforations illustrated in figure 133, which otherwise fully answers -the description. The argillite specimens have the broader ends striated -as though used for rubbing or scraping, but in other respects conform -to those of other materials. The materials are generally the softer -rocks, as shown in the accompanying table: - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 2 | 3 | 2 | | 3 | - |Wilkes county, North Carolina| | | | 1 | | - |Knox county, Ohio | | 1 | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | 7 | 2 | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - C = Sandstone. - D = Schist. - E = Argillite. - -A related type is rectangular or with incurved sides (forming either a -regular or broken curve) and rounded ends, and differs in having the -perforation near the center. The same pattern sometimes has two holes. -It is illustrated in figure 130 (striped slate, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia). There are also from the same place one each of -slate, cannel coal, and clay slate, and from eastern Tennessee one each -of slate, shale, and clay slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Gorget(?).] - -There are a number of small pebbles, thin and flat, with a hole -drilled near the edge, from southeastern Tennessee, North Carolina, -and southeastern Arkansas. One of these, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina, is of banded slate; the others are of clay slate or -sandstone. Two of them have straight and zigzag lines on both faces, -and notches around the edge. - -Allied to these are a number of pieces of flat stone from southeastern -Tennessee, Kanawha valley, and North Carolina, with the faces partially -rubbed down smooth, the edges being untouched. They are of slate, talc, -or argillite. - -From southeastern Tennessee and North Carolina there are several -pieces of steatite, which may have been for sinkers. Some have a hole -near one end, others a hole at each end, while still others are not -perforated. All have been worked over the entire surface, and some of -them are well polished. One of these is represented in figure 131. - -_B._ Gorgets with two holes. Of these there are several subdivisions, -differing more or less widely in form. They are as follows: - -1. Thick, with both the sides and the ends incurved or reel-shape; -faces flat or slightly convex. This form is represented by the specimen -shown in figure 132, from a mound, Knox county, Ohio. There is another -from the same place, a third from Kanawha valley, and a fourth from -Butler county, Ohio; all of green slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Gorget, reel-shape.] - -2. Rectangular, or with sides or ends, or both, slightly curved, either -convex or concave; faces flat. Shown in figure 133 (green slate, from a -grave in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Nicholas county, Kentucky, | | 1| | | | | - | with ends V-shaped | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 11| 3| 3| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 6| 1| 1| 1| | | - |Ogle county, Illinois | 1| | | | | | - |Forsyth county, Georgia | | | | | | 1 | - |Haywood county, N.C. | | | | | 1| | - |Davidson county, N.C. | | | | | | 1 | - |Chautauqua county, N.Y. | 1| | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Slate. - B = Limestone. - C = Sandstone. - D = Shale. - E = Argillite. - F = Fine quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Gorget.] - -3. Widest at middle, with single or double curve from end to end; very -thin; both sides flat. - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1 | 4 | | - |Davidson county, North Carolina | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 1 | - |Eastern Tennessee | 5 | | 1 | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Slate. - B = Sandstone. - C = Schist. - -4. Same outline but thicker; one face flat, the other convex. -Represented by figure 134 (shale, from Jackson county, Illinois). The -distribution of the form is as follows: - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 2| | 3| 1| 1| | - |Haywood county, North Carolina | | | 1| 2| | | | - |Davidson county, North Carolina| | 1| | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | | | | - |Jackson county, Illinois | | | | | | | 1| - |Desha county, Arkansas | 1| | | 1| | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - A = Sandstone. - B = Slate. - C = Schist. - D = Steatite. - E = Talc. - F = Argillite. - G = Shale. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Gorget.] - -5. Same outline, but quite thick, approaching the “boat-shape” stones -in form. In some the flat side is slightly hollowed out. A majority of -them are not perforated. The type (figure 135) is of sandstone, from a -mound at Adelphi, Ohio. - -There are also, from Butler county, Ohio, Kanawha valley, West -Virginia, and Savannah, Georgia, one each of slate; from Ross county, -Ohio, two, and from Kanawha valley, and Cocke county, Tennessee, one -each, all of sandstone. There are two (of sandstone and slate) from -Kanawha valley, which differ from the others in having the sides -parallel, giving them a semicylindrical form. - -The pattern of the specimen illustrated in figure 136 (striped slate, -from Butler county, Ohio, of which a number have been found in -that state), may be classed between the gorgets and the boat-shape -stones. The shorter end of the object has, sometimes, a projection -or enlargement at the top, apparently for suspension, although no -perforated examples have been found. - - -BANNER STONES. - -Under the head of “banner stones” are placed ornaments having the -ends at right angles to the perforation. The hole is drilled in a -midrib, from which the faces slope by either straight or curved lines -to the edges. The two halves of the stone are symmetrical. In most -specimens one face is flatter than the other, even plane in some cases. -Some specimens are finished to a high polish, before the hole is -started; others have the hole completed with the exterior more or less -unfinished. The specimens in the Bureau collection may be classified as -follows: - -_A._ Rectangular or trapezoidal, with sides and ends sometimes -slightly curved inward or outward. - -_B._ Reel-shape. - -_C._ Crescentic. - -_D._ Butterfly pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--Gorget, boat-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Gorget resembling boat-shape stone.] - -The last three varieties may be considered as only modifications of the -simple rectangular banner stones. By rounding off the corners of the -articles or dressing them to sharp points, by cutting away portions -from the sides or by trimming away the central portions at either -or both ends of the perforations, all these different forms may be -produced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Banner stone.] - -_A._ A typical specimen is illustrated in figure 137. It is of slate, -and was taken from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Another -good example, shown in figure 138, is of sandy slate, from a grave in -Monroe county, Tennessee. The geographic range of this type is wide, -though the objects are not abundant. - - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1| 1| | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2| | | | - |Hancock county, Illinois | 1| | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| 3| | 1| 1| | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | 2| 1| 1| 1| - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Steatite. - C = Slate. - D = Sandstone. - E = Compact quartzite. - F = Diorite. - -_B._ The reel-shape banner stones are somewhat variable, but are fairly -illustrated in figure 139, representing a specimen of argillite from -Sevier county, Tennessee. - -A related form has the middle cut from one end, leaving two horn-like -projections extending parallel with the hole. An example of this form, -shown in figure 140, is of banded slate, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Banner stone, reel-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Banner stone, with horn-like projections.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Banner stone, crescent-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--Banner stone, crescent-shape] - -_C._ The crescentic banner stones might better be termed “semilunar,” -since most of them are flat at one end and curved at the other. -Occasionally one has both ends curved and parallel, the sides also -slightly curved, making the article reniform. Others have the ends -straight and parallel, with the sides curved or like the zone of a -circle. Two have a midrib for the hole, with the sides dressed down -quite thin, as with the butterfly gorgets. All were finished in form -before the drilling was done, though some had not received their -final polish. The type is illustrated in figures 141 (steatite, -from northwestern North Carolina), 142 (pagodite, from Rhea county, -Tennessee), and 143 (sandstone, from Jefferson county, Tennessee). The -last form is sometimes called a perforated ax, but the material and -fragile make exclude it from every class except the ceremonial stones. - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | - |Western North Carolina | 2 | | | | 1 | | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | 2 | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 1 | | | 2 | | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - C = Granite. - D = Reddle. - E = Pagodite. - F = Talc. - -_D._ The “butterfly” gorgets are so named from their resemblance to a -butterfly with expanded wings. The sides or wings are usually quite -thin, either semicircular or like a spherical triangle in outline. The -perforated mid-rib is shorter than the wings and carefully worked. -A good example, shown in figure 144, is of ferruginous quartz from -Monongahela, Pennsylvania, and that illustrated in figure 145 is of -banded slate from Kanawha valley. There is also one of the latter -material from Lewis county, Kentucky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Banner stone, crescent-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Butterfly banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Butterfly banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Banner stone.] - -An aberrant form is elliptical in section at the middle, round or -nearly so at the ends, the sides expanding rapidly from end to middle -by double curves. It is represented by figure 146 (ferruginous quartz, -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia), and by a specimen of quartzite -from Union county, Mississippi. - - -BOAT-SHAPE STONES. - -There are two types of relics, perhaps ceremonial, for which no use has -been determined, and which are named from their general resemblance to -the form of a boat. They are as follows:[107] - -_A._ With flat face more or less hollowed, sides triangular and -parallel. A number are not perforated. The type is shown in figure 147 -(striped slate, from Davidson county, North Carolina). - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Davidson county, North Carolina | | 1| | | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | 1| | 2| 1| | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | | | 1| | 1| 1| - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Compact quartzite. - B = Slate. - C = Sandstone. - D = Porphyry. - E = Barite. - F = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Boat-shape stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Boat-shape stone.] - -_B._ Coming to a point at each end; flat side, deeply hollowed; -perforations near the ends, with a groove between them in which the -suspending cord rested. Some have a flattened projection in which the -groove is made. The type (figure 148) is of steatite, from a grave in -Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is as follows: - - +------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +------------------------+---+---+ - |Central North Carolina | 3| | - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | | 1| - +------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - - -PICKS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Pendant.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Pick.] - -The relics known as picks from their form and not at all from their -function vary considerably in size. Not all are perforated. A good -example, shown in figure 150, is of striped slate, from Knox county, -Ohio. There are also in the collection, from Union county, Mississippi, -one specimen of greenstone; from Jackson county, North Carolina, one of -slate, and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, one each of steatite -and slate. The last named is the half of a larger one that was broken -at the part drilled, and has had a hole drilled near the larger end of -this fragment, which has not been reworked. - - -SPOOL-SHAPE ORNAMENTS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Spool-shape ornament.] - -Relics of spool shape, probably ornamental rather than industrially -useful, are not uncommon in copper, though very rare in stone. The -specimen shown in figure 151 is of sandstone, from Jackson county, -Arkansas. There are also, from Prairie and Lonoke counties, one each of -sandstone, and from Jackson county two of the same material; from Clark -county there is one of pinkish slate, with the stem drilled between and -parallel to the faces, the others with stems drilled lengthwise. - - -BIRD-SHAPE STONES. - -Stone relics of bird form are quite common north of the Ohio river, -but are exceedingly rare south of that stream. A good example, shown -in figure 152, is of granite, from Vernon county, Wisconsin, and the -collection embraces another specimen, of sandstone, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Bird-shape stone.] - -According to Gillman, bird-shape stones were worn on the head by the -Indian women, but only after marriage.[108] Abbott[109] quotes Col. -Charles Whittlesey to the effect that they were worn by Indian women -to denote pregnancy, and from William Penn that when squaws were ready -to marry they wore something on their heads to indicate the fact. -Jones[110] quotes from De Bry that the conjurers among the Virginia -Indians wore a small, black bird above one of their ears as a badge of -their office. - - -SHAFT RUBBERS. - -The shaft of an arrow is straightened by wetting and immersing it in -hot sand and ashes, and bringing into shape by the hand and eye. To -reduce the short crooks and knobs it is drawn between two rough grit -stones, each of which has a slight groove in it; coarse sand is also -used to increase the friction.[111] - -Again, a rock has a groove cut into it as wide as the shaft and two or -three times as deep. Into this the crooked part of the shaft is forced, -and by heating or steaming becomes flexible and can be easily made -straight, which shape it will retain when dry.[112] - -A somewhat different device for the same purpose appears in the Bureau -collection. It is illustrated in figure 153 (of fine sandstone); there -was another part to correspond with that shown. The specimen is from -Monongahela, Pennsylvania. - - -TUBES. - -As the use of stone tubes by the Indians has given rise to considerable -discussion, the following references to the various ways in which they -have been employed may help to settle it. - -Schoolcraft observed that the Dakota Indians used a horn tube in -bleeding; one end was set over the cut, and the other vigorously -sucked.[113] Powers says that the Klamath Indians use tubes for -smoking,[114] while H. H. Bancroft says that the Acaxees of Mexico -employ “blowing through a hollow tube” for the cure of disease,[115] -and also that the Indians of southern California inhale smoke of -certain herbs through a tube to produce intoxication.[116] According -to C. C. Jones the Florida and Virginia Indians used reeds in treating -diseases by sucking or blowing through them, and also used them in -cauterizing; and he observes that the Indians of Lower California -employed similar processes, using stone tubes[117] instead of reeds. -Hoffman illustrates the removal of disease through the agency of a tube -of bone by a Jĕs´sakīd´ or medicine-man of the Ojibwa.[118] Read calls -attention to the fact that the old Spanish writers describe a forked -wooden tube, the prongs being inserted in the nostrils, while the other -end was held over smoldering herbs, and suggests that the Indians may -have used stone tubes in the same way.[119] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Shaft rubber.] - -The Indian mode of inhaling smoke would produce the same result, -whether drawn through the mouth or into the nostrils. - -The use of stone tubes for astronomical purposes, which has been -discovered by some imaginative writers, is, of course, absurd; -nevertheless they are useful in viewing distant objects on a bright -day, especially when looking toward the sun. - -Nearly all of the tubes made of soft material with tapering perforation -seem to have been gouged rather than drilled. Schumacher observes that -the California Indians drilled their tubes from both ends and enlarged -the hole from one end by scraping, the mouthpiece being made of a bird -bone stuck on with asphaltum.[120] - -There are five classes of stone tubes in the collection of the Bureau, -as follows: - -_A._ One end flattened and expanding into a wing on either side. -This class is illustrated by figure 154 (from Kanawha valley, West -Virginia). The corners of this specimen have been trimmed off; the -typical form is indicated by the dotted lines. There are also from the -same locality one of quartzite, and from Ross county, Ohio, one of -sandstone. - -_B._ Conical; the bore more tapering than the exterior. Represented by -the specimen shown in figure 155, of sandstone, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Sevier county, Tennessee | 1| | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | 1| | | - |Western North Carolina | | 1| 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | 1| - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Steatite. - C = Slate. - D = Clay slate. - -_C._ Hour-glass shape, usually but not always with a narrow ring or -projection around the smallest part. Exterior with gently curving -outlines; the perforation is usually in the form of a double cone, with -the points at the smallest part of the tube, which may or may not be -midway between the ends. A good specimen, illustrated in figure 156, is -of steatite, from Sevier county, Tennessee. - -_D._ Of nearly uniform diameter inside and out; section circular, -elliptical, or flattened on one side. This form is exemplified by -figure 157, a specimen from North Carolina. There are also one each -from Caldwell, Haywood, and Montgomery counties, North Carolina, all of -slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Tube, one end flattened.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Tube, conical.] - -_E._ Round or elliptical in section, ¾ to 2½ inches long; probably -beads. The collection includes specimens from Bradley county, -Tennessee, of steatite; from Savannah, Georgia, of ferruginous -sandstone; and from Union county, Mississippi, of jasper. - - -PIPES. - -So much has been written concerning pipes that few references seem -necessary, and none will be given except from Col. R. I. Dodge, who, -after an experience of many years among the Plains Indians, says -that the latter have different pipes for different occasions, as the -medicine pipe, peace pipe, council pipe, and a pipe for common use. -Each is sacred to its own purpose.[121] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Tube, hour-glass form.] - -In an article so highly prized by its owner, great pains would be -expended to give an ornamental appearance to one which would be used -on important ceremonial occasions; and it would be carved or worked in -a manner gratifying to its maker or the one for whom it was intended. -This fact, and the statement quoted above, will explain the great -variety in form from a limited area. Still, in some sections of the -country there are certain types that prevail, and may be in some cases -peculiar to these localities; such, for instance, are the long stemmed -pipes from western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. - -In many pipes of soft stone the bowl is gouged out instead of drilled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Tube, cylindrical.] - -The pipes in the Bureau collection embrace the following classes: - -_A._ Stem with an elliptical or somewhat triangular section; the bowl -near one end, leaving a projection in front; stem hole in long end. The -form is shown in figure 158. From Caldwell county, North Carolina there -are two similar pipes of steatite. Another, from Preston county, West -Virginia, differs only in having the stem hole in the short end. - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Pipe, flat base.] - -_B._ Same form of stem; no projection in front, the bottom of the -stem curving up gradually into the front of the bowl. This type is -represented by figure 159 (of steatite, from a mound in Loudon county, -Tennessee). There are also, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, an -example of talcose slate, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, one -of steatite. - -_C._ Stem having a midrib in which the hole is bored. One of steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina, has a prow; the others have -not. Another of steatite from Loudon county, Tennessee, has a slender -projection below the bowl, as if for a handle. The axis of the -bowl and that of the stem meet at any angle between 100° and 170°. -Figure 160 represents a typical specimen, of steatite, from a mound -in Sullivan county, Tennessee. There are also, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina, and Kanawha and Preston counties, West Virginia, one -each, and from Sullivan county, Tennessee, two, all of steatite; and -there is an example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of material not -identified. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Pipe.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Pipe.] - -_D._ With bowls and stems either round or square; very large. A good -example (figure 161) is of red sandstone, from southeastern Missouri; -it is the only pipe in the entire collection of the Bureau on which is -shown any attempt at ornamentation. From Jefferson county, Tennessee, -and Savannah, Georgia, there are one each, of steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Pipe, ornamented.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Pipe.] - -_E._ Cylindrical bowl, with a square-edged groove around it near the -middle, below which the bottom has a somewhat celt like form, with stem -hole in one side. A small hole is drilled near the edge at the bottom, -probably for the purpose of suspending feathers or other ornaments. The -type is represented by figure 162 (of limestone, from Crawford county, -Wisconsin). Pipes of the same form are found also in central Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--Pipe, long-stemmed.] - -_F._ Round stem from one-half inch to 10 inches long; bowl at extreme -end, set on at various angles from nearly a right angle to almost a -straight line. Good examples are illustrated in figure 163 (steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina) and 164 (also of steatite, from -a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee). The other specimens in the -collection are distributed as shown in the table: - - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 4| 7| - |Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 22| - |Chester county, South Carolina | | 1| - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--Pipe, short-stemmed.] - -_G._ Same form of stem, short, with flange around the top of the -bowl. Represented by one of sandstone, from a mound in Monroe county, -Tennessee (figure 165), and three of sandstone and two of marble from -eastern Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--Pipe.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Pipe.] - -_H._ Small, stem more or less squared, bowl upright. There are two -examples of this class from Monroe county, Tennessee, each having a -flat projection or ridge on top of the stem, which is perforated for -attachment of ornaments. The type, represented in figure 166, is of -clay slate, from Monroe county, Tennessee. It will appear from the -following table that the distribution of this form is limited: - - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - |District. | A | B | C | - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 1| 2| - |Western North Carolina | | | 3| - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Clay slate. - C = Steatite. - -_I._ Egg-shape bowl, stem hole in the side. One from Bradley county, -Tennessee, of argillaceous limestone, has a hole drilled from end -to end, but no stem hole. It may have been made so intentionally, -or the drilling may have been carried too far and the specimen left -unfinished. The type is of barite, from Sevier county, Tennessee (shown -in figure 167). Another specimen, from McMinn county, Tennessee, is of -argillaceous limestone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--Pipe.] - -_J._ Form like last, with a flange around the top of the bowl. A -typical specimen, shown in figure 168, is of steatite, from Loudon -county, Tennessee. There are, also, from Preston county, West Virginia, -one of sandstone, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, two of -steatite. - -_K._ Bowls egg-shape, but quite long and sometimes rather pointed at -the bottom; stem hole in the side. This class includes the following: -From Savannah, Georgia; Roane county, Tennessee; and Adams county, -Ohio, one each of sandstone; from Holt county, Missouri, one of -micaceous sandstone; from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, one of -indurated red clay, possibly catlinite; and from Caldwell county, North -Carolina, three of steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--Pipe.] - - -CHIPPED STONE ARTICLES. - -MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE. - -The chipped implements in the Bureau collection, are nearly always made -of some form of flint or similar chalcedonic rock, as it is easily -chipped and can be brought to a keen edge or point. Sometimes quartz, -quartzite, argillite, or even a more granular rock is used; but this is -infrequent, and is due to the scarcity of the more desirable material. - -In the spades and hoes first to be considered the flaking seems to have -been by percussion mainly, if not entirely; the same method appears to -have been employed in obtaining flakes from blocks, to work into the -smaller implements. Some of the processes used in making them will be -hereinafter described. - - -SPADES. - -It must be admitted that most Indians depended largely on agriculture -for subsistence; some historical works that represent them as barbarous -hunters, depending entirely on the chase, will, on the same page -perhaps, relate how Virginia and New England pioneers were saved from -starvation by supplies of corn, beans, and pumpkins obtained from the -Indians. This being the case, some method of cultivation was necessary. - -It is not to be inferred that “cultivation” implies all that is now -meant by the term; the Indian seems merely to have worked the hill in -which his corn was planted and not the whole surface of the field, a -shallow hole being scooped out in which the grain was dropped, and as -the stalk became larger the dirt was heaped up around it. The remains -of many “Indian old fields” in various parts of the country show this, -there being no long ridges as in cornfields of the present day, but -only a great number of these detached hills. The great scarcity of -implements suitable for such work argues nothing, for in most parts -of the country stone easily worked and adapted to the purpose is -unobtainable. - -There are a few flint deposits found in southern Illinois in which the -material occurs in nodules that can be made with even less work than a -piece of wood into suitable implements; and in the country which may be -considered as belonging to this archeologic district the flint hoes and -spades are tolerably abundant. In other portions of the country, wood, -the shoulder blades of large animals, and musselshells perforated for -attachment to a handle, were formerly used; the shells are frequently -found, but the other materials have long since disappeared. - -Early observations on the industries of the aborigines are significant. -Thus, according to De Forest, the Connecticut Indians used spades -rudely constructed of wood, or of a large shell fastened to a wooden -handle;[122] and Palmer[123] figures a hoe made of horn, 14 by 5 by -one-fourth inches, in a wooden handle 5 feet long, which is split and -slipped over the smaller end; such, with others of wood and stone, -were used among the Utah Indians before iron was introduced. Dawson -holds that they were probably prepared in large numbers for the -planting time, when the whole tribe mustered to till the fields, and -that when the work was over they were gathered and hidden in some -safe place until the next season.[124] This may have been the case -to some extent, but the specimens found in these hiding places seldom -have marks of use, and it is more probable that they were the property -either of persons living at a distance or of an individual manufacturer -in some particular village, being thus concealed for safe-keeping until -there was a demand for them or, perhaps, to await a convenient time for -transportation. A sedentary tribe would have no more reason for hiding -this than any other kind of property. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Chipped spade with pointed ends.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Chipped spade with rounded ends.] - -The chipped implements known as spades are frequently found buried in -large numbers. Two caches were disclosed by high water in 1884, near -Caseyville, Kentucky, containing, respectively, 57 and 75 specimens -from 6 to 13 inches long. - -The most common form is that having an oval or elliptical outline, with -the ends either coming to a point or rounded. Long use of those having -pointed ends would wear them off until they approached the others in -form; but so many of both patterns show no evidence of use that this -distinction must be considered intentional. The principal varieties are -as follows: - -_A._ Those with pointed ends. Figure 169 represents a typical specimen -of yellow flint, from Union county, Illinois. - - +----------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +----------------------------+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2| - |Southeastern Arkansas | 2| | - |Cheatham county, Tennessee | | 1| - |Union county, Mississippi | 1| | - +----------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow flint. - B = Grey flint. - -_B._ Those with the ends rounded. Represented by figure 170 (yellow -flint, from Union county, Illinois). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2| | | - |Cheatham county, Tennessee | | | 1| | - |Lauderdale county, Tennessee | 1| | | | - |Polk county, Tennessee | | | | | - |Lauderdale county, Alabama | | | | 4| - |Craighead county, Arkansas | 1| | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow flint. - B = Grey flint. - C = Brown flint. - D = Argillite. - -A specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, has had a portion of the edge -broken squarely. The polish over this fractured surface shows that it -was long used after breaking without being rechipped to a sharp edge. -This indicates usage only in loose ground, as it evidently would be -quite difficult to force the square, broken part into a hard soil or -tough sod. - -The specimens from Polk county, Tennessee, are pecked or chipped, -or both, and are quite roughly made. They are neither scratched nor -polished, and may be unfinished implements of some other class, though -agreeing closely with the flint spades in shape and size. - -_C._ A modification of the last form has the upper portion chipped -away along the sides until it is ovoid, with a blunt point, leaving -the lower part a regular curve. An example, shown in figure 171, is of -grayish brown flint, from Scott county, Missouri. There are also one -each from Mississippi county, Missouri, and Hopkins county, Kentucky, -of the same material. - -_D._ Like the above, but much shorter in ratio to the width, and with a -flatter curve. The type, figure 172, is of yellow flint, from a mound -in Obion county, Tennessee. There are also three from Union county, -Illinois, one of them with almost the same dimensions. - -_E._ Semicircular outline, with sides notched for securing the handle, -as in arrowpoints and spearheads. Represented by figure 173, showing a -specimen of gray flint from a mound in Mississippi county, Arkansas. -There are four additional specimens, all from Union county, Illinois. - -_F._ A related form, also notched for attachment of handle. Figure 174 -represents an example of yellow flint, from Poinsett county, Arkansas, -the only one of this shape in the collection. - -From Jackson county, Illinois, there is a series beginning with a small -scraper and a small scraper-like celt, and passing gradually into the -large spades or digging-tools, there being a number of intermediate -forms and sizes. Two specimens, only 6 inches long, have the glazed -surface so characteristic of these implements, which could have been -produced only by long-continued use in digging. - -From a workshop at Mill creek, Union county, Illinois, there are a -large number of pieces in every stage of work. Among them can be made -series of all the different types here given, from the nodule in its -natural state to the completed implement. Near by is a flint deposit -showing extensive aboriginal quarrying. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Chipped spade, ovoid.] - -Dawson,[125] in speaking of these implements, says: “The rudest of all -rude implements, similar to the paleoliths of Europe, were used by the -more settled and civilized agricultural nations.” While the majority of -them are rude, simply because there was no necessity for elaborate work -or fine finish in tools of this class, yet there are many specimens -(as, for example, the one shown in figure 171) which in symmetry and -workmanship will compare favorably with the larger specimens of other -types, due regard being had to the fact that the coarse flint of which -they are usually made does not admit of the most delicate execution. - - -TURTLEBACKS. - -The singular name “turtleback” is suggested instantly on seeing a -specimen of the class so designated by Abbott and others. As commonly -used, it refers to rude or unfinished leaf-shape implements of -any size, which may be found in great abundance almost anywhere. -It is used here, however, to denote more especially the disks or -almond-shaped pieces of flint or chert sometimes found cached in -considerable numbers. - -Perkins[126] records the discovery of such caches in Vermont; an -exceptional case, as they are seldom found outside of the Mississippi -valley. The southern portion of Illinois has furnished more than any -other section; those found there are almost invariably made from -nodules of bluish gray hornstone, the concentric lines being strongly -marked.[127] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Chipped spade.] - -The Bureau has secured a large number from southern Illinois, ranging -from 3½ to 7½ inches in length, some nearly circular, others having a -length nearly twice the breadth. All have secondary chipping around the -edges. Many of the larger ones and most of the smaller have the edges -more or less worn or polished in such manner as would result from use -as knives or scrapers. A typical specimen is shown in figure 175. - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--Chipped spade, showing handle notches.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--Chipped spade.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--Chipped disk, or “turtleback.”] - -Stevens[128] denies in strongest terms that these relics are unfinished -implements, saying it is the worst possible form into which flint -could be chipped for carrying or for future work. On the other hand, -Cheever[129] says the Indians of California usually carry a pouch of -treasures, consisting of unfinished arrowheads or unworked stones, to -be slowly wrought out when they are industriously inclined. Catlin, -too, observed that the Apache sometimes carry bowlders of hornstone a -long distance to obtain material for arrowheads;[130] and according to -im Thurn, the various Indian tribes of Guiana have each their special -manufacture and exchange with other tribes.[131] Tylor says: - - Till lately the Patagonians, when they came on their journeys - to a place where suitable flint or obsidian was to be found, - would load themselves with a supply of lumps to chip into these - primitive currier’s scrapers.[132] - -Both Jewitt[133] and Evans[134] say that stones of this character were -used as sling-stones; but there is no evidence that North American -Indians ever used slings. Speaking of similar stones, Tylor remarks: - - They were used either as knives or scrapers; with the curved - side upward (or out) there would be no danger of cutting a hide - in skinning game, and they could be used to cut up the flesh; - while by putting the pointed end in the handle they could be - used as scrapers.[135] - -The smoothed edge in so many specimens substantiates the last -statement, while the theory that they are unfinished implements finds -support in the fact that nearly all the nodules from which they are -made have an ellipsoid form, and the present shape of the implement -would result from chipping away the useless weathered surface to lessen -the weight. - - -SMALLER CHIPPED IMPLEMENTS. - -MATERIALS AND MODES OF MANUFACTURE. - -In the remaining portion of this paper, which will treat of the -smaller chipped implements, a plan somewhat different from that of the -preceding part will be followed. - -As already stated, these specimens are almost invariably made of some -form of flint; this term including chalcedony, basanite, jasper, chert, -hornstone, and similar rocks. So common is its use that the term -“flints” is gradually being adopted as a name for all the different -classes of arrowheads, knives, drills, etc. The exceptions are not -numerous enough to justify separate classification, so no tables of -material will be used. Further, the great abundance of such relics in -all portions of the country makes useless any allusion to the number -from any particular locality; about the only limitation to their -discovery is the amount of time and care which one chooses to give. - -Before entering on the description, some quotations may be given in -regard to methods of making these chipped implements. - -According to Evans, the Mexican Indians take a piece of obsidian in the -left hand and press it firmly against the point of a small goathorn -held in the right, and by moving it gently in different directions they -chip off small flakes until the arrow is complete;[136] they also -cut a notch in the end of a bone, into which the edge of the flake -is inserted and a chip broken off by a sideways blow.[137] According -to the same author, the Eskimo sometimes set the flake in a piece of -split wood. The arrow is roughly chipped by blows with a hammer, either -direct or with a punch interposed, and is then finished by pressing -off fine chips with a point of antler set in an ivory handle.[138] Not -only leaf-shape barbed arrows, but also ones either with or without -the stem, can be produced by pressure with a point of antler; the -former, however, are the more easily made, and were probably earlier in -use.[139] - -The Plains Indians lay the flat side of a flake of obsidian on a -blanket, or other yielding substance, and with a knife nick off the -edges rapidly. In their primitive state they probably used buckskin -instead of the blankets, and pointed bone or horn instead of the -knife.[140] - -The Apache holds the flake or flint in his left hand, places his punch -at the point where the chip is to be broken off, and it is struck by an -assistant, thus knocking a chip from the under side; the flake is then -turned and the process repeated, until the arrow is complete. The stone -is held in the hand, as it can not be chipped on a hard substance.[141] -A punch observed by Catlin in use by these Indians was a whale tooth -6 or 7 inches long, with one round and two flat sides. The Fuegians, -according to the same authority, use a similar process and make as fine -implements.[142] - -The Eskimo make a spoon-shaped cavity in a log, lay the flake over it, -and press along the margin, first on one side and then on the other, -like setting a saw, until they form two sharp serrated edges. The -working tool is a point of antler firmly bound into a piece of ivory. -The same plan is used by widely separated peoples.[143] - -Nilsson, in chipping out gun flints with a stone hammer, found it -necessary to have the point operated on lie immediately above a point -that rested on the rock “anvil” which he used.[144] - -The Veeard or Wiyot of California used a pair of buck-horn pincers -tied together with a thong at the point; they first hammered out the -arrowhead in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nipped -off one tiny fragment after another.[145] The Klamath cover the hand -with a piece of buckskin to keep it from being cut, and lay a flake -along the ball of the thumb, holding it firmly with the fingers. With a -point of antler from 4 to 6 inches long, they press against the edge, -thus removing scales from the opposite side; they turn the flake around -and over frequently, to preserve symmetry.[146] - -The Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, holds the edge of the -flake against it, and with his stone hammer chips off flakes, finishing -the base first, and gently chipping the whole arrow into shape. Both -obsidian and glass are used.[147] The Shoshoni Indians used the same -process.[148] - -A Pit River Indian has been seen to make a very sharp and piercing -arrow from a piece of quartz, with only a piece of round bone, one end -of which was hemispherical with a small crease in it (as if made by a -thread) one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The arrow was made by pressing -off flakes by main strength, the crease being to prevent the bone from -slipping, and affording no leverage.[149] John Smith (1607) says of the -Powhatan Indian: - - His arrowhead he maketh quickly, with a little bone, of any - splint of stone or glass.[150] - -The Cloud River Indian used two deer prongs, one much smaller than the -other, the points ground to the form of a square, sharp-pointed file. -He had also some pieces of iron wire tied to sticks and ground in the -same manner; these were better than the deer horn, because harder, and -not needing to be sharpened so often. The flake was held firmly in the -left hand, guarded by a piece of buckskin; he pressed off chips with -the larger tool, turning the arrow end-for-end when done on one side, -so as to keep the edge opposite the middle line. The notches for barbs -were worked out in a similar manner with the smaller tool.[151] - -Some of the California Indians prefer agate and obsidian for their -implements, as the close grain admits more careful working. They use a -tool with its working edge shaped like a glazier’s diamond (apparently -a piece of bone or antler with a square-cut notch on the side); the -flake is held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool -is used to chip small fragments.[152] Peale makes similar statements, -and adds that the notches are of different sizes to suit the different -stages of work.[153] - -The Klamath Indians, according to Schumacher, have a slender stick 1½ -feet long, with a piece of sea-lion tooth, or antler, fastened to the -end of it. Holding one end under the arm to steady it, they take a -flake in the left hand, wrapped in a piece of buckskin so as to leave -only the edge exposed, and by pressure with the point of the tool break -off flakes as large as necessary, the last being quite fine, to give -sharp edges to the arrow. The notches are worked out by means of a -point of bone 4 or 5 inches long, without a shaft.[154] Chase gives a -similar account, but says that iron points have now taken the place of -the bone or horn points formerly used.[155] - -It may not be out of place in this connection to give a few quotations -in regard to the length of time required for making an arrowhead. - -According to the Marquis de Nadaillac, the Mexicans could turn out -a hundred flint knives (probably only unworked obsidian flakes) an -hour,[156] while Crook says that the Plains Indians with only a knife -for nicking off the edges, will make from fifty to one hundred arrows -in the same period.[157] Chase found that a Klamath Indian required -five minutes to complete a perfect arrowhead;[158] though Stevens -observes that a Shasta Indian spent an hour in chipping one from a -flake of obsidian,[159] and Lubbock states that the most skillful -Indian workmen can not hope to complete more than a single arrow -in a day’s hard work.[160] Powers also speaks of the aborigines of -California as "using that infinite patience which is characteristic of -the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, upon a single piece;[161] and -Tylor notes “that utter disregard of time that lets the Indian spend a -month in making an arrow.”[162] - -The last two references are probably to the large and finely worked -pieces used for ceremonial or ornamental purposes. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE IMPLEMENTS. - -The only practicable division of the greater part of the smaller flints -is into stemmed and stemless, the former having a prolongation at the -base for firmer attachment to a shaft or handle, the latter being of a -triangular or oval shape. The stemmed implements may be barbed or not, -and the stem either narrower or broader toward the end. - -The name “arrowhead” so commonly applied, fits only the minority of -specimens, as none but the smaller ones could be so used; the larger -are too heavy. The longest stone arrowpoint in the extensive collection -of arrows in the National Museum measures two and five-eighths inches -in length and is narrow and thin. An arrowpoint two inches in length is -seldom seen. The larger specimens were probably knives and spearheads; -but it would be difficult to assign any certain use for a particular -type, the markings on so many indicate usage for which their shape -would seem to render them unsuitable. It is probable that a single -specimen served a variety of purposes. - -Wood, bone, and shell were also used to a considerable extent, in -the manufacture of implements for which flint would seem much better -adapted. Thus for fish spears the southern Indians used canes, -sharp-pointed, barbed, and hardened in the fire,[163] while knives were -formerly made of flint or cane; these are still used when the hunting -knife has been lost.[164] The California Indians had arrows tipped -with hard-pointed wood for common use, and with agate or obsidian for -war.[165] - -The accompanying diagram (figure 176) will render plain the different -terms used in the following descriptions: - -[Illustration: FIG. 176--Diagram, explaining terms. - - KEY: - _a_ Point. - _b_ Edge. - _c_ Face. - _d_ Bevel.[166] - _e_ Blade. - _f_ Tang. - _g_ Stem. - _h_ Base. - _i_ Notch. - _k_ Neck. - _m_ Barb, or shoulder. -] - -The only difference between barb and shoulder is that the barb is -prolonged toward the base. The shoulder is called squared or rounded -according to whether the edge of the implement makes an angle or a -curve where drawn in to form the stem. - -In the stemless specimens the base is the end opposite the point. - -A tapering stem means one narrowing toward the base; straight, one -whose sides are parallel; and expanding, one which is widest at the -base. - - -STEMLESS FLINTS. - -CHARACTERS AND USES. - -The stemless flints are triangular or oval in outline. For convenience -they will be divided into those small enough for arrowpoints (not above -2½ inches long) and those which are too large for such purpose. The -latter reach to the length of 7½ inches. They are chipped to a sharp -edge all around. The ratio of width to length varies from 1:4 to 4:5. - -These objects were mostly for use as knives, scrapers or spearheads. -Some of the thicker ones were spikes for clubs. Abbott[167] mentions -three triangular jasper implements 3 to 4 inches long from graves, -associated with fragments of large bones which showed plainly that -they had been used for clubs, and the Iroquois are known to have used -a club with a sharp-pointed deer-horn about four inches long inserted -in the lower side. Schoolcraft[168] illustrates a pointed stone with -a square section (apparently of the class usually called “picks”), -mounted in a club which is curved at the end to let the spike set in -the end at a right angle to the handle; and Brickell observes that the -North Carolina Indians used clubs or long poles, in the ends of which -were fastened artificially sharpened stones, or horns of animals.[169] -Morgan also notes that among the Iroquois rows of arrow-shaped chert -heads about two feet in extent have been found lying side by side. They -were set in a frame and fastened with thongs, forming a species of -sword.[170] According to Tylor the Mexicans had a similar sword, with -obsidian teeth gummed in holes in a war club,[171] and Bourke observed -at Taos pueblo a similar weapon with iron teeth.[172] But the number of -specimens found mounted indicates that most of them were used as knives -or scrapers. - - -LARGER IMPLEMENTS. - -_A._ With base and edges straight or slightly convex; corners square. -The type illustrated in figure 177 is from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Similar forms come also from eastern Tennessee; central -and western North Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto -valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern and -southwestern Arkansas; northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and Coosa -valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern -and central Kentucky; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--Triangular chipped flint.] - -_B._ Base straight or nearly so; edges parallel most of the length, -curving abruptly to a point; usually with one face less convex than the -other, even quite flat, giving a plano-convex section; medium size. -The specimen shown in figure 178, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, -is representative. Other examples come from eastern Tennessee; central -North Carolina; northwestern Alabama; Kanawha valley; and southwestern -Illinois. - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Chipped flint.] - -_C._ Base straight or nearly so; corners square or slightly rounded; -edges convex, curving gradually and regularly to the point; usually -widest about one-third of the way above the base; varying much in -width, and in length from 6½ inches down to the arrowpoint. A few of -the largest have the edges slightly expanding at their junction with -the base, for firmer attachment to a handle. The type is figure 179 -(from Loudon county, Tennessee). Other specimens are from eastern -Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, -Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; eastern, southern, -and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Arkansas; central and -northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; southwestern -Illinois; and Coosa valley, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--Chipped flint.] - -_D._ Narrow and thick; up to 6 inches long; convex base; edges straight -to the base, where they expand somewhat, giving the implement a bell -shape. The largest specimen in the lot (figure 180) has both faces -polished almost the entire length, a feature absent from all the -others. This example is from Caldwell county, North Carolina. The form -is found also in central and western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, -northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and northeastern Arkansas. Few -of the flints occur in the collection except from the two localities -first mentioned, where they are moderately abundant. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape.] - -_E._ Elliptical outline; some very thin, others resembling celts. -One from Kanawha valley has the projecting facets and ridges on one -face very smooth from use, those on the other being still sharp, as -when first chipped. The one figured has the edge worn smooth entirely -around, seemingly from use as a cutting tool, the ends being most worn. -Represented by figure 181 (from Dane county, Wisconsin). Found also in -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; northeastern -Arkansas; central and western North Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; -Kanawha valley; and South Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Chipped flint, elliptical outline.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline.] - -_F._ With the outline a continuous curve from the point entirely -around, the base being regularly rounded. This is the model of the -pointed oval or leaf-shape flint. Sometimes one face is flatter than -the other, being less worked, or in a few cases the unaltered flat side -of a flake. Usually they are quite symmetrical, but occasionally one -edge is more curved than the other. The type illustrated in figure -182 is from Vernon county, Wisconsin. Other specimens are from western -and central Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, -and central Ohio; southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley; northeastern -Kentucky; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northwestern and -northeastern Georgia, and Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--Chipped flint.] - -_G._ With convex edges and slightly convex base; being a medium between -the triangular and the leaf-shape. Some are quite narrow and thick, -others wide and thin; the former probably clubs or spearheads, the -latter knives. A good example, shown in figure 183, is from Savannah, -Georgia. Others are from central Arkansas; central Ohio; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley; central North Carolina; southern Wisconsin; -northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; northeastern Alabama; and South -Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical -outline.] - -_H._ Pointed at each end; mostly elliptical, though sometimes widest -near one end; from 5 to 12 inches long. Nearly all are thin and -finely worked, with sharp edges. One from Cheatham county, Tennessee, -has a deep notch on each edge about one-third of the way from one -end, this end being somewhat rounded. The type (figure 184) is from -Lonoke county, Arkansas. Other specimens are from central Arkansas, -southwestern Illinois, northern and eastern Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Chipped flint, large, long sharp point.] - -_I._ A similar pattern, but having one end continued into a narrow -point, shown in figure 185, is from Bartow county, Georgia. Another of -the same kind comes from Loudon county, Tennessee. - -_J._ Similar to group _H_, but with the edges straight for more than -half the length, probably to afford a more convenient hold for the -hand. The form is shown in figure 186, representing a specimen from -Mississippi county, Arkansas. Others are from northwestern Georgia, -southwestern Illinois, and northeastern Arkansas. There are a few -similar in method of chipping to those of group _I_, but smaller and -very narrow, from eastern and western Tennessee and northeastern -Arkansas. - -_K._ Double-pointed or lenticular in outline; quite symmetrical; from -2 to 4 inches long; thin and well worked. Represented in northeastern -Arkansas; South Carolina; central and western North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; Scioto valley, and central Ohio; Kanawha valley; and -northwestern Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Chipped flint, large.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Chipped flint.] - -_L._ With straight or concave base; edges diverging by straight or -slightly convex lines for about half the length from the base, then -curving to the point. There is considerable variation in the relative -width of these, as well as the amount of concavity at the base. None -with this outline of the edges has a convex base. From 2 to 6 inches -long. The form is illustrated by figures 187 (from Lawrence county, -Ohio), and 188 (from Blount county, Tennessee). In addition to the -specimens figured, there is material in the collection from Scioto -valley, Ohio; central and western North Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; Brown -county, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa -valley in the same state; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--Chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Chipped flint, with shoulders.] - -_M._ A modification of the last form in which the edge expands just -at the base, forming a point at each corner or shoulder. Illustrated -in figure 189. The specimen figured is from Forsyth county, Georgia. -Others are from northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Wisconsin; and Kanawha valley. - - -SMALLER OBJECTS. - -Small triangular or oval arrowpoints, differing from those previously -described in being too small for any similar uses, few of them being -so much as two inches in length, and varying from that size to not -more than half an inch. Nearly all are very thin, though some of the -narrower ones may have a diamond or thick lenticular section. Some are -very slender, so much so that they are usually classed as perforators; -others are equilateral. Both the base and edges may be straight, -convex, or concave. A few have a shallow notch in each edge just above -the corner; nearly all, however, have both base and edge continuous. - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--Chipped flint, small.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -The groups and subdivisions which have been recognized among the -smaller chipped flint objects in the Bureau collection may be -enumerated as follows: - -_A._ Concave base. The concavity may vary from almost a straight line -to one-third the length of the flint. Usually symmetric, as in figures -190 and 191, though sometimes one tang or barb, if it may be called -such, is longer than the other, as in figure 192. A very few have -beveled or serrated edges. - -1. Convex edges. The type, shown in figure 190, is from Jefferson -county, Tennessee. Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; Union -county, Mississippi; northwestern Georgia, and Bibb county and Savannah -in the same state; central and western North Carolina; Miami and -Scioto valleys and central Ohio; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South -Carolina; and southwestern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--Chipped flint, asymmetric.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--Chipped flint, concave edges.] - -2. Straight edges, as in the specimen illustrated in figure 191, from -Ouachita county, Arkansas. Similar specimens are found in northeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; western and central North Carolina; Kanawha -valley; eastern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern -Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Union county, -Mississippi; and northeastern Kentucky. - -3. Concave edges. This abundant form is illustrated in figures 192 -(Cherokee county, Georgia), 193 (Caldwell county, North Carolina), -and 194 (Washington county, Virginia). Other specimens are from -northwestern Georgia and Savannah; central and western North Carolina; -Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern -Arkansas; South Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, -Alabama. This subdivision of group _A_ is abundant, as well as widely -distributed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -_B._ With straight bases. These are all small, the broad ones being -short and the long ones slender. Most of them are both short and narrow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--Chipped flint, small.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--Chipped flint, short, convex edges.] - -1. Convex edges as in figures 195 (McMinn county, Tennessee) and -196 (Bradley county, Tennessee). The form is widely distributed, -being represented by specimens from eastern Tennessee; northeastern, -southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; -northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha -valley; Union county, Mississippi; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern -Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; and western North Carolina. - -2. Straight edges. Exemplified by the specimen shown in figure 197, -from McMinn county, Tennessee. Found also in eastern Tennessee; -northeastern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, -Mississippi; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern, -southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North -Carolina; Bartow county and Savannah, Georgia; South Carolina, and -northeastern Kentucky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--Chipped flint, concave edges.] - -3. Concave edges, as in figure 198 (from Bledsoe county, Tennessee). -Other examples of this class are from eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, -Ohio; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley, West -Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; western and central North Carolina; -northeastern Alabama; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_C._ Convex bases. Less abundant than the preceding, and the forms -representing it are less variable. Its sub-groups are as follows: - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--Chipped flint, convex base.] - -1. Convex edges. Some of these have a slight reverse curve at the base, -giving a slight barb or shoulder. A few are widest at or near the -middle, with bases somewhat pointed, but most of them are widest at -the junction of the base and edges. They are mostly of the leaf-shaped -type, but quite small. Figure 199 (Mississippi county, Arkansas) is a -good example. Others are from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; -eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; northwestern -Georgia; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois, and Miami valley, -Ohio. - -2. Edges concave or nearly straight. There are very few of this form, -as nearly all with the base convex have the edges also convex. The type -(figure 200) is from Lawrence county, Ohio; others are from Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; and southeastern and southwestern -Arkansas. - -Two exceptional forms, which may be considered modifications of the -triangular, come from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. -The first, which is pentagonal, is shown in figure 201; the second, -a medium between a perforator and a deeply serrated, triangular -arrowpoint, is shown in figure 202. - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--Chipped flint, edges concave.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--Chipped flint, pentagonal.] - -While it is likely that the smaller flints, last described, were -intended for arrows, it can not be stated with confidence whether they -were for use in war or in hunting. It is said that some of the western -Indians used barbless arrows with, long, tapering blades, firmly -attached to the shaft, for hunting, while for war barbed arrows, only -slightly attached, were employed.[173] - -In many arrows with triangular points in the National Museum the sinew -with which the flint is fastened to the shaft is brought over the -corner or shoulder in such a way as to bind the point as firmly as -could be done if it were barbed or stemmed, so that when the shaft is -drawn from a wound the point must come with it. If an arrowhead of this -form were inserted in a shaft, which was then wrapped behind the flint, -the latter would remain in the wound when the shaft was withdrawn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--Chipped flint, narrow and thick.] - -There is no reason for supposing that only the larger points were used -for war purposes; the greater penetrating power of the thin, sharp ones -would seem to fit them especially for such work, and it is probable -that the smaller straight or tapering-stemmed flints (next to be -described) were also utilized for this purpose, as they could be easily -detached. Those with expanding stem may have been used for hunting, as -they could be permanently fastened to the shaft. - - -STEMMED FLINTS. - -The abundant and variable material of this class may roughly be grouped -by form into two divisions, in the first of which the stem is tapering -or straight, while in the second the stem is generally expanding. - - -STRAIGHT OR TAPER STEMS. - -_A._ Square or rounded shoulders; stem concave at base; edges usually -convex, rarely straight or concave. Nearly all are of quartzite or -coarse flint, roughly worked, the one illustrated (figure 203) being -above the average, and are mostly from western North Carolina and the -adjacent portions of South Carolina and Tennessee. All of them exceed -three inches in length. Those from Savannah, Georgia, are usually -much wider relative to the length than the specimens in the Bureau -collection from other localities. - -The specimen figured is from Montgomery county, North Carolina; others -are from western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern -Tennessee; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and northwestern -Georgia and Savannah. - -_B._ Similar to the last, except that the base is straight or convex, -instead of concave. Large size, and nearly all of rough finish; mostly -of argillite or flint, a few of quartzite. Varying considerably in -width, as well as in thickness, some having almost a diamond section, -others wide and thin, the latter generally having the edges worked -quite sharp. Some are made from a large flake which has been dressed -on one side only. One from Montgomery county, North Carolina, has the -end opposite the stem worked round and sharp, similar to the blunt -arrowheads, but its size excludes it from this class. From Savannah -there are several which are chipped very thin, and smoothly finished, -but they are exceptional; some from this locality are very large, -reaching 5 by 3 inches, while others are almost as wide as they are -long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--Chipped flint stemmed, barbless.] - -The specimens of this form are chiefly from western and central North -Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Georgia, -and Savannah; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois; northwestern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; -Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and central Ohio. - -_C._ Of the same general form as the last, but much smaller, and -finely worked. Most seem to be intended for arrowheads. The specimen -illustrated in figure 204 is from Caldwell county, North Carolina; -others are from South Carolina; western and central North Carolina; -Union county, Mississippi; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and -Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Miami valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless.] - -_D._ Convex edges; stem usually tapering with straight base, though it -is noticeable that some are straight with convex base. Resembling the -last in form, but slender; from 1¾ to 4¼ inches long. From western and -central North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and Savannah, -Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--Chipped flint, expanding shoulder.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--Chipped flint, double-curved edges.] - -_E._ Differing from specimen shown in figure 203, in having the edges -expand at the shoulders in a projection or point, and varying more -in size, some being small enough for arrowheads. All from Savannah -(including the example shown in figure 205) are of smoother finish -than those from other sections, and are usually larger, ranging -from 2½ to 4½ inches long. There are some from this locality with -base straight or convex. Found also in western and central North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Coosa -valley and northeastern Alabama; Brown county, Illinois; northeastern, -southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia. - -_F._ Edge having a double curve, being convex toward the point, and -curving outward at the shoulders. Few of them are barbed, though many -have the shoulder much expanded. Base sometimes convex or concave, but -more often straight; in a few it is somewhat pointed. In most of the -smaller specimens the base is notched, but of these none are over 2½ -inches long. Stem tapering or expanding, rarely straight. A few have -the base rubbed smooth and dull, or even polished (this feature appears -in other forms, as noted); it seems to result from use as a knife or -scraper, but the implement as a whole does not appear to be adapted -to such use. None of them are over 3½ inches long, except a few from -Savannah; all from there are wide, but from other places the longer -ones are all narrow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--Chipped flint, double-curved edges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering -stem.] - -The specimens illustrated (figures 206 and 207) are from Madison -county, Alabama, and Kanawha valley, respectively. Others are from -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Catahoula -parish, Louisiana; western and central North Carolina; southwestern -Illinois and Brown county in the same state; South Carolina; -southwestern Arkansas; and Miami valley, Ohio. - -_G._ Convex edges; sharp points; stem always long and tapering; base -somewhat pointed, or outline of whole stem forming a regular curve. -Some slightly barbed, but mostly with only a small shoulder. The -specimens vary much in size, and also in delicacy of workmanship. -Classed by function the group would probably be divided among several. -The example shown in figure 208 is from Jackson county, Illinois. -Others come from southwestern Illinois; eastern Tennessee; South -Carolina; Kanawha valley; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern -Arkansas; western and central Arkansas; and southern Wisconsin. - -_H._ Similar to group _G_, save that the edges are straight while the -stem is somewhat shorter. All the specimens are small. Found in western -North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and -southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--Chipped flint with long, tapering stem.] - -_I._ Differing from group _G_ in having concave sides; none are barbed, -and some have very wide shoulders. Nearly all are large. Two from -Savannah have the base straight, all the others being of the common -type. The type (fairly exemplified in figure 209) is from Union county, -Illinois, and others come from southwestern Illinois; southwestern -Arkansas; South Carolina; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West -Virginia; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge -shape.] - -_J._ Lozenge or diamond shape; the four edges straight or nearly so, -varying a little toward convexity or concavity. In some the base -does not come to a point but is rounded or truncated; sometimes, -though seldom, there is a slight shoulder. From 1¼ to 3½ inches long. -A typical example, shown in figure 210, is from Chester county, -South Carolina. Additional material is from South Carolina; Kanawha -valley; Brown and Ogle counties, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; western -North Carolina; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia; southeastern and -southwestern Arkansas; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, -Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_K._ Edges usually convex, sometimes nearly straight, gradually -rounding off into the stem, which may be straight, tapering, or -slightly expanding; base straight or slightly convex. All of these -are narrow, mostly thick, and none over two inches long. The type -(figure 211) is from Bledsoe county, Tennessee; others are from eastern -Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; -northwestern Georgia; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; -Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; -and northeastern and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_L._ Edges convex, a very few being straight; shoulders square or -somewhat rounded, in two or three somewhat expanding. Stem usually -straight, sometimes tapering; base straight or convex. Varying much -in size and relative width, being from 1¼ to 4½ inches long, and from -¾ to 2½ inches wide; some slender, others broad. Nearly all are quite -roughly made. Illustrated in figure 212 (from Cherokee county, Georgia). - -Like many other forms of small chipped implements, the distribution -in this type is wide. It comes from northwestern Georgia and about -Savannah; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; Miami valley, Ohio; -southwestern Illinois; western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; and -southwestern Arkansas. - -_M._ Convex edges; sharp points; very slight shoulders; stem tapering -by curved lines; base convex or somewhat pointed. All made of quartz, -quartzite, or coarse flint, and differing from the following group only -in being very slender and, owing to the material employed, much more -roughly finished. Found in western North Carolina, in South Carolina, -and in southwestern Arkansas. - -_N._ Convex edges; remarkably symmetrical outline; most specimens -finely finished; slight shoulders; tapering stem, with convex base, the -whole stem having a quite regularly curved outline. From 2 to 4½ inches -long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid.] - -The type which is shown in figure 213 is from Dane county, Wisconsin. -This group also is widely distributed, being found in southern and -southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; -Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio, and the central part of the same -state; northeastern, central, and southeastern Arkansas; western North -Carolina; and Kanawha valley. - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--Stemmed chipped flint, short blade.] - -_O._ Differing from group _N_ only in having longer stems and shorter -blades, the latter sometimes less than an inch. Illustrated in figure -214 (from Kanawha valley). Found also in Scioto valley and in central -Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern -Georgia. - -_P._ Convex edges; square shoulders; stem forming a quite regular -and continuous curve, slightly expanding in some specimens. The one -shown in figure 215, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, has the most -symmetric outline of any specimen in the entire collection. There -are other specimens from Kanawha valley, and also from northeastern -Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; Washington county, Pennsylvania; eastern -and western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_Q._ Similar to group _P_ except that stem and base are straight. They -are symmetric and well finished, vary more in size than those of the -last group, being from 1¼ to 4¼ inches long, the others not reaching -either of these limits. - -The type (figure 216) comes from Knox county, Ohio, and other specimens -from Miami valley and central Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; northeastern -Kentucky; Kanawha valley; eastern and western Tennessee; eastern, -southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia; and southwestern Illinois. - -_R._ Edges generally convex, sometimes straight; base straight or -convex, only rarely concave; shoulders usually square, sometimes -rounded; stem expanding by straight lines. From less than an inch to 3½ -inches long, mostly about the medium. - -The form, which resembles that shown in figure 216 in a general way, -is widely distributed, its range including Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia, as well as -the northwestern part of the state; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; northeastern Kentucky; -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North -Carolina; and northeastern Alabama. - -_S._ Differing from group _Q_ in having the blade short, stem long (in -some cases longer than blade), and only slight shoulders. Base somewhat -convex in a few specimens; from an inch to 2¼ inches in length. From -Kanawha valley; northwestern Georgia; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -southwestern Arkansas; southern Wisconsin; and northeastern Alabama. - -Beginning with those of group _N_ and ending with those last described, -all the best worked and most finely finished specimens are from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky, and the central and -southern parts of Ohio. - -_T._ Convex edges; square shoulders; slender; very long and slender -tapering or straight stem, coming almost to a point at the base. -Illustrated in figure 217 (from Kanawha valley). Others are from -central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; and -Catahoula parish, Louisiana. The specimens from the two latter -districts have the stem wider and less pointed than the others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or -shoulder.] - -_U._ With one large, much expanded shoulder, the other being absent or -very slight; both edges convex, or one convex and the other straight; -stem sometimes straight, but usually tapering, being almost pointed -in some; base usually convex, sometimes straight, rarely concave. A -specimen from Ross county, Ohio, has the base deeply notched; it seems -to have been symmetrical originally, and one barb or shoulder being -broken, to have had that edge dressed down. Many were thus reworked, -but in most cases it is evident that the form is original. Some are -slender, others broad. - -The type shown in figure 218 is from Bowie county, Texas. Other -examples are from southwestern Arkansas; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; -Scioto valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; western and central North -Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; northeastern Alabama; as -well as from northwestern Georgia and about Savannah. - - -EXPANDING STEMS. - -In this class of flints the stem is expanding, unless the contrary is -stated. The majority of specimens having barbs belong to this class; -while those with straight or tapering stem usually have only square or -rounded shoulders, the barb seldom appearing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--Stemmed chipped flint, short.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_A._ Short and broad; base usually straight, sometimes convex, rarely -concave; notched in from edges to form the stem; very seldom with -well-defined shoulders, and never barbed. The type, illustrated in -figure 219, is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Found also in -northeastern Kentucky; western North Carolina; northwestern Georgia and -about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Union -county, Mississippi. - -_B._ Edges convex, seldom straight; base straight or rarely convex or -concave; notched in on edges close to base, so as to leave a slight -tang; thin and well worked; from an inch to 2¼ inches long. All from -Savannah have concave bases; a few are notched so as to have slight -shoulders, and they are somewhat larger than from other localities. -They fit better in this group, however, than in any other. A typical -example, shown in figure 220, is from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Others are from central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; various localities in South Carolina; and about -Savannah, Georgia. - -_C._ Roughly made; unsymmetrical, seemingly made hastily; of various -patterns, including all the common shapes. Nearly all with convex -edges, few straight, none concave. Base straight or concave, often the -natural surface or fracture of the stone. Sometimes made from the tip -of a broken larger specimen. From 1 to 5 inches long; slender or wide; -usually thick, except when made from a thin flake. Edges notched just -at the base in some, leaving a slight tang; others have the corners -chipped out. This group is quite variable in size and in character of -workmanship, as well as in form. The material also is variable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The types (figures 221 and 222) are, respectively, from Bledsoe and -Polk counties, Tennessee. The range includes eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northeastern Alabama and Tuscaloosa valley; South Carolina; -southwestern and northeastern Arkansas; central Ohio and Scioto valley; -northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Georgia, as well as Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex.] - -_D._ Edges convex, rarely straight; base straight or convex; slender; -from 1¼ to 4 inches long; usually thin; deeply notched, with edges -worked close to base, leaving the latter as wide as the blade, or -nearly so. This form could be quite firmly attached to a shaft or -handle. It is illustrated by figure 223, representing one of the -specimens from Kanawha valley. It is found also in southwestern -Illinois and Brown county in the same state; eastern, southern, and -southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; northwestern Georgia; central Ohio and Scioto valley; -southeastern Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; and Coosa and Tuscaloosa -valleys, Alabama. - -_E._ Edges convex; base straight or convex; shoulders square or -rounded; stem expanding by curved lines. A few are small enough for -arrows, but most of them are large or of medium size. The specimen from -Vernon county, Wisconsin, illustrated in figure 224, is representative. -The group is characteristic of southwestern Wisconsin; Kanawha valley; -central Ohio and Scioto valley; western and central North Carolina; -eastern Tennessee; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_F._ Edges straight or convex; long barbs, sometimes reaching to -the base; stem straight or slightly tapering; base straight, or -very slightly convex or concave, usually well finished. One barb is -sometimes longer than the other, or the stem may be to one side of -the center line. Sometimes made of a flake, the flat side being left -untouched. - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs.] - -The type shown in figure 225 is from Madison county, Alabama. It is -found generally in northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and also in -eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Holt county, Missouri; -southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; northwestern -Georgia and about Savannah; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Kentucky, and western and central North Carolina. - -_G._ Similar to the last, but with stem expanding by straight or curved -lines; base always straight in larger specimens, sometimes convex or -concave in smaller ones. Barbs varying in length, short in some and -reaching nearly to the base in others. From three-fourths to 3¾ inches -in length, and varying much in width. - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -Figure 226 represents a typical example from Jackson county, Illinois. -The range, which is quite wide, includes southwestern Illinois; -northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Miami and -Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; -western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; -northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_H._ Wide blade; short; convex edges; square shoulders or slight barbs; -base convex or concave; stem broad and expanding by curved lines; -generally thick. Those with convex base are all of medium size, while -those with concave base range from an inch to 4 inches in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The form is indicated in figure 227, representing a good specimen -from Dane county, Wisconsin. It is found over southern Wisconsin; -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; southwestern Illinois and Brown -county in the same state; central North Carolina; northwestern Georgia -and about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; and Keokuk, Iowa. - -_I._ Edges parallel, or nearly so most of the length, with abrupt -curve to the point; base straight or slightly convex; stem expanding -by straight or curved lines; notched in from the corners of the base -giving long barbs, which, in a few, project slightly beyond the line of -edges; thin; well worked; from 2 to 4 inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--Stemmed chipped flint, broad point.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender point.] - -The specimen illustrated in figure 228 is from Dane county, Wisconsin, -and there are several others from southern Wisconsin; southwestern -Illinois; Scioto valley, Ohio; and Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_J._ Edges convex or sometimes straight; base straight or slightly -convex. Notched in on the edges, leaving the stem nearly or quite as -wide at the bottom as the blade; corners of the base square or slightly -rounded. Mostly small, suitable for arrows, though a few are larger, -up to 3¼ inches. A few of these have the base polished. Some of the -small ones are made of flakes having the natural, conchoidal shape and -worked on one side only. Typical forms, shown in figures 229 and 230, -are from Kanawha valley, and Nicholas county, Kentucky, respectively. -The distribution extends also over southern and southwestern Wisconsin; -Miami valley, Ohio; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern Kentucky; Brown -county, Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; eastern -Tennessee, and about Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Stemmed chipped flint, thin.] - -_K._ Straight or convex edges (a few serrated or beveled); base -straight, sometimes polished; notched in from the corners so as to give -sharp barbs, with wide stem expanding by straight lines. Medium size. -Illustrated in figure 231 (Bradley county, Tennessee). Found in eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; South -Carolina; and about Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_L._ Very thin; well worked; usually quite symmetrical; base straight -or slightly concave; stem expanding by curved lines; with shoulders -or barbs; base with sharp tangs. Some specimens quite slender, others -almost as wide as long. Few are above two inches in length. The edge -is sometimes a broken line instead of a regular curve. The form is -shown in figures 232 and 233, representing specimens from Lawrence -county, Ohio, and Loudon county, Tennessee, respectively. Others are -from Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; -western and central North Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; -northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Illinois. - -_M._ Convex edges; usually quite symmetric; base generally straight, -although sometimes convex or concave; stem expanding by straight or -curved lines, and notched in from the corners by a narrow notch whose -sides are parallel. Sometimes beveled (or feathered). The barb as -well as the notch of the same width throughout its entire length. The -type (figure 234) is from Knox county, Ohio, and similar forms come -from central Ohio; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_N._ Straight, or rarely convex, edges; base straight or slightly -curved, with rounded corners; notched in on the edges above the -corners, with sharp barbs. Nearly every specimen is beveled, and some -are serrated. Base polished in many of them even when slightly concave. -A good example from Ross county, Ohio, is represented in figure 235. -Others are from Miami and Scioto valleys and elsewhere in Ohio, as -well as from Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern Alabama; -southwestern Georgia, and about Savannah in the same state. The style -of chipping is frequently such as to give serrated edges, as in the -specimen figured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small -stem.] - -_O._ Long; slender; thin; short, small stem; convex base; notched -upward from the corners of the base; short barbs. The type shown in -figure 236 is from Loudon county, Tennessee, and other specimens come -from eastern Tennessee and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched.] - -_P._ Convex edges and base; sometimes, though very seldom, the edges -are nearly straight; the typical, leaf-shape implement, except for the -notch, which is always worked in from the widest part of the specimen -at right angles to the axis. The base is invariably polished, even in -the smallest specimens. From Licking county (figure 237) as well as -from Miami valley and throughout central Ohio; Kanawha valley; eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; northeastern Alabama; southern -Wisconsin; and about Savannah, Georgia. - -_Q._ Edges less convex than the last, sometimes straight; the notches -are worked in nearer the base, going in an angle of about 45 degrees, -instead of perpendicular to the middle line or axis. Sometimes the -blade is of uniform thickness until very close to the edges, which are -worked off in a double chisel-edge. Very few of these, or of group _P_, -are small enough for arrows. Usually symmetrical and well finished; the -base always polished, but whether from use or to add to the utility of -the specimen can not be determined. From Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, -Iowa; southwestern Wisconsin; and eastern Tennessee. - -_R._ Differing from the two last described only in being longer, and -in having the stem always come to a point by either convex or concave -lines, instead of being regularly convex; base never polished. From -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and central Arkansas. - -_S._ Edges usually straight, sometimes concave, rarely convex; notched -in deeply from edges; seldom barbed; stem nearly always wider than -the blade, and large. Base convex; occasionally somewhat concave with -rounded corners, and nearly always polished. Some (including all from -the Savannah collection) are beveled and a few have blunt and rounded -points, apparently broken specimens reworked. From less than an inch -to nearly 3 inches long. Even among the very small ones, some have the -base polished. - -An implement of this form, or of any form in which the stem is wide -or with very long tangs, and especially with concave base, would be -well adapted for hunting purposes. The wide stem would allow firm -attachment to a shaft, whether as an arrow or a spear, and at the same -time would be very difficult to withdraw from a wound. The shaft would -impede the flight of an animal pierced by the weapon, particularly in -weeds or bushes; though greater force would be required with these than -with the more slender points to make them effective. - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The type delineated in figure 238 is from Warren county, Ohio, and -the form is well represented also in Scioto and Miami valleys, Ohio; -western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; southern -and southwestern Wisconsin; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Kentucky; northeastern Alabama; and about Savannah, -Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide -stem.] - -_T._ Convex edges; base straight, or slightly convex or concave, -with square corners, and nearly always polished; stem as wide as the -blade or wider. Some rather slender, others as wide as long. Very few -are beveled, except those from Savannah, all of which are thus made. -From three-fourths to 2¼ inches long. Found in eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley (including the specimen shown in figure 239); western -North Carolina; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; South Carolina; -southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; and in the vicinity of -Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide -stem.] - -_U._ Edges usually straight, sometimes convex; base regularly concave, -or rounding off into a convex curve at the corners, and nearly always -polished. The stem in all is wider than the blade. Those from Savannah -are all beveled, and but few of them have polished bases. The type, -illustrated in figure 240, is from Kanawha valley, and others come from -Kanawha valley; southern Wisconsin; Scioto valley; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_V._ Edges convex, seldom straight, never concave; usually well -finished; base concave; notch worked in from the edge above the corner -so as to leave the upper portion of the tang parallel to the lower, -or base; corners square. Few are beveled. The length is from 1 to 4 -inches, the width also varying considerably; some are widest at or -near the middle of the blade, others are as wide at base as at any -other part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The form is illustrated in figure 241 (Union county, Illinois). The -distribution is wide, including southwestern Illinois; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha -valley; South Carolina; northwestern Alabama; eastern Tennessee; -eastern and southern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; -southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, -Iowa; and Union county, Mississippi. - -_W._ Edges usually convex, sometimes straight; notched in on the edges -above the corners; base concave; some slender, others broad. Somewhat -resembling the two preceding types, but more roughly made. From 1 to -4 inches long. Represented by material from western and central North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and -Coosa valley, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders.] - -_X._ Small; very slender; convex edges, with wing-like barbs or -shoulders; stem slightly expanding by curved lines. This rather rare -type, shown in figure 242 (from Ouachita county, Arkansas), is known -from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas, as well as eastern -Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia. - -_Y._ Edges mostly straight, in a few convex; base straight, convex, or -concave, in some specimens of each being polished; notched in on the -edges just above the corners, notches usually slight; always widest at -base. A few, including all from Savannah, are serrated or beveled. Very -few are over an inch and a half long. They are nearly always thick. One -from Kanawha valley has the point worn perfectly smooth and the edges -polished half way to the base, showing use as a drill. Points of this -form would make the countersunk holes so common in gorgets and other -flat stones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -This form is widely distributed. The type (figure 243) is from Lawrence -county, Ohio. Its range includes Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -northwestern Georgia and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; -southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; western -North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; southwestern Arkansas; South -Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; and eastern Wisconsin. - -_Z._ Very rough finish; blade more or less worked by first chipping -(there being usually no secondary chipping) to convex edges; base -generally the natural surface of the nodule or pebble from which the -implement was made; notches worked in roughly on the edges. They were -probably knives or spears, or in some cases celts or chisels, though -none show polish. With these are placed a few that seem to be the -points of larger rough implements, broken and having notches worked in -the fragments. A typical form, shown in figure 244, is from Mississippi -county, Arkansas. It occurs also in northeastern Arkansas; Scioto -valley, Ohio; western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - - -PERFORATORS. - -CHARACTER AND USES. - -The implements variously classed by different writers as awls, drills, -needles, rimmers or reamers, and the like, seem to represent a graded -series, and as no distinction can be made in the different kinds, if, -indeed, there is any room for distinction, they are grouped under one -term, “perforators.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--Stemmed chipped flint, very rough.] - -Very few of the specimens could be used as drills, as most of them -are too thin; only those with a rhomboidal or triangular section -would seem adapted to this purpose, and the majority even of these -seem too fragile. It is more probable that drilling was done with -a stick or horn, with sand as a cutting medium, except in the thin -tablets of slate or similar stone and in shells. The thicker flints -would answer very well for this purpose, and the countersunk holes -appear to indicate such an instrument. For sewing, bone would be -more easily worked, and better suited than flint. The double-pointed -slender specimens may have been used for bait-holders in fishing; bone -implements of a similar shape, with a hole drilled at the middle for -attaching a line, have been seen in use among the Indians of Florida. - -Some such implement was no doubt used in the manner of a burin, -especially in making the fine lines on the ornamented shells or stones; -certain flints in the collection may have served such a purpose. - -Lubbock considers it proved that the stone of which ornaments, -carved axes, etc., are made could be worked with flint, and that the -engraving on the Scotch rocks, even on granite, was executed with this -material;[174] and Bushmen are known to use triangular pieces of flint -for cutting figures in rocks.[175] Evans[176] observes that there are -five ways of making holes in stone, viz.: (1) Chiseling or picking, with -“picks,” “celts,” or “drills” of flint or other stone; (2) boring with -a solid borer, as wood, hard or soft, or horn with sand and water; -(3) grinding with a tubular grinder, as horn, cane, elder, etc., with -sand and water; (4) drilling with a stone drill, e.g., of flint or -sandstone; (5) drilling or punching with metal. It should be remembered -that there are no evidences of the use of any metal except copper for -economic purposes by the aborigines of the United States; and nearly -everything of this material seems to have been ornamental in character. -Bancroft says that the Nootka, in boring in wood, use a bird-bone -drill worked between the hands,[177] while according to Schumacher, -the Santa Barbara Indians chip out rough disks of shell, pierce them -with a flint drill, and enlarge the hole with a slender, round piece -of sandstone.[178] The Atlantic coast Indians drilled shell beads with -a nail stuck in a cane or stick, rolling the drill on their thighs -with the right hand, and holding the shell in the left;[179] and the -southern Indians, according to C. C. Jones, pierced shell beads with -heated copper drills.[180] Evans has found that ox-horn and sand make -good borers,[181] while low tribes on the Amazon make crystal tubes an -inch in diameter and up to 8 inches long by rubbing and drilling with a -flexible shoot of wild plantain, twilled between the hands, with sand -and water;[182] and Tylor expresses the opinion that such operations -are not the result of high mechanical skill, but merely of the most -simple and savage processes.[183] - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--Perforator, not stemmed.] - - -STEMLESS FORMS. - -_A._ Base straight or nearly so; edges straight and parallel, sometimes -half the length from the base, thence with concave curve which is -reversed near the end to give a blunt point; these, usually the wider -ones, are always thin, and were probably knives. The smaller ones, -resembling the small triangular arrows except for the sharpened upper -end, may have been for arrowheads, though the sharp points would have -served well as awls or needles. Many of the smaller ones seem to be -made from small broken arrowheads; exemplified by the specimen from -Montgomery county, North Carolina, shown in figure 245. The collection -includes material from western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley; northeastern Alabama; South Carolina; -Keokuk, Iowa; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.] - -_B._ Slender, somewhat larger about the middle and tapering to a point -at each end, or regularly and gradually decreasing from base to point. -Some are undoubtedly arrowheads, as they are too blunt or too thin -to have been used for piercing. Others show marks of use which could -have been produced in no way except by drilling in stone. The specimen -illustrated in figure 246 (from Kanawha valley) shows this to a marked -degree, while that shown in figure 247 (from Nicholas county, Kentucky) -is without such indications. The distribution of this form is wide, -including Kanawha valley; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; -southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Wisconsin; Coosa valley, Alabama; -northwestern and southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -and Scioto valley, Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--Perforator, not stemmed, rough base.] - -_C._ With the base very large in ratio to the point or piercer; -sometimes the entire implement is worked smooth or thin, again it is -the natural fragment or chip of stone entirely unworked except a point -flaked on one part or edge. The piercer varies from one-fourth of an -inch to two inches in length. It could have been utilized only as an -“awl” or “needle,” the base being held by the thumb and finger. This -variable form is represented in figure 248 (from Lawrence county, -Ohio). It comes from Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; western and central -North Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern and -southeastern Arkansas; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.] - -_D._ Piercer thin and slender; base thin, expanding to a wing-like -projection on each side. Very few are strong enough to have been -used for drilling even in soft material, but they are excellent for -piercing leather or similar substances. The expanding wings would make -them good points for hunting and fishing arrows, as they would have -great penetrating power and be very difficult to extract from a wound, -while allowing very firm attachment to a shaft. The type, shown in -figure 249, is from Kanawha valley. Other specimens come from the same -locality, and also from southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in -the same state; eastern Tennessee; Keokuk, Iowa; Scioto valley, Ohio; -northeastern Kentucky; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_E._ With slight expansion at the base. These may be thick or thin, -wide or narrow, and, according to their different forms, might be -used as drills, piercers, or arrowheads. A good example (presented in -figure 250) is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. It is found also in -northeastern Kentucky, northeastern and southeastern Arkansas; eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southwestern Wisconsin. - -All of the foregoing perforators are without stems, unless the larger -portion left at the base may be considered as such. - - -STEMMED FORMS. - -The form of the stem and shoulders among perforators is often the same -as in the stemmed arrowheads, etc., previously described. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -_A._ Stem usually tapering; shoulder more or less defined; never -barbed; blade wide at the part next to the stem, tapering rapidly -by concave lines to a sharp point. Probably spearpoints or large -arrowheads with the blade worked to a point. The type, shown in figure -251, is from Kanawha valley. - -[Illustration: FIG. 252.--Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders.] - -_B._ Slender point; wide wings or shoulders; stem straight or nearly -so; the implement having the form of a cross. Some are less than an -inch long, and very delicately worked, while others reach 3 inches -in length, and are thick. Some from Savannah have very broad stems. -There is a good example (figure 252) from Ouachita county, Arkansas, -and others from southwestern Arkansas; western North Carolina; and -Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 253.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 254.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -_C._ Narrow and thick almost of a diamond or round section; stem -expanding or straight; with slight shoulders, sometimes slightly -barbed. Some of the thinner ones, probably arrows, have a lenticular -section; a few are triangular in section. This form is well suited for -drilling, and many of the specimens show marks of such use, especially -the one illustrated (figure 253), the edges of which are striated -almost the entire length. This is from Mason county, Kentucky; and -the distribution of the type includes Kanawha valley; Scioto valley, -Ohio; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama; western and central -North Carolina; southeastern and northeastern Arkansas; Brown county, -Illinois; South Carolina; and northeastern Kentucky. Thus the type is -common and its geographic range broad. - -_D._ Long, slender point; shoulders wide or slightly barbed; stem -straight, tapering, or expanding; edges straight or concave. Some -would make good piercers for soft material, but very few could be used -as drills. A majority would be good arrowheads. Some have the edges -smooth, but if this was caused by drilling it must have been done in -enlarging holes already made, since the implements so marked are very -thin. The faces of the blades show no polish or smoothness, such as -might result from use as knives. The specimen illustrated (figure 254) -is from Madison county, Alabama; others from northeastern Alabama and -Coosa valley; Scioto valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western and -central North Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; and -Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 255.--Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point.] - -_E._ Stem may be of any form; wide shoulders; never barbed; point or -piercer narrow, well worked, with edges parallel its entire length, and -terminating in a cutting edge instead of a point. This form (shown in -figure 255) is found only in the collection from Savannah, Georgia. - - -BLUNT ARROWHEADS, OR “BUNTS.” - -Certain arrowheads have the end opposite the base rounded or flattened -instead of pointed. Commonly, both faces are worked off equally, to -bring the edge opposite the middle line of the blade, though sometimes -it may be a little to one side. The stem and base are of any form found -in the common patterns of arrowheads. Few are barbed, though many -have shoulders. For the most part, they are probably made from the -ordinary spearpoints or arrowheads and knives that have had the points -broken off, though some seem to have been intentionally made this way -originally. A few are smooth or polished at the ends, as though used as -knives or scrapers; but most of them have no marks except such as would -result from being struck or shot against some hard substance; even this -being absent in many of them, as in the specimen represented in the -accompanying figure. - -Jones says that crescent-shaped arrows were used by southern Indians -for shooting off birds’ heads,[184] and it is known that chisel-shape -arrows were much used during the Middle Ages.[185] - -[Illustration: FIG. 256.--Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt”.] - -This type of aboriginal implement or weapon is shown in figure 256, -representing a specimen from Savannah, Georgia. Other examples come -from eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; Scioto -valley, Ohio; and Savannah, Georgia. - - -SCRAPERS. - - -STEMMED. - -The same remarks as to form and method of making apply to stemmed -scrapers as to blunt arrows, except that the chipping of the end is -always from one face so as to produce a chisel edge. This edge is -frequently smooth or polished from use. They would answer very well for -smoothing down articles made of wood, or for cleaning hides in tanning; -they would also serve excellently for removing scales from fish, and as -they are usually abundant in the vicinity of good fishing places, they -were no doubt employed for this purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 257.--Stemmed scraper.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 258.--Stemmed scraper.] - -The material in the Bureau collection is represented by the specimens -shown in figures 257 and 258, from Savannah, Georgia, and Dane county, -Wisconsin, respectively. Other examples come from southern Wisconsin; -southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern -Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - - -STEMLESS. - -A few quotations regarding the use and mode of manufacture of stemless -scrapers may be given: - -According to Evans, they are made by laying a flake flat side up on a -stone, and chipping off around the edge with a hammer. The point struck -must rest directly on the under stone, and but a thin spall is struck -off at each blow.[186] Leidy observed that the Shoshoni by a quick blow -strike off a segment of a quartz bowlder in such a way as to form a -circular or oval implement flat on one side, convex on the other, which -is used as a scraper in dressing buffalo hides;[187] and according to -Knight the Australians obtain, in exactly the same way, specimens which -they use as axes.[188] Peale remarks that while hides are green they -are stretched on the ground and scraped with an instrument resembling -an adze;[189] and Dodge says more explicitly that when the stretched -skin has become hard and dry, the woman goes to work on it with an -adze-like instrument, with a short handle of wood or elkhorn tied on -with rawhide; holding this in one hand, she chips at the hardened skin, -cutting off a thin shaving at every blow.[190] - -The scrapers of this class in the Bureau collection are as follows: - -_A._ Chipped over the entire surface to the form of the ordinary celt, -except that the scraping edge is in the same plane with one face. Some -have a scraping edge at each end. In a few the flat or straight face is -chipped off slightly, bringing the edge toward the middleline; but this -was probably done after the implement had become broken or blunted from -use. When there is any polish, it is always on the flat face, showing -use as an adze, or, possibly, as a plane. Varying much in width, some -measuring almost the same in either direction, while others are more -like the “chisel” celts, though the position of the cutting edge shows -their use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 259.--Stemless scraper, celt form.] - -A typical specimen (figure 259) is from Jackson county, Illinois; -others come from Brown county and the southwestern part of the state -generally; from northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern -Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; and central Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 260.--Stemless scraper, flake.] - -_B._ Flakes or spalls, chipped always from the concave side of the -fragment. Some of the smaller specimens, usually those of somewhat -circular outline, are chipped nearly, or in some cases entirely, around -the edge. Figure 260 represents a specimen from Mason county, Kentucky. -Others come from northeastern Kentucky; eastern Tennessee; Holt county, -Missouri; Kanawha valley; southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, and -central Ohio; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; and -Savannah, Georgia. - - -CORES. - -The generally accepted name “cores” is applied to the blocks from which -are struck off the flakes to be next described. - -Dr. Gillespie[191] claimed that objects of this kind were made so -intentionally, and that the flakes are simply the refuse or waste -material. He gives six reasons for this belief, but an examination of -the objects themselves would show that he is in error. That some might -have been used as scrapers may be true, but very few are suited for -such work, and not one shows the least mark of wear that could result -from this use. - -The specimens in the Bureau collection, with perhaps half a dozen -exceptions, are from the aboriginal quarries at Flint ridge, in Licking -county, Ohio, or of the material so abundant at that place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 261.--Cores.] - -All are small, few being of a size to furnish flakes over three inches -long. The flakes were undoubtedly struck off by means of stone hammers, -hundreds of which are to be found about the quarries, or removed by -pressure, many showing the bulb of percussion, others being perfectly -smooth on the flat face. Usually all the flakes were obtained from only -one side of the core until it became too small to work (figure 261). -Occasionally they were chipped from opposite sides, leaving the core of -a conical or cylindrical shape (as represented in figure 262). - -[Illustration: FIG. 262.--Core.] - -Cores and finely chipped implements of the Flint ridge stone have been -taken from the mounds in Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Scioto -valley, Ohio, showing that the mound-builders are to be credited with -at least a part of the great amount of work done in those localities; -but it seems a mistake to say, as some authors have done, that the -“turtlebacks” found in caches in southern Illinois are from the same -source, as the stone is entirely different, and occurs abundantly in -the vicinity in which the specimens are found. - - -FLAKES. - -The use to which were put the narrow, thin flakes so abundantly found -in many parts of the world has caused some discussion. Schoolcraft -says that the Dakota bleed patients by scarifying with these flakes; -or sometimes one is fixed into the end of a piece of wood, held over -a vein, and driven in as far as the wood will let it go,[192] the use -being similar to that of the modern fleam. Harpoons in the Kurile -islands are made of bone, with a deep groove along each side; in -these grooves thin and sharp flat flakes are fastened with gum.[193] -According to Evans, similar flakes were used for scraping,[194] just as -broken glass is used among modern woodworkers. Flakes have been found -in the Swiss lakes in wooden handles in the fashion of Eskimo knives; -also in Australia with skin wrapped around one end to protect the -hand.[195] - -All the flakes in the Bureau collection are small, few of them being -over three inches long. They are found elsewhere with a length of over -a foot; but the nature of the flint occurring in the United States is -seldom such as to allow flakes to be struck off equaling in size those -found in Europe. - -Evans says that blows with a pebble will form just such flakes as those -produced by an iron hammer; the blows must, however, be delivered in -exactly the right spot and with the proper force. Cores sometimes -show markings of hammers when struck too near the edge. Flakes can -be produced by using a pebble as a set or punch and striking it with -a stone. The use of a set was probably the exception rather than the -rule, for great precision may be obtained simply with a hammer held in -the hand. The Eskimo use a hammer set in a handle to strike off flakes, -or strike them off by slight taps with a hammer of jade, oval in shape, -about 2 by 3 inches, and secured to a bone handle with sinew.[196] - -According to Tylor, the Peruvian Indians work obsidian by laying a -bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it until the stone -cracks;[197] while the Indians of Mexico hold a piece of obsidian 6 -or 8 inches long between their feet, then holding the crosspiece of a -T-shape stick against the breast they place the other end against the -stone and force off a piece by pressure.[198] - -Nilsson says that the Eskimo set a point of deer horn into a handle of -ivory and drive off splinters from the chert,[199] and Redding saw a -Cloud river Indian make flakes thus: Holding a piece of obsidian in his -hand, he placed the straight edge of a piece of split deer horn, four -inches long and half an inch in diameter, at a distance from the edge -of the stone equal to the thickness of the arrow he wished to make; -then striking the other end with a stone he drove off a flake.[200] -Schumacher observed that the Klamath Indians heat a stone and break it -into fragments at a single blow.[201] - -According to Stevens the Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, -and holding on the anvil the stone which he is working,[202] strikes -off a flake one-fourth of an inch thick with a stone hammer; but Powers -says the Shasta Indians heat a stone and allow it to cool slowly, which -splits it into flakes,[203] and Bancroft that they place an obsidian -pebble on an anvil of stone and split it with an agate chisel to the -required size.[204] The Shoshoni or Snake Indians of the northwest work -in the same way,[205] and certain California Indians strike off flakes -from a mass of agate, jasper, or chalcedony with a stone hammer,[206] -while the Apache break a bowlder of hornstone with a heavy stone hammer -having a twisted withe for a handle.[207] - -Schoolcraft says experience has taught the Indians that some varieties -of hornstone (flint) are less easily fractured than others, and that -the conchoidal form is found best in softer varieties; also that -weathered fragments are managed with greater difficulty than are those -freshly quarried.[208] - -Evans points out that in making gunflints much depends upon the -condition of the stone as regards the moisture it contains, those that -have been too long exposed on the surface becoming intractable, and -there is also a difficulty in working those that are too moist. Some of -the workers, however, say that a flint which has been some time exposed -to the air is harder than one recently dug, yet it works equally -well.[209] - -It is related that in former times white hunters in Ohio and Kentucky, -when they needed a gunflint, would select a fragment from the surface, -where practicable, and soak it in oil for several weeks “to make it -tough;” otherwise it would shatter to fragments when struck. - -[Illustration: FIG. 263.--Flake, chipped for scraper.] - -Frequently the large flat spalls knocked from blocks or chunks of flint -in shaping them, or in obtaining pieces to work, are of such form that -very little additional labor converts them into serviceable scrapers, -knives, spears, or arrows. A number of such pieces are found in the -collection. These, however, are not considered in the flakes now to be -described: - -_A._ Edges bluntly chipped (from the concave side) for use as scrapers. -They may or may not have notches for attachment to a handle. An example -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is shown in figure 263. Others come -from southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, -and central Ohio. - -_B._ Trimmed only enough to give a general leaf shape, the faces being -left unchanged; for use as knives or arrowheads, most of them being -exceedingly small; notched, or with continuous edges. This form is -represented by the specimen from Licking county, Ohio, illustrated in -figure 264. It is found in central Ohio; northeastern Arkansas; Coosa -valley, Alabama; eastern Tennessee; and western North Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 264.--Flake, chipped for knife or arrow head.] - -_C._ Long, slender, with three or four facets on one face, caused by -others having been struck off above. The edges are as keen as broken -glass, and the points are usually quite sharp. In a great many the -points have been worked off by fine, secondary chipping. When this is -done, it is always at the end which was struck in knocking off the -flake. In some cases it may be due to the shattering effects of the -blow; but in many specimens the evidence is plain that it was done -afterward for the purpose of making a sharper point. Some flakes of -this kind have notches for attachment to a shaft, probably for arrows; -such specimens, however, are without the secondary chipping, and the -notches are at the end opposite the one struck. - -[Illustration: FIG. 265.--Flake, slender, probably for lancet.] - -A good example, shown in figure 265, is from Kanawha valley, and there -are others from the same locality, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio; -and Union county, Mississippi. - - -MISCELLANEOUS FORMS. - -From the Savannah collection there are several forms of chipped -flints which, while resembling the foregoing in various ways, present -characters which make it necessary to place them by themselves; -and while containing a majority of the types described above, this -collection has many that have no counterpart from any other section -visited by the Bureau collectors. Some of these unique specimens of -aboriginal art are among the following: - -[Illustration: FIG. 266.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_A._ Edges double curved, expanding to a wide point at the shoulder; -stem straight or tapering; base either straight or slightly convex. The -type of the group is quite well represented in figure 266. - -_B._ Edges concave; base and stem straight; very wide projections or -wings at the shoulders, going in by straight or curved lines to the -stem (illustrated in figure 267). - -_C._ Edges concave, changing to convex at the shoulders, and curving -around to the stem, which is straight or slightly expanding; base -straight or very slightly convex (figure 268). - -_D._ Convex edges, widening into greatly expanding barbs; base -straight; stem expanding by straight lines (figure 269). - -[Illustration: FIG. 267.--Stemmed chipped flint, winged.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 268.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_E._ Broad; double-curved edges; notched in from the base, and barbs -worked so as to be narrowest near the blade, with the ends straight or -round; stem expanding by straight lines; base straight (figure 270). - -_F._ Edges nearly straight to the barbs, which are worked off to a -point toward the stem; base convex and wide; stem expanding by curved -lines (figure 271). - -[Illustration: FIG. 269.--Stemmed chipped flint, barbed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 270.--Stemmed chipped flint, broad.] - -_G._ Rather slender; base nearly straight, either convex or concave; -stem rapidly expanding; notched in from the corners, making long -slender barbs which project beyond the line of the edges (as -illustrated in figure 272). The same form comes from Dougherty county, -southwestern Georgia, as well as from Savannah. - -_H._ Straight or convex edges; base straight or slightly convex; stem -to one side of the center, leaving one barb longer and larger than the -other (figure 273). - -_I._ Triangular, notched in from the bottom; barbs extend down even -with the base, or the base is sometimes worked back, leaving it shorter -than the barbs; some are beveled (figure 274). The same form is found -in southwestern Georgia. - -_J._ Broad; straight edges; base straight or concave; stem straight or -expanding; long, rounded barbs (figure 275). - -[Illustration: FIG. 271.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 272.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender.] - -_K._ From Arkansas county, Arkansas, there is an implement of basanite -or black jasper, of the general type of figure 180 or 182, the point -being broken off. The base has been worked down to a sharp edge, the -stem highly polished on both faces. This polish does not extend to -the faces of the blade, but both edges are rubbed smooth so far as -they now extend. Whether the implement was originally pointed and used -as a knife or spear, this sharp edge being given the stem after it -was broken, or whether it was so made in the first place, can not be -determined. Like the various forms with polished base, the specimen -seems to indicate a manner of mounting or of use the reverse of what -would be expected. It is shown in figure 276. - -[Illustration: FIG. 273.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 274.--Stemmed chipped flint, triangular.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 275.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -Figure 277 shows an implement from Licking county, Ohio, somewhat of -the form of figure 205, except that it is wider and much thinner. It is -worn smooth on each edge for ¾ inch from the point, the point itself -being quite blunt. This probably results from use as a knife or drill; -though, if due to the latter cause, the material on which it was used -must have been quite soft or thin. Similar wear is seen on implements -from the same locality of the form of figures 176 and 223, but this -article is smaller than those represented by the figures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 276.--Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 277.--Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from -use.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 278.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -In figure 278 is shown a small knife of the pattern so common in -specimens mounted in antlers, from the Swiss lake dwellings. In outline -it resembles the arrowheads having straight edges and a convex base; -but the side view shows the purpose for which it was made. Similar -pieces are found throughout central Ohio, and along Ohio river from the -Kanawha to the Miami. - - -NOTES ON BEVELED FLINTS. - -In the beveled flints the side-chipping producing the bevel is always -to the left, as may be seen in figure 235; only one exception to this -has been found. It has been supposed that this is done to give a rotary -motion to an arrow. Morgan[210] says that “arrowheads are occasionally -found with a twist to make the arrow revolve in its flight;” and the -same statement has often been made by others. It may be objected, -however, that very few of these beveled specimens are small enough -for arrowheads; and modern archers have shown that the shape does not -affect the flight of the arrow. - -Schoolcraft,[211] Powers,[212] Morgan,[213] and Cheever[214] say that -the modern Indians sometimes have a spiral arrangement of the feathers -on their arrow to produce a rotary motion or “rifling.” This rotary -motion is supposed to keep the arrow in a straight course, as without -it a deviation from the direct line would tend constantly to increase. -But as showing that the rotary motion is not always desired, Dodge says -that sometimes the blade, in regard to the string notch, is set so as -to be perpendicular, to go in between the ribs of game; again, so as to -be horizontal, to go in between the ribs of an enemy.[215] - -The beveled flints were probably used for skinning game, as they are -better fitted for this than for anything else, and would serve such -purpose better than almost any other form of the smaller chipped -flints. The bevel is such as would be necessary if the implement were -held in the right hand and pulled toward the user. - -There are a great many specimens in the collection, both in the ground -or pecked and in the chipped implements, which can not be classified -with any of the objects herein described; but they are to be considered -as due rather to individual whims than as representative of a type. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Anahuac, p. 101. - -[2] Ibid., p. 98. - -[3] Dawson, Sir William; Fossil Men, p. 121. - -[4] Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 741. - -[5] Ibid., p. 748. - -[6] Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. 169. - -[7] Lubbock, Sir John; Prehistoric Times, p. 569. - -[8] Early History of Mankind, p. 203. - -[9] Abbott, C. C., in American Naturalist, vol. X, p. 494. - -[10] Perkins; Ibid, vol. XIII, p. 738. - -[11] Adair; History of American Indians, p 405. - -[12] Long, S. H.; Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, p. 211. - -[13] Knight, E. H.; Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 242. - -[14] Wood, J. G.; Natural History of Mankind, p. 200. - -[15] Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[16] Beverly, Robt.; History of Virginia, 1722, p. 198. - -[17] Wyth, John; Graphic Sketches, part I, plate 14. - -[18] Catlin, Geo.; Last Rambles Among the Indians, pp. 100-101. - -[19] Mohr, Smithsonian Report for 1881, p. 618; Barber, Amer. Nat., -vol. XII, p. 403; McGuire, Ibid., vol. XVII, p. 587; Walker, Science, -vol. IX, p. 10; Schumacher, Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum, -p. 263. - -[20] Dawson, J. W.; Fossil Men, p. 16. - -[21] Ibid., p. 132. - -[22] Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[23] Stevens, E. T.; Flint Chips, p. 174. - -[24] Evans, John; Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[25] Ibid., p. 227. - -[26] Dodge, R. I.; Wild Indians, p. 254. Schoolcraft, H. R.; Indian -Tribes, vol. IV, p. 107. Catlin, Geo.; North American Indians, vol. I, -p. 416. - -[27] Powers, Stephen; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. III, p. -433. - -[28] Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[29] Ibid., p. 213. - -[30] Adair, James; American Indians, p. 409. - -[31] Lawson, John; History of North Carolina, p. 53. - -[32] Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 315-320. - -[33] Fossil Men and Their Modern Representatives, p. 112. - -[34] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate I, fig. 3. - -[35] Lewis and Clarke; Travels, p. 425. - -[36] Powers; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. III, p. 52. - -[37] Ibid., p. 433. - -[38] Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 119. - -[39] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[40] League of the Iroquois, p. 359. - -[41] Carver, Jonathan; Travels in North America, p. 191. - -[42] Report to Regents of the Univ. of New York, vol. II, p. 86. - -[43] Schoolcraft; Notes on the Iroquois, p. 239. - -[44] Schumacher; 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody Museum, p. 264. - -[45] Powers; Contributions to N. A. Eth. vol. III, p. 377. - -[46] Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[47] Abbott, C. C.; Primitive Industry, chap. 28. - -[48] Jones, C. C.; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338. - -[49] Nilsson, S.; Stone Age, p. 25. - -[50] Thatcher, B. B.; Indian Traits, vol. I, p. 70. - -[51] Jones; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338. - -[52] Amer. Naturalist, vol. XX, p. 574. - -[53] Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 41; also 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody -Museum, p. 265. - -[54] Primitive Industry, p. 244. - -[55] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[56] Ibid., p. 96. Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 381. - -[57] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 499. - -[58] Dale, L.; in Journal of Anth. Inst. of Great Br. and Ireland, vol. -I, p. 347. - -[59] Layard, E. L.; in ibid., appendix, c. - -[60] Griesbach, C. L.; in ibid., p. cliv. - -[61] W. D. Gooch says they were used as club heads by the predecessors -of the Bushmen, who now use them as diggers; ibid., vol. XI, p. 128. - -[62] Knight, E. H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 232. - -[63] Stone Implements, p. 194. - -[64] Bul. Bur. of Eth., “Perforated Stones from California.” - -[65] Adair; American Indians, p. 402. - -[66] Lawson; History of North Carolina, p. 98. - -[67] Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 299. - -[68] Irving, J. T.; Indian Sketches, vol. II, p. 142. - -[69] Cremony, J. C.; Life Among the Apaches, p. 302. - -[70] Matthews, W.; Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 814. - -[71] Report of Pacific Railroad Survey, vol. III, p. 114. - -[72] Long; Expedition to Rocky Mountains, vol. I, p. 205. - -[73] Brackinridge, H. M.; Views of Louisiana, p. 256. - -[74] Catlin; North American Indians, vol. I, p. 132. - -[75] Schumacher; in Twelfth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 622. - -[76] Lubbock; Prehistoric Times, p. 648. - -[77] Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ireland, vol. II, p. 647. - -[78] Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[79] Ibid., p. 227. - -[80] For any or all of which purposes they may have been used in the -course of their manufacture. - -[81] Captivity Among the Indians, Lexington, 1799; reprinted, -Cincinnati, 1870, p. 36. - -[82] Eells, Myron; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 81. - -[83] Primitive Industry, p. 229. - -[84] Flint Chips, p. 581. - -[85] Henshaw in Amer. Jour. Arch., vol. I, pp. 105-114. - -[86] Pear-shaped stones with the smaller end cut squarely off are -frequent in Georgia; they are about the size of turkey eggs. Jones; -Antiq. Southern Indians, p. 372. - -[87] Stone Age, p. 215. - -[88] Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 408. - -[89] American Indians, p. 48. - -[90] Stone Age, p. 83. - -[91] Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. XI. p. 445. - -[92] Powers; Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. III, pp. 52 and 79. - -[93] Chase; MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[94] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 131. - -[95] Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 373. - -[96] Brickell, John; Nat. History of N.C., p. 317. - -[97] Wyth; Graphic Sketches, part I, plate 8. - -[98] Schoolcraft in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., vol. I, p.401, pl. I. - -[99] I am informed by Prof. Cyrus Thomas that he noticed in the -collection of Mr. Neff. Gambier, Ohio, a “boat-shape stone” attached to -the underside of a stone pipe, which the owner informed him was thus -attached when found. - -[100] Evans; Stone Implements, p. 383. - -[101] Amer. Antiquarian, vol. II, p. 100. - -[102] Expl. in the Valley of the Amazon, vol. II, p. 74. - -[103] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 90. - -[104] Amer. Naturalist, vol. VII, p. 180. - -[105] Flint Chips, p. 478. - -[106] MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[107] Some perforated stones that will not come under any of these -heads are here noted separately under the National Museum numbers: - -131614. An elliptical piece of steatite, with notches at each end for -suspension, “tallies” all around the edge, and four holes on the longer -axis.--Bradley county, Tennessee. - -62879. A steatite ornament, shape like a bird’s head.--Jefferson -county, Tennessee. - -131856. A short, wedge-shape ornament of barite, drilled at the larger -end.--Loudon county, Tennessee; also a similar but much larger ornament -of indurated red clay, possibly catlinite, from a mound in the same -county, represented in figure 149. The edges of the holes are much worn -by a cord. - -90847. A small ellipsoidal steatite bead, with several deep incisions -around the edge.--Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -116335. A small marble bead; form like the rim of a bottle -mouth.--Bradley county, Tennessee. - -113943. Three small pendants of cannel coal. One is in shape like -the keystone of an arch, with hole at smaller end; the other two -are apparently in imitation of a bear’s tusk.--Kanawha valley, West -Virginia. - -91761. A limestone celt, 6½ inches long, either much weathered since -made or else never highly polished, with a large hole drilled in from -both sides at the center.--Bartow county, Georgia. - -116067. A sandstone celt, with a hole drilled near one corner at the -top.--Loudon county, Tennessee. - -97764. A large polished piece of steatite, curved from end to end, or -claw-shaped. One end is pointed; the other blunt and rounded, with a -hole drilled through it.--Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -[108] Gillman, H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 371. - -[109] Primitive Industry, p. 371. - -[110] Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 30. - -[111] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I p. 212. - -[112] Schumacher, Paul; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 548. - -[113] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 253. - -[114] Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. III, p. 426. - -[115] Native Races, vol. I, p. 589. - -[116] Ibid., p. 566. - -[117] Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 362-364. - -[118] Hoffman, W. J.; "The Midē´wiwin of the Ojibwa." Seventh Annual -Rep. Bur. Eth., 1885-86, p. 278, pl. XVIII. - -[119] Amer. Antiquarian, vol. II, p. 154. - -[120] Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 268. - -[121] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 130. - -[122] De Forest, J. W.; History of Indians of Conn., p. 5. - -[123] Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 271. - -[124] Fossil Men, p. 125. - -[125] Fossil Men., p. 119. - -[126] Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. XXXI, p. 592. - -[127] Since this was written several thousand specimens have been found -in a small mound near Chillicothe, Ohio. The nearest point at which -similar material is known to exist is between Corydon and Leavenworth, -Indiana. - -[128] Flint Chips, p. 442. - -[129] Amer. Naturalist, vol. IV, p. 140. - -[130] Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187. - -[131] Journal Anth. Ins. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol XI, p. 447. - -[132] Anthropology, p. 245. - -[133] Jewitt, Llewellyn; Grave-mounds and their Contents, p. 121. - -[134] Stone Implements, p. 374. - -[135] Op. cit., p. 245. - -[136] Stone Implements, p. 36 (from Craveri). - -[137] Stone Implements, p. 36 (from De Pourtales). - -[138] Ibid., p. 35 (from Belcher). - -[139] Ibid., p. 38. - -[140] Crook in Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420. - -[141] Catlin; Last Rambles, pp. 184, 185. - -[142] Ibid., p. 290. - -[143] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 81 (from Belcher). - -[144] Ibid., p. 84. - -[145] Powers in Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[146] Ibid., p 374. - -[147] Bancroft; Native Races, vol. I, p. 342. - -[148] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 212. - -[149] Beckwith in Rep. Pac. R. R. Survey, vol. II, p. 43. - -[150] History of Virginia. - -[151] Redding in Amer. Naturalist, vol. XIII, p. 665. - -[152] Cheever in ibid., vol. IV, p. 139. - -[153] Cited by Stevens, Flint Chips, p. 78. - -[154] Hayden Survey, Bull. 3, 1877, p. 547. - -[155] MS. account of the Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[156] Prehistoric America, p. 170. - -[157] Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420. - -[158] MS. Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[159] Flint Chips, p. 77. - -[160] Prehistoric Times, p. 106 (from Dodge and Blackmore). - -[161] Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[162] History of Mankind, p. 188. - -[163] Adair; American Indians, p. 403. - -[164] Adair; American Indians, p. 410. - -[165] Cheever in Amer. Naturalist, vol. IV, p. 139. - -[166] The section below shows this more plainly. - -[167] Amer. Naturalist, vol. X, p. 116. - -[168] Indian Tribes, vol. II, p. 74, fig. 5. - -[169] Nat. Hist, of N. C., p. 318. - -[170] League of the Iroquois, p. 359. - -[171] Anahuac, p. 332. - -[172] Bourke, John G.; Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 251. See also -Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate 5. - -[173] Long; Exp. to Rocky Mountains, vol. I, p. 290. Dodge; Our Wild -Indians, p. 418. - -[174] Prehistoric Times, p. 122. - -[175] Holub, E., in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. X, p. 460. - -[176] Stone Implements, p. 48. - -[177] Native Races, vol. I, p. 189. - -[178] Hayden Surv., Bul. 3, 1877, p. 43. - -[179] Brickell; Nat. Hist. of N. C., p. 339. - -[180] Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 230. - -[181] Stone Implements, p. 46. - -[182] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 96. Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. -188. - -[183] It would seem that in using a wood or horn drill, water would be -a disadvantage, as the drill would swell and wear rapidly away when -wet, thus choking the bore. The sand also would be forced into the -drill instead of sticking to its surface, thus being less effective. - -[184] Quoted by Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 124. - -[185] Evans; Stone Implements, p. 353. - -[186] Stone Implements. - -[187] Hayden Survey, 1872, p. 653. - -[188] Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 236. - -[189] Ibid, 1870, p. 390. - -[190] Our Wild Indians, p. 256. - -[191] Gillespie, Dr. W.; Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. VI, -p. 260. - -[192] Indian Tribes, vol I, p. 253. - -[193] Nilsson; Stone Age, p. 46. - -[194] Stone Implements, p. 256. - -[195] Stone Implements, p. 263. - -[196] Ibid., pp. 20, 23, and 35. - -[197] Anahuac, p. 99. - -[198] Ibid, pp. 231, 232 (note). - -[199] Stone Age, p. 261 (note). - -[200] Amer. Naturalist, vol. XIII, p. 665. - -[201] Hayden Survey, Bul. 3, 1877, p. 547. - -[202] Flint Chips, p. 77. - -[203] Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[204] Native Races, vol. I, p. 342. - -[205] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 212. - -[206] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 78 (from Powers). - -[207] Catlin; Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187. - -[208] Indian Tribes, vol. III, p. 467. - -[209] Stone Implements, p. 17. - -[210] League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[211] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 213. - -[212] Cont. to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 52. - -[213] League of the Iroquois, pp. 306, 308. - -[214] Amer. Nat., vol. IV, p. 140. - -[215] Our Wild Indians, p. 418. - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stone Art, by Gerard Fowke - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - -***** This file should be named 50769-0.txt or 50769-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/6/50769/ - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Stone Art - Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology - to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-1892, - Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 47-178. - -Author: Gerard Fowke - -Release Date: December 26, 2015 [EBook #50769] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - - - - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" -alt="" /> -<p class="copy">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1> -STONE ART<br /> - -<span class="medium">BY</span><br /> - -<span class="xlarge">GERARD FOWKE</span> -</h1> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span></p> - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></td> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#BASIS_FOR_THE_WORK">Basis for the work</a></td> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION_OF_OBJECTS_AND_MATERIALS">Classification of objects and materials</a></td> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#THE_ARTS_AND_THEIR_DISTRIBUTION">The arts and their distribution</a></td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#DISTRICTS">Districts</a></td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#DESCRIPTIVE_TERMS">Descriptive terms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i2"><a href="#GROUND_AND_PECKED_ARTICLES">Ground and pecked articles</a></td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#GROOVED_AXES">Grooved axes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CELTS">Celts</a></td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#GOUGES">Gouges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CHISELS_AND_SCRAPERS">Chisels and scrapers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CHIPPED_CELTS">Chipped celts</a></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#HEMATITE_CELTS">Hematite celts</a></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PESTLES">Pestles</a></td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PITTED_STONES">Pitted stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CUPPED_STONES">Cupped stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#MULLERS">Mullers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#GRINDING_AND_POLISHING_STONES">Grinding and polishing stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#HAMMERSTONES">Hammerstones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#GROOVED_STONES_OTHER_THAN_AXES">Grooved stones other than axes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#MORTARS">Mortars</a></td> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#SINKERS">Sinkers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PERFORATED_STONES">Perforated stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#DISCOIDAL_STONES">Discoidal stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#SPUDS">Spuds</a></td> - <td class="tdr">109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PLUMMETS">Plummets</a></td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CONES">Cones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#HEMISPHERES">Hemispheres</a></td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PAINT_STONES">Paint stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CEREMONIAL_STONES">Ceremonial stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#FUNCTIONS_AND_PURPOSES">Functions and purposes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#GORGETS">Gorgets</a></td> - <td class="tdr">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#BANNER_STONES">Banner stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#BOAT-SHAPE_STONES">Boat-shape stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">124</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#PICKS">Picks</a></td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#SPOOL-SHAPE_ORNAMENTS">Spool-shape ornaments</a></td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#BIRD-SHAPE_STONES">Bird-shape stones</a></td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#SHAFT_RUBBERS">Shaft rubbers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#TUBES">Tubes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PIPES">Pipes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">128</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i2"><a href="#CHIPPED_STONE_ARTICLES">Chipped stone articles</a></td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#MATERIALS_AND_MANUFACTURE">Materials and manufacture</a></td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#SPADES">Spades</a></td> - <td class="tdr">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#TURTLEBACKS">Turtlebacks</a></td> - <td class="tdr">136<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i2"><a href="#SMALLER_CHIPPED_IMPLEMENTS">Smaller chipped implements</a></td> - <td class="tdr">139</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#MATERIALS_AND_MODES_OF_MANUFACTURE">Materials and modes of manufacture</a></td> - <td class="tdr">139</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION_OF_THE_IMPLEMENTS">Classification of the implements</a></td> - <td class="tdr">142</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#STEMLESS_FLINTS">Stemless flints</a></td> - <td class="tdr">143</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#CHARACTERS_AND_USES">Characters and uses</a></td> - <td class="tdr">143</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#LARGER_IMPLEMENTS">Larger implements</a></td> - <td class="tdr">144</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#SMALLER_OBJECTS">Smaller objects</a></td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#STEMMED_FLINTS">Stemmed flints</a></td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#STRAIGHT_OR_TAPER_STEMS">Straight or taper stems</a></td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#EXPANDING_STEMS">Expanding stems</a></td> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#PERFORATORS">Perforators</a></td> - <td class="tdr">164</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#CHARACTER_AND_USES">Character and uses</a></td> - <td class="tdr">164</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#STEMLESS_FORMS">Stemless forms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">165</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#STEMMED_FORMS">Stemmed forms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#BLUNT_ARROWHEADS_OR_BUNTS">Blunt arrowheads, or “bunts”</a></td> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#SCRAPERS">Scrapers</a></td> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#STEMMED">Stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i6"><a href="#STEMLESS">Stemless</a></td> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#CORES">Cores</a></td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#FLAKES">Flakes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4"><a href="#MISCELLANEOUS_FORMS">Miscellaneous forms</a></td> - <td class="tdr">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i2"><a href="#NOTES_ON_BEVELED_FLINTS">Notes on beveled flints</a></td> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> - -<h2 id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="3"></th> - <th class="tdr">Museum number</th> - <th class="tdr">Page</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Fig.</span></td> - <td>29.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_29">Grooved ax, showing groove projections</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82379)</td> - <td class="tdr">63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>30.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_30">Grooved ax, showing pointed edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(99318)</td> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>31.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_31">Grooved ax, showing groove entirely around</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83360)</td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>32.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_32">Grooved ax, slender, showing groove entirely around</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116240)</td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>33.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_33">Grooved ax, showing grooved back</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>34.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_34">Grooved ax, showing grooved back</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90512)</td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>35.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_35">Grooved ax, showing rounded back</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71575)</td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>36.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_36">Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>37.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_37">Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71258)</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>38.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_38">Grooved ax, Keokuk type</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71566)</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>39.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_39">Grooved ax, showing adze form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(84348)</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>40.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_40">Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72211)</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>41.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_41">Grooved ax, showing wide edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90862)</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>42.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_42">Grooved ax, showing curved edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91746)</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>43.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_43">Grooved ax, showing single groove projection</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62907)</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>44.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_44">Grooved adze</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114526)</td> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>45.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_45">Grooved adze, showing curved blade</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131483)</td> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>46.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_46">Notched ax, showing polished edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62753)</td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>47.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_47">Celt, showing blade thick near edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71413)</td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>48.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_48">Celt, showing blade thick near edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91518)</td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>49.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_49">Celt, showing long, slender form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114494)</td> - <td class="tdr">74</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>50.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_50">Celt, nearly round section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65652)</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>51.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_51">Celt, nearly round section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65661)</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>52.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_52">Celt, showing nearly diamond section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65698)</td> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>53.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_53">Celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(112509)</td> - <td class="tdr">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>54.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_54">Celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83111)</td> - <td class="tdr">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>55.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_55">Celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82917)</td> - <td class="tdr">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>56.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_56">Celt, showing “bell-shape” and roughening for handle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(Tho. 7882)</td> - <td class="tdr">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>57.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_57">Celt, showing rectangular section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114151)</td> - <td class="tdr">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>58.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_58">Celt, showing wedge-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(98427)</td> - <td class="tdr">79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>59.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_59">Celt, showing half-elliptical section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72059)</td> - <td class="tdr">79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>60.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_60">Celt, showing half-elliptical section</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65440)</td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>61.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_61">Celt, showing concave sides</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115504)</td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>62.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_62">Thin, polished celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83056)</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>63.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_63">Thin, polished celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114021)</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>64.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_64">Thin, polished celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114157)</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>65.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_65">Celt, showing thin, gouge-form edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(92034)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>66.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_66">Celt, chisel-form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91418)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>67.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_67">Celt, chisel-form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82464)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>68.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_68">Celt, chisel-form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131697)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>69.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_69">Celt, chisel-form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82949)</td> - <td class="tdr">84</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>70.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_70">Celt, chisel-form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116300)</td> - <td class="tdr">84</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>71.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_71">Celt, showing scraper-form edge</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>72.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_72">Scraper</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83346)</td> - <td class="tdr">85 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>73.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_73">Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72289)</td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>74.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_74">Adze or scraper</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90528)</td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>75.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_75">Chipped celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87571)</td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>76.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_76">Chipped celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83272)</td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>77.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_77">Chipped celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113837)</td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>78.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_78">Hematite celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91920)</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>79.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_79">Hematite celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113925)</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>80.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_80">Hematite celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87843)</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>81.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_81">Hematite celt</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90733)</td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>82.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_82">Handled pestle, with expanding base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90876)</td> - <td class="tdr">88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>83.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_83">Pestle, long cylindrical form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115416)</td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>84.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_84">Pestle, conical</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114254)</td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>85.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_85">Pestle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65452)</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>86.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_86">Pestle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71428)</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>87.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_87">Pestle, grooved for handle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72276)</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>88.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_88">Pestle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131524)</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>89.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_89">Cupped stone or paint cup</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82509)</td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>90.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_90">Muller, showing polished surface</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116134)</td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>91.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_91">Muller, showing polished surface</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132119)</td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>92.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_92">Hammerstone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114344)</td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>93.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_93">Grooved round stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72277)</td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>94.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_94">Grooved hammer</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(107300)</td> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>95.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_95">Discoidal stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115414)</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>96.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_96">Discoidal stone, with perforation</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88137)</td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>97.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_97">Discoidal stone, with perforation</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(30234)</td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>98.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_98">Discoidal stone, with secondary depression</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82619)</td> - <td class="tdr">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>99.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_99">Discoidal stone, in form of a ring</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62708)</td> - <td class="tdr">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>100.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_100">Discoidal stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90497)</td> - <td class="tdr">103</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>101.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_101">Discoidal stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114330)</td> - <td class="tdr">103</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>102.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_102">Discoidal stone, convex</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83142)</td> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>103.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_103">Discoidal stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91805)</td> - <td class="tdr">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>104.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_104">Discoidal stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82953)</td> - <td class="tdr">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>105.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_105">Discoidal stone, with V-shaped edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116198)</td> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>106.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_106">Discoidal stone, used as mortar</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131566)</td> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>107.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_107">Discoidal stone, probably used as hammer</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97763)</td> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>108.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_108">Discoidal pottery fragment</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115873)</td> - <td class="tdr">109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>109.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_109">Spud</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115544)</td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>110.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_110">Spud</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115925)</td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>111.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_111">Spud</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88130)</td> - <td class="tdr">111</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>112.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_112">Plummet, grooved near one end</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82490)</td> - <td class="tdr">111</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>113.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_113">Plummet, double-grooved</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90746)</td> - <td class="tdr">111</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>114.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_114">Plummet, grooved near middle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114349)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>115.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_115">Plummet, grooved lengthwise</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65318)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>116.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_116">Plummet, grooveless, perforated</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65319)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>117.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_117">Plummet, double cone in shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132140)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>118.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_118">Plummet</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131923)</td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>119.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_119">Plummet</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90850)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>120.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_120">Plummet, end ground flat</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(98659)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>121.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_121">Plummet</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116072)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>122.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_122">Plummet, cylindrical</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71445)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>123.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_123">Cone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116339)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>124.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_124">Cone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72305)</td> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>125.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_125">Cone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71501)</td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>126.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_126">Cone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91944)</td> - <td class="tdr">114 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>127.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_127">Hemispheres</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>128.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_128">Hemisphere</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90729)</td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>129.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_129">Paint stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90731)</td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>130.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_130">Gorget</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88014)</td> - <td class="tdr">118</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>131.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_131">Gorget (?)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(Tho. 7834)</td> - <td class="tdr">118</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>132.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_132">Gorget, reel-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113721)</td> - <td class="tdr">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>133.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_133">Gorget</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90649)</td> - <td class="tdr">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>134.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_134">Gorget</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72125)</td> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>135.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_135">Gorget, boat shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114354)</td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>136.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_136">Gorget, resembling boat-shape stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(107323)</td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>137.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_137">Banner stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90657)</td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>138.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_138">Banner stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115685)</td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>139.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_139">Banner stone, reel-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(63186)</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>140.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_140">Banner stone, with horn-like projections</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113782)</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>141.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_141">Banner stone, crescent-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88586)</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>142.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_142">Banner stone, crescent-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115871)</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>143.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_143">Banner stone, crescent-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115900)</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>144.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_144">Butterfly banner stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>145.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_145">Butterfly banner stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90831)</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>146.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_146">Banner stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90714)</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>147.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_147">Boat-shape stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87665)</td> - <td class="tdr">124</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>148.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_148">Boat-shape stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72347)</td> - <td class="tdr">124</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>149.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_149">Pendant</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116008)</td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>150.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_150">Pick</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113742)</td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>151.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_151">Spool-shape ornament</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(38128)</td> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>152.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_152">Bird-shape stone</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88351)</td> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>153.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_153">Shaft rubber</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>154.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_154">Tube, one end flattened</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90713)</td> - <td class="tdr">128</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>155.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_155">Tube, conical</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88022)</td> - <td class="tdr">128</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>156.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_156">Tube, hour-glass form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62869)</td> - <td class="tdr">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>157.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_157">Tube, cylindrical</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88588)</td> - <td class="tdr">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>158.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_158">Pipe, flat base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90840)</td> - <td class="tdr">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>159.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_159">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116048)</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>160.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_160">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82390)</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>161.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_161">Pipe, ornamented</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72134)</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>162.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_162">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115452)</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>163.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_163">Pipe, long-stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82832)</td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>164.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_164">Pipe, short-stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115546)</td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>165.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_165">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114168)</td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>166.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_166">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114310)</td> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>167.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_167">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62808)</td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>168.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_168">Pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116024)</td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>169.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_169">Chipped spade with pointed ends</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82661)</td> - <td class="tdr">134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>170.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_170">Chipped spade with rounded ends</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88155)</td> - <td class="tdr">134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>171.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_171">Chipped spade, ovoid</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71695)</td> - <td class="tdr">136</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>172.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_172">Chipped spade</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65683)</td> - <td class="tdr">137</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>173.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_173">Chipped spade, showing handle notches</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90925)</td> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>174.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_174">Chipped spade</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88428)</td> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>175.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_175">Chipped disk, or “turtleback”</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(15335)</td> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>176.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_176">Diagram, explaining terms</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">143</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>177.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_177">Triangular chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87556<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">144</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>178.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_178">Chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90672)</td> - <td class="tdr">144</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>179.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_179">Chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116058)</td> - <td class="tdr">145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>180.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_180">Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82883)</td> - <td class="tdr">145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>181.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_181">Chipped flint, elliptical outline</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71562<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">145 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>182.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_182">Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88353)</td> - <td class="tdr">145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>183.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_183">Chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132186)</td> - <td class="tdr">146</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>184.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_184">Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical outline</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88122)</td> - <td class="tdr">146</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>185.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_185">Chipped flint, large, long, sharp point</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113767)</td> - <td class="tdr">146</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>186.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_186">Chipped flint, large</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114486)</td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>187.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_187">Chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91921<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>188.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_188">Chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114277)</td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>189.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_189">Chipped flint, with shoulders</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115419)</td> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>190.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_190">Chipped flint, small</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(62883)</td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>191.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_191">Chipped flint, triangular</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91754<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>192.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_192">Chipped flint, asymmetric</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115404)</td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>193.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_193">Chipped flint, concave edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82832)</td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>194.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_194">Chipped flint, triangular</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88072)</td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>195.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_195">Chipped flint, small</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131633)</td> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>196.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_196">Chipped flint, short, convex edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114539)</td> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>197.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_197">Chipped flint, triangular</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83235)</td> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>198.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_198">Chipped flint, concave edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65811)</td> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>199.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_199">Chipped flint, convex base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114405)</td> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>200.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_200">Chipped flint, edges concave</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91921<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>201.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_201">Chipped flint, pentagonal</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115634)</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>202.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_202">Chipped flint, narrow and thick</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115665)</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>203.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_203">Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87555)</td> - <td class="tdr">151</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>204.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_204">Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97754)</td> - <td class="tdr">151</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>205.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_205">Chipped flint, expanding shoulder</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132212)</td> - <td class="tdr">152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>206.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_206">Chipped flint, double-curved edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83409<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>207.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_207">Chipped flint, double-curved edges</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113605<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>208.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_208">Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(72123)</td> - <td class="tdr">152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>209.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_209">Chipped flint, with long, tapering stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82718)</td> - <td class="tdr">153</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>210.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_210">Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge shape</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91859<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">153</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>211.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_211">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65803)</td> - <td class="tdr">153</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>212.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_212">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(115405)</td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>213.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_213">Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71562<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>214.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_214">Stemmed chipped flint, short blade</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90750)</td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>215.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_215">Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113821)</td> - <td class="tdr">155</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>216.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_216">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113726)</td> - <td class="tdr">155</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>217.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_217">Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87847)</td> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>218.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_218">Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or shoulder</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91731)</td> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>219.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_219">Stemmed chipped flint, short</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90673)</td> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>220.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_220">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87664)</td> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>221.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_221">Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65817)</td> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>222.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_222">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65786)</td> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>223.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_223">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90739<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>224.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_224">Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88323)</td> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>225.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_225">Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83409<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>226.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_226">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131775)</td> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>227.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_227">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71562<i>c</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>228.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_228">Stemmed chipped flint, broad point</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71562<i>d</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>229.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_229">Stemmed chipped flint, slender point</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87837)</td> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>230.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_230">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90760)</td> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>231.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_231">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114558)</td> - <td class="tdr">160</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>232.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_232">Stemmed chipped flint, thin</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91921<i>d</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">160</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>233.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_233">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116059)</td> - <td class="tdr">160</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>234.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_234">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113741)</td> - <td class="tdr">160</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>235.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_235">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(114340)</td> - <td class="tdr">160 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>236.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_236">Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(116047)</td> - <td class="tdr">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>237.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_237">Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97547)</td> - <td class="tdr">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>238.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_238">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(65614)</td> - <td class="tdr">162</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>239.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_239">Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113894)</td> - <td class="tdr">162</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>240.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_240">Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90739<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">162</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>241.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_241">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(82686)</td> - <td class="tdr">163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>242.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_242">Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91754<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>243.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_243">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91921<i>c</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>244.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_244">Stemmed chipped flint, very rough</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91136)</td> - <td class="tdr">164</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>245.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_245">Perforator, not stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87556<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">165</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>246.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_246">Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90843)</td> - <td class="tdr">165</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>247.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_247">Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90759)</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>248.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_248">Perforator, not stemmed, rough base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91924)</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>249.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_249">Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(87951)</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>250.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_250">Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88019)</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>251.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_251">Perforator, stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(113605<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>252.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_252">Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91754<i>c</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>253.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_253">Perforator, stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>254.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_254">Perforator, stemmed</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(83409<i>c</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>255.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_255">Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132226)</td> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>256.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_256">Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt”</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132204)</td> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>257.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_257">Stemmed scraper</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132190)</td> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>258.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_258">Stemmed scraper</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(71560)</td> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>259.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_259">Stemless scraper, celt form</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(131749)</td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>260.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_260">Stemless scraper, flake</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(90822)</td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>261.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_261">Cores</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97526)</td> - <td class="tdr">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>262.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_262">Core</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97520)</td> - <td class="tdr">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>263.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_263">Flake, chipped for scraper</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(91968)</td> - <td class="tdr">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>264.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_264">Flake, chipped for knife or arrowhead</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(97537)</td> - <td class="tdr">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>265.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_265">Flake, slender, probably for lancet</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(88018)</td> - <td class="tdr">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>266.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_266">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132176)</td> - <td class="tdr">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>267.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_267">Stemmed chipped flint, winged</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132213)</td> - <td class="tdr">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>268.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_268">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132174)</td> - <td class="tdr">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>269.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_269">Stemmed chipped flint, barbed</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>270.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_270">Stemmed chipped flint, broad</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132235<i>b</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>271.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_271">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>272.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_272">Stemmed chipped flint, slender</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132208)</td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>273.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_273">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>274.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_274">Stemmed chipped flint, triangular</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>275.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_275">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(132235<i>a</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>276.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_276">Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem</a></td> - <td class="tdr">(63150)</td> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>277.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_277">Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from use</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>278.</td> - <td><a href="#FIG_278">Stemmed chipped flint</a></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<p class="ph1">STONE ART<br /> - -<span class="xlarge">By <span class="smcap">Gerard Fowke</span></span></p> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<h4 id="BASIS_FOR_THE_WORK"><span class="smcap">Basis for the Work.</span></h4> - -<p>The collection of the Bureau of Ethnology includes almost every type -of stone implement or ornament, and as the investigations and explorations -of the collaborators have extended over nearly all the eastern and -central portions of the Mississippi valley, it furnishes a substantial -basis for showing the geographic distribution of various forms of objects -in use among the aboriginal inhabitants.</p> - -<p>It has not been deemed advisable to utilize material contained in -other collections. Should this be done there would be no reason for -drawing upon one rather than another, and if it were once begun the -examination would finally extend to every collection made from American -localities, a study which, although perhaps desirable, would transcend -the scope of the Bureau plans.</p> - -<p>Much that has been published in regard to the distribution of relics -in various portions of the country is of little value to a paper of this -kind, since few of the objects are sufficiently illustrated or referred to -any class in other than the most general terms; so that it is frequently -impossible to determine the group in which a given article should be -placed. Partly for this reason, partly because the primary purpose is -description of a certain collection made in a definite way, little space -is given to the descriptive work of predecessors in the field of archeology. -The general results of previous work are, however, carefully -weighed in the conclusions reached.</p> - -<h4 id="CLASSIFICATION_OF_OBJECTS_AND_MATERIALS"><span class="smcap">Classification of Objects and Materials.</span></h4> - -<p>The ordinary division into chipped and pecked or ground implements -has been adopted: the former including all such as are more easily -worked by flaking, and the latter including those made from stone -suitable for working down by pecking into form with stone hammers -or by similar means. The system of nomenclature in general use has -been retained, as it is now familiar to students of North American -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -archeology, and, while not entirely satisfactory in some respects, is -perhaps as good as can be devised in the present state of knowledge.</p> - -<p>Careful study of the entire collection has failed to show the slightest -difference in the form, finish, or material of implements from the same -locality, whether found in mounds or graves or on the surface; hence -no attempt is made to separate the two classes of objects. Allowance -is to be made for the weathering of a surface specimen, but this is the -only distinction.</p> - -<p>It is not always easy to identify a stone, even with a fresh surface; -in a weathered specimen it is often impossible. For this reason the -material of which a specimen is made may not be correctly named; frequently -the alteration due to exposure will change the appearance of a -rock very much, and in such a case the best that can be done is to tell -what it looks most like. The material of a majority of specimens however, -or at least the classes of rock to which they belong, as granite, -porphyry, etc., are correctly named; to give a more exact name would -be possible only by the destruction or injury of the specimen. There -are a few terms used which may be here explained.</p> - -<p>“Compact quartzite” is a very hard, close-grained, siliceous rock, -sometimes nearly a flint, and again closely approaching novaculite. -“Greenstone” may be diorite or diabase, or it may be a very compact -dark sandstone or quartzite so weathered that its nature can not be -determined from superficial observation. “Argillite” refers to any slaty -rock; it may be so soft as to be easily cut with a knife, or nearly as hard -as quartzite. Usually it is greenish in color.</p> - -<p>A comprehensive study of all available collections will no doubt modify -materially the classification and system of types here presented.</p> - -<p>The quotations from eminent anthropologists given below show the -difficulties in the way of establishing a satisfactory system of types, or -of assigning certain forms to particular localities. In most of these -quotations the substance only of the author’s remarks is given.</p> - -<p>According to Dr. E. B. Tylor, the flint arrows of the Dakota, the -Apache, or the Comanche might easily be mistaken for the weapons -dug up on the banks of the Thames;<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> while cores of flint in Scandinavia -and of obsidian in Mexico are exactly alike,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and a tray filled with European -arrowheads can not be distinguished from a tray of American -ones.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Prof. Otis T. Mason observes that the great variety of form in -such weapons after they are finished is due partly to nature and partly -to the workman’s desire to produce a certain kind of implement. All -sorts of pebbles lie at the hand of the savage mechanic, none of them -just what he wants. He selects the best.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Perhaps the truth about -the shape is that the savage found it thus and let it so remain.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> - -<p>The state of things among the lower tribes which presents itself to -the student is a substantial similarity in knowledge, arts, and customs, -running through the whole world. Not that the whole culture of all -tribes is alike—far from it; but if any art or custom belonging to a low -tribe is selected at random, the likelihood is that something substantially -like it may be found in at least one place thousands of miles off, though -it frequently happens that there are large intervening areas where it -has not been observed.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> - -<p>On the whole, it seems most probable that many of the simpler -weapons, implements, etc., have been invented independently by various -savage tribes. Though they are remarkably similar, they are at -the same time curiously different. The necessaries of life are simple -and similar all over the world. The materials with which men have to -deal are also very much alike; wood, bone, and to a certain extent -stone, have everywhere the same properties. The obsidian flakes of -the Aztecs resemble the flint flakes of our ancestors, not so much because -the ancient Briton resembled the Aztec, as because the fracture -of flint is like that of obsidian. So also the pointed bones used as -awls are necessarily similar all over the world. Similarity exists, in -fact, rather in the raw material than in the manufactured article, and -some even of the simplest implements of stone are very different among -different races.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> - -<p>Tylor again says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>When, however, their full value has been given to the differences in the productions -of the Ground Stone Age, there remains a residue of a most remarkable kind. -In the first place, a very small number of classes, flakes, knives, scrapers, spear and -arrow heads, celts, and hammers take in the great mass of specimens in museums; -and in the second place, the prevailing character of these implements, whether -modern or thousands of years old, whether found on this side of the world or on the -other, is a marked uniformity. The ethnographer who has studied the stone implements -of Europe, Asia, North or South America, or Polynesia, may consider the -specimens from the district he has studied as types from which those of other -districts differ, as a class, by the presence or absence of a few peculiar instruments, -and individually in more or less important details of shape or finish, unless, as sometimes -happens, they do not differ perceptibly at all. So great is this uniformity in -the stone implements of different places and times, that it goes far to neutralize -their value as distinctive of different races. It is clear that no great help in tracing -the minute history of the growth and migration of tribes is to be got from an -arrowhead which might have come from Polynesia, or Siberia, or the Isle of Man, -or from a celt which might be, for all its appearance shows, Mexican, Irish, or -Tahitian. If an observer, tolerably acquainted with stone implements, had an -unticketed collection placed before him, the largeness of the number of specimens -which he would not confidently assign, by mere inspection, to their proper countries, -would serve as a fair measure of their general uniformity. Even when aided by -mineralogical knowledge, often a great help, he would have to leave a large fraction -of the whole in an unclassified heap, confessing that he did not know within -thousands of miles or thousands of years where and when they were made.</p> - -<p>How, then, is this remarkable uniformity to be explained? The principle that -man does the same thing under the same circumstances will account for much, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -it is very doubtful whether it can be stretched far enough to account for even the -greater proportion of the facts in question. The other side of the argument is, of -course, that resemblance is due to connection, and the truth is made up of the two, -though in what proportion we do not know.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>While the several authors quoted do not fully agree, and some are -even slightly self-contradictory, still, if the statements are to be taken -at their face value, it would seem that efforts to make such classifications -are mainly a waste of time.</p> - -<p>It may be premised that in every class of implements there are -almost as many forms as specimens, if every variation in size or pattern -is to be considered; and these merge into one another imperceptibly. -Not only is this the case with individual types, but the classes -themselves, totally unlike as their more pronounced forms may be, -gradually approach one another until there is found a medium type -whose place can not be definitely fixed.</p> - -<h2 id="THE_ARTS_AND_THEIR_DISTRIBUTION">THE ARTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.</h2> - -<h4 id="DISTRICTS"><span class="smcap">Districts.</span></h4> - -<p>As space would be needlessly occupied by attempting to name each -county, the area from which specimens have been obtained is, for -convenience, divided into districts. These divisions are for use in this -article only, and are not intended as archeologic districts.</p> - -<p>In the tables given under each heading, the names of counties or -districts show where the types described are obtained; the columns -following show the number of specimens of each material mentioned -in the collection of the Bureau.</p> - -<p>Where a limited area only has been examined in any division, the -name of the county is usually given; but where specimens of any kind -have been obtained from different counties near one another, they are -assigned to the district including those counties. The districts are as -follows:</p> - -<h6><i>Arkansas.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Northeastern: Between White and Mississippi rivers.</p> - -<p>Southeastern: Between White and Washita rivers from Clarendon to -Arkadelphia.</p> - -<p>Southwestern: West of Washita river and south of Arkadelphia, -including Bowie and Red River counties, Texas.</p> - -<p>Central: From Dardanelles southward and eastward to the above -limits.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Alabama.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Northeastern: Bordering Tennessee river east of Decatur.</p> - -<p>Northwestern: Bordering Tennessee river west of Decatur. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -Coosa: Bordering Coosa river southward to and including Dallas -county.</p> - -<p>Tuscaloosa: Bordering the Tuscaloosa and Little Tombigbee, and -extending a short distance below their confluence.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Ohio.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Miami valley: The country along the two Miami rivers, including -Shelby county on the north and Madison and Brown counties on -the east.</p> - -<p>Scioto valley: South of Franklin county, including Adams and Lawrence -counties.</p> - -<p>Central: Including Union, Knox, Perry, and Franklin counties, and -the area within these limits.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Wisconsin.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Southwestern: The counties bordering on either side of Mississippi -river from La Crosse to Dubuque (Iowa).</p> - -<p>Eastern: The portion between Lake Michigan, Lake Winnebago, and -the Illinois line.</p> - -<p>Southern: Dane and adjoining counties.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Iowa.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Keokuk: The southeastern corner of the state and adjacent portions -of Illinois and Missouri.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Tennessee.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Eastern: All the mountain district, with the extreme southwestern -part of Virginia.</p> - -<p>Western: From Mississippi river to and including the tier of counties -east of the Tennessee.</p> - -<p>Northern: The northern half of the interior portion.</p> - -<p>Southern: The southern half of this portion.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>South Carolina.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Northwestern: North and west of a line from Lancaster to Columbia. -As no other portion of the state has been examined under direction -of the Bureau, only the name of the state is used herein, reference -being always to this section.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Georgia.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Northwestern: The portion northwest of the Chattahoochee.</p> - -<p>Southwestern: Area contiguous to the lower Chattahoochee and Flint -river.</p> - -<p>Savannah: The vicinity of the city of Savannah, where a large -collection was gathered.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p> - -<h6><i>Kentucky.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Northeastern: Between Kentucky, Big Sandy, and Ohio rivers.</p> - -<p>Southeastern: From Estill and Cumberland counties to the Tennessee -and Virginia state lines.</p> - -<p>Central: Between Green and Ohio rivers, west of the last described -districts.</p> - -<p>Southern: From Green river southward and as far westward as Christian -county.</p> - -<p>Western: West of Green river and Christian county.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>North Carolina.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Western: West of Charlotte.</p> - -<p>Central: Between Charlotte and Raleigh.</p></blockquote> - -<h6><i>Illinois.</i></h6> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Southwestern: From the mouth of the Cumberland to Washington -county, and thence to the Mississippi.</p></blockquote> - -<h4 id="DESCRIPTIVE_TERMS"><span class="smcap">Descriptive Terms.</span></h4> - -<p>The various forms of implements will now be considered. As stated -above, the names given the various articles are those by which they are -usually known; but it may be well to define some of the terms used.</p> - -<p>In the grooved axes, <i>edge</i> refers to the cutting portion; <i>blade</i>, to the -part below the groove; <i>poll</i> or <i>head</i>, to that above the groove; <i>face</i>, to -the wider or flat portion of the surface; <i>side</i>, to the narrower part; -<i>front</i>, to that side farther from the hand, and <i>back</i>, to the side nearer -the hand when in use.</p> - -<p>In celts, the terms are the same, so far as they are applicable; <i>blade</i> -referring to the lower half of the implement; that is, to the portion on -which the cutting edge is formed.</p> - -<h3 id="GROUND_AND_PECKED_ARTICLES"><span class="smcap">Ground and Pecked Articles.</span></h3> - -<h4 id="GROOVED_AXES"><span class="smcap">Grooved Axes.</span></h4> - -<p>The implements known as grooved axes seem to be of general distribution -throughout the United States; being, so far can be learned from -various writers, much more numerous east of Mississippi river than -west of it. It must be remembered, however, that thousands of diligent -collectors have carefully searched for such things in the east, while in -the west little attention has been paid to them; consequently, deductions -are not to be made concerning their relative abundance or scarcity, -until further knowledge is gained. The same remark will apply to -every form of aboriginal relic. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p> - -<p>In the eastern and interior states, the grooved axes are far more -abundant than the celts of the same size<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>, because as a rule only the -larger implements of this class are grooved. All the ordinary varieties -of axes and hatchets are found about Lake Champlain, by far the most -abundant being celts, or grooveless axes.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> - -<p>According to Adair and other early observers, the southern Indians -had axes of stone, around the grooved heads of which they twisted -hickory withes to serve as handles; with these they deadened timber -by girdling or cutting through the bark.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> According to travelers of a -later generation among the western Indians, similar implements were -used on the plains to chop up the vertebræ of buffaloes, which were -boiled to obtain the marrow.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p> - -<p>These statements, which might be multiplied, show that such objects -are to be found widely scattered; -none, however, give information -more definite than that the axes -are “grooved,” no reference being -made to the shape of the ax or the -manner of grooving.</p> - -<p>The various modes of mounting -axes and celts in handles are illustrated -in the Smithsonian Report -for 1879.</p> - -<p>Stone axes were used in Europe -by the Germans at as late a period -as the Thirty Years’ war, and are -supposed to have been used by the -Anglo-Saxons at the battle of Hastings.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_29" src="images/fig_29.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Grooved ax, showing groove projections.</p> -</div> - -<p>Axes having two grooves occur -in considerable numbers in the pueblos of southwestern United States, -but they are extremely rare elsewhere and unknown in most districts; -as the objects are generally small, the utility of the second groove is -not evident.</p> - -<p>The arrangement of stone axes may be based upon the manner of -forming the groove. In one class are placed those which in the process -of making had a ridge left encircling the weapon, in which the groove -was formed. This gives the ax greater strength with the same material. -Usually the groove has been worked just deep enough to reach -the body of the ax; that is, to such a depth that should the projections -be ground off there would remain a celt-like implement (as shown in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -<a href="#FIG_29">figure 29</a>, of chlorite-schist, from Sullivan county, Tennessee). The axes -of this class in the Bureau collection are shown in the following table:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Greenstone.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Granite.<br /> -E = Schist.<br /> -F = Quartzite. -</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In the second class the groove is formed by pecking into the body -of the ax after the latter is dressed into shape; in this pattern a regular -continuous line from edge to poll would touch only the margins of -the groove, leaving it beneath. An apparent medium between the two -is sometimes seen, in which there is a projection on the lower side of the -groove only; this is due, usually, to dressing the blade down thinner -after the implement was originally worked to a symmetric outline. -By continuous or long use the edge of the ax becomes broken or -blunted and requires sharpening, and in -order to keep the proper outline to make -the tool efficient, it is necessary to work -the blade thinner as it becomes shorter. -No such change is required in the poll, -consequently a projection is formed where -originally there was no trace of one.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_30" src="images/fig_30.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Grooved ax, showing pointed -edge.</p> -</div> - -<p>There are different methods of finishing -the ax, which may appear with either -form of groove. The poll may be worked -into the shape of a flattened hemisphere, -may be flat on top, with the part between -the groove and the top straight, convex -or concave, or may be worked to a blunt -point, with straight or concave lines to -the groove. The blade may taper from -the groove to the edge, with straight or -curved sides, which may run almost parallel or may be drawn to a -blunt-pointed edge. This latter form is probably due to breaking or -wearing of the blade, which is reworked, as shown in <a href="#FIG_30">figure 30</a>, of granite, -from Boone county, Missouri.</p> - -<p>There are a very few specimens, as noted below, in which the ax -gradually increases in width from the poll to the edge; but such specimens -seem to be made of stones which had this form approximately at -the beginning, and were worked into such shape as would give a suitable -implement with the least labor.</p> - -<p>In nearly every instance the groove of an ax with a groove projection -extends entirely around with practically the same depth, and the blade -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -of the ax has an elliptical section. There are, however, a few with the -back flattened; and while many of the second division may be similar in -section, and in having the groove extend entirely around, yet in this -class are to be placed nearly all of those only partly encircled by a -groove or showing some other section than the ellipse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"><img id="FIG_31" src="images/fig_31.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_32" src="images/fig_32.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Grooved ax, showing -groove entirely around.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Grooved ax, slender, -showing groove entirely around.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>With these exceptions, the second class of grooved stone axes comprises -seven groups, which may be described and tabulated as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Grooved entirely around, elliptical section, polls dressed in any -of the ways given above; three or four have the blunt-pointed edge -(<a href="#FIG_31">figure 31</a>, of granite, from Bradley county, Tennessee).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ross county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green River, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keokuk district, Iowa</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Greenstone.<br /> -B = Granite.<br /> -C = Diorite.<br /> -D = Sandstone.<br /> -E = Quartzite.<br /> -F = Argillite.<br /> -G = Slate.<br /> -H = Sienite.<br /> -I = Porphyry.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span></p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Long, narrow, and thin, giving a much flattened elliptical section. -These are classed with axes on account of the grooves, although too -thin and usually of material too soft to endure violent usage. The -edges are nicked, striated, or polished, as though from use as hoes or -adzes (<a href="#FIG_32">figure 32</a>, of argillite, from Bradley county, Tennessee).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keokuk district, Iowa</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Granite.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Slate.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_33" src="images/fig_33.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_34" src="images/fig_34.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Grooved ax, showing -grooved back.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Grooved ax, showing -grooved back.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Grooved on both faces and one side; back hollowed, usually in a -straight line the whole length; front drawn in from the groove to give -a narrower edge (figures 33, of porphyry, from Brown county, Ohio, and -34, of granite, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brown county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Granite.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Porphyry.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Same method of grooving; back is rounded, and may be in a -straight or curved line the entire length, or a broken line straight in -each direction from the groove. The type is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_35">figure 35</a>, -of granite, from Keokuk, Iowa. This specimen is unusually wide and -thin; generally the outlines are similar to those last described.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keokuk district, Iowa</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Granite.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Sienite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_35" src="images/fig_35.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Grooved ax, showing rounded back.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Grooved like the last; same general form, except that the back -is flat (<a href="#FIG_36">figures 36</a>, of sienite, from Brown county, Ohio, and <a href="#FIG_37">37</a>, of granite, -from Drew county, Arkansas).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brown county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keokuk district, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brown county, Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Licking county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Granite.<br /> -D = Sienite.<br /> -E = Greenstone.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Grooved on both faces and one side, with both sides flat. There -is only one of this form in the collection; it is of argillite, from Keokuk, -Iowa.</p> - -<p><i>G.</i> Grooved on faces only, with both sides flat (<a href="#FIG_38">figure 38</a>, of granite, -from Keokuk, Iowa). There are from the same place one of porphyry, -one of argillite, and three of sienite. This and the preceding form -seem peculiar to that locality.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_36" src="images/fig_36.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"><img id="FIG_37" src="images/fig_37.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>There are a few exceptional forms which are not placed with those -just given, since they may have some features common to all except -the Keokuk type, while in other respects they differ from all. Among -them are some entire-grooved or grooved only on the two sides and one -face; the general outline may correspond with some of the regular -forms, but one face is curved from poll to edge, while the other is -straight or nearly so (<a href="#FIG_39">figure 39</a>, of granite, from Wilkes county, North -Carolina). This specimen has a depression, as if worn by the end of a -handle, on the straight face at the lower edge of the groove.</p> - -<p>None of this form are long enough for hoes, and although they may -have been used for axes and hatchets, their shape seems to indicate -use as adzes. Besides the one figured there are two from Savannah, -Georgia; three from eastern Tennessee, one with a slight groove and -very deep side notches; and three from western North Carolina, two of -them entire-grooved with groove projections. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_38" src="images/fig_38.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"><img id="FIG_39" src="images/fig_39.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Grooved ax, Keokuk type.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Grooved ax, showing adze form.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Another unusual form, which may come under any of the foregoing -figures, has the groove crossing the implement diagonally, in such a -way as to cause the blade to incline backward (<a href="#FIG_40">figure 40</a>, of granite, -from Carter county, Tennessee). Besides the specimen illustrated, this -form is also represented by one of granite from northwestern North -Carolina with projection for groove; two of argillite from southwestern -Tennessee; one, widest at edge, from Savannah, Georgia; one from -Ross county, Ohio; and two of granite, highly polished, grooved on -faces and one side, with backs flat, from Kanawha valley, West -Virginia.</p> - -<p>Of the axes wider at the edge than at any point above (of which the -specimen illustrated in <a href="#FIG_41">figure 41</a>, of granite, from a -grave at Kingsport, Tennessee, may be taken as a -type,) there are one of diorite from Kanawha valley, -West Virginia, which seems to -have been of ordinary pattern but -broken and redressed to its present -form; and from Savannah, -Georgia, one of uniform taper with -diagonal groove, and one widening -irregularly until the blade is fully -twice the width of the poll.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_40" src="images/fig_40.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"><img id="FIG_41" src="images/fig_41.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Grooved ax, showing wide edge.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Many, if not a majority, of the -entire-grooved axes have the -groove wide enough for a very large handle, or for -an ordinary withe to be twisted twice around. In -those which have one side ungrooved, the intention -was to admit a wedge between the stone and the -curve of the handle. The handles were very firmly -fastened; two axes in the collection have been broken in such a way -that on one side, from the top half way down, the blade is gone, carrying -away the groove on that side; yet the polish of the groove extends -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -over the fractured surface, which has never been reworked, showing -that the tool was long used after this accident. As the handles could -easily slip off over the top in specimens thus broken, they must have -been tightly lashed; perhaps gum or glue was used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_42" src="images/fig_42.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Grooved ax, showing curved edge.</p> -</div> - -<p>Partly finished specimens show that the groove was pecked out and -the edge ground before the remaining parts of -the ax were worked. Some have the edge ground -sharp and the groove worn smooth or even polished -by long use, while all the rest of the implement -retains the original weathered surface. A stone -was always chosen that could be brought to the -desired form with the least labor, and very often -one could be found that required but little work to -make a very satisfactory weapon or implement or -even ornament.</p> - -<p>Occasionally specimens indicate by the manner -of wear their application to certain kinds of work. -Sometimes the edge is curved by the wearing away -of one face until it has almost a gouge form; sometimes -the side of the blade next the hand, again -that farthest away, is more worn. This in time -would give the blunt-pointed edge. A peculiar -finish of the lower part of the blade, which is also -seen in a few celts, is shown in <a href="#FIG_42">figure 42</a>, of sienite, -from Carter county, Tennessee. One half of each -face has been left full, and the part opposite hollowed -out, giving an ogee curve to the edge. <a href="#FIG_43">Figure 43</a>, of granite, -from Jefferson county, Tennessee, seems to have a ridge on the upper -side of the groove; but closer examination shows that it once had a -groove projection, and that afterwards the poll -was nearly all broken away and a new groove -made lower down, so that what was originally -the lower projection is now above the groove, -the remainder of the poll being worked down -to a point.</p> - -<p>There are a few hammers which differ from -the ordinary ax only in being blunt instead -of sharp. They may be nothing more than -broken axes, utilized as hammers instead of -being resharpened.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_43" src="images/fig_43.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Grooved ax, showing single groove projection.</p> -</div> - -<p>Under this head may be placed implements -plainly used as adzes. They are much longer than axes in proportion -to their other dimensions, have one face convex, the other straight or -concave. They may be placed in the same class as the specimen shown -in <a href="#FIG_39">figure 39</a>, and also those represented in <a href="#FIG_44">figures 44</a> and <a href="#FIG_45">45</a>, from -McMinn county, Tennessee. There is also a similar adze from Saline -county, Arkansas. All the specimens of this class are of argillite. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p> - -<p>With the grooved axes is also placed a class of implements that may -be called axes notched on the sides. Many of them were no doubt used -as sinkers; but some of the same form, size, and material have the -notches and sometimes portions of the face worn perfectly smooth, while -frequently they are ground to a sharp edge. Again, even in those -that have not the least polish, the edge shows marks that would seem -to result from use as axes, adzes, or hoes.</p> - -<p>There are three divisions of this class of implements, as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Unworked, except notches; probably sinkers.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Quartzite.<br /> -D = Limestone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>B.</i> Partly ground sharp edges, mostly with polished notches, sometimes -with faces polished from one notch to the other (<a href="#FIG_46">figure 46</a>, of argillite, -from Cocke county, Tennessee). In addition there are 11 examples -of argillite, besides one of mica-schist from eastern Tennessee and -another of sandstone from Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_44" src="images/fig_44.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_45" src="images/fig_45.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Grooved adze.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Grooved adze, showing curved blade.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Roughly chipped, with notches often at the middle but sometimes -nearer one end. Probably most of these were sinkers; but as above -stated the edges show marks of use, apparently in scraping, digging, -or striking. Of these the following examples are in the Bureau collection: -From several localities in eastern Tennessee, 40 of argillite; from -Montgomery county, North Carolina, 24 of argillite and quartzite; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and from Savannah, Georgia, a -few specimens of the same materials.</p> - -<h4 id="CELTS"><span class="smcap">Celts.</span></h4> - -<p>What is true of the uses and distribution of stone axes applies with -much the same force to what are called celts—not a good descriptive -term, but one which is now given to the implement in lieu of something -better. It would appear difficult or impossible to do with these rude -tools any work for which we commonly use an ax or hatchet; and yet, -by the aid of fire, or even without it, the aborigines contrived to accomplish -a great deal with them.</p> - -<p>The Maori of New Zealand do all their wonderful work of wood -carving with only a chisel or adze (of stone or shell).<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Among the -Iroquois, in cutting trees, fire was applied at the root, the coals were -scraped away with a chisel, and this process was repeated until the -tree was felled. The trunk was divided into lengths in the same way. -Similarly canoes and mortars were hollowed out.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> The Virginia Indians -at an early day employed a similar process. -They also cleared ground for cultivation by -deadening trees with their tomahawks,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> -and used adzes made of shell in cleaning -out the charred wood in making canoes.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> -The Nootka of the northwestern part of -the continent in felling a tree use a flint or -elkhorn set in a handle, this being struck -with a stone mallet. In hollowing canoes -a musselshell also is used as an adze, and -sometimes fire is applied. The outside is -shaped by similar means.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_46" src="images/fig_46.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Notched ax, showing polished edge.</p> -</div> - -<p>Stone chisels have been found in various -steatite quarries, where vessels and other -utensils of this material were made, and the marks of their use is plain -both on the vessels in an unfinished state and on the cores, as well as -on the quarry face.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> - -<p>The different ways of hafting, as shown by specimens in the Bureau -collection, were as follows:</p> - -<p>(1) A hole was cut entirely through a stick and the celt was inserted -so that it would project on both sides;</p> - -<p>(2) The hole was cut partly through, and the celt was pushed in as -far as it would go; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p> - -<p>(3) The top of the celt was set in a socket of deer horn, which was -put into a handle as in form 2;</p> - -<p>(4) Small celt-shaped knives or scrapers were set into the end of a -piece of antler long enough to be used as a handle;</p> - -<p>(5) A forked branch was so cut as to make two prongs of nearly -equal length, and the celt was fastened to the end of one, parallel with -it, the other being used to guide and steady it, a prong being held in -each hand;</p> - -<p>(6) The fork of a root or branch was trimmed so as to make a flat face -at any desired angle, to which the celt was lashed, a shoulder, against -which the end of the celt was set, being sometimes cut in the wood;</p> - -<p>(7) A stick was split its entire length and a single turn taken around -the celt, the ends being brought together and tied, forming a round -handle;</p> - -<p>(8) A stick was split part way, one fork cut off and the other wrapped -once or twice and tied, thus forming a round handle of solid wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_47" src="images/fig_47.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_48" src="images/fig_48.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Celt, showing blade thick near edge.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Celt, showing blade thick near edge.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Forms 5 and 6 were used as adzes; forms 7 and 8 are the same -methods as employed in hafting grooved axes.</p> - -<p>A mounting similar to form 4 is seen in some Alaska specimens of -celt-scrapers in which the implement is fastened to a piece of wood so -as to project a short distance, and used like a plane. In all these, the -celt is very firmly fastened to the handle with sinew or rawhide, which, -when put on green, contracts with great force and binds like wire.</p> - -<p>As to the forms of celts, no division is practicable based on anything -but their entire appearance. The following descriptions and tabulations -represent the material of this kind in the Bureau collection:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Round or nearly round section, pointed or flattened at the top, -blade rapidly thickening from the edge; a few are polished at the top, -but most of them show marks of a maul or hammer; all have been highly -polished; all of this class were probably used as wedges, as their -shape renders them more fit for this purpose than for any other; the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -battered tops indicate such usage. The few not showing such marks -may have been set into a bumper of wood or horn, or used with wooden -mauls. They vary in length from 2½ to 7½ inches. They are represented -by the specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_47">figure 47</a>, of argillite, from Lincoln county, -Arkansas; there are also one from a mound in Sumter county, Alabama -(<a href="#FIG_48">figure 48</a>), and one from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, both of -serpentine and elliptical in section, though the form of the edge puts -them in this class. The following specimens are typical representations -of the class:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Madison county, Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sienite.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Granite.<br /> -D = Rotten limestone.<br /> -E = Sandstone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_49" src="images/fig_49.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Celt, showing long, slender form.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Long, narrow, elliptical section, pointed top, curved or straight -edges, sides straight or gently curved. None of these seem to have -been put to any rough use, as the edges are quite sharp and the entire -surface is well polished; length from 4¼ to 12½ inches. The type is -illustrated by <a href="#FIG_49">figure 49</a>, of argillite, from a mound in Monroe county, -Tennessee.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Argillite.<br /> -B = Granite.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Sienite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>C.</i> Thick, almost round section, round-pointed top, nearly straight -to sharp-curved edge, sides gently curved, widest at edge or just above. -Most of these show marks of use as cutting tools or hatchets. In -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -many the top has been roughened as if for insertion into a hole cut -in a piece of wood; others have this roughening around the middle or -immediately above, leaving a polish at both ends, and these were hafted -probably by means of a stick or withe twisted around them. The -roughening is a secondary operation, having no relation -to the making of the implement; it was produced by pecking -after the surface was polished. In a -few cases it extends from the top well -down the sides; but usually it reaches -but a little way below the top, or else is -in a circle around the body of the celt. -Most of them have sharp edges; a few -have edges either chipped or blunted -and polished, showing long usage. Two -from Kanawha valley (one roughened for -handle) have the edges worn in on one -of the faces until they almost resemble -gouges; but that they were not intended -as such is shown by the concavity being -nearer one side and not reaching entirely -across. The length ranges from 4½ to 10 -inches. The type is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_50">figures 50</a> and <a href="#FIG_51">51</a>, both -of sienite, from Lauderdale county, Tennessee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<img id="FIG_50" src="images/fig_50.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Celt, -nearly round section.</p> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<img id="FIG_51" src="images/fig_51.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Celt, nearly -round section.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This may be regarded as the typical form of celt for eastern United -States, and its geographic distribution is exceptionally wide, as shown -in the table.</p> - -<p>The Bureau collection includes the following specimens of this class:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coosa district, Alabama</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ross county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Knox county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green river, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crawford county, Wisconsin</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="9"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Porphyry.<br /> -B = Sienite.<br /> -C = Granite.<br /> -D = Argillite.<br /> -E = Greenstone.<br /> -F = Sandstone.<br /> -G = Diorite.<br /> -H = Compact quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Of the form last described, except in being much thinner; some -have the tops battered, showing use as wedges; length from 3 to 9 -inches.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green river, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Argillite.<br /> -B = Porphyry.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Diorite.<br /> -E = Sandstone.<br /> -F = Granite.<br /> -G = Hornblende.<br /> -H = Greenstone.<br /> -I = Serpentine.<br /> -J = Compact quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_52" src="images/fig_52.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Celt, showing nearly diamond -section.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Pointed oval, or nearly diamond section, sides straight or slightly -curved; length 6 to 12½ inches. Few as these are, they vary considerably -in appearance. The group is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_52">figure 52</a>, showing a -specimen of brown flint, containing -numerous small deposits of chalcedony, -from Benton county, Tennessee; polished -over the entire surface, the edge highly -so.</p> - -<p>In addition, there are the following -examples: From Caldwell county, North -Carolina, one of porphyry and one of -granite, the latter roughened on sides -for handle; from McMinn county, Tennessee, -one of gray flint, highly polished -over its surface, except the top, which -is much battered; from Cocke county, -Tennessee, one of argillite.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Elliptical section, flattened or -rounded top, edge curved or nearly -straight, sides straight or gently curved, -tapering from edge to top or in a few -cases nearly parallel. These present -many variations in finish and in evidence -of use. Some are well polished -over the entire surface; some have only the lower part polished; while -some are entirely without polish except at the extreme edge. In some -the top is battered; some have the surface roughened for handle at -the top, others around the middle, still others all over the upper half -or even more than half. One from McMinn county, Tennessee, has a -roughly pecked shallow groove at the middle. Several have the edge -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -very blunt, the faces at the edge form almost a right angle; these are -thickest very near the edge and become gradually thinner toward the -top. Most of this kind are from Caldwell county, North Carolina; the -same form coming also from Monroe county, Tennessee, and from -Savannah, Georgia. The length is from 3 to 7½ inches. <a href="#FIG_53">Figure 53</a>, of -compact quartzite, from Monroe county, Tennessee; <a href="#FIG_54">figure 54</a>, of granite; -and <a href="#FIG_55">figure 55</a>, of sienite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_53" src="images/fig_53.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_54" src="images/fig_54.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_55" src="images/fig_55.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Celt.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - <th>K</th> - <th>L</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, N. C.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coosa district, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, W. Va.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Keokuk, Iowa</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Wisconsin</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yazoo county, Mississippi</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="13"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Hornblende.<br /> -B = Serpentine.<br /> -C = Compact quartzite.<br /> -D = Argillite.<br /> -E = Sienite.<br /> -F = Porphyry.<br /> -G = Granite.<br /> -H = Micaceous sandstone.<br /> -I = Diorite.<br /> -J = Greenstone.<br /> -K = Sandstone.<br /> -L = Flint.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span></p> - -<p><i>G.</i> Of the same general pattern as the last, except that the sides -widen just before reaching the edge, giving a “bell -shape” (<a href="#FIG_56">figure 56</a>). The length is from 6¼ to 8 -inches. In this group there are two specimens of -granite, two of porphyry, and one of sienite, all -from Yazoo county, Mississippi. Two have their -tops roughened.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_56" src="images/fig_56.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_57" src="images/fig_57.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Celt, showing “bell -shape” and roughening for handle.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Celt, showing rectangular -section.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>H.</i> Rectangular section, occasionally with the -corners sufficiently rounded -to give a somewhat elliptical -section; top flattened or -rounded; sides straight and -parallel or nearly so, sometimes -very slightly curved. -Most have polished surfaces; -only three or four show any -battering, or roughening for -handle. A large one of -hornblende from Lauderdale -county, Tennessee, has the -edge dulled and polished by -use. Length is from 2 to 9 -inches. <a href="#FIG_57">Figure 57</a>, of argillite, -from a mound in Monroe -county, Tennessee. The distribution -of this class of celts -is wide, as shown by the following -table:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green River, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, W. V.</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Porphyry.<br /> -D = Granite.<br /> -E = Sienite.<br /> -F = Diorite.<br /> -G = Hornblende.<br /> -H = Limestone.<br /> -I = Jasper.<br /> -J = Serpentine.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>I.</i> Thickest at top (wedge form), section elliptical or nearly rectangular; -sides straight or curved, widest at edge or nearly parallel. A few -are roughened for handling, and one or two are battered at top by -hammering; most are small. The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_58">figure 58</a>, of granite, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -from Carroll county, Indiana. This class of celts also is widely distributed -and diverse in material.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green river, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crawford county, Wis.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Hornblende.<br /> -B = Granite.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Comp. quartzite.<br /> -E = Argillite.<br /> -F = Greenstone.<br /> -G = Sandstone.<br /> -H = Diorite.<br /> -I = Porphyry.<br /> -J = Basalt.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_58" src="images/fig_58.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_59" src="images/fig_59.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Celt, showing wedge-shape.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Celt, showing half-elliptical -section.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>J.</i> Flat on one side, convex on the other, giving a semi-elliptical section; -sides nearly parallel; top flat or rounded. These were evidently -intended for scrapers; none are at all chipped or battered from use, -and with very few exceptions the whole surface is highly polished. The -flint and jasper specimens, which have been first chipped into shape, -have the facets and edge as smooth as though finished on an emery -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -wheel. Similar forms, except with flat instead of convex upper surfaces, -are known to have been used as adzes, but these have no marks -of such use. The length ranges from 2 to 8 inches, but most are small. -The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_59">figure 59</a>, of brown flint, from a grave in Alexander -county, Illinois.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tuscaloosa district, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="9"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Graphite.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Porphyry.<br /> -D = Compt. quartzite.<br /> -E = Yellow jasper.<br /> -F = Gray jasper.<br /> -G = Novaculite.<br /> -H = Sienite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>K.</i> Similar to last, except that the sides come to a point at the top; -length, 3½ to 9 inches. Very few of either pattern are above 5 inches -long, the larger ones being mostly of flint (<a href="#FIG_60">figure 60</a>, of sienite, from -Warren county, Ohio).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Warren county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Yellow jasper.<br /> -B = Sienite.<br /> -C = Diorite.<br /> -D = Gray jasper.<br /> -E = Argillite.<br /> -F = Compt. quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>L.</i> Sides concave, top narrow. Nearly every specimen has the upper -portion pecked rough; one from Bradley county, Tennessee, and another -from Mississippi county, Arkansas, are entirely polished. The -latter has the scraper-form edge to be described later and is of exceptionally -large size; it measures 5½ inches, being the only one exceeding -5 inches in length.</p> - -<p><i>M.</i> Top flat, round, or pointed; the blade usually begins a little below -the middle, and is perfectly smooth in every case; in some the blade is -not over an inch in length, probably reduced by continual sharpening. -They may have been scrapers, though they do not have that form; if -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -used as weapons they were probably set into the end of a piece of antler, -which, in turn, was set in a club. The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_61">figure 61</a>, of -argillite, from Monroe county, Tennessee.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Argillite.<br /> -B = Sienite.<br /> -C = Granite.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Hornblende.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_60" src="images/fig_60.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_61" src="images/fig_61.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Celt showing half-elliptical section.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Celt, showing concave sides.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>N.</i> Ground down thin, with a flat-elliptical or nearly rectangular -section; sides straight or slightly curved, nearly parallel or tapering -considerably to the top, which is either rounded or flattened. All are -polished over the entire surface; none show any marks of use as wedges -or hatchets, and most of them are too delicate for such use. The longer -ones can be readily grasped in the hand, and are as well adapted to -stripping off the hide of an animal, dividing the skeleton at the joints, -or stripping the flesh from the bones, as anything made of stone can be; -while the smaller ones, set in a handle to afford a grip, would answer the -same purpose. There are three which are sharp at both ends, one having -one symmetrical and one scraper-form edge; one having a scraper-form -edge at each end on opposite sides; and one of rather soft argillite, -unfinished, which has marks of pecking, chipping, and grinding, showing -that any of these methods were practiced, as was most convenient. -All these are from eastern Tennessee. The features are illustrated in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -<a href="#FIG_62">figures 62</a>, of argillite, from a mound, Caldwell county, North Carolina; -<a href="#FIG_63">63</a>, of black flinty slate, very hard, from a mound, Poinsett county, Arkansas; -and <a href="#FIG_64">64</a>, of argillite, from a mound, Monroe county, Tennessee.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - <th>K</th> - <th>L</th> - <th>M</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">53</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green river, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coosa district, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="14"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Marble.<br /> -B = Argillite.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Serpentine.<br /> -F = Diorite.<br /> -G = Porphyry.<br /> -H = Granite.<br /> -I = Sandstone.<br /> -J = Hornblende.<br /> -K = Compact quartzite.<br /> -L = Slate.<br /> -M = Chert.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_62" src="images/fig_62.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_63" src="images/fig_63.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_64" src="images/fig_64.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Thin polished celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Thin polished celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Thin polished celt.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<h4 id="GOUGES"><span class="smcap">Gouges.</span></h4> - -<p>While there are perhaps no true gouges in the collection, there are -some examples of a form between a celt and a gouge, illustrated in <a href="#FIG_65">figure -65</a>, of serpentine, from Caldwell county, North Carolina.</p> - -<p>Implements of this form are known to have been used to tap sugar -maples, and also to hollow out wooden troughs, and are very common -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -in the north, though less abundant in the south.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> It is in those localities -in which bark instead of logs was used for canoes that they are -most numerous. Sometimes they were hollowed the whole length and -used as spiles.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> They were also employed instead of celts in hollowing -wooden mortars and the like when a more regular concavity was desired.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<h4 id="CHISELS_AND_SCRAPERS"><span class="smcap">Chisels and Scrapers.</span></h4> - -<p>The aboriginal implements known as “chisels” are round, elliptical, -or rectangular in section. The flint and jasper specimens are generally -widest at the edge, the reverse being usually the case -with those of other material. Most of them have marks -of hammers at the blunt end, though some are polished -at the top and a few, from eastern Tennessee, are sharp -at both ends. The top (except in the double-edged -ones) is usually flat, though a few are pointed or very -thin, almost with cutting edges. Jaspers and flints are -chipped, with the facets polished, the edges highly -so. Any form may occur in any locality. Almost -invariably they have scraper-form edges. The length -is from 2 to 6 inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_65" src="images/fig_65.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Celt, showing -thin, gouge-form edge.</p> -</div> - -<p>Typical examples are shown in <a href="#FIG_66">figure 66</a>, of yellow -jasper, from a grave in Mississippi county, Arkansas; -<a href="#FIG_67">figure 67</a>, of novaculite, from an unknown locality in -Arkansas; <a href="#FIG_68">figure 68</a>, of serpentine, from Bradley county, Tennessee; -<a href="#FIG_69">figure 69</a>, of sienite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina; and <a href="#FIG_70">figure -70</a>, of gray jasper, from Bradley county, Tennessee. Some specimens -are sharp and worn at both ends, and could have been used only with -handles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_66" src="images/fig_66.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_67" src="images/fig_67.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_68" src="images/fig_68.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Celt, chisel-form.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Celt, chisel-form.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Celt, chisel-form.</p></div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span></p> - -<p>The Bureau collection includes the following specimens:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - <th>K</th> - <th>L</th> - <th>M</th> - <th>N</th> - <th>O</th> - <th>P</th> - <th>Q</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coosa district,Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Warren county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="18"> -KEY:<br /> -A = White flint.<br /> -B = Serpentine.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Argillite.<br /> -E = Granite.<br /> -F = Yellow jasper.<br /> -G = Gray jasper.<br /> -H = Mottled jasper.<br /> -I = Red jasper.<br /> -J = Silicified wood.<br /> -K = Quartzite.<br /> -L = Black flint.<br /> -M = Novaculite.<br /> -N = Compact quartzite.<br /> -O = Porphyry.<br /> -P = Sandstone.<br /> -Q = Hornblende.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The high polish sometimes found on the top of a round-pointed celt -may be due to its working slightly in the socket in its handle of wood, -deerhorn, or other material.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_69" src="images/fig_69.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_70" src="images/fig_70.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Celt, -chisel-form.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Celt, chisel-form.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>By celts having a scraper-form edge is meant those having the edge -to one side of the median line, due to constant use of one -face. This face, at the edge, is in a straight line from side -to side; it may have a chisel-like flattening, or may curve -toward the middle of the celt for a short -distance and then have the same form to -the top as the other face, which is convex -or curved, as in the ordinary hatchet-celt. -They form a medium between celts whose -faces gradually curve from top to edge, -and the celt-scrapers which are flat on one -side. Among the thicker celts this form is -quite rare, though several, especially one -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia (represented -in <a href="#FIG_74">figure 74</a>), are quite pronounced. -In the thinner specimens, however, a majority are of this -pattern, while in some types, nearly all indeed, even -those up to 6 inches long, are so beveled. The type, -of which an illustration is shown in <a href="#FIG_71">figure 71</a>, is of very -hard black slate; the same form is presented in <a href="#FIG_66">figures 66</a> and <a href="#FIG_70">70</a>.</p> - -<p>From Bartow county, Georgia, is a scraper made from the edge of -a celt which has been broken diagonally across from one face to the -other. A stem like that of a spear-head has been formed by chipping -away the sides of the part broken, which gives a convenient attachment -for a handle; the original edge is unchanged except in the wear -which has resulted from its new use. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p> - -<p>The specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_72">figure 72</a> (of argillite, from McMinn county, -Tennessee) is introduced on account of its undoubted use as a scraper, -and because it is much smaller than some of the chipped flints thus -classified, the edge being less than an inch wide; the sides are roughly -incurved.</p> - -<p>In Bradley county, Tennessee, there were found over 200 specimens -of very small, thin, flat, waterworn sandstone pebbles, -which were mostly in their natural condition, except -that they had one side rubbed to a sharp edge. -A few, more slender, were ground to a point. Some -of them have a handle chipped out -on the side opposite the edge, sometimes -with nicks in it, made for attachment -to a handle by means of a -cord. Most of these specimens are less than 2 inches -in length. No suggestion is offered as to their use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_71" src="images/fig_71.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_72" src="images/fig_72.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Celt, showing -scraper-form edge.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Scraper.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>A granite implement from Union county, Illinois, with -nearly rectangular section, slightly curved sides, -rounded corners, and high polish over the entire -surface, having nearly the same thickness (about an -inch) at every part, would seem to be a polishing or -rubbing stone. There are, however, one from Warren -county, Ohio, and three from Kanawha valley, -West Virginia, of almost exactly the same size and -pattern, which have had one end ground off to a sharp edge; so the -specimen may be only an unfinished celt. One of those from Kanawha -valley has had the edge partly broken away, and one face has been -pecked considerably in an attempt to restore it for use; but the intention -was not carried out. Some celts, not of the scraper pattern, which -have the edge to one side of the median line, are perhaps broken or -blunted specimens redressed on one side only.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_73" src="images/fig_73.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_74" src="images/fig_74.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Adze or scraper.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_73">Figure 73</a> exhibits a specimen of argillite from Carter county, Tennessee, -probably an adze or scraper, with a projection to keep the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -implement from being forced into the handle. The edge is symmetrical, -though much striated. The specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_74">figure 74</a> (of granite, -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia) represents a peculiar form. There -are several like it in the collection, all but this one from islands in the -Pacific.</p> - -<h4 id="CHIPPED_CELTS"><span class="smcap">Chipped Celts.</span></h4> - -<p>On account of their shape and undoubted -use, a class of celts, although neither pecked -nor ground, is introduced. Many of them resemble, -in most respects, the so-called paleolithic -implements, though sometimes of better -finish. They are made with a rounded top and -nearly parallel sides; rudely triangular; or -with the sides curved to a point at the top. -The edge may be straight or curved, and is -usually chipped, though sometimes ground; a -few are chisel-shaped. Usually they show no -signs of wear; when they do, it is always in -the form of a polish at the larger end, or on -the exposed facets. One of black flint, 8 inches -long, from Kanawha valley, has a scraper-form -edge, smoothly polished. Many, even of those scarcely changed -from their original form and natural surface, have the -edges dulled and polished from use as scrapers or -adzes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_75" src="images/fig_75.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_76" src="images/fig_76.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_77" src="images/fig_77.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—chipped celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Chipped celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Chipped celt.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The collection includes the following examples: -36 of argillite, flint, porphyry, -and compact quartzite, from Montgomery -county, North Carolina, some with the wider -edge sharp (<a href="#FIG_75">figure 75</a>, of flint); 12 of limestone -and flint from Mason county, Kentucky; -70 of argillite, a few with the edges -ground, from southeastern Tennessee (<a href="#FIG_76">figure -76</a>, from McMinn county); over 300 from -Kanawha valley, nearly all of black flint, -a few being of diorite or quartzite—some -are partly polished, or have ground edges -(<a href="#FIG_77">figure 77</a>, of black flint, from a mound).</p> - -<h4 id="HEMATITE_CELTS"><span class="smcap">Hematite Celts.</span></h4> - -<p>With the exception of two from Iowa and a few from Preston county, -West Virginia, the hematite celts in the collection are from Kanawha -valley, and are small, ranging in length from 1 to 2¾ inches, except one -4½ and one 5½ inches. They are illustrated in figures 78, 79, 80, and 81, -the last from a mound. Nearly all have been ground directly from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -nodule or concretion in which this ore of iron so frequently appears. -Occasionally one of homogeneous structure has been chipped into form -before grinding, the facets in some cases being rubbed nearly away. -Sometimes they have a rectangular outline, but usually the sides taper -from the edge to the top by a gradual -curve, or are parallel a part of the way -and then taper either by a straight or, -oftener, by a curved line. The section is -rectangular or elliptical.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_78" src="images/fig_78.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Hematite celt.</p> -</div> - -<p>These implements were probably used as -knives or scrapers, being set into the end -of a piece of antler, which may in turn -have been set into a larger handle of wood. -That some were knives is shown by the edge which is dulled to a flat -polished surface extending from side to side; and that many were scrapers -is shown by their celt-scraper shape, a half elliptical section, or by -the scraper-form edge, seen in the largest specimen. Some, however, -have the edge symmetrical, as in the hatchet-celts. One has incurved -sides, and is roughened on the sides and on the faces near the top.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_79" src="images/fig_79.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_80" src="images/fig_80.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_81" src="images/fig_81.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Hematite celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Hematite celt.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—Hematite celt.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<h4 id="PESTLES"><span class="smcap">Pestles.</span></h4> - -<p>The fact of the ordinary conical or bell-shaped, long-cylindrical, or -somewhat pear-shaped stones having been used for pestles is so well -settled that no confirmatory references are needed. A few citations -may be given in regard to certain forms sometimes differently classed, -especially some of the discoidal stones to be hereafter described.</p> - -<p>According to Stevens, the corn crushers used by the Swiss lake -dwellers are spherical; some are flattened on two sides, like an orange, -others almost round with depressions on four sides. They are about -the size of a man’s fist or rather smaller. The Africans have a piece -of quartz or other hard stone as large as half a brick, one side of -which is convex, to fit the hollow of a larger stone used as a mortar.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> -Evans observes that disks sometimes show marks of use as hammers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -or pestles;<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> one found at Ty Mawr was thick, with a cavity on -each face.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> In preparing pemmican, the American Indians are known -to have pounded the dried meat to a powder between two stones.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> -This gives the impression that any suitable stones may have been used; -and the ancient California Indians worked -out a round stone as an acorn sheller, -modern tribes using any smooth stone.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_82" src="images/fig_82.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Handled pestle, with expanding -base.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pestles which have the bottom round -or convex are generally found in the same -localities as the hollowed stone mortars. -Several forms of pestles are represented in -the collection. They may be grouped as in -the following description and tabulation.</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> With expanding base; bottom flat or -slightly convex, often with a slight depression -in the middle. Handle tapering, or of -uniform diameter to the top; in a few, -slightly swelling above as if to give a -firmer hold. Top rounded, flat, or pointed. -Bottom may be very little expanded or may -have twice the diameter of the handle. -Probably used for pounding grain or seeds -on a flat stone, as it could not be used in a -mortar even slightly hollowed. None seem to have been used as mullers -or rubbers. They may have served for hammers, and would be excellent -for cracking nuts, as the pit in the bottom would tend to keep them -from flying out to the side. The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_82">figure 82</a>, of quartzite, -from Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is moderately wide, -and the material chiefly granite and quartzite, with a few of other rock -varieties, as shown in the table:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ross county, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Granite<br /> -C = Sienite<br /> -D = Diorite.<br /> -E = Sandstone.<br /> -F = Argillite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>B.</i> Almost cylindrical, from 6 to 18 inches long and about two inches -in diameter. Some of the larger ones were probably rolling-pins, as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -the ends, either from some fancy finish, or because worked to a point, -are of a shape that would make their use as pestles impracticable. -Even as rollers, some must have been used for crushing grain that had -previously been softened or was not fully matured, as they are of a soft -stone that would wear very easily. The shorter ones are -blunt at the ends, and may have been used in a shallow -wooden mortar; none are adapted for use in stone. The -class is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_83">figure 83</a>, of soft clay slate, from -Cherokee county, Georgia.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Butler county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hopkins county, Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Argillite.<br /> -B = Soft slate.<br /> -C = Clay slate.<br /> -D = Mica-schist.<br /> -E = Quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_83" src="images/fig_83.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Pestle, -long cylindrical -form.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_84" src="images/fig_84.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Pestle, conical.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Conical, or truncated cone, bottom flat, convex or -curved from one side to the opposite. Some are quite -smooth on the bottom -as if from rubbing -either back and forth -or with a rotary -motion; while many -have the bottom -pecked rough, showing -use as hammers -or pounders. For those -with curved bottoms -a rocking motion -seems best adapted; with the -palm resting on the longer side, -good work could be done in any -of these ways. Typical specimens -are shown in figures 84, of -quartzite, from Monroe county, -Tennessee; 85, of granite, from -Warren county, Ohio; and 86, -of quartzite, from Saline county, -Arkansas. A somewhat aberrant -specimen, shown in <a href="#FIG_87">figure 87</a>, of -granite, from Carter county, Tennessee, has an elliptical base, rounded -top, and flat bottom; the longer sides grooved for handle. A similar -one, of quartzite, came from Warren county, Ohio. There is considerable -variety of material, quartzite largely predominating. Although -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -the geographic range is wide, the distribution is rather sparse, and -several districts are not represented.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="8"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Marble.<br /> -C = Sienite.<br /> -D = Hornblende.<br /> -E = Granite.<br /> -F = Diorite.<br /> -G = Sandstone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_85" src="images/fig_85.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_86" src="images/fig_86.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Pestle.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Pestle.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_87" src="images/fig_87.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_88" src="images/fig_88.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—Pestle, grooved for handle.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Pestle.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Conical, or truncated cone, with top more or less rounded, very -little worked, a stone of approximate form having been chosen and the -angles and corners pecked off; -bottom flat, and in some quite -smooth; used as pestles or mullers. -The group is represented by 17 specimens of quartzite, all from southeastern -Tennessee. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - -<p><i>E.</i> Not dressed at all on the sides, but with both ends worn to a convex -shape. Represented by two specimens of quartzite from southeastern -Tennessee.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Cylindrical, flat bottom, dome-shaped top, these portions having -been carefully pecked into shape. Some are smoothly polished on the -bottom, but none elsewhere. Those from Miami valley, and one from -Kanawha valley are much longer than the others. The type illustrated -in <a href="#FIG_88">figure 88</a> is of quartzite, from McMinn county, Tennessee.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miami valley, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Porphyry.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Limestone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 id="PITTED_STONES"><span class="smcap">Pitted Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>There is scarcely a locality in the country where pitted stones are -not found; they are indeed of such frequent occurrence that they are -seldom considered worth the trouble of gathering.</p> - -<p>There can be no “type” among such crude implements; they are -almost invariably waterworn sandstone pebbles, with a pit varying -from a slight roughening of the surface to a hollow half an inch in depth -pecked in each face. They probably belong with hammerstones, as -they seldom show other marks of work, the edge in some being only -slightly marked in one or two places, while in others it is much worn.</p> - -<p>Various numbers of the Journal of the Anthropological Society of -Great Britain and Ireland refer to pitted stones as found in every part -of the world. According to Evans, slight pits aid in holding stone -hammers; they also prevent the jar to a large extent. If used to pound -meat or break bones, it would be hard to hold them when greasy without -pits.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Such implements may have had handles of wood with projections -to fit the pits,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> though this is not probable; but if so a piece of -buckskin on the handle opposite the pits would do better and be more -convenient to apply.</p> - -<h4 id="CUPPED_STONES"><span class="smcap">Cupped Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>Conjecture and theory have had full sway in regard to the uses of -cupped stones; but the question is apparently far from solution. There -is a prevalent idea that they were used for cracking nuts; but why should -an Indian make a large number of holes in a great many stones for such -purpose? It is true there would be an advantage in having the nut stand -on one end; but very few stones have depressions that will allow this.</p> - -<p>Of the southern Indians Adair observes:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>They gather a number of hiccory-nuts, which they pound with a round stone, upon -a stone, thick and hollowed for the purpose. When they are beat fine enough, they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -mix them with cold water, in a clay basin, where the shells subside. The other -part is an oily, tough, thick, white substance ... with which they eat their -bread.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Lawson’s language regarding the Indians of North Carolina is even -more definite. He says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>[They gather] likewise hickerie nuts, which they beat betwixt two great stones, -then sift them, so thicken their venison broth therewith, the small shells precipitating -to the bottom of the pot, whilst the kernel, in the form of flour, mixes it with -the liquor, both these nuts [hickory and chinquapin] made into meal makes a curious -soup, either with clear water, or in any meat broth.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Neither of these statements seems to have any reference to cupped -stones. The first is a good description of a mortar with a round pestle, -while the second says nothing about any particular form of stone; yet -they have been referred to time and again as proof of the nut-stone -theory. There would be some difficulty in pounding nuts fine in small -holes half an inch or more below where the pounding stone could reach.</p> - -<p>C. C. Jones<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> was satisfied that cupped stones were used for cracking -nuts because great numbers of nut-bearing trees grow where they are -found; while Whittlesey, noting the fact that hundreds of them are -found throughout northern Ohio, considered them as sockets in which -the end of a spindle rested. Dawson<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> speaks of “stones having deep -hollows in the sides which were mortars for grinding pigments, or -sockets for fire drills.”</p> - -<p>The cupped stones in the Bureau collection are almost invariably of -reddish sandstone, of varying texture, from a few ounces to 30 pounds -in weight. The holes are from one to twenty-five in number, of various -sizes even in the same stone, and follow the natural contour of the surface -even when that is quite irregular; the stone is never dressed or -flattened to bring the cups on a level; none show any marks of work, -but are the rough blocks or slabs in their natural state.</p> - -<p>Many of the holes are roughly pecked in, but the larger ones are -usually quite smooth, as if ground out, and almost complete hemispheres. -They range from a pit only started or going scarcely beyond -the surface to one 2 inches in diameter. The smaller ones with one -cup pass into the pitted stones. Occasionally at the bottom of a large -cup there is a small secondary hole as though made by a flint drill.</p> - -<p>The polished cups may have been used for fire-drill or spindle sockets, -though why there should be a number of holes when but one could -be used at a time awaits explanation. The rough ones may have been -for holding nuts, and so long as they were on the same plane any -number could be utilized; but when they are on different parts of the -stone, even on opposite sides, as many of them are, the question remains -open. Slabs or thin pieces nearly always have cups on both -sides, while blocks or thick slabs have them on one side only. On the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -former a number of nuts could be cracked with one blow of a flat stone -and thrown into a receptacle of some kind, either side of the stone being -used at pleasure; but there would be no economy of time or work -in this method, and it would be very strange that any one should not -learn with so much experience that a nut should never be laid on the -flat side in cracking. No theory yet advanced accounts for the greater -number of such relics, namely, the irregular fragments of stone with -cups at varying intervals and different levels.</p> - -<p>No division can be made in regard either to size or material of the -stone, or to form or finish of the cups. Many of the -smaller ones were no doubt paint mortars. One well -finished specimen of this class is shown in <a href="#FIG_89">figure 89</a>; -it is of quartzite from 4 feet beneath the surface in -Crittenden county, Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_89" src="images/fig_89.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Cupped stone -or paint cup.</p> -</div> - -<p>Cupped stones are found wherever representatives -of the Bureau have worked, and numerous references -might be given concerning their existence in other localities.</p> - -<h4 id="MULLERS"><span class="smcap">Mullers.</span></h4> - -<p>The objects known as mullers are generally flat and smooth on one -side and convex on the other, sometimes with a pit in one side or both, -mostly of granite, quartzite, or sandstone; rarely of other materials.</p> - -<p>A fine specimen of white quartz from Elmore county, Alabama, has -the bottom flat and highly polished, the edge perpendicular to bottom -and rounding off into the slightly convex top, -with a pit at center. <a href="#FIG_90">Figure 90</a> represents a -muller of marble or crystalline limestone from -a grave in Randolph county, Illinois. It has a -smooth, flat bottom, with convex top somewhat -smaller than the base; around the circumference -there is a depression polished by wear. -A similar specimen, of diorite, from Carter -county, Tennessee, seems to be the lower part of -a pestle with expanding base, whose top or handle has been lost, the -part remaining having a place for a handle pecked around it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_90" src="images/fig_90.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Muller, showing polished -surface.</p> -</div> - -<p>The discoidal stones with this shape were probably used as mullers; -they were also used as pestles in the hollow mortars, as the edge is -often chipped or pecked, which would account for the pits on the faces. -<a href="#FIG_91">Figure 91</a> represents a muller of granite from Savannah, Georgia. Sometimes -the base has an elliptical instead of a circular outline, as seen -in other specimens from Savannah.</p> - -<p>Mullers are found wherever there are indications of occupancy for -any considerable length of time.</p> - -<h4 id="GRINDING_AND_POLISHING_STONES"><span class="smcap">Grinding and Polishing Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>Stones evidently used for grinding and polishing need only to be mentioned, -as they are of widespread occurrence. Implements used for the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -former purpose are made of any siliceous stone of convenient size and -suitable texture, from a coarse quartzite to a very fine close-grained -sandstone, according to the class of work to be done. The markings -on them range from the narrow, sharp, incised lines due to shaping a -small ornament, to the broad grooves resulting from grinding an ax or -celt into form. Nearly all of those in museums are small specimens -used for rubbing; but there are many large blocks in various localities, -sometimes several feet square, marked and scored in every direction -by grinding or sharpening the large implements on them.</p> - -<p>Among the polishers may be included a number of small pebbles of -very hard siliceous stone, generally some form of quartz, which by the -high polish show long use. The larger ones may have been used for -rubbing skins in tanning, as they can easily be grasped in the hand. -Very few have changed from their primitive form to a greater degree -than would naturally result from the wear upon them. A few very -small ones, long-ovoid in shape, usually not over 2½ or 3 inches in -length, were probably paint mullers, as they are well fitted for use in -small paint cups. Many of the discoidal stones—which will be spoken -of under the proper head—may have had these functions. The highly -polished specimens are all from the southern states. There is one -rubbing stone of pumice from Craighead county, Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_91" src="images/fig_91.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Muller, showing polished surface.</p> -</div> - -<h4 id="HAMMERSTONES"><span class="smcap">Hammerstones.</span></h4> - -<p>Hammers or hammerstones show every stage of work, from the -ordinary pebble or fragment, with its surface scarcely altered, to the -highly polished round or ovoid “ball.” They are usually of the hardest -available material, and seem to be of more frequent occurrence in -the northern districts than in the southern states, though found everywhere. -Used in their earlier stages merely as tools with which to fashion -other implements, they were assigned to specified purposes when -brought to a better finish or form. A typical example, shown in <a href="#FIG_92">figure -92</a>, is of granite, from Ross county, Ohio.</p> - -<p>The Sioux used an oval stone, with a piece of rawhide covering all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -but the point and attaching it to a withe handle,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> while the Shoshoni -and Ojibwa made use of a round stone, wrapped in leather, attached -by a string of 2 inches to a handle 22 inches long covered with -leather; this was called a poggamoggan.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> -Rounded stones are said to -have been used by the California -Indians as bolas,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> though it is more -probable that they were slung-shots. -The ancient Californians worked out -a round stone for an acorn-sheller; -the present Indians use any smooth -stone.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Elaborately carved round -stones, mounted in handles as clubs, -are known to have been used by the -Queen Charlotte Island Indians for -killing fish,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> and other northwestern -Indians have been observed to use a round stone inclosed in a net and -attached to a line as a sinker.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_92" src="images/fig_92.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Hammerstone.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is not necessary to quote references to the well-known fact that -the Eskimo and the Patagonians made use of round stones of various -sizes as bolas. There is no evidence that our Indians ever used anything -of the sort.</p> - -<h4 id="GROOVED_STONES_OTHER_THAN_AXES"><span class="smcap">Grooved Stones Other Than Axes.</span></h4> - -<p>Three subclasses of grooved stones, differing in essential features -from axes, may be discriminated. They are as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_93" src="images/fig_93.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—Grooved round stone.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>A.</i> Slightly or not at all worked, except the groove; often showing -marks of violent usage. With these may -be classed the large stone hammers of -the Lake Superior region.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Round or ellipsoid stones; in the -latter the groove may follow either axis. -The type (figure 93) is of sandstone from -Carter county, Tennessee.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Resembling axes in all but the edge. -Of class <i>A</i> there are none in the collection; -their form and size are such that -they could have been for no other purpose than hammerstones. Of -class <i>B</i> there are some from Savannah, which may be sinkers or club -heads. According to Morgan, oval stones with grooves were secured -in the heads of war clubs,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> and Carver observed that the southwestern -Indians used as a slung-shot a curiously worked stone, with a string a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -yard and a half long tied to it, the other end being tied to the arm -above the elbow.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p> - -<p>The specimens of class <i>C</i> may be broken axes. <a href="#FIG_94">Figure 94</a> (granite, -from Butler county, Ohio) shows a form quite common throughout central -and western Ohio. They are generally small, have evidently never -been sharp, and were in all probability intended for hammers from the -beginning.</p> - -<h4 id="MORTARS"><span class="smcap">Mortars.</span></h4> - -<p>The Indian mortars in the collection are nearly always of sandstone -of varying degrees of fineness. As is the case with cupped stones, -when made of slabs, both sides have been worked; when of rough -blocks, only one.</p> - -<p>The Senecas and Cayugas are said by Morgan to have used wooden -mortars in which to pound corn after it was hulled,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> and it is possible -that the long pestles of soft stone were used with -wooden mortars, though some are not well adapted -to this use. The Iroquois women pounded in stone -mortars the stony material used in tempering the -clay for their pottery.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> The California Indians -made mortars by knocking a segment off a bowlder, -making a flat surface, and working out with a -hammer and chisel,<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> while the tribes of the interior -worked directly from the surface of a suitable rock. -The Yokuts, according to Powers, use tolerably well made stone mortars, -and sometimes place a basket-like arrangement around the top -to prevent the acorns from flying out.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_94" src="images/fig_94.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Grooved hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>No two specimens of the mortars and metate-like stones in the Bureau -collection are alike; the nearest approach that can be made to a -classification is as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Smooth and flat on one or both sides; for use with mullers; from -McMinn county, Tennessee, and Allamakee county, Iowa.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> With round cavities on one or both sides; for round or cylindrical -pestles; from McMinn county, Tennessee. A cobblestone from Bradley -county, Tennessee, has a shallow cavity in either side and a pit in the -center of each. From Kanawha valley there is a slab weighing about -25 pounds, flat and smooth on one side, as though primarily used with -a muller and the regular even cavity afterward made; on the other -side a cavity and a cupped hole have been worked in from the natural -surface. A slab from Warren county, Ohio, has a shallow cavity worked -into one side and a cupped hole in the other. From Union county, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -Mississippi, there is a flattened bowlder with a shallow cavity on each -side; a shallow cup has been pecked on the edge of one of them. From -Caldwell county, North Carolina, comes a bowlder of water-worn mica-schist, -with a shallow cavity and a deeper one on one side, and on the -other a cupped hole opposite each of these cavities.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> With one side hollowed out, the other flat and smooth. Specimens -of this type come from Caldwell county, North Carolina; McMinn -county, Tennessee, and Bradley county, Tennessee, the last with a pit -in the center and another on the edge of the flat side.</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> With a long, narrow depression on each side. A very large -specimen of fine-grained sandstone from Lincoln county, Arkansas, -represents this type.</p> - -<p>There are, in addition, two pieces of fine-grained sandstone with uniform -thickness of less than an inch and about 10 inches across, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Hale county, Alabama, respectively. -Both sides are ground perfectly smooth, and flat. The objects -were probably for some culinary purpose.</p> - -<h4 id="SINKERS"><span class="smcap">Sinkers.</span></h4> - -<p>The sinkers in the collection may be divided into four classes, viz: -<i>A</i>, entirely unworked; <i>B</i>, notched on the sides; <i>C</i>, encircled by a -groove; and <i>D</i>, perforated. Conversely, stones under all these different -heads may have served other and widely different purposes.</p> - -<p>Of the functions of class <i>A</i>, only those who have seen them in use can -speak. Stevens mentions that some tribes inclose a round stone in a -sort of net and attach it to a line in fishing;<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and no other use can be -imagined for some of the specimens in the Bureau collection.</p> - -<p>Specimens of class <i>B</i> are found along water courses in such situations -as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers;<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> they were attached to -grapevines and dragged on the bottom of streams to frighten fish into -nets or traps.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Those in the collection are made of ordinary flat water-worn -pebbles, with notches rudely chipped in the sides; a number are -from southeastern Tennessee.</p> - -<p>Of class <i>C</i>, while many were perhaps sinkers, more were club heads -and slungshots or hammers. A number have been obtained from Savannah, -Georgia, more or less worked, some being rounded, with grooves -of varying depths and sizes. Small stones of this form are used by -Greenland fishermen as sinkers;<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> and according to Thatcher, a large -stone is by the Indians made fast to a sinking line at each end of a net, -and the net is spread in the water by sinkers at different parts of it.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> - -<p>Class <i>D</i> will be referred to under the head “Perforated stones,” from -which they can be discriminated only arbitrarily. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - -<p>A number of roughly chipped, somewhat crescent-shaped specimens -of argillite, from half a pound to 2 pounds in weight, collected in Montgomery -county, North Carolina, may have been used as sinkers.</p> - -<h4 id="PERFORATED_STONES"><span class="smcap">Perforated Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>Only the larger or rougher perforated stones used as implements are -included in this class.</p> - -<p>Several perforated pieces of steatite, some mere rough fragments, -others with the edges smooth and dressed to a somewhat symmetrical -outline, have been collected about Savannah, Georgia. Some of -these have been drilled, others gouged through apparently with a -slender flint. In the latter group the little projections left by the tool -have been worn smooth. The hole may be near one end or about the -center. Similar pieces have been found in Forsyth county, Georgia; -one of these is worked to an irregular pentagon and smoothly finished. -From Haywood county, North Carolina, there are some very rough -fragments, apparently just as they were picked up, except for the -perforation; and a number of pieces of perforated pottery are from -Montgomery county, North Carolina.</p> - -<p>Perforated stones were used by the southern Indians to drag along -the bottoms of streams and frighten fish into their nets and traps.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> -Four disks 4 to 5½ inches in diameter, with handles from 13 to 17 inches -long, were found in a cave at Los Angeles, California,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> and objects of this -character were, according to Schumacher, used by the Santa Barbara -Indians as weights for wooden spades.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> According to Abbott many -perforated stones are found close to rivers and on shores in such positions -as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Similar stones were -used as sinkers by the Scandinavians in comparatively recent times; -by the Bechuanas for grinding grasshoppers, spiders, etc., and also as -weights for digging-sticks; by some savages in the Pacific islands as -clubs; by the Icelanders for breaking up salted fish.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> They were used -by the Iroquois as weights for fire drills;<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> by the Eskimo as clubs, -having a rawhide handle secured by a knot.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> According to Dale,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> -Layard,<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> Griesbach,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> and Gooch,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> they were used by natives of -southern Africa as root-diggers (to remove earth from the roots), as -weapons, and to give weight to digging-sticks. They were also used -by the Peruvian Indians to be thrown with a stick. Disk-shaped and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -cylindrical throwing stones, perforated for the stick, are found among -the Swiss lake dwellings.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> According to Evans<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> they were used -mostly as hammers or clubs. They are hard and battered on the edges; -sinkers would be of softer stone.</p> - -<p>The most complete article that has yet been given concerning the -forms and uses of perforated stones is that by H. W. Henshaw.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p> - -<h4 id="DISCOIDAL_STONES"><span class="smcap">Discoidal Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>There are numerous references to discoidal stones by various writers, -but a majority of the objects do not fall under any explanation that has -so far been given.</p> - -<p>The Choctaw Indians used disks two fingers wide and two spans -around in playing “chungke,”<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and the Indians of North Carolina were -much addicted to a sport called “chenco,” played with a staff and a -bowl made with stone.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> The same kind of game was, or still is, played -with hoops or rings of wood or rawhide by the Iroquois,<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> the Pawnee,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> -the Apache,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> the Navajo,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> the Mohave,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> and the Omaha;<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> also, with -rings of stone, by the Arikara,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> the Mandan,<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> and other tribes.</p> - -<p>The game of chungke, however, will account for only a small part of -the great number of stones of this form. The Indians of southern -California, in manufacturing pottery, make the clay compact and smooth -by holding a rounded and smooth stone against the inside.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> The Fijians, -in making pottery, use a small, round flat stone to shape the inside,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> -while the Indians of Guiana use ancient axes or smooth stones for polishing -the clay in making their vessels.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> According to Evans,<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> pitted -disks were used as pestles, hammers, or mullers; a thick one with -pitted ends was found in a mortar at Holyhead.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Under the head of -pestles and of perforated stones further references will be found that -may apply as well to this form of implements.</p> - -<p>No kind of relic is more difficult to classify. From the smooth, symmetrical, -highly-polished chungke stone they gradually merge into -mullers, pestles, pitted stones, polishers, hammers,<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> ornaments, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -the ordinary sinker or club-head, so that no dividing line is possible. -Theories constructed on a basis of their use may be far from correct.</p> - -<p>They present various forms and degrees of finish; many have the -natural surface on both sides with the edge worked off by grinding or -pecking, the latter being produced probably by use as a hammer; the -sides may be ground down while the edge remains untouched; or the -sides may be pecked and the edge ground, being probably of a thick -pebble originally. Some of the finer grades, as chalcedony and quartz, -that have received the highest finish, appear to have had all the work -done by grinding or rubbing, as even those only slightly worked bear -no signs of hammering or pecking. When of the harder materials -they are generally made of water-worn pebbles as nearly the desired -form as can be found; in fact, some specimens which are in their natural -state, entirely unworked, require a very close examination to distinguish -them from others whose whole surface has been artificially produced. -In the jasper conglomerates from Arkansas, however, there is a -regular series from a roughly chipped disk to one of the highest polish -and symmetry. The larger ones of quartz, particularly those with concavities -in the sides, must have been patiently wrought for years before -brought to their present state. Many of the smaller ones, especially -sandstone, seem to have been designed for grinding or polishing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_95" src="images/fig_95.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Discoidal stone.</p> -</div> - -<p>The following groups are represented in the collection:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Sides hollowed out, edge convex; 2 to 6 inches diameter, seven-eighths -to 2¾ thick.</p> - -<p>1. Edges of concavity sharp.</p> - -<p><i>a.</i> Cavity a regular curve from side to side. The type (<a href="#FIG_95">figure 95</a>) is of -quartz, from Cherokee county, Georgia. There are also, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia, one of sandstone, of which one side has been -worked out by a flint, the little pits being distinctly visible, while the -other side has natural surface; from Loudon county, Tennessee, one of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -quartzite, 6 inches diameter, which has been used as a mortar, the cavities -being roughened, with their edges broken and scarred (the edge of -the stone is battered entirely around midway between the sides as -though used for a hammer); from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of -quartzite, about the same size as last, with a slight pit in the center of -each cavity, the edges of the concavity being considerably chipped, and -the edge of the implement very smooth; from Polk county, Tennessee, -one of quartzite, 3½ inches in diameter, with the edge polished except in -one spot, where it shows marks of use as a hammer or pestle—it has been -used also as a mortar, the edges of the concavity being much chipped -and broken; one each from Craighead county, Arkansas, of novaculite; -Randolph county, Illinois, of granite; Cherokee county, Georgia, -of quartz; and Obion county, Tennessee, of sandstone. In the four -last mentioned the entire surface -is quite smooth or even highly polished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_96" src="images/fig_96.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—Discoidal stone, with perforation.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>b.</i> With a small perforation at the -center. The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_96">figures -96</a> (of sandstone, from a grave in -Union county, Illinois), and <a href="#FIG_97">97</a> (of -granite, from Virginia). There is -another specimen, of sandstone, from -Red River county, Texas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_97" src="images/fig_97.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—Discoidal stone, with perforation.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>c.</i> With a secondary depression in -each cavity. <a href="#FIG_98">Figure 98</a> (yellow -quartz, highly polished, from Fulton -county, Georgia) is typical. There -is also one of quartzite, with a secondary depression in one side only, -from Roane county, Tennessee, which may be supposed, from this and -other imperfections, to be unfinished.</p> - -<p>2. Edges of concavity rubbed off blunt. These are grouped simply -by form, as the specimens from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and -northeastern Kentucky are nearly all roughly finished, quite different -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -from the smooth or polished ones from farther south. Some are worked -out into the form of a ring, and there is every stage between that form -and the flat disk whose sides show no trace of pecking. <a href="#FIG_99">Figure 99</a> -(quartzite, from Sevier county, Tennessee) illustrates a typical example, -roughly worked but entirely perforated, and <a href="#FIG_97">figure 97</a> shows the same -type in another form.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_98" src="images/fig_98.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Discoidal stone, with secondary depression.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_99" src="images/fig_99.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—Discoidal stone, in form of a ring.</p> -</div> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crittenden county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Drew county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Randolph county, Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bartow county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartz.<br /> -B = Novaculite.<br /> -C = Flint.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Sandstone.<br /> -F = Granite.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Flat or slightly concave sides, edges straight and at right angles -to the sides; diameter, 1⅝ to 5 inches. The type shown in <a href="#FIG_100">figure 100</a> -is of sandstone from Lauderdale county, Alabama.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_100" src="images/fig_100.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Discoidal stone.</p> -</div> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lauderdale county, Alabama</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mississippi county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>McMinn county, Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Quartzite.<br /> -C = Very fine schist.<br /> -D = Yellow jasper.<br /> -E = Argillite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_101" src="images/fig_101.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—Discoidal stone.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Sides flat; edges straight, sometimes rounding off into the sides; -diameter, 2¼ to 6 inches; thickness, three-quarters to 2¼ inches. A -number from southeastern Tennessee, especially the smaller ones, are -quite rough, being merely pecked or chipped into shape with no subsequent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -rubbing. <a href="#FIG_101">Figure 101</a> (chalcedony, from a mound in Monroe -county, Tennessee) represents the type. The material is variable.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mississippi county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartz.<br /> -B = Sandstone.<br /> -C = Argillite.<br /> -D = Chalcedony.<br /> -E = Limestone.<br /> -F = Marble.<br /> -G = Granite.<br /> -H = Jasper conglomerate.<br /> -I = Quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>D.</i> Like the last, except much smaller. Very few are polished over -the entire surface; some are rubbed more or less on the edges or sides, -but a majority have the edge rough as it was chipped or pecked out; -many have either the edge or sides in the natural state. From those -smoothly polished to those very rudely worked the gradation is such -that no dividing line can be drawn. This is true, also, of the smaller -specimens of other types. Some of the quartzite specimens are very -loose in texture. From seven-eighths to 2 inches in diameter and one-fourth -to three-fourths of an inch thick.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">54</td> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bartow county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Kentucky</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"> -A = Marble.<br /> -B = Sandstone.<br /> -C = Argillite.<br /> -D = Granite.<br /> -E = Red jasper.<br /> -F = Quartzite.<br /> -G = Micaceous sandstone.<br /> -H = Limestone.<br /> -I = Quartz.<br /> -J = Cannel coal.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_102" src="images/fig_102.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Discoidal stone, convex.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Convex on both sides, edges straight. One of white quartz from -Caldwell county, North Carolina, has the sides much curved, making -the stone very thick in proportion to its width; there is a deep pit on -each side, the entire surface being highly polished. Diameter, 2 to 3½ -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -inches; thickness, three-fourths to an inch and a half. Illustrated -by <a href="#FIG_102">figure 102</a> (of porphyry, from a grave in Caldwell county, North -Carolina).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - <th>K</th> - <th>L</th> - <th>M</th> - <th>N</th> - <th>O</th> - <th>P</th> - <th>Q</th> - <th>R</th> - <th>S</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee (many of these rough and entirely without polish)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">88</td> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia (rough)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="20"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Yellow jasper.<br /> -B = Iron ore.<br /> -C = Mica schist.<br /> -D = Novaculite.<br /> -E = Jasper conglomerate.<br /> -F = Quartzite.<br /> -G = Quartz.<br /> -H = Hornblende.<br /> -I = Marble.<br /> -J = Clayey limestone.<br /> -K = Argillite.<br /> -L = Sandstone.<br /> -M = Limestone.<br /> -N = Sienite.<br /> -O = Granite.<br /> -P = Chalcedony.<br /> -Q = Steatite.<br /> -R = Black flint.<br /> -S = Porphyry.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>F.</i> Same form as the above; 1¼ to 2 inches in diameter, one-half to -seven-eighths of an inch thick.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Elmore county, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bartow county, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Drew county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Jasper.<br /> -B = Mica schist.<br /> -C = Micaceous sandstone.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Quartz.<br /> -F = Marble.<br /> -G = Argillite.<br /> -H = Sandstone.<br /> -I = Limestone.<br /> -J = Steatite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_103" src="images/fig_103.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Discoidal stone.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>G.</i> Flat or slightly convex on one or both sides, edge straight, one -side wider than the other. Some have the edge battered or chipped -and it is always at the angle of the edge with the wider side. From -1⅝ to 3½ inches in diameter, and three-fourths to an inch and a half -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -thick. The specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_103">figure 103</a> (of compact quartzite, from -Bartow county, Georgia) is typical. The material is quite diverse.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - <th>I</th> - <th>J</th> - <th>K</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bartow county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mississippi county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="12"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Marble.<br /> -C = Quartzite.<br /> -D = Quartz hornblende.<br /> -E = Granite.<br /> -F = Quartz.<br /> -G = Compact quartzite.<br /> -H = Sienite.<br /> -I = Chalcedony.<br /> -J = Schist.<br /> -K = Flint.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>There are also of this type, one of very hard black stone (not identified) -from Red River county, Texas, three-fourths of an inch in diameter; -one of barite from Bartow county, Georgia, one inch in diameter, -three-fourths inch thick; and one of granite, from Chester county, -South Carolina, an inch in diameter. There are also one of quartzite -from Drew county, Arkansas, with a shallow pit on each side; one of -the same material from southeastern Tennessee, with a deep pit gouged -in smaller side; and from the same locality, three of quartzite, one of -quartz, and one of sandstone, each with a deep pit in the larger side. -All of these are small and none of them polished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_104" src="images/fig_104.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Discoidal stone.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>H.</i> Convex sides and curved edges; size as in group <i>G</i>. The type -(<a href="#FIG_104">figure 104</a>) is of quartz, from Caldwell county, North Carolina.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Catahoula parish, Louisiana</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Jasper conglomerate.<br /> -B = Quartz.<br /> -C = Limestone.<br /> -D = Quartzite.<br /> -E = Sandstone.<br /> -F = Conglomerate.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p> - -<p><i>I.</i> Same form, rough and not polished; 1 to 2¾ inches in diameter, -one-half to 1 inch thick.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Flint.<br /> -C = Yellow jasper.<br /> -D = Argillite.<br /> -E = Quartz.<br /> -F = Sandstone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>J.</i> Sides slightly convex, edge slightly curved; 2¼ to 3½ inches in -diameter, three-quarters to an inch and a half thick.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - <th>H</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia (evidently used for a hammerstone)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lauderdale county, Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Fulton county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="9"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Quartz.<br /> -C = Quartzite.<br /> -D = Chalcedony.<br /> -E = Argillite.<br /> -F = Clayey limestone.<br /> -G = Steatite.<br /> -H = Sienite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>K.</i> Sides flat; edges convex; roughly finished, no polish; 1⅛ to 2¼ -inches in diameter, three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Quartz.<br /> -C = Quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>L.</i> Not polished; roughly chipped edges; 2 to 3½ inches in diameter.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mississippi county, Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bartow county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Quartzite.<br /> -C = Chalcedony.<br /> -D = Yellow jasper.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>M.</i> Edges V-shape; 1¾ to 2½ inches diameter, 1 to 1½ inches thick. -The type (<a href="#FIG_105">figure 105</a>) is of granite, from Randolph county, Illinois, with -insunk pecked sides and polished edge. A specimen from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia, is of flint, with only the edge worked; apparently -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -a hammer. One from Craighead county, Arkansas, has flat sides -and the entire surface polished; another from McMinn county, Tennessee, -is also polished entire. A good specimen -from Cocke county, Tennessee, is of -flint, one side rubbed flat, the other a -rounded cone, highly polished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_105" src="images/fig_105.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Discoidal stone, with -V-shaped edges.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>N.</i> Sides hollowed out; edges straight or -slightly curved; very thick; used as mortars, -hammers, or pestles. This form gradually -merges into disk-shaped, pitted, or -entire dressed hammers, which in turn run -into the ordinary hammerstones. The types are figures 106 (quartzite, -from Bradley county, Tennessee) and 107 (quartzite, from Nicholas -county, Kentucky). There are in this -group from eastern Tennessee three of -quartzite, 2¼ by 4½ inches, 4¼ by 5¾ -inches, and 1¾ by 3¼ inches, and one -of granite, 2¾ by 3 inches; from Caldwell -county, North Carolina, one of -granite; and from Montgomery county, -North Carolina, three of quartzite. -The last four are evidently hammers -or pestles. In addition there is a specimen -from Jackson county, Illinois, of -ferruginous sandstone, 3 inches in -diameter. On one side there is a pit and on the other a shallow, mortar-like -cavity extending entirely across.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_106" src="images/fig_106.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Discoidal stone, used as mortar.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_107" src="images/fig_107.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Discoidal stone, -probably used as hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>O.</i> One side flat, the other rounded; of convenient -size for grasping. In some the bottom is -quite smooth. There is sometimes a pit in one or -both sides, more frequently in the bottom. They -were used as mullers or pestles; in the latter, either -the side or the edge may have been the pounding -surface. The line between these implements and -the cylindrical, dome-topped pestles can not be drawn (see <a href="#FIG_91">figure 91</a>).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Wisconsin</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crittenden county, Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Jackson county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Warren county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Quartz.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Granite.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p> - -<p><i>P.</i> Sides flat; edge convex; same size and use as last.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Warren county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Madison county, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Quartzite.<br /> -B = Quartz.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Granite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>Q.</i> From southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia there -are many disk-shape fragments of pottery, small, thin, and coarse, -with the edges roughly chipped; and from -northeastern Kentucky there are similar -pieces, except that they have been fashioned -from fragments of limestone and sandstone. -These specimens are illustrated by <a href="#FIG_108">figure -108</a> (pottery, from a mound in Bartow -county, Georgia).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_108" src="images/fig_108.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Discoidal pottery fragment.</p> -</div> - -<h4 id="SPUDS"><span class="smcap">Spuds.</span></h4> - -<p>It has been a puzzle to archeologists to -assign to any class the peculiar stones -called “spuds.” They are usually of a -comparatively soft material, carefully worked and polished, and bear no -marks of rough usage. On the other hand, they seem too large for -ornament. Perhaps their office may have been in some ceremony or -game. Something similar in form seems to be denoted in the following -extracts:</p> - -<p>Col. James Smith<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> says, speaking of the Indians of western Pennsylvania, -that as soon as the elm bark will strip in spring, the squaws, -after finding a tree that will do, cut it down, and with a crooked stick, -broad and sharp at the end, take the bark off the tree, and of this bark -make vessels. The Twana Indians, who formerly lived at the south -end of Hoods canal, Washington, in barking logs use a heavy iron -implement about 3 feet long, widened and sharpened at the end;<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> and -the tanbark workers of our day use an instrument of somewhat similar -form.</p> - -<p>The ordinary spud is too weak to endure such usage, though it is -claimed by old people living in the Shenandoah valley, Virginia, that -in the last century the Indians in that locality used an implement of -this pattern for stripping the bark from trees. The implement may -have been used in dressing hides, the hole being for attachment of a -handle. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_109" src="images/fig_109.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—Spud.</p> -</div> - -<p>A celt of argillite, highly polished, from Loudon county, Tennessee, -of the pattern shown in <a href="#FIG_64">figure 64</a>, has a neatly -drilled cylindrical hole about a third of the -way from the top; but such cases are unusual. -The spuds may be divided into three general -classes, as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Blade circular in outline, including 180 -degrees or more, or semielliptical with either -axis transverse; sides of stem straight or -slightly curved, parallel or slightly tapering -to top, which is either straight or slightly -rounded; shoulder nearly at right angles to -stem, with sharp or rounded corners or sometimes -barbed; stem and blade not differing -greatly in length. The type of the class, -presented in <a href="#FIG_109">figure 109</a>, is of clay slate, from -a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee. The other six specimens in the -collection were distributed as shown in the table.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Monroe county, Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Phillips county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pulaski county, Arkansas</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Green slate.<br /> -B = Mica-schist.<br /> -C = Compact quartzite.<br /> -D = Clay slate.<br /> -E = Quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>B.</i> Lower part of the blade a half circle or less; top square or slightly -rounded; stem rapidly widening, with increasing curve to the blade, -making an angle with it; stem and blade -nearly the same length. A specimen of -green slate, from Mississippi county, Arkansas, -is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_110">figure 110</a>. Another, -of compact quartzite, comes from -Loudon county, Tennessee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_110" src="images/fig_110.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—Spud.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Handle or stem round; very much -longer than the blade, which is semicircular -or semielliptical, with square or barbed -shoulders. Illustrated in <a href="#FIG_111">figure 111</a> (probably -of chloritic slate, from Prairie county, -Arkansas).</p> - -<h4 id="PLUMMETS"><span class="smcap">Plummets.</span></h4> - -<p>The specimens known as plummets vary -considerably in form, size, and degree of -finish, indicating diversity of purpose, and different writers have -assigned to them various uses. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p> - -<p>According to Abbott, one of these relics was found at Salem, in a -mortar.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Stevens says, quoting from Schoolcraft, that the Pennacook -Indians used sinkers very much like a plummet in shape.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> In Florida -very rough plummets with deep grooves are found in the shell mounds, -which were no doubt used as sinkers. The Indians of -southern California use them as medicine stones to -bring rain; the Eskimo use similar stones as sinkers, -but have them perforated at the end. The larger objects -of this form may have been used as pestles.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> They -might be made very efficient in twisting thread, as they -revolve for a considerable time when set in motion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_111" src="images/fig_111.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—Spud.</p> -</div> - -<p>The general form is ovoid, sometimes quite slender, -sometimes almost round; the ends -may be either blunt or pointed. -They may be grooved near the middle -or near either the larger or -smaller end. Some have two grooves, -some are only partially grooved, -while others have the groove extending -lengthwise. There are forms -that differ somewhat from this description, -but such are rare.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_112" src="images/fig_112.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—Plummet, grooved -near one end.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_113" src="images/fig_113.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—Plummet, -double-grooved.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many small and otherwise unworked -waterworn pebbles and -pieces of steatite pots from southeastern -Tennessee and from Montgomery county, North -Carolina, have grooves near the middle or near one end; -they were probably applied to some of the -uses for which plummets were intended.</p> - -<p>The plummets in the Bureau collection -may be grouped as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Grooved near smaller end. The types -are illustrated in <a href="#FIG_112">figure 112</a> (sandy limestone, -from a mound in Catahoula parish, -Louisiana), and <a href="#FIG_113">figure 113</a> (hematite, double -grooved, with notches cut in various places, -from a mound in Kanawha valley, West -Virginia). Other specimens are, one from -Arkansas county, Arkansas, of sandstone, -and one each from Brown and Randolph counties, Illinois, -both of hematite.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Grooved near larger end. A good example, of hematite, -is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, with a second groove partially -around the middle. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span></p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Grooved near the middle. The class is represented by a beautiful -specimen (<a href="#FIG_114">figure 114</a>) of hematite, with the groove much polished -and irregular, and a deep notch cut in one end, from Ross county, Ohio. -Another specimen, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, -is a double conical implement of hematite, elliptical in section -with both ends ground off on flatter sides only.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_114" src="images/fig_114.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—Plummet, grooved near middle.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_115" src="images/fig_115.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—Plummet, grooved lengthwise.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Grooved lengthwise. This class includes a plummet -of quartzite, from Yellowstone park (<a href="#FIG_115">figure 115</a>), and another -of hematite, much -shorter than the Yellowstone -specimen and -with blunt ends, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_116" src="images/fig_116.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Plummet, grooveless, perforated.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_117" src="images/fig_117.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Plummet, double cone in shape.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Grooveless. A good specimen -(<a href="#FIG_116">figure 116</a>) is of quartz and mica, elliptical in section, pointed at ends -with one end perforated, from Yellowstone park; another, from Randolph -county, Illinois, of hematite, rough, perhaps unfinished.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Double cone, with one end ground off flat and hollowed -out. The type (<a href="#FIG_117">figure 117</a>) is of granite, -one of three from Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>G.</i> Top flattened and hollowed out; -sides incurving to the middle; lower -half a hemisphere. The class is represented -by <a href="#FIG_118">figure 118</a> (quartzite, from -Randolph county, Illinois), and <a href="#FIG_119">figure -119</a> (sandstone, from Adams county, -Ohio). From Kanawha valley there -is one of hematite, similar in form to -the last.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_118" src="images/fig_118.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—Plummet.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>H.</i> Ovoid, with the smaller end ground off flat.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> A good specimen of -this class (<a href="#FIG_120">figure 120</a>) is of magnetite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina. -From Savannah, Georgia, there are two -of sandstone, both smaller than the -type and rough; from Kanawha valley -there is one of quartzite, nearly half -ground away, leaving almost a hemisphere; -and from eastern Tennessee -there are one of magnetite and one of -quartzite, the latter nearly round.</p> - -<p><i>I.</i> Cylindrical. A unique specimen, -from a mound in Loudon county, Tennessee, -is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_121">figure 121</a>. It -is of sandstone; a short cylinder with -incurved sides, each end terminating in a blunt cone. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_119" src="images/fig_119.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_120" src="images/fig_120.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_121" src="images/fig_121.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—Plummet.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Plummet, -end ground flat.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Plummet.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_122">Figure 122</a> represents a piece of smoothly dressed steatite from Desha -county, Arkansas, with a two-thirds round section, the ends rounded, -with a groove near one end, which may be classed with the plummets. -There are pieces of sandstone from the same locality which connect this -pattern with the simpler “boat-form” stones, except that the flat side -is ground smooth instead of being hollowed. -This is only one of numerous -examples where the shapes of implements -whose “typical forms” seem utterly -dissimilar merge into one another -so gradually that no line of demarkation -can be drawn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_122" src="images/fig_122.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Plummet, cylindrical.</p> -</div> - -<h4 id="CONES"><span class="smcap">Cones.</span></h4> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_123" src="images/fig_123.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_124" src="images/fig_124.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Cone.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Cone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The relics known as “cones” have the -base flat and the side curving slightly; -usually the curve extends regularly -over the top, but sometimes the apex is -rubbed off flat. The conic surface may -form an angle with the base, or the line of junction may be rounded into -a curve. They vary considerably in thickness, some being nearly flat, -others having a height equal to the diameter of the base. One of steatite -from Savannah, as also one of sandstone from Kanawha valley, has a -slight pit or depression on the flat side. Among the best examples are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -one (<a href="#FIG_123">figure 123</a>) of steatite from Bradley county, Tennessee, and another -(<a href="#FIG_124">figure 124</a>) of hematite from Loudon county, in the same state; one -(<a href="#FIG_125">figure 125</a>) of compact quartzite from a mound in Ogle county, Illinois, -and a fourth specimen (<a href="#FIG_126">figure 126</a>) of granite from Kanawha valley, West -Virginia. The distribution is as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_125" src="images/fig_125.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_126" src="images/fig_126.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—Cone.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—Cone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ogle county, Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Haywood county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Steatite.<br /> -B = Hematite.<br /> -C = Compact quartzite.<br />11 -D = Granite.<br /> -E = Sandstone.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 id="HEMISPHERES"><span class="smcap">Hemispheres.</span></h4> - -<p>Hemispheric stones, like the cones, -can receive a name only from the form -and not from any known or imagined -use to which they could have been applied.</p> - -<p>All such specimens in the collection, -except one, are from Kanawha -valley, and of hematite; many if not -most of them have been ground down -from the nodule, and were probably -paint stones originally; at least, the -material rubbed from them was used -as paint while the maker had their -final form in view. One, however, has -been pecked into shape and is entirely -without polish. In all, the base -is flat and varies in outline from -almost a circle to a narrow ellipse. -A section of the stone parallel to -either axis of the base varies from a -little more to a little less than a semicircle. -Typical forms, both from Bracken county, Kentucky, are illustrated -in <a href="#FIG_127">figure 127</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_127" src="images/fig_127.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Hemispheres.</p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></div> - -<p>The specimen, illustrated in <a href="#FIG_128">figure 128</a> (yellow quartz, from a mound -in Kanawha valley) is intermediate between cones and hemispheres. -The sides are polished, while the flat bottom and -rounded top are roughened. As it has faint red -stains, it may have been used as a paint-muller.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_128" src="images/fig_128.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—Hemisphere.</p> -</div> - -<h4 id="PAINT_STONES"><span class="smcap">Paint Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>The articles known as paint stones scarcely come -under the head of implements. Some of the hematite -pieces are incipient celts, hemispheres, or cones; but most of them -were used merely to furnish paint, at any rate until rubbed down quite -small. They are of every degree of firmness, -some being as brittle as dry clay, others like -iron. Most pieces in the collection are from -Kanawha valley, but others are from southeastern -Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, and -Caldwell county, North Carolina. From the -last-named section, as well as from Chester -county, South Carolina, and McMinn county, -Tennessee, come pieces of graphite more or less rubbed; and one has -been sent in from Elmore county, Alabama.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_129" src="images/fig_129.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Paint stone.</p> -</div> - -<p>The specimen illustrated in <a href="#FIG_129">figure 129</a>, from a mound, is a good -example of the manner in which the harder hematite was ground.</p> - -<h4 id="CEREMONIAL_STONES"><span class="smcap">Ceremonial Stones.</span></h4> - -<h5 id="FUNCTIONS_AND_PURPOSES"><span class="smcap">Functions and Purposes.</span></h5> - -<p>The so-called “ceremonial stones” are variously subdivided and -named by different writers. They are supposed to have been devoted -to religious, superstitious, medical, emblematic, or ceremonial purposes; -to be badges of authority, insignia of rank, tokens of valorous deeds, -or perhaps some sort of heraldic device; in short, the uses to which -they might, in their different forms, be assigned, are limited only by -the imagination.</p> - -<p>According to Nilsson the ancient Scandinavians wore “victory stones” -suspended around their necks,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> and the Eskimo wear charms and -amulets to bring success in fishing and hunting.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> Adair (1775) says -that the American Archi-magus wore a breastplate made of a white -conch-shell, with two holes bored in the middle of it, through which he -put the ends of an otter-skin strap and fastened a buck-horn button to -the outside of each.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> An explanation of the purpose of many of the -smaller perforated stones also may be found in Nilsson’s remark<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> that -the small ovoid or ellipsoid ones were used as buttons; a string being -tied to the robe at one end, run through the hole and tied in a knot. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<p>The various Indians of Guiana in their leisure hours often fashion -highly ornamental weapons and implements which they never use -except ceremonially, but keep proudly at home for show.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a></p> - -<p>So, too, the Yurok and Hupa Indians of California, as well as some -of the tribes of Oregon, have very large spearheads or knives, which -are not designed for use, but only to be produced on the occasion of a -great dance. The larger weapons are wrapped in skin to protect the -hand; the smaller ones are glued to a handle. Some are said to be -15 inches long.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> The Oregon Indians believed the possession of a large -obsidian knife brought long life and prosperity to the tribe owning it.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> - -<p>Some of the wild tribes of the interior have something which they -regard as the Jews did the Ark of the Covenant. Sometimes it is -known; again it is kept secret. The Cheyenne had a bundle of arrows; -the Ute a little stone image, and the Osage a similar stone.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> The -Kiowa had a carved wooden image, representing a human face; the -Ute captured it, and the Kiowa offered very great rewards for its -return; but the Ute, believing the Kiowa powerless to harm them so -long as it was retained, refused to give it up.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></p> - -<p>The North Carolina Indians, when they went to war, carried with -them their idol, of which they told incredible stories and asked counsel;<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> -and as a token of rank or authority, the Virginia Indians suspended -on their breasts, by a string of beads about their neck, a square -plate of copper.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> These were worn as badges of authority. The native -tribes, from our first acquaintance with them, evinced a fondness -for insignia of this kind.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a></p> - -<p>Simply for convenience the ceremonial stones in the Bureau collection -will here be divided into two general classes. The first, comprising -those pierced through the shortest diameter, will be called gorgets, -which name, like that of celt, has no particular meaning, but is in common -use. The second class will comprise all others, which will have -some name that may or may not be suitable to their form, but by which -they are usually called. In this class are included boat-shape stones, -banner stones, picks, spool-shape ornaments, and bird-shape stones, -as well as engraved tablets or stones.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p> - -<h5 id="GORGETS"><span class="smcap">Gorgets.</span></h5> - -<p>The relics commonly called gorgets have been found in Europe; they -may be convex on one side, concave on the other, and are supposed to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -be for bracers.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> It is said that the Miami Indians wore similar plates -of stone to protect their wrists from the bowstring.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> Herndon and -Gibbon remark that a gold ornament in shape like a gorget, but not -pierced, is worn on the forehead by some of the Amazon Indians.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> -According to Schoolcraft the so-called gorgets were sometimes used as -twine-twisters;<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> but Abbott holds that while some may have been -twine-twisters, or may have been used for condensing sinews or evening bowstrings -(that is, reducing the strings to a uniform diameter), most were -simply ornaments, as they are generally found on the breast of a -buried body.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> Stevens is even more conservative, holding that they -were neither twine-twisters nor devices for condensing sinews or evening -bowstrings, as they show no marks of wear in the holes.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a></p> - -<p>Some writers suppose the gorgets to have been shuttles; but this -supposition can hardly be entertained, although it is true, according -to Chase, that the Oregon Indians passed thread with a curved bone -needle.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> As twine-twisters they would be about as awkward as anything -that could be devised. As to evening bowstrings, it would seem -that if a string were too large in places to pass through a hole it could -not be pulled through; pounding and rolling the wet string with a -smooth stone, or some such means, would be the remedy. The bracer -theory is plausible; but no one seems ever to have seen a gorget used for -this purpose.</p> - -<p>Few of the gorgets in the Bureau collection show such marks of wear -around the edges of the hole as would be made by a cord; but the -majority are thus worn at the middle, where the hole is smallest. -Some specimens among every lot are not perforated, or only partially -so; the drilling seems to have been the last stage of the work. The -hole is almost always drilled from both sides, and the few in which it -goes entirely through from one side would probably have had it -enlarged later from the other. A number are fragments of larger -gorgets, the pieces having been redrilled.</p> - -<p>Some of the specimens have various notches and incised lines, the -latter being sometimes in tolerably regular order; but there is not the -slightest indication that these marks had any meaning or were intended -for any other purpose than to add to the ornamental appearance of the -stone.</p> - -<p>If they were to be worn at the belt or on any part of the dress they -could easily have been fastened by a knotted string, or if the wearer -desired he could have an ornamental button of some kind. If suspended -around the neck, in order to make them lie flat against the breast they -probably had a short cord passed through the perforation and tied -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -above the top of the object, the suspending cord being passed through -the loop thus formed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_130" src="images/fig_130.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>—Gorget.</p> -</div> - -<p>The principal division is into group <i>A</i> with one hole -and group <i>B</i> with two holes, though in many cases this -forms the only difference between two specimens.</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> General outline rectangular, or perhaps slightly -elliptical, sometimes with one end somewhat narrower -than the other, or with one end rounded off, or with the -corners slightly rounded. Perforation commonly near -one end. The form is represented by the specimen -with two perforations illustrated in <a href="#FIG_133">figure 133</a>, which -otherwise fully answers the description. The argillite -specimens have the broader ends striated as though -used for rubbing or scraping, but in other respects conform to those of -other materials. The materials are generally the softer rocks, as shown -in the accompanying table:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wilkes county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Knox county, Ohio</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="6"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Steatite.<br /> -B = Slate.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Schist.<br /> -E = Argillite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>A related type is rectangular or with incurved sides (forming either -a regular or broken curve) and rounded ends, and differs in having the -perforation near the center. The same pattern sometimes has two holes. -It is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_130">figure 130</a> (striped slate, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia). There are also from the same place one each -of slate, cannel coal, and clay slate, and from eastern Tennessee one -each of slate, shale, and clay slate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_131" src="images/fig_131.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>—Gorget(?).</p> -</div> - -<p>There are a number of small pebbles, -thin and flat, with a hole drilled near -the edge, from southeastern Tennessee, -North Carolina, and southeastern -Arkansas. One of these, from Caldwell -county, North Carolina, is of -banded slate; the others are of clay -slate or sandstone. Two of them have -straight and zigzag lines on both faces, and notches around the edge.</p> - -<p>Allied to these are a number of pieces of flat stone from southeastern -Tennessee, Kanawha valley, and North Carolina, with the faces partially -rubbed down smooth, the edges being untouched. They are of -slate, talc, or argillite.</p> - -<p>From southeastern Tennessee and North Carolina there are several -pieces of steatite, which may have been for sinkers. Some have a hole -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -near one end, others a hole at each end, while still others are not perforated. -All have been worked over the entire surface, and some of -them are well polished. One of these is represented in <a href="#FIG_131">figure 131</a>.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Gorgets with two holes. -Of these there are several subdivisions, -differing more or -less widely in form. They -are as follows:</p> - -<p>1. Thick, with both the sides -and the ends incurved or reel-shape; -faces flat or slightly -convex. This form is represented -by the specimen shown -in <a href="#FIG_132">figure 132</a>, from a mound, -Knox county, Ohio. There is -another from the same place, -a third from Kanawha valley, -and a fourth from Butler county, Ohio; all of -green slate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_132" src="images/fig_132.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>—Gorget, reel-shape.</p> -</div> - -<p>2. Rectangular, or with sides or ends, or both, -slightly curved, either convex or concave; faces -flat. Shown in <a href="#FIG_133">figure 133</a> (green slate, from a -grave in Kanawha valley, West Virginia).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nicholas county, Kentucky, with ends V-shaped</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ogle county, Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Forsyth county, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Haywood county, N.C.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Davidson county, N.C.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chautauqua county, N.Y.</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Slate.<br /> -B = Limestone.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Shale.<br /> -E = Argillite.<br /> -F = Fine quartzite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_133" src="images/fig_133.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>—Gorget.</p> -</div> - -<p>3. Widest at middle, with single or double -curve from end to end; very thin; both sides flat.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Davidson county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Slate.<br /> -B = Sandstone.<br /> -C = Schist.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<p>4. Same outline but thicker; one face flat, the other convex. Represented -by <a href="#FIG_134">figure 134</a> (shale, from Jackson county, Illinois). The distribution -of the form is as follows:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - <th>G</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Haywood county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Davidson county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Jackson county, Illinois</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Desha county, Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="8"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Slate.<br /> -C = Schist.<br /> -D = Steatite.<br /> -E = Talc.<br /> -F = Argillite.<br /> -G = Shale.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_134" src="images/fig_134.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>—Gorget.</p> -</div> - -<p>5. Same outline, but quite thick, approaching the “boat-shape” -stones in form. In some the flat side is slightly hollowed out. A -majority of them are not perforated. The type -(<a href="#FIG_135">figure 135</a>) is of sandstone, from a mound at -Adelphi, Ohio.</p> - -<p>There are also, from Butler county, Ohio, -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Savannah, -Georgia, one each of slate; from Ross -county, Ohio, two, and from Kanawha valley, -and Cocke county, Tennessee, one each, all of -sandstone. There are two (of sandstone and -slate) from Kanawha valley, which differ from -the others in having the sides parallel, giving -them a semicylindrical form.</p> - -<p>The pattern of the specimen illustrated in -<a href="#FIG_136">figure 136</a> (striped slate, from Butler county, -Ohio, of which a number have been found in -that state), may be classed between the gorgets -and the boat-shape stones. The shorter end -of the object has, sometimes, a projection or -enlargement at the top, apparently for suspension, -although no perforated examples have -been found.</p> - -<h4 id="BANNER_STONES"><span class="smcap">Banner Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>Under the head of “banner stones” are -placed ornaments having the ends at right -angles to the perforation. The hole is drilled -in a midrib, from which the faces slope by -either straight or curved lines to the edges. The two halves of the -stone are symmetrical. In most specimens one face is flatter than the -other, even plane in some cases. Some specimens are finished to a high -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -polish, before the hole is started; others have the hole completed with the -exterior more or less unfinished. The specimens in the Bureau collection -may be classified as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Rectangular or trapezoidal, with sides and ends sometimes slightly -curved inward or outward.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Reel-shape.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Crescentic.</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Butterfly pattern.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_135" src="images/fig_135.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_136" src="images/fig_136.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>—Gorget, boat-shape.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>—Gorget resembling boat-shape stone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The last three varieties may be considered as only modifications of -the simple rectangular banner stones. By rounding off the corners of -the articles or dressing them to sharp points, by cutting away portions -from the sides or by trimming away the central portions at either or -both ends of the perforations, all these different forms may be produced.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_137" src="images/fig_137.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_138" src="images/fig_138.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>—Banner stone.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>—Banner stone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>A.</i> A typical specimen is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_137">figure 137</a>. It is of slate, and -was taken from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Another -good example, shown in <a href="#FIG_138">figure 138</a>, is of sandy slate, from a grave in -Monroe county, Tennessee. The geographic range of this type is wide, -though the objects are not abundant. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hancock county, Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Granite.<br /> -B = Steatite.<br /> -C = Slate.<br /> -D = Sandstone.<br /> -E = Compact quartzite.<br /> -F = Diorite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>B.</i> The reel-shape banner stones are somewhat variable, but are fairly -illustrated in <a href="#FIG_139">figure 139</a>, representing a specimen of argillite from Sevier -county, Tennessee.</p> - -<p>A related form has the middle cut -from one end, leaving two horn-like projections -extending parallel with the hole. -An example of this form, shown -in <a href="#FIG_140">figure 140</a>, is of banded slate, -from a mound in Kanawha valley, -West Virginia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_139" src="images/fig_139.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_140" src="images/fig_140.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_141" src="images/fig_141.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>—Banner -stone, reel-shape.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>—Banner stone, -with horn-like -projections.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>—Banner stone, crescent-shape.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_142" src="images/fig_142.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>—Banner stone, crescent-shape</p> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> The crescentic banner stones might better be termed “semilunar,” -since most of them are flat at one end and curved at the other. Occasionally -one has both ends -curved and parallel, -the sides also slightly -curved, making the -article reniform. -Others have the ends -straight and parallel, -with the sides curved -or like the zone of a -circle. Two have a -midrib for the hole, -with the sides dressed -down quite thin, as -with the butterfly gorgets. All were finished in form before the drilling -was done, though some had not received their final polish. The -type is illustrated in figures 141 (steatite, from northwestern North -Carolina), 142 (pagodite, from Rhea county, Tennessee), and 143 (sandstone, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -from Jefferson county, Tennessee). The last form is sometimes -called a perforated ax, but the material and fragile make exclude it -from every class except the ceremonial stones.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Montgomery county, North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Steatite.<br /> -B = Slate.<br /> -C = Granite.<br /> -D = Reddle.<br /> -E = Pagodite.<br /> -F = Talc.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>D.</i> The “butterfly” gorgets are so named from their resemblance to -a butterfly with expanded wings. The sides or wings are usually quite -thin, either semicircular or like a spherical triangle in outline. The -perforated mid-rib is shorter than the wings and carefully worked. A -good example, shown in <a href="#FIG_144">figure 144</a>, is of ferruginous quartz from -Monongahela, Pennsylvania, and that illustrated in <a href="#FIG_145">figure 145</a> is of -banded slate from Kanawha valley. There is also one of the latter -material from Lewis county, Kentucky.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_143" src="images/fig_143.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_144" src="images/fig_144.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span>—Banner stone, crescent-shape.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>—Butterfly banner stone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_145" src="images/fig_145.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_146" src="images/fig_146.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>—Butterfly banner stone.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>—Banner stone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>An aberrant form is elliptical in section at the middle, round or nearly -so at the ends, the sides expanding rapidly from end to middle by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -double curves. It is represented by <a href="#FIG_146">figure 146</a> (ferruginous quartz, -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia), and by a specimen of quartzite -from Union county, Mississippi.</p> - -<h4 id="BOAT-SHAPE_STONES"><span class="smcap">Boat-shape Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>There are two types of relics, perhaps ceremonial, for which no use -has been determined, and which are named from their general resemblance -to the form of a boat. They are as follows:<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> - -<p><i>A.</i> With flat face more or less hollowed, sides triangular and parallel. -A number are not perforated. The type is shown in <a href="#FIG_147">figure 147</a> (striped -slate, from Davidson county, North Carolina).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - <th>E</th> - <th>F</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Davidson county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="7"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Compact quartzite.<br /> -B = Slate.<br /> -C = Sandstone.<br /> -D = Porphyry.<br /> -E = Barite.<br /> -F = Steatite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_147" src="images/fig_147.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_148" src="images/fig_148.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>—Boat-shape stone.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>—Boat-shape stone.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Coming to a point at each end; flat side, deeply hollowed; perforations -near the ends, with a groove between them in which the suspending -cord rested. Some have a flattened projection in which the groove -is made. The type (<a href="#FIG_148">figure 148</a>) is of steatite, from a grave in Sullivan -county, Tennessee. The distribution is as follows: -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Central North Carolina</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Steatite.<br /> -B = Slate.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 id="PICKS"><span class="smcap">Picks.</span></h4> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_149" src="images/fig_149.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>—Pendant.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_150" src="images/fig_150.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>—Pick.</p> -</div> - -<p>The relics known as picks from their form and not at all from their -function vary considerably in size. -Not all are perforated. A good example, -shown in <a href="#FIG_150">figure 150</a>, is of striped -slate, from Knox county, Ohio. There -are also in the collection, from Union -county, Mississippi, one -specimen of greenstone; -from Jackson county, -North Carolina, one of -slate, and from Montgomery -county, North Carolina, -one each of steatite -and slate. The last named -is the half of a larger one -that was broken at the -part drilled, and has had -a hole drilled near the -larger end of this fragment, which has -not been reworked.</p> - -<h4 id="SPOOL-SHAPE_ORNAMENTS"><span class="smcap">Spool-shape Ornaments.</span></h4> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_151" src="images/fig_151.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>—Spool-shape ornament.</p> -</div> - -<p>Relics of spool shape, probably ornamental rather than industrially -useful, are not uncommon in copper, though very rare in stone. -The specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_151">figure 151</a> is of sandstone, -from Jackson county, Arkansas. There -are also, from Prairie and Lonoke counties, -one each of sandstone, and from Jackson -county two of the same material; from Clark -county there is one of pinkish slate, with -the stem drilled between and parallel to the -faces, the others with stems drilled lengthwise.</p> - -<h4 id="BIRD-SHAPE_STONES"><span class="smcap">Bird-shape Stones.</span></h4> - -<p>Stone relics of bird form are quite common north of the Ohio river, -but are exceedingly rare south of that stream. A good example, shown -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -in <a href="#FIG_152">figure 152</a>, is of granite, from Vernon county, Wisconsin, and the -collection embraces another specimen, of sandstone, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_152" src="images/fig_152.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>—Bird-shape stone.</p> -</div> - -<p>According to Gillman, bird-shape stones were worn on the head by -the Indian women, but only after marriage.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> Abbott<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> quotes Col. -Charles Whittlesey to the effect that they were worn by Indian women -to denote pregnancy, and from William Penn that when squaws were -ready to marry they wore something on their heads to indicate the fact. -Jones<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> quotes from De Bry that the conjurers among the Virginia -Indians wore a small, black bird above one of their ears as a badge of -their office.</p> - -<h4 id="SHAFT_RUBBERS"><span class="smcap">Shaft Rubbers.</span></h4> - -<p>The shaft of an arrow is straightened by wetting and immersing it in -hot sand and ashes, and bringing into shape by the hand and eye. To -reduce the short crooks and knobs it is drawn between two rough grit -stones, each of which has a slight groove in it; coarse sand is also used -to increase the friction.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p> - -<p>Again, a rock has a groove cut into it as wide as the shaft and two or -three times as deep. Into this the crooked part of the shaft is forced, -and by heating or steaming becomes flexible and can be easily made -straight, which shape it will retain when dry.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p> - -<p>A somewhat different device for the same purpose appears in the -Bureau collection. It is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_153">figure 153</a> (of fine sandstone); -there was another part to correspond with that shown. The specimen -is from Monongahela, Pennsylvania.</p> - -<h4 id="TUBES"><span class="smcap">Tubes.</span></h4> - -<p>As the use of stone tubes by the Indians has given rise to considerable -discussion, the following references to the various ways in which -they have been employed may help to settle it. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p> - -<p>Schoolcraft observed that the Dakota Indians used a horn tube in -bleeding; one end was set over the cut, and the other vigorously -sucked.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> Powers says that the Klamath Indians use tubes for smoking,<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> -while H. H. Bancroft says that the Acaxees of Mexico employ -“blowing through a hollow tube” for the cure of disease,<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> and also -that the Indians of southern California inhale smoke of certain herbs -through a tube to produce intoxication.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> According to C. C. Jones the -Florida and Virginia Indians used reeds in treating diseases by sucking -or blowing through them, and also used them in cauterizing; and -he observes that the Indians of Lower California employed similar -processes, using stone tubes<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> instead of reeds. Hoffman illustrates the -removal of disease through the agency of a tube of bone by a Jĕs´sakīd´ -or medicine-man of the Ojibwa.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> Read calls attention to the fact -that the old Spanish writers describe a forked wooden tube, the prongs -being inserted in the nostrils, while the other end was held over -smoldering herbs, and suggests that the Indians may have used stone -tubes in the same way.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_153" src="images/fig_153.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>—Shaft rubber.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Indian mode of inhaling smoke would produce the same result, -whether drawn through the mouth or into the nostrils.</p> - -<p>The use of stone tubes for astronomical purposes, -which has been discovered by some imaginative -writers, is, of course, absurd; nevertheless they -are useful in viewing distant objects on a bright -day, especially when looking toward the sun.</p> - -<p>Nearly all of the tubes made of soft material -with tapering perforation seem to have been gouged -rather than drilled. Schumacher observes that the California Indians -drilled their tubes from both ends and enlarged the hole from one end -by scraping, the mouthpiece being made of a bird bone stuck on with -asphaltum.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p> - -<p>There are five classes of stone tubes in the collection of the Bureau, -as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> One end flattened and expanding into a wing on either side. -This class is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_154">figure 154</a> (from Kanawha valley, West -Virginia). The corners of this specimen have been trimmed off; the -typical form is indicated by the dotted lines. There are also from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -same locality one of quartzite, and from Ross county, Ohio, one of -sandstone.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Conical; the bore more tapering than the exterior. Represented -by the specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_155">figure 155</a>, of sandstone, from a mound in -Kanawha valley, West Virginia.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sevier county, Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kanawha valley, West Virginia</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Steatite.<br /> -C = Slate.<br /> -D = Clay slate.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>C.</i> Hour-glass shape, usually but not always with a narrow ring or -projection around the smallest part. Exterior -with gently curving outlines; the perforation -is usually in the form of a double -cone, with the points at the smallest part of -the tube, which may or may not be midway -between the ends. A good specimen, illustrated -in <a href="#FIG_156">figure 156</a>, is of steatite, from -Sevier county, Tennessee.</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Of nearly uniform diameter inside and -out; section circular, elliptical, or flattened -on one side. This form is exemplified by -<a href="#FIG_157">figure 157</a>, a specimen from North Carolina. -There are also one -each from Caldwell, -Haywood, and Montgomery -counties, -North Carolina, all of -slate.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_154" src="images/fig_154.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_155" src="images/fig_155.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>—Tube, one end flattened.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>—Tube, conical.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Round or elliptical -in section, ¾ to -2½ inches long; probably -beads. The collection includes specimens -from Bradley county, Tennessee, of steatite; from Savannah, -Georgia, of ferruginous sandstone; and from Union county, Mississippi, -of jasper.</p> - -<h4 id="PIPES"><span class="smcap">Pipes.</span></h4> - -<p>So much has been written concerning pipes that few references seem -necessary, and none will be given except from Col. R. I. Dodge, who, -after an experience of many years among the Plains Indians, says that -the latter have different pipes for different occasions, as the medicine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -pipe, peace pipe, council pipe, and a pipe for common use. Each is -sacred to its own purpose.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_156" src="images/fig_156.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>—Tube, hour-glass form.</p> -</div> - -<p>In an article so highly prized by its owner, great pains would be -expended to give an ornamental appearance to one which would be -used on important ceremonial occasions; and it would be carved or -worked in a manner gratifying to its maker or the one for whom it -was intended. This fact, and the statement quoted above, will explain -the great variety in form from a limited area. Still, in some sections -of the country there are certain types that prevail, and may be in -some cases peculiar to these localities; such, for instance, are the long -stemmed pipes from western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee.</p> - -<p>In many pipes of soft stone the bowl is gouged out instead of drilled.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_157" src="images/fig_157.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>—Tube, cylindrical.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pipes in the Bureau collection embrace the following classes:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Stem with an elliptical or somewhat triangular section; the bowl -near one end, leaving a projection in front; stem hole in long end. -The form is shown in <a href="#FIG_158">figure 158</a>. From Caldwell county, North Carolina -there are two similar pipes of steatite. Another, from Preston county, -West Virginia, differs only in having the stem hole in the short end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_158" src="images/fig_158.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>—Pipe, flat base.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Same form of stem; no projection in front, the bottom of the -stem curving up gradually into the front of the bowl. This type is -represented by <a href="#FIG_159">figure 159</a> (of steatite, from a mound in Loudon county, -Tennessee). There are also, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, an example of -talcose slate, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, -one of steatite.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Stem having a midrib in which the hole is bored. One of steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina, has a prow; the others -have not. Another of steatite from Loudon county, Tennessee, has a -slender projection below the bowl, as if for a handle. The axis of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -bowl and that of the stem meet at any angle between 100° and 170°. -<a href="#FIG_160">Figure 160</a> represents a typical specimen, of steatite, from a mound in -Sullivan county, Tennessee. There are also, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina, and Kanawha and Preston counties, West Virginia, -one each, and from Sullivan county, Tennessee, two, all of steatite; and -there is an example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of material -not identified.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_159" src="images/fig_159.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>—Pipe.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_160" src="images/fig_160.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>—Pipe.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> With bowls and stems either round or square; very large. A -good example (<a href="#FIG_161">figure 161</a>) is of red sandstone, from southeastern Missouri; -it is the only pipe in the entire collection of the Bureau on -which is shown any attempt at ornamentation. From Jefferson county, -Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia, there are one each, of steatite.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_161" src="images/fig_161.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_162" src="images/fig_162.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>—Pipe, ornamented.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>—Pipe.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Cylindrical bowl, with a square-edged groove around it near the -middle, below which the bottom has a somewhat celt like form, with -stem hole in one side. A small hole is drilled near the edge at the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -bottom, probably for the purpose of suspending feathers or other ornaments. -The type is represented by <a href="#FIG_162">figure 162</a> (of limestone, from -Crawford county, Wisconsin). Pipes of the same form are found also -in central Ohio.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_163" src="images/fig_163.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 163.—Pipe, long-stemmed.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>F.</i> Round stem from one-half inch to 10 inches long; bowl at extreme -end, set on at various angles from nearly a right angle to almost -a straight line. Good examples are illustrated in <a href="#FIG_163">figure 163</a> (steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina) and 164 (also of steatite, from -a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee). The other specimens in the -collection are distributed as shown in the table:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caldwell county, North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chester county, South Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Steatite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_164" src="images/fig_164.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>—Pipe, short-stemmed.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>G.</i> Same form of stem, short, with flange around the top of the bowl. -Represented by one of sandstone, -from a mound in Monroe -county, Tennessee (<a href="#FIG_165">figure -165</a>), and three of sandstone -and two of marble -from eastern Tennessee.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_165" src="images/fig_165.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_166" src="images/fig_166.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—Pipe.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>—Pipe.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>H.</i> Small, stem more or -less squared, bowl upright. -There are two examples of this class from Monroe county, Tennessee, -each having a flat projection or ridge on top of the stem, which is perforated -for attachment of ornaments. The type, represented in figure -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -166, is of clay slate, from Monroe county, Tennessee. It will appear -from the following table that the distribution of this form is limited:</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Savannah, Georgia</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western North Carolina</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Sandstone.<br /> -B = Clay slate.<br /> -C = Steatite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>I.</i> Egg-shape bowl, stem hole in the side. One from Bradley -county, Tennessee, of argillaceous limestone, has a hole drilled from -end to end, but no stem hole. It may have been made so -intentionally, or the drilling may have been carried too -far and the specimen left unfinished. The type is of -barite, from Sevier county, Tennessee (shown in <a href="#FIG_167">figure -167</a>). Another specimen, from McMinn county, Tennessee, -is of argillaceous limestone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_167" src="images/fig_167.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>—Pipe.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>J.</i> Form like last, with a flange around the top of -the bowl. A typical specimen, -shown in <a href="#FIG_168">figure 168</a>, is of -steatite, from Loudon county, Tennessee. -There are, also, from Preston county, West -Virginia, one of sandstone, and from Caldwell -county, North Carolina, two of steatite.</p> - -<p><i>K.</i> Bowls egg-shape, but quite long and -sometimes rather pointed at the bottom; stem -hole in the side. This class includes the -following: From Savannah, Georgia; Roane -county, Tennessee; and Adams county, Ohio, -one each of sandstone; from Holt county, -Missouri, one of micaceous sandstone; from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, one of -indurated red clay, possibly catlinite; and from Caldwell county, North -Carolina, three of steatite.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_168" src="images/fig_168.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>—Pipe.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="CHIPPED_STONE_ARTICLES"><span class="smcap">Chipped Stone Articles.</span></h3> - -<h4 id="MATERIALS_AND_MANUFACTURE"><span class="smcap">Materials and Manufacture.</span></h4> - -<p>The chipped implements in the Bureau collection, are nearly always -made of some form of flint or similar chalcedonic rock, as it is easily -chipped and can be brought to a keen edge or point. Sometimes -quartz, quartzite, argillite, or even a more granular rock is used; but -this is infrequent, and is due to the scarcity of the more desirable -material. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> - -<p>In the spades and hoes first to be considered the flaking seems to -have been by percussion mainly, if not entirely; the same method -appears to have been employed in obtaining flakes from blocks, to work -into the smaller implements. Some of the processes used in making -them will be hereinafter described.</p> - -<h4 id="SPADES"><span class="smcap">Spades.</span></h4> - -<p>It must be admitted that most Indians depended largely on agriculture -for subsistence; some historical works that represent them as barbarous -hunters, depending entirely on the chase, will, on the same page -perhaps, relate how Virginia and New England pioneers were saved -from starvation by supplies of corn, beans, and pumpkins obtained from -the Indians. This being the case, some method of cultivation was -necessary.</p> - -<p>It is not to be inferred that “cultivation” implies all that is now -meant by the term; the Indian seems merely to have worked the hill -in which his corn was planted and not the whole surface of the field, -a shallow hole being scooped out in which the grain was dropped, and -as the stalk became larger the dirt was heaped up around it. The -remains of many “Indian old fields” in various parts of the country -show this, there being no long ridges as in cornfields of the present -day, but only a great number of these detached hills. The great scarcity -of implements suitable for such work argues nothing, for in most -parts of the country stone easily worked and adapted to the purpose -is unobtainable.</p> - -<p>There are a few flint deposits found in southern Illinois in which -the material occurs in nodules that can be made with even less work -than a piece of wood into suitable implements; and in the country -which may be considered as belonging to this archeologic district -the flint hoes and spades are tolerably abundant. In other portions of -the country, wood, the shoulder blades of large animals, and musselshells -perforated for attachment to a handle, were formerly used; the -shells are frequently found, but the other materials have long since -disappeared.</p> - -<p>Early observations on the industries of the aborigines are significant. -Thus, according to De Forest, the Connecticut Indians used spades -rudely constructed of wood, or of a large shell fastened to a wooden -handle;<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> and Palmer<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> figures a hoe made of horn, 14 by 5 by one-fourth -inches, in a wooden handle 5 feet long, which is split and slipped over -the smaller end; such, with others of wood and stone, were used among -the Utah Indians before iron was introduced. Dawson holds that they -were probably prepared in large numbers for the planting time, when -the whole tribe mustered to till the fields, and that when the work was -over they were gathered and hidden in some safe place until the next -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -season.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> This may have been the case to some extent, but the specimens -found in these hiding places seldom have marks of use, and it is -more probable that they were the property either of persons living at -a distance or of an individual manufacturer in some particular village, -being thus concealed for safe-keeping until there was a demand for -them or, perhaps, to await a convenient time for transportation. A -sedentary tribe would have no more reason for hiding this than any -other kind of property.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_169" src="images/fig_169.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_170" src="images/fig_170.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>—Chipped spade with pointed ends.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Chipped spade with rounded ends.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The chipped implements known as spades are frequently found -buried in large numbers. Two caches were disclosed by high water in -1884, near Caseyville, Kentucky, containing, respectively, 57 and 75 -specimens from 6 to 13 inches long.</p> - -<p>The most common form is that having an oval or elliptical outline, -with the ends either coming to a point or rounded. Long use of those -having pointed ends would wear them off until they approached the -others in form; but so many of both patterns show no evidence of use -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -that this distinction must be considered intentional. The principal -varieties are as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Those with pointed ends. <a href="#FIG_169">Figure 169</a> represents a typical specimen -of yellow flint, from Union county, Illinois.</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeastern Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cheatham county, Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Union county, Mississippi</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="3"> -KEY:<br /> -A = Yellow flint.<br /> -B = Grey flint.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><i>B.</i> Those with the ends rounded. Represented by <a href="#FIG_170">figure 170</a> (yellow -flint, from Union county, Illinois).</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>District.</th> - <th>A</th> - <th>B</th> - <th>C</th> - <th>D</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Illinois</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cheatham county, Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lauderdale county, Tennessee</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Polk county, Tennessee</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lauderdale county, Alabama</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Craighead county, Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"> -A = Yellow flint.<br /> -B = Grey flint.<br /> -C = Brown flint.<br /> -D = Argillite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>A specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, has had a portion of the -edge broken squarely. The polish over this fractured surface shows -that it was long used after breaking without being rechipped to a sharp -edge. This indicates usage only in loose ground, as it evidently would -be quite difficult to force the square, broken part into a hard soil or -tough sod.</p> - -<p>The specimens from Polk county, Tennessee, are pecked or chipped, -or both, and are quite roughly made. They are neither scratched nor -polished, and may be unfinished implements of some other class, though -agreeing closely with the flint spades in shape and size.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> A modification of the last form has the upper portion chipped -away along the sides until it is ovoid, with a blunt point, leaving the -lower part a regular curve. An example, shown in <a href="#FIG_171">figure 171</a>, is of -grayish brown flint, from Scott county, Missouri. There are also one -each from Mississippi county, Missouri, and Hopkins county, Kentucky, -of the same material.</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Like the above, but much shorter in ratio to the width, and with -a flatter curve. The type, <a href="#FIG_172">figure 172</a>, is of yellow flint, from a mound in -Obion county, Tennessee. There are also three from Union county, Illinois, -one of them with almost the same dimensions. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> - -<p><i>E.</i> Semicircular outline, with sides notched for securing the handle, as -in arrowpoints and spearheads. Represented by <a href="#FIG_173">figure 173</a>, showing a -specimen of gray flint from a mound in Mississippi county, Arkansas. -There are four additional specimens, all from Union county, Illinois.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> A related form, also notched for attachment of handle. <a href="#FIG_174">Figure 174</a> -represents an example of yellow flint, from Poinsett county, Arkansas, -the only one of this shape in the collection.</p> - -<p>From Jackson county, Illinois, there is a series beginning with a -small scraper and a small scraper-like celt, and passing gradually into -the large spades or digging-tools, there being a number of intermediate -forms and sizes. Two specimens, -only 6 inches long, have the glazed -surface so characteristic of these -implements, which could have been -produced only by long-continued use -in digging.</p> - -<p>From a workshop at Mill creek, -Union county, Illinois, there are a -large number of pieces in every stage -of work. Among them can be made -series of all the different types here -given, from the nodule in its natural -state to the completed implement. -Near by is a flint deposit showing -extensive aboriginal quarrying.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_171" src="images/fig_171.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>—Chipped spade, ovoid.</p> -</div> - -<p>Dawson,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> in speaking of these -implements, says: “The rudest of -all rude implements, similar to the -paleoliths of Europe, were used by -the more settled and civilized agricultural -nations.” While the majority -of them are rude, simply because -there was no necessity for elaborate -work or fine finish in tools of this -class, yet there are many specimens -(as, for example, the one shown in -<a href="#FIG_171">figure 171</a>) which in symmetry and workmanship will compare favorably -with the larger specimens of other types, due regard being had to the -fact that the coarse flint of which they are usually made does not admit -of the most delicate execution.</p> - -<h4 id="TURTLEBACKS"><span class="smcap">Turtlebacks.</span></h4> - -<p>The singular name “turtleback” is suggested instantly on seeing a -specimen of the class so designated by Abbott and others. As commonly -used, it refers to rude or unfinished leaf-shape implements of -any size, which may be found in great abundance almost anywhere. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -It is used here, however, to denote more especially the disks or almond-shaped -pieces of flint or chert sometimes found cached in considerable -numbers.</p> - -<p>Perkins<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> records the discovery of such caches in Vermont; an exceptional -case, as they are seldom found outside of the Mississippi valley. -The southern portion of Illinois has furnished more than any other -section; those found there are almost invariably made from nodules of -bluish gray hornstone, the concentric lines being strongly marked.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_172" src="images/fig_172.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>—Chipped spade.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Bureau has secured a large number from southern Illinois, -ranging from 3½ to 7½ inches in length, some nearly circular, others -having a length nearly twice the breadth. All have secondary chipping -around the edges. Many of the larger ones and most of the -smaller have the edges more or less worn or polished in such manner -as would result from use as knives or scrapers. A typical specimen is -shown in <a href="#FIG_175">figure 175</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span></p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_173" src="images/fig_173.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_174" src="images/fig_174.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>—Chipped spade, showing handle notches.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>—Chipped spade.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_175" src="images/fig_175.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>—Chipped disk, or “turtleback.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Stevens<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> denies in strongest terms that these relics are unfinished -implements, saying it is the worst possible form into which flint could -be chipped for carrying or for future work. On the other hand, -Cheever<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> says the Indians of California usually carry a pouch of -treasures, consisting of unfinished arrowheads or unworked stones, to -be slowly wrought out when they are industriously inclined. Catlin, -too, observed that the Apache sometimes carry bowlders of hornstone -a long distance to obtain material for arrowheads;<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> and according to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -im Thurn, the various Indian tribes of Guiana have each their special -manufacture and exchange with other tribes.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> Tylor says:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Till lately the Patagonians, when they came on their journeys to a place where -suitable flint or obsidian was to be found, would load themselves with a supply of -lumps to chip into these primitive currier’s scrapers.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>Both Jewitt<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> and Evans<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> say that stones of this character were used -as sling-stones; but there is no evidence that North American Indians -ever used slings. Speaking of similar stones, Tylor remarks:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>They were used either as knives or scrapers; with the curved side upward (or out) -there would be no danger of cutting a hide in skinning game, and they could be -used to cut up the flesh; while by putting the pointed end in the handle they could -be used as scrapers.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The smoothed edge in so many specimens substantiates the last -statement, while the theory that they are unfinished implements finds -support in the fact that nearly all the nodules from which they are -made have an ellipsoid form, and the present shape of the implement -would result from chipping away the useless weathered surface to -lessen the weight.</p> - -<h3 id="SMALLER_CHIPPED_IMPLEMENTS"><span class="smcap">Smaller chipped Implements.</span></h3> - -<h4 id="MATERIALS_AND_MODES_OF_MANUFACTURE"><span class="smcap">Materials and Modes of Manufacture.</span></h4> - -<p>In the remaining portion of this paper, which will treat of the smaller -chipped implements, a plan somewhat different from that of the preceding -part will be followed.</p> - -<p>As already stated, these specimens are almost invariably made of -some form of flint; this term including chalcedony, basanite, jasper, -chert, hornstone, and similar rocks. So common is its use that the -term “flints” is gradually being adopted as a name for all the different -classes of arrowheads, knives, drills, etc. The exceptions are not -numerous enough to justify separate classification, so no tables of material -will be used. Further, the great abundance of such relics in all -portions of the country makes useless any allusion to the number from -any particular locality; about the only limitation to their discovery is -the amount of time and care which one chooses to give.</p> - -<p>Before entering on the description, some quotations may be given in -regard to methods of making these chipped implements.</p> - -<p>According to Evans, the Mexican Indians take a piece of obsidian -in the left hand and press it firmly against the point of a small goathorn -held in the right, and by moving it gently in different directions -they chip off small flakes until the arrow is complete;<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> they also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -cut a notch in the end of a bone, into which the edge of the flake is -inserted and a chip broken off by a sideways blow.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> According to the -same author, the Eskimo sometimes set the flake in a piece of split -wood. The arrow is roughly chipped by blows with a hammer, either -direct or with a punch interposed, and is then finished by pressing off -fine chips with a point of antler set in an ivory handle.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> Not only leaf-shape -barbed arrows, but also ones either with or without the stem, -can be produced by pressure with a point of antler; the former, however, -are the more easily made, and were probably earlier in use.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a></p> - -<p>The Plains Indians lay the flat side of a flake of obsidian on a blanket, -or other yielding substance, and with a knife nick off the edges rapidly. -In their primitive state they probably used buckskin instead of the -blankets, and pointed bone or horn instead of the knife.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a></p> - -<p>The Apache holds the flake or flint in his left hand, places his punch -at the point where the chip is to be broken off, and it is struck by an -assistant, thus knocking a chip from the under side; the flake is then -turned and the process repeated, until the arrow is complete. The -stone is held in the hand, as it can not be chipped on a hard substance.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> -A punch observed by Catlin in use by these Indians was a whale tooth -6 or 7 inches long, with one round and two flat sides. The Fuegians, -according to the same authority, use a similar process and make as -fine implements.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a></p> - -<p>The Eskimo make a spoon-shaped cavity in a log, lay the flake over -it, and press along the margin, first on one side and then on the other, -like setting a saw, until they form two sharp serrated edges. The -working tool is a point of antler firmly bound into a piece of ivory. The -same plan is used by widely separated peoples.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a></p> - -<p>Nilsson, in chipping out gun flints with a stone hammer, found it necessary -to have the point operated on lie immediately above a point that -rested on the rock “anvil” which he used.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a></p> - -<p>The Veeard or Wiyot of California used a pair of buck-horn pincers -tied together with a thong at the point; they first hammered out the -arrowhead in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nipped off -one tiny fragment after another.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> The Klamath cover the hand with a -piece of buckskin to keep it from being cut, and lay a flake along the -ball of the thumb, holding it firmly with the fingers. With a point of -antler from 4 to 6 inches long, they press against the edge, thus removing -scales from the opposite side; they turn the flake around and over -frequently, to preserve symmetry.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p> - -<p>The Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, holds the edge of -the flake against it, and with his stone hammer chips off flakes, finishing -the base first, and gently chipping the whole arrow into shape. -Both obsidian and glass are used.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> The Shoshoni Indians used the -same process.<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a></p> - -<p>A Pit River Indian has been seen to make a very sharp and piercing -arrow from a piece of quartz, with only a piece of round bone, one -end of which was hemispherical with a small crease in it (as if made by -a thread) one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The arrow was made by -pressing off flakes by main strength, the crease being to prevent the -bone from slipping, and affording no leverage.<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> John Smith (1607) says -of the Powhatan Indian:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>His arrowhead he maketh quickly, with a little bone, of any splint of stone or -glass.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a></p></blockquote> - -<p>The Cloud River Indian used two deer prongs, one much smaller than -the other, the points ground to the form of a square, sharp-pointed -file. He had also some pieces of iron wire tied to sticks and ground in -the same manner; these were better than the deer horn, because harder, -and not needing to be sharpened so often. The flake was held firmly -in the left hand, guarded by a piece of buckskin; he pressed off chips -with the larger tool, turning the arrow end-for-end when done on one -side, so as to keep the edge opposite the middle line. The notches for -barbs were worked out in a similar manner with the smaller tool.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p> - -<p>Some of the California Indians prefer agate and obsidian for their -implements, as the close grain admits more careful working. They use a -tool with its working edge shaped like a glazier’s diamond (apparently a -piece of bone or antler with a square-cut notch on the side); the flake is -held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool is used to chip -small fragments.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> Peale makes similar statements, and adds that the -notches are of different sizes to suit the different stages of work.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p> - -<p>The Klamath Indians, according to Schumacher, have a slender stick -1½ feet long, with a piece of sea-lion tooth, or antler, fastened to the -end of it. Holding one end under the arm to steady it, they take a -flake in the left hand, wrapped in a piece of buckskin so as to leave only -the edge exposed, and by pressure with the point of the tool break off -flakes as large as necessary, the last being quite fine, to give sharp edges -to the arrow. The notches are worked out by means of a point of bone -4 or 5 inches long, without a shaft.<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> Chase gives a similar account, -but says that iron points have now taken the place of the bone or horn -points formerly used.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> - -<p>It may not be out of place in this connection to give a few quotations -in regard to the length of time required for making an arrowhead.</p> - -<p>According to the Marquis de Nadaillac, the Mexicans could turn out -a hundred flint knives (probably only unworked obsidian flakes) an -hour,<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> while Crook says that the Plains Indians with only a knife for -nicking off the edges, will make from fifty to one hundred arrows in -the same period.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> Chase found that a Klamath Indian required five -minutes to complete a perfect arrowhead;<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> though Stevens observes -that a Shasta Indian spent an hour in chipping one from a flake of -obsidian,<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> and Lubbock states that the most skillful Indian workmen -can not hope to complete more than a single arrow in a day’s hard -work.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> Powers also speaks of the aborigines of California as "using -that infinite patience which is characteristic of the Indian, spending -days, perhaps weeks, upon a single piece;<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> and Tylor notes “that -utter disregard of time that lets the Indian spend a month in making -an arrow.”<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a></p> - -<p>The last two references are probably to the large and finely worked -pieces used for ceremonial or ornamental purposes.</p> - -<h4 id="CLASSIFICATION_OF_THE_IMPLEMENTS"><span class="smcap">Classification of the Implements.</span></h4> - -<p>The only practicable division of the greater part of the smaller flints -is into stemmed and stemless, the former having a prolongation at -the base for firmer attachment to a shaft or handle, the latter being of -a triangular or oval shape. The stemmed implements may be barbed -or not, and the stem either narrower or broader toward the end.</p> - -<p>The name “arrowhead” so commonly applied, fits only the minority -of specimens, as none but the smaller ones could be so used; the larger -are too heavy. The longest stone arrowpoint in the extensive collection -of arrows in the National Museum measures two and five-eighths inches -in length and is narrow and thin. An arrowpoint two inches in length -is seldom seen. The larger specimens were probably knives and spearheads; -but it would be difficult to assign any certain use for a particular -type, the markings on so many indicate usage for which their shape -would seem to render them unsuitable. It is probable that a single -specimen served a variety of purposes.</p> - -<p>Wood, bone, and shell were also used to a considerable extent, in -the manufacture of implements for which flint would seem much better -adapted. Thus for fish spears the southern Indians used canes, sharp-pointed, -barbed, and hardened in the fire,<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> while knives were formerly -made of flint or cane; these are still used when the hunting knife has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -been lost.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> The California Indians had arrows tipped with hard-pointed -wood for common use, and with agate or obsidian for war.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a></p> - -<p>The accompanying diagram (<a href="#FIG_176">figure 176</a>) will render plain the different -terms used in the following descriptions:</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td> - <img id="FIG_176" src="images/fig_176.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 176</span>—Diagram, explaining terms.</p></td> - <td> - <p><br /> - <i>a</i> Point.<br /> - <i>b</i> Edge.<br /> - <i>c</i> Face.<br /> - <i>d</i> Bevel.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a><br /> - <i>e</i> Blade.<br /> - <i>f</i> Tang.<br /> - <i>g</i> Stem.<br /> - <i>h</i> Base.<br /> - <i>i</i> Notch.<br /> - <i>k</i> Neck.<br /> - <i>m</i> Barb, or shoulder.<br /></p></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The only difference between barb and shoulder is that the barb is -prolonged toward the base. The shoulder is called squared or rounded -according to whether the edge of the implement makes an angle or a -curve where drawn in to form the stem.</p> - -<p>In the stemless specimens the base is the end opposite the point.</p> - -<p>A tapering stem means one narrowing toward the base; straight, one -whose sides are parallel; and expanding, one which is widest at the base.</p> - -<h4 id="STEMLESS_FLINTS"><span class="smcap">Stemless Flints.</span></h4> - -<h5 id="CHARACTERS_AND_USES">CHARACTERS AND USES.</h5> - -<p>The stemless flints are triangular or oval in outline. For convenience -they will be divided into those small enough for arrowpoints (not above -2½ inches long) and those which are too large for such purpose. The -latter reach to the length of 7½ inches. They are chipped to a sharp -edge all around. The ratio of width to length varies from 1:4 to 4:5.</p> - -<p>These objects were mostly for use as knives, scrapers or spearheads. -Some of the thicker ones were spikes for clubs. Abbott<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> mentions three -triangular jasper implements 3 to 4 inches long from graves, associated -with fragments of large bones which showed plainly that they had -been used for clubs, and the Iroquois are known to have used a club -with a sharp-pointed deer-horn about four inches long inserted in the -lower side. Schoolcraft<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> illustrates a pointed stone with a square -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -section (apparently of the class usually called “picks”), mounted in a -club which is curved at the end to let the spike set in the end at a right -angle to the handle; and Brickell observes that the North Carolina -Indians used clubs or long poles, in the ends of which were fastened -artificially sharpened stones, or horns of animals.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> Morgan also notes -that among the Iroquois rows of arrow-shaped chert heads about two -feet in extent have been found lying side by side. They were set in a -frame and fastened with thongs, forming a species of sword.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> According -to Tylor the Mexicans had a similar sword, with obsidian teeth -gummed in holes in a war club,<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> and Bourke observed at Taos pueblo a -similar weapon with iron teeth.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> But the number of specimens found -mounted indicates that most of them were used as knives or scrapers.</p> - -<h5 id="LARGER_IMPLEMENTS">LARGER IMPLEMENTS.</h5> - -<p><i>A.</i> With base and edges straight or slightly convex; corners square. -The type illustrated in <a href="#FIG_177">figure 177</a> is from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Similar forms come also from eastern Tennessee; -central and western North Carolina; southwestern -Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; -southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern and southwestern -Arkansas; northeastern and northwestern Alabama, -and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; northeastern and central Kentucky; and -Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_177" src="images/fig_177.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>—Triangular -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Base straight or nearly so; edges parallel most -of the length, curving abruptly to a point; usually with -one face less convex than the other, -even quite flat, giving a plano-convex -section; medium size. The -specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_178">figure 178</a>, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is -representative. Other examples -come from eastern Tennessee; central -North Carolina; northwestern Alabama; -Kanawha valley; and southwestern Illinois.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_178" src="images/fig_178.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>—Chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Base straight or nearly so; corners square -or slightly rounded; edges convex, curving gradually -and regularly to the point; usually widest -about one-third of the way above the base; varying -much in width, and in length from 6½ inches -down to the arrowpoint. A few of the largest -have the edges slightly expanding at their junction -with the base, for firmer attachment to a handle. The type is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -<a href="#FIG_179">figure 179</a> (from Loudon county, Tennessee). Other specimens are -from eastern Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha -valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; -eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Arkansas; -central and northeastern Kentucky; -northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; -southwestern Illinois; and -Coosa valley, Alabama.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_179" src="images/fig_179.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_180" src="images/fig_180.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>—Chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—Chipped flint, -somewhat bell-shape.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Narrow and thick; up to 6 -inches long; convex base; edges -straight to the base, where they -expand somewhat, giving the implement -a bell shape. The largest -specimen in the lot (<a href="#FIG_180">figure 180</a>) has -both faces polished almost the entire -length, a feature absent from -all the others. This example is from -Caldwell county, North Carolina. -The form is found also in central -and western North Carolina, eastern -Tennessee, northeastern Kentucky; -Kanawha valley; and northeastern -Arkansas. Few of the flints -occur in the collection except from -the two localities first mentioned, where they are -moderately abundant.</p> - -<p><i>E.</i> Elliptical outline; some very thin, others resembling celts. One -from Kanawha valley has the projecting facets and ridges on one face -very smooth from use, those on the other being still -sharp, as when first chipped. The one figured has the -edge worn smooth entirely around, -seemingly from use as a cutting tool, -the ends being most worn. Represented -by <a href="#FIG_181">figure 181</a> (from Dane county, -Wisconsin). Found also in southern -and southwestern Wisconsin; eastern -Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; -central and western North Carolina; -Brown county, Illinois; Kanawha valley; -and South Carolina.</p> - -<div class="figcenter table"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_181" src="images/fig_181.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_182" src="images/fig_182.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>—Chipped -flint, elliptical outline.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>—Chipped -flint, leaf-shape or -oval outline.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>F.</i> With the outline a continuous -curve from the point entirely around, -the base being regularly rounded. This -is the model of the pointed oval or leaf-shape -flint. Sometimes one face is flatter than the other, being less -worked, or in a few cases the unaltered flat side of a flake. Usually -they are quite symmetrical, but occasionally one edge is more curved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -than the other. The type illustrated in <a href="#FIG_182">figure 182</a> is from Vernon county, -Wisconsin. Other specimens are from western and -central Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; Miami and -Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Illinois; -Kanawha valley; -northeastern Kentucky; -northeastern and southwestern -Arkansas; -northwestern and northeastern -Georgia, and Savannah.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_183" src="images/fig_183.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>—Chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>G.</i> With convex edges -and slightly convex base; being a medium -between the triangular and the leaf-shape. -Some are quite narrow and thick, others -wide and thin; the former -probably clubs or spearheads, -the latter knives. A -good example, shown in <a href="#FIG_183">figure -183</a>, is from Savannah, -Georgia. Others are from -central Arkansas; central -Ohio; eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley; central -North Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; northwestern -Georgia, and Savannah; -northeastern Alabama; and -South Carolina.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_184" src="images/fig_184.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>—Chipped flint, large, pointed -elliptical outline.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>H.</i> Pointed at each end; -mostly elliptical, though -sometimes widest near one -end; from 5 to 12 inches -long. Nearly all are thin -and finely worked, with -sharp edges. One from -Cheatham county, Tennessee, -has a deep notch on each edge about one-third of -the way from one end, this end being somewhat rounded. -The type (<a href="#FIG_184">figure 184</a>) is from Lonoke county, Arkansas. -Other specimens are from central Arkansas, southwestern -Illinois, northern and eastern Tennessee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_185" src="images/fig_185.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 185.</span>—Chipped -flint, large, long -sharp point.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>I.</i> A similar pattern, but having one end continued into a narrow -point, shown in <a href="#FIG_185">figure 185</a>, is from Bartow county, Georgia. Another -of the same kind comes from Loudon county, Tennessee.</p> - -<p><i>J.</i> Similar to group <i>H</i>, but with the edges straight for more than half -the length, probably to afford a more convenient hold for the hand. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -The form is shown in <a href="#FIG_186">figure 186</a>, representing a specimen from Mississippi -county, Arkansas. Others are from northwestern Georgia, southwestern -Illinois, and northeastern Arkansas. -There are a few similar in method -of chipping to those of group <i>I</i>, but -smaller and very narrow, from eastern -and western Tennessee and northeastern -Arkansas.</p> - -<p><i>K.</i> Double-pointed or lenticular in -outline; quite symmetrical; from 2 to -4 inches long; thin and well worked. -Represented in northeastern Arkansas; -South Carolina; central and western -North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -Scioto valley, and central Ohio; Kanawha -valley; and northwestern Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_186" src="images/fig_186.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_187" src="images/fig_187.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>—Chipped flint, large.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>—Chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>L.</i> With straight or concave base; -edges diverging by straight or slightly -convex lines for about half the length -from the base, then curving to the -point. There is considerable variation -in the relative width of these, as well -as the amount of concavity at the base. -None with this outline of the edges has -a convex base. From 2 to 6 inches long. The form -is illustrated by figures 187 (from Lawrence county, Ohio), and 188 (from -Blount county, Tennessee). In addition to the specimens -figured, there is material in the collection from -Scioto valley, Ohio; central and western North Carolina; -Keokuk, Iowa; Brown county, Illinois; eastern -Tennessee; northeastern Alabama, and -Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha -valley; South Carolina; southern Wisconsin; -and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_188" src="images/fig_188.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_189" src="images/fig_189.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>—Chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>—Chipped flint, with shoulders.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>M.</i> A modification of the last form in -which the edge expands just at the -base, forming a point at each corner -or shoulder. Illustrated in <a href="#FIG_189">figure 189</a>. -The specimen figured is from Forsyth -county, Georgia. Others are from northwestern -Georgia, and Savannah; eastern -Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; -southwestern Wisconsin; and Kanawha valley.</p> - -<h5 id="SMALLER_OBJECTS">SMALLER OBJECTS.</h5> - -<p>Small triangular or oval arrowpoints, differing from those previously -described in being too small for any similar uses, few of them -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -being so much as two inches in length, and varying from that size to -not more than half an inch. Nearly all -are very thin, though some of the narrower -ones may have a diamond or thick -lenticular section. Some are very slender, -so much so that they are usually classed -as perforators; others are equilateral. -Both the base and edges may be straight, -convex, or concave. A few have a shallow -notch in each edge just above the corner; -nearly all, however, have both base and -edge continuous.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_190" src="images/fig_190.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_191" src="images/fig_191.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>—Chipped flint, small.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>—Chipped flint, triangular.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The groups and subdivisions which have been recognized among the -smaller chipped flint objects in the Bureau collection may be enumerated -as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Concave base. The concavity may vary from almost a straight -line to one-third the length of the flint. Usually symmetric, as in -figures 190 and 191, though sometimes one tang or barb, if it may be -called such, is longer than the other, as in <a href="#FIG_192">figure 192</a>. A very few -have beveled or serrated edges.</p> - -<p>1. Convex edges. The type, shown -in <a href="#FIG_190">figure 190</a>, is from Jefferson county, -Tennessee. Other specimens are -from eastern Tennessee; Union county, -Mississippi; northwestern Georgia, -and Bibb county and Savannah in the -same state; central and western North -Carolina; Miami and Scioto valleys -and central Ohio; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; South Carolina; and -southwestern Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_192" src="images/fig_192.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_193" src="images/fig_193.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>—Chipped flint, asymmetric.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>—Chipped flint, concave edges.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>2. Straight edges, as in the specimen illustrated in <a href="#FIG_191">figure 191</a>, from -Ouachita county, Arkansas. Similar specimens are found in northeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; western and central North Carolina; -Kanawha valley; eastern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and -Savannah; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern -Illinois; Union county, Mississippi; and northeastern -Kentucky.</p> - -<p>3. Concave edges. This abundant form is illustrated -in figures 192 (Cherokee county, Georgia), 193 (Caldwell -county, North Carolina), and 194 (Washington county, -Virginia). Other specimens are from northwestern -Georgia and Savannah; central and western North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; -southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; -and Coosa valley, Alabama. This subdivision of group <i>A</i> is -abundant, as well as widely distributed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_194" src="images/fig_194.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>—Chipped flint, triangular.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p> - -<p><i>B.</i> With straight bases. These are all small, the broad ones being -short and the long ones slender. Most of them are both short and -narrow.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_195" src="images/fig_195.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_196" src="images/fig_196.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>—Chipped -flint, small.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>—Chipped -flint, short, convex -edges.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>1. Convex edges as in figures 195 (McMinn county, Tennessee) and 196 -(Bradley county, Tennessee). The form is widely distributed, being -represented by specimens from eastern Tennessee; -northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; -Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern Kentucky; -northwestern Georgia and Savannah; -Kanawha valley; Union county, -Mississippi; Holt county, Missouri; -northeastern Alabama, and Coosa valley -in the same state; southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; and western North -Carolina.</p> - -<p>2. Straight edges. Exemplified by the specimen -shown in <a href="#FIG_197">figure 197</a>, from McMinn county, Tennessee. -Found also in eastern Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; -Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; -Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, -Ohio; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and -central North Carolina; Bartow county and -Savannah, Georgia; South Carolina, and -northeastern Kentucky.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_197" src="images/fig_197.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_198" src="images/fig_198.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>—Chipped -flint, triangular.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>—Chipped -flint, concave -edges.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>3. Concave edges, as in <a href="#FIG_198">figure 198</a> (from -Bledsoe county, Tennessee). Other examples -of this class are from eastern Tennessee; -Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern and -southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; western and central North -Carolina; northeastern Alabama; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, -Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Convex bases. Less abundant than the preceding, -and the forms representing it are less variable. Its -sub-groups are as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_199" src="images/fig_199.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>—Chipped -flint, convex base.</p> -</div> - -<p>1. Convex edges. Some of these have a slight reverse -curve at the base, giving a slight barb or shoulder. A -few are widest at or near the middle, with bases somewhat -pointed, but most of them are widest at the junction -of the base and edges. They are mostly of the leaf-shaped -type, but quite small. <a href="#FIG_199">Figure 199</a> (Mississippi -county, Arkansas) is a good example. Others are from -northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern -Alabama and Coosa valley; Kanawha valley, West -Virginia; eastern Tennessee; western and central North -Carolina; northwestern Georgia; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern -Illinois, and Miami valley, Ohio. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p> - -<p>2. Edges concave or nearly straight. There are very few of this -form, as nearly all with the base convex have the edges also convex. -The type (<a href="#FIG_200">figure 200</a>) is from Lawrence county, Ohio; others are from -Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; and -southeastern and southwestern Arkansas.</p> - -<p>Two exceptional forms, which may be considered -modifications of the triangular, come from -eastern Tennessee and western North -Carolina. The first, which is pentagonal, -is shown in <a href="#FIG_201">figure 201</a>; the second, a medium -between a perforator and a deeply -serrated, triangular arrowpoint, is shown -in <a href="#FIG_202">figure 202</a>.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_200" src="images/fig_200.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_201" src="images/fig_201.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>—Chipped -flint, edges concave.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>—Chipped -flint, pentagonal.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>While it is likely that the smaller flints, -last described, were intended for arrows, it can not be -stated with confidence whether they were for use in war -or in hunting. It is said that some of the western -Indians used barbless arrows with, long, tapering blades, firmly attached -to the shaft, for hunting, while for war barbed arrows, only slightly -attached, were employed.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a></p> - -<p>In many arrows with triangular points in the National -Museum the sinew with which the flint is fastened to the -shaft is brought over the corner or shoulder in such a way -as to bind the point as firmly as could be done if it were -barbed or stemmed, so that when the shaft is drawn from a -wound the point must come with it. If an arrowhead of -this form were inserted in a shaft, which was then wrapped -behind the flint, the latter would remain in the wound -when the shaft was withdrawn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_202" src="images/fig_202.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>—Chipped -flint, -narrow and -thick.</p> -</div> - -<p>There is no reason for supposing that only the larger -points were used for war purposes; the greater penetrating -power of the thin, sharp ones would seem to fit them especially -for such work, and it is probable that the smaller -straight or tapering-stemmed flints (next to be described) -were also utilized for this purpose, as they could be easily detached. -Those with expanding stem may have been used for hunting, as they -could be permanently fastened to the shaft.</p> - -<h4 id="STEMMED_FLINTS"><span class="smcap">Stemmed Flints.</span></h4> - -<p>The abundant and variable material of this class may roughly be -grouped by form into two divisions, in the first of which the stem is -tapering or straight, while in the second the stem is generally expanding.</p> - -<h5 id="STRAIGHT_OR_TAPER_STEMS">STRAIGHT OR TAPER STEMS.</h5> - -<p><i>A.</i> Square or rounded shoulders; stem concave at base; edges usually -convex, rarely straight or concave. Nearly all are of quartzite or coarse -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -flint, roughly worked, the one illustrated (<a href="#FIG_203">figure 203</a>) being above the -average, and are mostly from western North Carolina and the adjacent -portions of South Carolina and Tennessee. All of them exceed three -inches in length. Those from Savannah, Georgia, are usually much -wider relative to the length than the specimens in the Bureau collection -from other localities.</p> - -<p>The specimen figured is from Montgomery county, North Carolina; -others are from western and central North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; -South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and -northwestern Georgia and Savannah.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Similar to the last, except that the base -is straight or convex, instead of concave. Large -size, and nearly all of rough finish; mostly of -argillite or flint, a few of quartzite. Varying -considerably in width, as well as in thickness, -some having almost a diamond section, others -wide and thin, the latter generally having the -edges worked quite sharp. Some are made -from a large flake which has been dressed on -one side only. One from Montgomery -county, North Carolina, -has the end opposite the stem -worked round and sharp, similar -to the blunt arrowheads, but its -size excludes it from this class. -From Savannah there are several which are chipped -very thin, and smoothly finished, but they are exceptional; -some from this locality are very large, reaching -5 by 3 inches, while others are almost as wide as they are -long.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_203" src="images/fig_203.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>—Chipped flint -stemmed, barbless.</p> -</div> - -<p>The specimens of this form are chiefly from western and -central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; -southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Wisconsin; -southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois; northwestern Alabama -and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; -and central Ohio.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Of the same general form as the last, but much smaller, and finely -worked. Most seem to be intended for arrowheads. The specimen -illustrated in <a href="#FIG_204">figure 204</a> is from Caldwell county, North Carolina; -others are from South Carolina; western and central North Carolina; -Union county, Mississippi; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and Tuscaloosa, -Alabama; Miami valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; and southeastern Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_204" src="images/fig_204.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>—Chipped -flint, stemmed, -barbless.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Convex edges; stem usually tapering with straight base, though -it is noticeable that some are straight with convex base. Resembling -the last in form, but slender; from 1¾ to 4¼ inches long. From western -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and -Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_205" src="images/fig_205.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_206" src="images/fig_206.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>—Chipped flint, expanding -shoulder.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>—Chipped -flint, double-curved -edges.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Differing from specimen -shown in <a href="#FIG_203">figure 203</a>, in having -the edges expand at the shoulders -in a projection or point, -and varying more in size, some -being small enough for arrowheads. -All from Savannah -(including the example shown -in <a href="#FIG_205">figure 205</a>) are of smoother -finish than those from other -sections, and are usually -larger, ranging from 2½ to 4½ -inches long. There are some from this locality -with base straight or convex. Found also in western and central -North Carolina; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -Coosa valley and northeastern Alabama; Brown county, Illinois; northeastern, -southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern -Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Edge having a double curve, being convex toward the point, and -curving outward at the shoulders. Few of them are barbed, though -many have the shoulder much expanded. Base sometimes -convex or concave, but more often straight; in a -few it is somewhat pointed. In most of the smaller -specimens the base is notched, but of -these none are over 2½ inches long. Stem -tapering or expanding, rarely straight. -A few have the base rubbed smooth and -dull, or even polished (this feature appears -in other forms, as noted); it seems -to result from use as a knife or scraper, -but the implement as a whole does not -appear to be adapted to such use. None -of them are over 3½ inches long, except -a few from Savannah; all from there are -wide, but from other places the longer -ones are all narrow.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_207" src="images/fig_207.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_208" src="images/fig_208.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>—Chipped -flint, double-curved -edges.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>—Chipped -flint, convex edges, -long, tapering stem.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The specimens illustrated (figures 206 and 207) are from Madison -county, Alabama, and Kanawha valley, respectively. Others are from -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; -Catahoula parish, Louisiana; western and central North Carolina; -southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; South -Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; and Miami valley, Ohio.</p> - -<p><i>G.</i> Convex edges; sharp points; stem always long and tapering; -base somewhat pointed, or outline of whole stem forming a regular -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -curve. Some slightly barbed, but mostly with only a small shoulder. -The specimens vary much in size, and also in delicacy of workmanship. -Classed by function the group would probably be divided among several. -The example shown in <a href="#FIG_208">figure 208</a> is from Jackson county, Illinois. -Others come from southwestern Illinois; eastern Tennessee; South -Carolina; Kanawha valley; northeastern, southeastern, -and southwestern Arkansas; western and central Arkansas; -and southern Wisconsin.</p> - -<p><i>H.</i> Similar to group <i>G</i>, save that the edges are straight -while the stem is somewhat shorter. All the specimens -are small. Found in western North Carolina; Kanawha -valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and southeastern -Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_209" src="images/fig_209.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>—Chipped flint with -long, tapering stem.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>I.</i> Differing from group <i>G</i> in -having concave sides; none are -barbed, and some have very wide -shoulders. Nearly all are large. -Two from Savannah have the base -straight, all the others being of the common type. -The type (fairly exemplified in <a href="#FIG_209">figure 209</a>) is from -Union county, Illinois, and others come from -southwestern Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; -South Carolina; western North Carolina; Kanawha -valley, West Virginia; eastern Tennessee; -and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_210" src="images/fig_210.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, diamond -or lozenge -shape.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>J.</i> Lozenge or diamond shape; the four edges -straight or nearly so, varying a little toward -convexity or concavity. In some the base does -not come to a point but is rounded or truncated; -sometimes, though seldom, there is -a slight shoulder. From 1¼ to 3½ -inches long. A typical example, -shown in <a href="#FIG_210">figure 210</a>, is from Chester -county, South Carolina. Additional -material is from South Carolina; -Kanawha valley; Brown and -Ogle counties, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; western North -Carolina; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia; southeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; Union county, Mississippi; -and Coosa valley, Alabama.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_211" src="images/fig_211.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>K.</i> Edges usually convex, sometimes nearly straight, -gradually rounding off into the stem, which may be straight, tapering, or -slightly expanding; base straight or slightly convex. All of these are -narrow, mostly thick, and none over two inches long. The type (<a href="#FIG_211">figure -211</a>) is from Bledsoe county, Tennessee; others are from eastern Tennessee; -western and central North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; northwestern -Georgia; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; -and northeastern and southeastern Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_212" src="images/fig_212.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 212.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>L.</i> Edges convex, a very few being straight; shoulders -square or somewhat rounded, in two or three somewhat -expanding. Stem usually straight, sometimes tapering; -base straight or convex. Varying much in size and relative -width, being from 1¼ to 4½ inches long, and from -¾ to 2½ inches wide; some slender, others broad. Nearly -all are quite roughly made. Illustrated in <a href="#FIG_212">figure 212</a> -(from Cherokee county, Georgia).</p> - -<p>Like many other forms of small chipped -implements, the distribution in this type is -wide. It comes from northwestern Georgia -and about Savannah; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; Miami valley, Ohio; southwestern -Illinois; western and central North Carolina; -eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa -valley in the same state; and southwestern Arkansas.</p> - -<p><i>M.</i> Convex edges; sharp points; very slight shoulders; -stem tapering by curved lines; base convex or somewhat -pointed. All made of quartz, quartzite, or coarse flint, -and differing from the following group only in being very -slender and, owing to the material employed, much more roughly -finished. Found in western North Carolina, in -South Carolina, and in southwestern Arkansas.</p> - -<p><i>N.</i> Convex edges; remarkably symmetrical outline; -most specimens finely finished; slight shoulders; tapering -stem, with convex base, the whole stem having a -quite regularly curved outline. From 2 to 4½ inches -long.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_213" src="images/fig_213.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, ovoid.</p> -</div> - -<p>The type which is shown in <a href="#FIG_213">figure 213</a> is from -Dane county, Wisconsin. This group also is widely -distributed, being found in southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern -Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio, -and the central part of the same state; northeastern, -central, and southeastern Arkansas; -western North Carolina; and Kanawha valley.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_214" src="images/fig_214.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, short blade.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>O.</i> Differing from group <i>N</i> only in having longer -stems and shorter blades, the latter sometimes less -than an inch. Illustrated in <a href="#FIG_214">figure 214</a> (from -Kanawha valley). Found also in Scioto valley and -in central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern -Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>P.</i> Convex edges; square shoulders; stem forming a quite regular -and continuous curve, slightly expanding in some specimens. The one -shown in <a href="#FIG_215">figure 215</a>, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, has the most -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -symmetric outline of any specimen in the entire collection. There are -other specimens from Kanawha valley, and also from northeastern -Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; Washington county, Pennsylvania; -eastern and western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southeastern -Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_215" src="images/fig_215.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_216" src="images/fig_216.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, symmetric outline.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Similar to group <i>P</i> except that stem and base are straight. They -are symmetric and well finished, vary more in size than those of the -last group, being from 1¼ to 4¼ inches long, the others not reaching -either of these limits.</p> - -<p>The type (<a href="#FIG_216">figure 216</a>) comes from Knox county, Ohio, and other -specimens from Miami valley and central Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; northeastern -Kentucky; Kanawha valley; eastern and western Tennessee; -eastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia; and southwestern Illinois.</p> - -<p><i>R.</i> Edges generally convex, -sometimes straight; base straight -or convex, only rarely concave; -shoulders usually square, sometimes -rounded; stem expanding -by straight lines. From less than -an inch to 3½ inches long, mostly -about the medium.</p> - -<p>The form, which resembles that -shown in <a href="#FIG_216">figure 216</a> in a general -way, is widely distributed, its -range including Keokuk, Iowa; -Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -Bibb county and Savannah, -Georgia, as well as the northwestern -part of the state; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; southeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois, and Brown -county in the same state; northeastern Kentucky; southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; and northeastern -Alabama.</p> - -<p><i>S.</i> Differing from group <i>Q</i> in having the blade short, stem long (in -some cases longer than blade), and only slight shoulders. Base somewhat -convex in a few specimens; from an inch to 2¼ inches in length. -From Kanawha valley; northwestern Georgia; Miami and Scioto valleys, -Ohio; southwestern Arkansas; southern Wisconsin; and northeastern -Alabama.</p> - -<p>Beginning with those of group <i>N</i> and ending with those last described, -all the best worked and most finely finished specimens are -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky, and the -central and southern parts of Ohio.</p> - -<p><i>T.</i> Convex edges; square shoulders; slender; very long and slender -tapering or straight stem, coming almost to a point at the base. Illustrated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -in <a href="#FIG_217">figure 217</a> (from Kanawha valley). Others are from central -North Carolina; Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; and Catahoula -parish, Louisiana. The specimens from the two latter districts -have the stem wider and less pointed than the others.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_217" src="images/fig_217.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_218" src="images/fig_218.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>—Chipped -flint, with very -long, slender stem.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, with -but one barb or -shoulder.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>U.</i> With one large, much expanded shoulder, the -other being absent or very slight; both edges convex, -or one convex and the other straight; stem sometimes -straight, but usually tapering, -being almost pointed in some; -base usually convex, sometimes -straight, rarely concave. A specimen -from Ross county, Ohio, has -the base deeply notched; it seems -to have been symmetrical originally, -and one barb or shoulder -being broken, to have had that -edge dressed down. Many were -thus reworked, but in most cases -it is evident that the form is -original. Some are slender, others -broad.</p> - -<p>The type shown in <a href="#FIG_218">figure 218</a> is -from Bowie county, Texas. Other -examples are from southwestern -Arkansas; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; Scioto valley, Ohio; Kanawha -valley; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South -Carolina; northeastern Alabama; as well as from northwestern Georgia -and about Savannah.</p> - -<h5 id="EXPANDING_STEMS">EXPANDING STEMS.</h5> - -<p>In this class of flints the stem is expanding, unless -the contrary is stated. The majority of specimens -having barbs belong to this class; while those with -straight or tapering stem usually have only square or -rounded shoulders, the barb seldom appearing.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_219" src="images/fig_219.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_220" src="images/fig_220.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, short.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>A.</i> Short and broad; base usually -straight, sometimes convex, rarely concave; -notched in from edges to form the -stem; very seldom with well-defined -shoulders, and never barbed. The type, -illustrated in <a href="#FIG_219">figure 219</a>, is from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. Found also in -northeastern Kentucky; western North -Carolina; northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -Coosa valley, Alabama; and Union county, Mississippi.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Edges convex, seldom straight; base straight or rarely convex -or concave; notched in on edges close to base, so as to leave a slight -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -tang; thin and well worked; from an inch to 2¼ inches long. All from -Savannah have concave bases; a few are notched so as to have slight -shoulders, and they are somewhat larger than from other localities. -They fit better in this group, however, than in any other. A typical -example, shown in <a href="#FIG_220">figure 220</a>, is -from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Others are from central -North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; various localities -in South Carolina; and about -Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Roughly made; unsymmetrical, -seemingly made hastily; of various -patterns, including all the common -shapes. Nearly all with convex -edges, few straight, none concave. -Base straight or concave, often the -natural surface or fracture of the stone. Sometimes made from the -tip of a broken larger specimen. From 1 to 5 inches long; slender or -wide; usually thick, except when made from a thin flake. Edges -notched just at the base in some, leaving a slight tang; others have -the corners chipped out. This group is quite variable in size and in -character of workmanship, as well as in form. The material also is -variable.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_221" src="images/fig_221.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_222" src="images/fig_222.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, roughly made.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The types (figures 221 and 222) are, respectively, from Bledsoe and -Polk counties, Tennessee. The -range includes eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley; western North -Carolina; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northeastern Alabama -and Tuscaloosa valley; -South Carolina; southwestern and -northeastern Arkansas; central -Ohio and Scioto valley; northeastern -Kentucky; and southwestern -Georgia, as well as Savannah.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_223" src="images/fig_223.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_224" src="images/fig_224.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, edges convex.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Edges convex, rarely straight; -base straight or convex; slender; -from 1¼ to 4 inches long; usually -thin; deeply notched, with edges -worked close to base, leaving the latter as wide as the blade, or nearly -so. This form could be quite firmly attached to a shaft or handle. It -is illustrated by <a href="#FIG_223">figure 223</a>, representing one of the specimens from -Kanawha valley. It is found also in southwestern Illinois and Brown -county in the same state; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; -western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -northwestern Georgia; central Ohio and Scioto valley; southeastern -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; and Coosa and Tuscaloosa valleys, -Alabama.</p> - -<p><i>E.</i> Edges convex; base straight or convex; -shoulders square or rounded; stem expanding by -curved lines. A few are small enough for arrows, -but most of them are large or of medium size. -The specimen from Vernon county, Wisconsin, -illustrated in <a href="#FIG_224">figure 224</a>, is representative. The -group is characteristic of southwestern Wisconsin; -Kanawha valley; central Ohio and Scioto -valley; western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; southeastern and southwestern -Arkansas; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; -Coosa valley, Alabama; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Edges straight or convex; long barbs, sometimes -reaching to the base; stem straight or -slightly tapering; base straight, or very slightly -convex or concave, usually well finished. One barb is sometimes longer -than the other, or the stem may be to one side of the center line. Sometimes -made of a flake, the flat side being left untouched.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_225" src="images/fig_225.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, with long barbs.</p> -</div> - -<p>The type shown in <a href="#FIG_225">figure 225</a> is from Madison -county, Alabama. It is found generally -in northeastern and northwestern Alabama, -and also in eastern Tennessee; Kanawha -valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Holt county, Missouri; -southwestern Illinois and Brown -county in the same state; northwestern -Georgia and about Savannah; southeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern -Kentucky, and western and central North -Carolina.</p> - -<p><i>G.</i> Similar to the last, but with stem -expanding by straight or curved lines; base -always straight in larger specimens, sometimes -convex or concave in smaller ones. -Barbs varying in length, short in some and -reaching nearly to the base in others. From -three-fourths to 3¾ inches in length, and -varying much in width.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_226" src="images/fig_226.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>Figure 226 represents a typical example from Jackson county, Illinois. -The range, which is quite wide, includes southwestern Illinois; northeastern, -southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Miami and Scioto valleys, -and central Ohio; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; western and -central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; northeastern -Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>H.</i> Wide blade; short; convex edges; square shoulders or slight -barbs; base convex or concave; stem broad and expanding by curved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -lines; generally thick. Those with convex base are all of medium size, -while those with concave base range from -an inch to 4 inches in length.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_227" src="images/fig_227.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>The form is indicated in <a href="#FIG_227">figure 227</a>, representing -a good specimen from Dane county, -Wisconsin. It is found over southern Wisconsin; -northeastern Alabama and Coosa -valley; southwestern Illinois and Brown -county in the same state; central North -Carolina; northwestern Georgia and about -Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; -southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; -and Keokuk, Iowa.</p> - -<p><i>I.</i> Edges parallel, or nearly so most of the length, with abrupt curve -to the point; base straight or slightly convex; -stem expanding by straight -or curved lines; notched in -from the corners of the base -giving long barbs, which, in -a few, project slightly beyond -the line of edges; thin; -well worked; from 2 to 4 -inches long.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_228" src="images/fig_228.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_229" src="images/fig_229.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, broad point.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, slender point.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The specimen illustrated -in <a href="#FIG_228">figure 228</a> is from Dane -county, Wisconsin, and there -are several others from -southern Wisconsin; southwestern -Illinois; Scioto valley, -Ohio; and Kanawha -valley, West Virginia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_230" src="images/fig_230.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>J.</i> Edges convex or sometimes straight; base straight or slightly -convex. Notched in on the edges, leaving the stem -nearly or quite as wide at the bottom as the blade; -corners of the base square or slightly rounded. Mostly -small, suitable for arrows, though a few are larger, up -to 3¼ inches. A few of these have the base polished. -Some of the small ones are made of flakes having the -natural, conchoidal shape and worked on one side only. -Typical forms, shown in figures 229 and 230, are from -Kanawha valley, and Nicholas county, Kentucky, respectively. -The distribution extends also over southern and -southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, Ohio; Holt -county, Missouri; northeastern Kentucky; Brown -county, Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; -eastern Tennessee, and about Savannah, Georgia. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span></p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_231" src="images/fig_231.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_232" src="images/fig_232.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, thin.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>K.</i> Straight or convex edges (a few serrated or beveled); base straight, -sometimes polished; notched in from the corners so as to give sharp -barbs, with wide stem expanding by straight lines. -Medium size. Illustrated in <a href="#FIG_231">figure 231</a> -(Bradley county, Tennessee). Found -in eastern Tennessee; southwestern -Illinois; Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; -South Carolina; and about Savannah, -Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_233" src="images/fig_233.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_234" src="images/fig_234.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>L.</i> Very thin; well worked; usually -quite symmetrical; base straight or -slightly concave; stem expanding by -curved lines; with shoulders or barbs; -base with sharp tangs. Some specimens quite slender, others almost -as wide as long. Few are above two inches in length. The edge is -sometimes a broken line instead of a regular curve. The form is -shown in figures 232 and 233, representing specimens -from Lawrence county, Ohio, and -Loudon county, Tennessee, respectively. -Others are from Kanawha -valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, -Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western -and central North Carolina; Union -county, Mississippi; northeastern -Kentucky; and southwestern Illinois.</p> - -<p><i>M.</i> Convex edges; usually quite -symmetric; base generally straight, -although sometimes convex or concave; -stem expanding by straight or curved lines, and notched in from -the corners by a narrow notch whose sides are parallel. Sometimes -beveled (or feathered). The barb as well as the -notch of the same width throughout its entire -length. The type (<a href="#FIG_234">figure 234</a>) is from Knox county, -Ohio, and similar forms come from central Ohio; -Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; -eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_235" src="images/fig_235.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>N.</i> Straight, or rarely convex, edges; base straight -or slightly curved, with rounded corners; notched -in on the edges above the corners, with sharp barbs. -Nearly every specimen is beveled, and some are serrated. -Base polished in many of them even when -slightly concave. A good example from Ross -county, Ohio, is represented in <a href="#FIG_235">figure 235</a>. Others -are from Miami and Scioto valleys and elsewhere -in Ohio, as well as from Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -Alabama; southwestern Georgia, and about Savannah in the -same state. The style of chipping is frequently such as to give serrated -edges, as in the specimen figured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_236" src="images/fig_236.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, slender, -with small stem.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>O.</i> Long; slender; thin; short, small stem; convex base; notched -upward from the corners of the base; short barbs. The type shown in -<a href="#FIG_236">figure 236</a> is from Loudon county, Tennessee, and other specimens come -from eastern Tennessee and southeastern Arkansas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_237" src="images/fig_237.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, oval -outline, notched.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>P.</i> Convex edges and base; sometimes, though very -seldom, the edges are nearly straight; the typical, -leaf-shape implement, except for the notch, which is -always worked in from the widest part of the specimen -at right angles to the axis. The base is invariably -polished, even in the smallest specimens. From Licking -county (<a href="#FIG_237">figure 237</a>) as well as from Miami valley and -throughout central Ohio; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; northeastern Alabama; -southern Wisconsin; and about Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Edges less convex than the last, sometimes -straight; the notches are worked in nearer the base, -going in an angle of about 45 degrees, instead of perpendicular -to the middle line or axis. Sometimes the blade -is of uniform thickness until very close to the edges, -which are worked off in a double chisel-edge. Very -few of these, or of group <i>P</i>, are small enough for arrows. -Usually symmetrical and well finished; the base always -polished, but whether from use or to add to the utility of the specimen -can not be determined. From Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; -southwestern Wisconsin; and eastern Tennessee.</p> - -<p><i>R.</i> Differing from the two last described only in being -longer, and in having the stem always come to a point -by either convex or concave lines, instead of being regularly -convex; base never polished. From Kanawha -valley, West Virginia, and central Arkansas.</p> - -<p><i>S.</i> Edges usually straight, sometimes concave, rarely -convex; notched in deeply from edges; seldom barbed; -stem nearly always wider than the blade, and large. -Base convex; occasionally somewhat concave with -rounded corners, and nearly always polished. Some -(including all from the Savannah collection) are beveled -and a few have blunt and rounded points, apparently -broken specimens reworked. From less than an inch -to nearly 3 inches long. Even among the very small -ones, some have the base polished.</p> - -<p>An implement of this form, or of any form in which the stem is wide -or with very long tangs, and especially with concave base, would be -well adapted for hunting purposes. The wide stem would allow firm -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -attachment to a shaft, whether as an arrow or a spear, and at the same -time would be very difficult to withdraw from a wound. The shaft -would impede the flight of an animal pierced by the weapon, particularly -in weeds or bushes; though greater force -would be required with these than with the -more slender points to make them effective.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_238" src="images/fig_238.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>The type delineated in <a href="#FIG_238">figure 238</a> is from -Warren county, Ohio, and the form is well -represented also in Scioto and Miami valleys, -Ohio; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; -eastern Tennessee; southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; southeastern and southwestern -Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; -northeastern Alabama; and about Savannah, -Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_239" src="images/fig_239.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>—Stemmed chipped -flint, notched, very -wide stem.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>T.</i> Convex edges; base -straight, or slightly convex -or concave, with square -corners, and nearly always -polished; stem as wide as -the blade or wider. Some rather slender, others -as wide as long. Very few are beveled, except -those from Savannah, all of which are thus made. -From three-fourths to 2¼ -inches long. Found in -eastern Tennessee; Kanawha -valley (including the -specimen shown in <a href="#FIG_239">figure 239</a>); western North -Carolina; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; -South Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; -Miami valley, Ohio; and in the vicinity of -Savannah.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_240" src="images/fig_240.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -notched, very wide stem.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>U.</i> Edges usually straight, sometimes convex; -base regularly concave, or rounding off -into a convex curve at the corners, and nearly -always polished. The stem in all is wider -than the blade. Those from Savannah are all -beveled, and but few of them have polished -bases. The type, illustrated in <a href="#FIG_240">figure 240</a>, is -from Kanawha valley, and others come from -Kanawha valley; southern Wisconsin; Scioto -valley; eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; -and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>V.</i> Edges convex, seldom straight, never concave; usually well finished; -base concave; notch worked in from the edge above the corner -so as to leave the upper portion of the tang parallel to the lower, or base; -corners square. Few are beveled. The length is from 1 to 4 inches, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -the width also varying considerably; some are widest at or near the -middle of the blade, others are as wide at base as at any other part.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_241" src="images/fig_241.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>The form is illustrated in <a href="#FIG_241">figure 241</a> (Union county, Illinois). The distribution -is wide, including southwestern Illinois; northwestern and -southwestern Georgia and Savannah; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha -valley; South Carolina; northwestern Alabama; -eastern Tennessee; eastern and southern Wisconsin; -western and central North Carolina; southeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; -Keokuk, Iowa; and Union county, Mississippi.</p> - -<p><i>W.</i> Edges usually convex, sometimes straight; -notched in on the edges above the corners; base concave; -some slender, others broad. Somewhat resembling -the two preceding types, but more roughly -made. From 1 to 4 inches long. Represented by -material from western and central North Carolina; -Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern -Alabama and Coosa valley, as well as from Miami -valley, Ohio.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_242" src="images/fig_242.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, projecting -shoulders.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>X.</i> Small; very slender; convex edges, with wing-like -barbs or shoulders; stem slightly expanding by curved lines. This -rather rare type, shown in <a href="#FIG_242">figure 242</a> (from Ouachita county, Arkansas), -is known from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas, as well as -eastern Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>Y.</i> Edges mostly straight, in a few convex; base -straight, convex, or concave, in some specimens of each -being polished; notched in on the edges just above the -corners, notches usually slight; always widest at base. -A few, including all from Savannah, are serrated or -beveled. Very few are over an inch and a half long. They -are nearly always thick. One from Kanawha valley has -the point worn perfectly smooth and the edges polished -half way to the base, showing use as a drill. Points of -this form would make the countersunk holes so common in gorgets and -other flat stones.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_243" src="images/fig_243.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>This form is widely distributed. The type (<a href="#FIG_243">figure 243</a>) is from Lawrence -county, Ohio. Its range includes Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; -eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; southwestern -Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; -western North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; southwestern -Arkansas; South Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; -and eastern Wisconsin.</p> - -<p><i>Z.</i> Very rough finish; blade more or less worked by -first chipping (there being usually no secondary chipping) -to convex edges; base generally the natural surface of the -nodule or pebble from which the implement was made; notches worked -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -in roughly on the edges. They were probably knives or spears, or in -some cases celts or chisels, though none show polish. With these are -placed a few that seem to be the points of larger rough implements, -broken and having notches worked in the fragments. A typical form, -shown in <a href="#FIG_244">figure 244</a>, is from Mississippi county, Arkansas. It occurs -also in northeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; western Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; and Kanawha valley, West Virginia.</p> - -<h4 id="PERFORATORS"><span class="smcap">Perforators.</span></h4> - -<h5 id="CHARACTER_AND_USES">CHARACTER AND USES.</h5> - -<p>The implements variously classed by different writers as awls, drills, -needles, rimmers or reamers, and the like, seem to represent a graded -series, and as no distinction can be made in the different kinds, if, -indeed, there is any room for distinction, they are grouped under one -term, “perforators.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_244" src="images/fig_244.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, very -rough.</p> -</div> - -<p>Very few of the specimens could be used as drills, as most of them -are too thin; only those with a rhomboidal or triangular -section would seem adapted to this purpose, and the -majority even of these seem too fragile. It is more -probable that drilling was done with a stick or horn, -with sand as a cutting medium, except in the thin tablets -of slate or similar stone and in shells. The thicker -flints would answer very well for this purpose, and the -countersunk holes appear to indicate such an instrument. -For sewing, bone would be more easily worked, -and better suited than flint. The double-pointed -slender specimens may have been used for bait-holders -in fishing; bone implements of a similar shape, with a -hole drilled at the middle for attaching a line, have -been seen in use among the Indians of Florida.</p> - -<p>Some such implement was no doubt used in the manner -of a burin, especially in making the fine lines on -the ornamented shells or stones; certain flints in the -collection may have served such a purpose.</p> - -<p>Lubbock considers it proved that the stone of which -ornaments, carved axes, etc., are made could be worked -with flint, and that the engraving on the Scotch rocks, -even on granite, was executed with this material;<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> and Bushmen are -known to use triangular pieces of flint for cutting figures in rocks.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> -Evans<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> observes that there are five ways of making holes in stone, viz.: -(1) Chiseling or picking, with “picks,” “celts,” or “drills” of flint or -other stone; (2) boring with a solid borer, as wood, hard or soft, or -horn with sand and water; (3) grinding with a tubular grinder, as -horn, cane, elder, etc., with sand and water; (4) drilling with a stone -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -drill, e.g., of flint or sandstone; (5) drilling or punching with metal. -It should be remembered that there are no evidences of the use of any -metal except copper for economic purposes by the -aborigines of the United States; and nearly everything -of this material seems to have been ornamental -in character. Bancroft says that the Nootka, in boring -in wood, use a bird-bone drill worked between -the hands,<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> while according to Schumacher, the -Santa Barbara Indians chip out rough disks of shell, -pierce them with a flint drill, and enlarge the hole -with a slender, round piece of sandstone.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> The -Atlantic coast Indians drilled shell beads with a nail -stuck in a cane or stick, rolling the drill on their -thighs with the right hand, and holding the shell in -the left;<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> and the southern Indians, according to -C. C. Jones, pierced shell beads with heated copper -drills.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> Evans has found that ox-horn and sand -make good borers,<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> while low tribes on the Amazon -make crystal tubes an inch in diameter and up to 8 -inches long by rubbing and drilling with a flexible -shoot of wild plantain, twilled between the hands, -with sand and water;<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> and Tylor expresses the opinion -that such operations are not the result of high -mechanical skill, but merely of the most simple and savage processes.<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_245" src="images/fig_245.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed.</p> -</div> - -<h5 id="STEMLESS_FORMS">STEMLESS FORMS.</h5> - -<p><i>A.</i> Base straight or nearly so; edges straight and parallel, sometimes -half the length from the base, thence with concave curve which is -reversed near the end to give a blunt point; these, usually -the wider ones, are always thin, and were probably -knives. The smaller ones, resembling the small triangular -arrows except for the sharpened upper end, may have -been for arrowheads, though the sharp points would have -served well as awls or needles. Many of the smaller ones -seem to be made from small broken arrowheads; exemplified -by the specimen from Montgomery county, North -Carolina, shown in <a href="#FIG_245">figure 245</a>. The collection includes material -from western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley; northeastern Alabama; -South Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_246" src="images/fig_246.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed, -double pointed.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Slender, somewhat larger about the middle and -tapering to a point at each end, or regularly and gradually decreasing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -from base to point. Some are undoubtedly arrowheads, as they are too -blunt or too thin to have been used for piercing. Others show marks -of use which could have been produced in no way except by drilling -in stone. The specimen illustrated in <a href="#FIG_246">figure 246</a> (from -Kanawha valley) shows this to a marked degree, while -that shown in <a href="#FIG_247">figure 247</a> (from Nicholas -county, Kentucky) is without such indications. -The distribution of this form -is wide, including Kanawha valley; -northeastern Kentucky; southwestern -Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Wisconsin; Coosa valley, Alabama; -northwestern and southwestern -Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -and Scioto valley, Ohio.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_247" src="images/fig_247.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_248" src="images/fig_248.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed, double pointed.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed, rough base.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> With the base very large in ratio -to the point or piercer; sometimes the -entire implement is worked smooth or -thin, again it is the natural fragment or -chip of stone entirely unworked except a point flaked on one part or -edge. The piercer varies from one-fourth of an inch to two inches in -length. It could have been utilized only as an “awl” or “needle,” -the base being held by the thumb and finger. This variable form is -represented in <a href="#FIG_248">figure 248</a> (from Lawrence county, Ohio). It comes from -Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; western and central North Carolina; -northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern and southeastern -Arkansas; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_249" src="images/fig_249.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_250" src="images/fig_250.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed, expanding -base.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>—Perforator, -not stemmed, expanding -base.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>D.</i> Piercer thin and slender; base thin, expanding -to a wing-like projection on each side. Very few are -strong enough to have been used for drilling even in -soft material, but they are excellent for piercing -leather or similar substances. The expanding wings -would make them good points for -hunting and fishing arrows, as they -would have great penetrating power -and be very difficult to extract from a -wound, while allowing very firm attachment -to a shaft. The type, shown in -<a href="#FIG_249">figure 249</a>, is from Kanawha valley. -Other specimens come from the same -locality, and also from southwestern -Illinois, and Brown county in the same -state; eastern Tennessee; Keokuk, -Iowa; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern -Kentucky; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>E.</i> With slight expansion at the base. These may be thick or thin, -wide or narrow, and, according to their different forms, might be used -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -as drills, piercers, or arrowheads. A good example (presented in <a href="#FIG_250">figure -250</a>) is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. It is found also in northeastern -Kentucky, northeastern and southeastern Arkansas; eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southwestern Wisconsin.</p> - -<p>All of the foregoing perforators are without stems, unless the larger -portion left at the base may be considered as such.</p> - -<h5 id="STEMMED_FORMS">STEMMED FORMS.</h5> - -<p>The form of the stem and shoulders among perforators is often the -same as in the stemmed arrowheads, etc., previously -described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_251" src="images/fig_251.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>—Perforator, stemmed.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>A.</i> Stem usually tapering; shoulder more or -less defined; never barbed; blade wide at the -part next to the stem, tapering rapidly by concave -lines to a sharp point. Probably spearpoints -or large arrowheads with the blade -worked to a point. The type, shown in <a href="#FIG_251">figure 251</a>, -is from Kanawha valley.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_252" src="images/fig_252.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>—Perforator, -stemmed, very wide -shoulders.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Slender point; wide wings -or shoulders; stem straight or -nearly so; the implement having -the form of a cross. Some -are less than an inch long, and -very delicately worked, while -others reach 3 inches in length, and are thick. Some -from Savannah have very broad stems. There is a good -example (<a href="#FIG_252">figure 252</a>) from Ouachita county, Arkansas, and others from -southwestern Arkansas; -western North Carolina; -and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_253" src="images/fig_253.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_254" src="images/fig_254.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>—Perforator, stemmed.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span>—Perforator, stemmed.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Narrow and thick -almost of a diamond or -round section; stem expanding -or straight; with -slight shoulders, sometimes -slightly barbed. -Some of the thinner ones, -probably arrows, have a -lenticular section; a few -are triangular in section. -This form is well suited for drilling, and many of the specimens show -marks of such use, especially the one illustrated (<a href="#FIG_253">figure 253</a>), the edges -of which are striated almost the entire length. This is from Mason -county, Kentucky; and the distribution of the type includes Kanawha -valley; Scioto valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama; -western and central North Carolina; southeastern and northeastern -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -Arkansas; Brown county, Illinois; South Carolina; and northeastern -Kentucky. Thus the type is common and its geographic range broad.</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Long, slender point; shoulders wide or slightly barbed; stem -straight, tapering, or expanding; edges straight or concave. Some -would make good piercers for soft material, but very few could be used -as drills. A majority would be good arrowheads. Some have the edges -smooth, but if this was caused by drilling it -must have been done in enlarging holes already -made, since the implements so marked are very -thin. The faces of the blades show no polish or -smoothness, such as might result from use as -knives. The specimen illustrated (<a href="#FIG_254">figure 254</a>) is -from Madison county, Alabama; others from -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Scioto -valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western and -central North Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; -Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_255" src="images/fig_255.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span>—Perforator, stemmed, -with cutting point.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Stem may be of any form; wide shoulders; -never barbed; point or piercer narrow, well -worked, with edges parallel its entire length, and terminating in a cutting -edge instead of a point. This form (shown in <a href="#FIG_255">figure 255</a>) is found -only in the collection from Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<h4 id="BLUNT_ARROWHEADS_OR_BUNTS"><span class="smcap">Blunt Arrowheads, or “Bunts.”</span></h4> - -<p>Certain arrowheads have the end opposite the base rounded or flattened -instead of pointed. Commonly, both faces are worked off equally, -to bring the edge opposite the middle line of the blade, though sometimes -it may be a little to one side. The stem -and base are of any form found in the common -patterns of arrowheads. Few are barbed, -though many have shoulders. For the most -part, they are probably made from the ordinary -spearpoints or arrowheads and knives -that have had the points broken off, though -some seem to have been intentionally made -this way originally. A few are smooth or -polished at the ends, as though used as -knives or scrapers; but most of them have no marks except such as -would result from being struck or shot against some hard substance; -even this being absent in many of them, as in the specimen represented -in the accompanying figure.</p> - -<p>Jones says that crescent-shaped arrows were used by southern Indians -for shooting off birds’ heads,<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> and it is known that chisel-shape arrows -were much used during the Middle Ages.<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_256" src="images/fig_256.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>—Blunt arrowhead, or -“bunt”.</p> -</div> - -<p>This type of aboriginal implement or weapon is shown in <a href="#FIG_256">figure 256</a>, -representing a specimen from Savannah, Georgia. Other examples -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -come from eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; -Scioto valley, Ohio; and Savannah, Georgia.</p> - -<h4 id="SCRAPERS"><span class="smcap">Scrapers.</span></h4> - -<h5 id="STEMMED">STEMMED.</h5> - -<p>The same remarks as to form and method of making apply to -stemmed scrapers as to blunt arrows, except that the chipping of the -end is always from one face so as to produce a chisel edge. This edge -is frequently smooth or polished from use. They would answer very well -for smoothing down articles -made of wood, or -for cleaning hides in tanning; -they would also -serve excellently for removing -scales from fish, -and as they are usually -abundant in the vicinity -of good fishing places, -they were no doubt employed for this purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_257" src="images/fig_257.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span>—Stemmed scraper.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_258" src="images/fig_258.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span>—Stemmed scraper.</p> -</div> - -<p>The material in the Bureau collection is represented by the specimens -shown in figures 257 and 258, from Savannah, Georgia, and Dane county, -Wisconsin, respectively. Other examples -come from southern Wisconsin; -southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; -Miami valley, Ohio; central North Carolina; -eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, -Georgia.</p> - -<h5 id="STEMLESS">STEMLESS.</h5> - -<p>A few quotations regarding the use -and mode of manufacture of stemless scrapers may be given:</p> - -<p>According to Evans, they are made by laying a flake flat side up on -a stone, and chipping off around the edge with a hammer. The point -struck must rest directly on the under stone, and but a thin spall is -struck off at each blow.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> Leidy observed that the Shoshoni by a quick -blow strike off a segment of a quartz bowlder in such a way as to form -a circular or oval implement flat on one side, convex on the other, which -is used as a scraper in dressing buffalo hides;<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> and according to Knight -the Australians obtain, in exactly the same way, specimens which they -use as axes.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> Peale remarks that while hides are green they are -stretched on the ground and scraped with an instrument resembling an -adze;<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> and Dodge says more explicitly that when the stretched skin has -become hard and dry, the woman goes to work on it with an adze-like -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -instrument, with a short handle of wood or elkhorn tied on with rawhide; -holding this in one hand, she chips at the hardened skin, cutting -off a thin shaving at every blow.<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a></p> - -<p>The scrapers of this class in the Bureau collection are as follows:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Chipped over the entire surface to the form of the ordinary celt, -except that the scraping edge is in the same plane with one face. Some -have a scraping edge at each end. In a few the flat or straight face -is chipped off slightly, bringing -the edge toward the middleline; -but this was probably -done after the implement had -become broken or blunted -from use. When there is any -polish, it is always on the flat -face, showing use as an adze, -or, possibly, as a plane. Varying -much in width, some measuring -almost the same in either -direction, while others are -more like the “chisel” celts, -though the position of the -cutting edge shows their use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_259" src="images/fig_259.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span>—Stemless scraper, celt form.</p> -</div> - -<p>A typical specimen (<a href="#FIG_259">figure -259</a>) is from -Jackson county, Illinois; -others come from Brown county and the southwestern -part of the state generally; from northeastern Kentucky; -Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; -and central Ohio.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_260" src="images/fig_260.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span>—Stemless scraper, flake.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>B.</i> Flakes or spalls, chipped always from the concave -side of the fragment. Some of the smaller specimens, -usually those of somewhat circular outline, are chipped -nearly, or in some cases entirely, around the edge. Figure -260 represents a specimen from Mason county, Kentucky. -Others come from northeastern Kentucky; eastern -Tennessee; Holt county, Missouri; Kanawha valley; -southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, and central Ohio; -Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; and Savannah, -Georgia.</p> - -<h4 id="CORES"><span class="smcap">Cores.</span></h4> - -<p>The generally accepted name “cores” is applied to the blocks from -which are struck off the flakes to be next described.</p> - -<p>Dr. Gillespie<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> claimed that objects of this kind were made so intentionally, -and that the flakes are simply the refuse or waste material. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -He gives six reasons for this belief, but an examination of the objects -themselves would show that he is in error. That some might have -been used as scrapers may be true, but very few are suited for such -work, and not one shows the least mark of wear that could result from -this use.</p> - -<p>The specimens in the Bureau collection, with perhaps half a dozen -exceptions, are from the aboriginal quarries at Flint ridge, in Licking -county, Ohio, or of the material so abundant at that place.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_261" src="images/fig_261.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span>—Cores.</p> -</div> - -<p>All are small, few being of a size to furnish flakes over three inches -long. The flakes were undoubtedly -struck off by means -of stone hammers, hundreds of -which are to be found about the -quarries, or removed by pressure, -many showing the bulb of -percussion, others being perfectly -smooth on the flat face. -Usually all the flakes were obtained -from only one side of the -core until it became too small -to work (<a href="#FIG_261">figure 261</a>). Occasionally they were chipped -from opposite sides, leaving the core of a conical or -cylindrical shape (as represented in <a href="#FIG_262">figure 262</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_262" src="images/fig_262.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span>—Core.</p> -</div> - -<p>Cores and finely chipped implements of the Flint -ridge stone have been taken from the mounds in -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Scioto valley, -Ohio, showing that the mound-builders are to be -credited with at least a part of the great amount of -work done in those localities; but it seems a mistake -to say, as some authors have done, that the -“turtlebacks” found in caches in southern Illinois -are from the same source, as the stone is entirely -different, and occurs abundantly in the vicinity in which the specimens -are found.</p> - -<h4 id="FLAKES"><span class="smcap">Flakes.</span></h4> - -<p>The use to which were put the narrow, thin flakes so abundantly found -in many parts of the world has caused some discussion. Schoolcraft -says that the Dakota bleed patients by scarifying with these flakes; or -sometimes one is fixed into the end of a piece of wood, held over a vein, -and driven in as far as the wood will let it go,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> the use being similar to -that of the modern fleam. Harpoons in the Kurile islands are made of -bone, with a deep groove along each side; in these grooves thin and -sharp flat flakes are fastened with gum.<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> According to Evans, similar -flakes were used for scraping,<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> just as broken glass is used among modern -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -woodworkers. Flakes have been found in the Swiss lakes in wooden -handles in the fashion of Eskimo knives; also in Australia with skin -wrapped around one end to protect the hand.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a></p> - -<p>All the flakes in the Bureau collection are small, few of them being -over three inches long. They are found elsewhere with a length of over -a foot; but the nature of the flint occurring in the United States is -seldom such as to allow flakes to be struck off equaling in size those -found in Europe.</p> - -<p>Evans says that blows with a pebble will form just such flakes as -those produced by an iron hammer; the blows must, however, be delivered -in exactly the right spot and with the proper force. Cores sometimes -show markings of hammers when struck too near the edge. -Flakes can be produced by using a pebble as a set or punch and striking -it with a stone. The use of a set was probably the exception -rather than the rule, for great precision may be obtained simply with -a hammer held in the hand. The Eskimo use a hammer set in a handle -to strike off flakes, or strike them off by slight taps with a hammer -of jade, oval in shape, about 2 by 3 inches, and secured to a bone handle -with sinew.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a></p> - -<p>According to Tylor, the Peruvian Indians work obsidian by laying a -bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it until the stone -cracks;<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> while the Indians of Mexico hold a piece of obsidian 6 or 8 -inches long between their feet, then holding the crosspiece of a T-shape -stick against the breast they place the other end against the -stone and force off a piece by pressure.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a></p> - -<p>Nilsson says that the Eskimo set a point of deer horn into a handle -of ivory and drive off splinters from the chert,<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> and Redding saw a -Cloud river Indian make flakes thus: Holding a piece of obsidian in -his hand, he placed the straight edge of a piece of split deer horn, four -inches long and half an inch in diameter, at a distance from the edge -of the stone equal to the thickness of the arrow he wished to make; -then striking the other end with a stone he drove off a flake.<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> Schumacher -observed that the Klamath Indians heat a stone and break it -into fragments at a single blow.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a></p> - -<p>According to Stevens the Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, -and holding on the anvil the stone which he is working,<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> strikes off a -flake one-fourth of an inch thick with a stone hammer; but Powers -says the Shasta Indians heat a stone and allow it to cool slowly, which -splits it into flakes,<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> and Bancroft that they place an obsidian pebble -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -on an anvil of stone and split it with an agate chisel to the required -size.<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> The Shoshoni or Snake Indians of the northwest work in the -same way,<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> and certain California Indians strike off flakes from a mass -of agate, jasper, or chalcedony with a stone hammer,<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a> while the Apache -break a bowlder of hornstone with a heavy stone hammer having a -twisted withe for a handle.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a></p> - -<p>Schoolcraft says experience has taught the Indians that some varieties -of hornstone (flint) are less easily fractured than others, and that -the conchoidal form is found best in softer varieties; also that weathered -fragments are managed with greater difficulty than are those -freshly quarried.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></p> - -<p>Evans points out that in making gunflints much depends upon the -condition of the stone as regards the moisture it contains, those that -have been too long exposed on the surface becoming intractable, and -there is also a difficulty in working those that are too moist. Some of -the workers, however, say that a flint which has been some time -exposed to the air is harder than one recently dug, yet it works equally -well.<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a></p> - -<p>It is related that in former times white hunters -in Ohio and Kentucky, when they needed -a gunflint, would select a fragment from the -surface, where practicable, and soak it in oil -for several weeks “to make it tough;” otherwise -it would shatter to fragments when -struck.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_263" src="images/fig_263.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span>—Flake, chipped for -scraper.</p> -</div> - -<p>Frequently the large flat spalls knocked -from blocks or chunks of flint in shaping -them, or in obtaining pieces to work, are of -such form that very little additional labor -converts them into serviceable scrapers, -knives, spears, or arrows. A number of such -pieces are found in the collection. These, -however, are not considered in the flakes now to be described:</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Edges bluntly chipped (from the concave side) for use as scrapers. -They may or may not have notches for attachment to a handle. An -example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is shown in <a href="#FIG_263">figure 263</a>. -Others come from southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; Miami -and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio.</p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Trimmed only enough to give a general leaf shape, the faces being -left unchanged; for use as knives or arrowheads, most of them being -exceedingly small; notched, or with continuous edges. This form is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -represented by the specimen from Licking county, Ohio, illustrated -in <a href="#FIG_264">figure 264</a>. It is found in central Ohio; northeastern -Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; -eastern Tennessee; and western -North Carolina.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_264" src="images/fig_264.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_265" src="images/fig_265.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span>—Flake, chipped -for knife or arrow head.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span>—Flake, -slender, probably for lancet.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>C.</i> Long, slender, with three or -four facets on one face, caused by -others having been struck off above. -The edges are as keen as broken -glass, and the points are usually -quite sharp. In a great many the -points have been worked off by fine, -secondary chipping. When this is -done, it is always at the end which -was struck in knocking off the flake. -In some cases it may be due to the -shattering effects of the blow; but -in many specimens the evidence is -plain that it was done afterward for -the purpose of making a sharper point. Some flakes of this kind -have notches for attachment to a shaft, probably -for arrows; such specimens, however, -are without the secondary chipping, and the -notches are at the end opposite the one struck.</p> - -<p>A good example, shown in <a href="#FIG_265">figure 265</a>, is -from Kanawha valley, and there are others -from the same locality, as well as from -Miami valley, Ohio; and Union county, -Mississippi.</p> - -<h4 id="MISCELLANEOUS_FORMS"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Forms.</span></h4> - -<p>From the Savannah collection there are -several forms of chipped flints which, while -resembling the foregoing in various ways, -present characters which make it necessary -to place them by themselves; and while containing -a majority of the types described -above, this collection has many that have -no counterpart from any other section visited -by the Bureau collectors. Some of these -unique specimens of aboriginal art are -among the following:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_266" src="images/fig_266.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 266.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>A.</i> Edges double curved, expanding to a wide point at the shoulder; -stem straight or tapering; base either straight or slightly convex. -The type of the group is quite well represented in <a href="#FIG_266">figure 266</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p> - -<p><i>B.</i> Edges concave; base and stem straight; very wide projections or -wings at the shoulders, going in by straight or curved lines to the stem -(illustrated in <a href="#FIG_267">figure 267</a>).</p> - -<p><i>C.</i> Edges concave, changing to convex at the shoulders, and curving -around to the stem, which is straight or slightly expanding; base -straight or very slightly convex (<a href="#FIG_268">figure 268</a>).</p> - -<p><i>D.</i> Convex edges, widening into greatly expanding barbs; base -straight; stem expanding by straight lines (<a href="#FIG_269">figure 269</a>).</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_267" src="images/fig_267.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_268" src="images/fig_268.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -winged.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>E.</i> Broad; double-curved edges; notched in from the base, and barbs -worked so as to be narrowest near the blade, with the ends straight or -round; stem expanding by straight lines; base straight (<a href="#FIG_270">figure 270</a>).</p> - -<p><i>F.</i> Edges nearly straight to the barbs, which are worked off to a -point toward the stem; base convex and wide; stem expanding by -curved lines (<a href="#FIG_271">figure 271</a>).</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_269" src="images/fig_269.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_270" src="images/fig_270.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -barbed.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -broad.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>G.</i> Rather slender; base nearly straight, either convex or concave; -stem rapidly expanding; notched in from the corners, making long -slender barbs which project beyond the line of the edges (as illustrated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -in <a href="#FIG_272">figure 272</a>). The same form comes from Dougherty county, southwestern -Georgia, as well as from Savannah.</p> - -<p><i>H.</i> Straight or convex edges; base straight or slightly convex; stem -to one side of the center, leaving one barb longer and larger than the -other (<a href="#FIG_273">figure 273</a>).</p> - -<p><i>I.</i> Triangular, notched in from the bottom; -barbs extend down even with the base, or the -base is sometimes worked back, leaving it shorter -than the barbs; some are beveled (<a href="#FIG_274">figure 274</a>). The -same form is found in southwestern Georgia.</p> - -<p><i>J.</i> Broad; straight edges; base straight or -concave; stem straight or expanding; long, -rounded barbs (<a href="#FIG_275">figure 275</a>).</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_271" src="images/fig_271.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_272" src="images/fig_272.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -slender.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><i>K.</i> From Arkansas county, -Arkansas, there is an implement -of basanite or black -jasper, of the general type of -<a href="#FIG_180">figure 180</a> or 182, the point -being broken off. The base -has been worked down to a -sharp edge, the stem highly -polished on both faces. This -polish does not extend to the faces of the blade, but both edges are -rubbed smooth so far as they now extend. Whether the implement was -originally pointed and used as a knife or spear, this sharp edge being -given the stem after it was broken, or whether it was so made in the first -place, can not be determined. Like the various forms with polished -base, the specimen seems to indicate a manner of mounting or of use -the reverse of what would be expected. It is shown in <a href="#FIG_276">figure 276</a>.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_273" src="images/fig_273.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_274" src="images/fig_274.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_275" src="images/fig_275.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint, triangular.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span>—Stemmed -chipped flint.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#FIG_277">Figure 277</a> shows an implement from Licking county, Ohio, somewhat -of the form of <a href="#FIG_205">figure 205</a>, except that it is wider and much -thinner. It is worn smooth on each edge for ¾ inch from the point, the -point itself being quite blunt. This probably results from use as a -knife or drill; though, if due to the latter cause, the material on which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -it was used must have been quite soft or thin. Similar wear is seen on -implements from the same locality of the form of figures 176 and 223, -but this article is smaller than those represented by the figures.</p> - -<div class="table figcenter"> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_276" src="images/fig_276.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<img id="FIG_277" src="images/fig_277.jpg" alt="" /></div> -</div> -<div class="trow"> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span>—Chipped flint, with -sharp-edged stem.</p></div> -<div class="tcell"> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint, -point blunted from use.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="FIG_278" src="images/fig_278.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span>—Stemmed chipped flint.</p> -</div> - -<p>In <a href="#FIG_278">figure 278</a> is shown a small knife of the pattern so common in -specimens mounted in antlers, from the Swiss lake dwellings. In outline -it resembles the arrowheads having straight edges and a convex -base; but the side view shows the purpose for which it was made. Similar -pieces are found throughout central Ohio, and along Ohio river -from the Kanawha to the Miami.</p> - -<h3 id="NOTES_ON_BEVELED_FLINTS"><span class="smcap">Notes on beveled Flints.</span></h3> - -<p>In the beveled flints the side-chipping producing the bevel is always -to the left, as may be seen in <a href="#FIG_235">figure 235</a>; only one exception to this has -been found. It has been supposed that this is done to give a rotary -motion to an arrow. Morgan<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> says that “arrowheads are occasionally -found with a twist to make the arrow revolve in its flight;” and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -the same statement has often been made by others. It may be objected, -however, that very few of these beveled specimens are small enough for -arrowheads; and modern archers have shown that the shape does not -affect the flight of the arrow.</p> - -<p>Schoolcraft,<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> Powers,<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> Morgan,<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> and Cheever<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> say that the modern -Indians sometimes have a spiral arrangement of the feathers -on their arrow to produce a rotary motion or “rifling.” This rotary -motion is supposed to keep the arrow in a straight course, as without -it a deviation from the direct line would tend constantly to increase. -But as showing that the rotary motion is not always desired, Dodge -says that sometimes the blade, in regard to the string notch, is set so -as to be perpendicular, to go in between the ribs of game; again, so as -to be horizontal, to go in between the ribs of an enemy.<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></p> - -<p>The beveled flints were probably used for skinning game, as they are -better fitted for this than for anything else, and would serve such purpose -better than almost any other form of the smaller chipped flints. -The bevel is such as would be necessary if the implement were held in -the right hand and pulled toward the user.</p> - -<p>There are a great many specimens in the collection, both in the -ground or pecked and in the chipped implements, which can not be -classified with any of the objects herein described; but they are to be -considered as due rather to individual whims than as representative of -a type.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> -Anahuac, p. 101.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> -Ibid., p. 98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> -Dawson, Sir William; Fossil Men, p. 121.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> -Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 741.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> -Ibid., p. 748.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> -Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. 169.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> -Lubbock, Sir John; Prehistoric Times, p. 569.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> -Early History of Mankind, p. 203.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> -Abbott, C. C., in American Naturalist, vol. X, p. 494.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> -Perkins; Ibid, vol. XIII, p. 738.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> -Adair; History of American Indians, p 405.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> -Long, S. H.; Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, p. 211.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> -Knight, E. H.; Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 242.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> -Wood, J. G.; Natural History of Mankind, p. 200.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> -Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> -Beverly, Robt.; History of Virginia, 1722, p. 198.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> -Wyth, John; Graphic Sketches, part <span class="smcap">I</span>, plate 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> -Catlin, Geo.; Last Rambles Among the Indians, pp. 100-101.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> -Mohr, Smithsonian Report for 1881, p. 618; Barber, Amer. Nat., vol. <span class="smcap">XII</span>, p. 403; McGuire, Ibid., -vol. <span class="smcap">XVII</span>, p. 587; Walker, Science, vol. <span class="smcap">IX</span>, p. 10; Schumacher, Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody -Museum, p. 263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> -Dawson, J. W.; Fossil Men, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> -Ibid., p. 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> -Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> -Stevens, E. T.; Flint Chips, p. 174.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> -Evans, John; Stone Implements, p. 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> -Ibid., p. 227.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> -Dodge, R. I.; Wild Indians, p. 254. Schoolcraft, H. R.; Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 107. Catlin, Geo.; -North American Indians, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 416.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> -Powers, Stephen; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 433.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> -Stone Implements, p. 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> -Ibid., p. 213.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> -Adair, James; American Indians, p. 409.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> -Lawson, John; History of North Carolina, p. 53.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> -Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 315-320.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> -Fossil Men and Their Modern Representatives, p. 112.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> -Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate <span class="smcap">I</span>, fig. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> -Lewis and Clarke; Travels, p. 425.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> -Powers; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 52.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> -Ibid., p. 433.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> -Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 119.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> -League of the Iroquois, p. 359.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> -Carver, Jonathan; Travels in North America, p. 191.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> -Report to Regents of the Univ. of New York, vol. II, p. 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> -Schoolcraft; Notes on the Iroquois, p. 239.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> -Schumacher; 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody Museum, p. 264.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> -Powers; Contributions to N. A. Eth. vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 377.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> -Flint Chips, p. 95.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> -Abbott, C. C.; Primitive Industry, chap. 28.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> -Jones, C. C.; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> -Nilsson, S.; Stone Age, p. 25.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> -Thatcher, B. B.; Indian Traits, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> -Jones; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> -Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">XX</span>, p. 574.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> -Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 41; also 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody Museum, p. 265.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> -Primitive Industry, p. 244.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> -Ibid., p. 96. Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 381.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 499.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> -Dale, L.; in Journal of Anth. Inst. of Great Br. and Ireland, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 347.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> -Layard, E. L.; in ibid., appendix, c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> -Griesbach, C. L.; in ibid., p. cliv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> -W. D. Gooch says they were used as club heads by the predecessors of the Bushmen, who now use -them as diggers; ibid., vol. <span class="smcap">XI</span>, p. 128.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> -Knight, E. H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 232.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> -Stone Implements, p. 194.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> -Bul. Bur. of Eth., “Perforated Stones from California.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> -Adair; American Indians, p. 402.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> -Lawson; History of North Carolina, p. 98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> -Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 299.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> -Irving, J. T.; Indian Sketches, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 142.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> -Cremony, J. C.; Life Among the Apaches, p. 302.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> -Matthews, W.; Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 814.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> -Report of Pacific Railroad Survey, vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 114.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> -Long; Expedition to Rocky Mountains, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 205.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> -Brackinridge, H. M.; Views of Louisiana, p. 256.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> -Catlin; North American Indians, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> -Schumacher, in Twelfth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 622.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> -Lubbock; Prehistoric Times, p. 648.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> -Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ireland, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 647.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> -Stone Implements, p. 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> -Ibid., p. 227.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> -For any or all of which purposes they may have been used in the course of their manufacture.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> -Captivity Among the Indians, Lexington, 1799; reprinted, Cincinnati, 1870, p. 36.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> -Eells, Myron; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 81.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> -Primitive Industry, p. 229.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> -Flint Chips, p. 581.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> -Henshaw in Amer. Jour. Arch., vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, pp. 105-114.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> -Pear-shaped stones with the smaller end cut squarely off are frequent in Georgia; they are about -the size of turkey eggs. Jones; Antiq. Southern Indians, p. 372.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> -Stone Age, p. 215.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> -Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 408.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> -American Indians, p. 48.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> -Stone Age, p. 83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> -Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. <span class="smcap">XI.</span> p. 445.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> -Powers; Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, pp. 52 and 79.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> -Chase; MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> -Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 131.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> -Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 373.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> -Brickell, John; Nat. History of N.C., p. 317.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> -Wyth; Graphic Sketches, part <span class="smcap">I</span>, plate 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> -Schoolcraft in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p.401, pl. <span class="smcap">I</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> -I am informed by Prof. Cyrus Thomas that he noticed in the collection of Mr. Neff. Gambier, -Ohio, a “boat-shape stone” attached to the underside of a stone pipe, which the owner informed -him was thus attached when found.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> -Evans; Stone Implements, p. 383.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> -Amer. Antiquarian, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 100.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> -Expl. in the Valley of the Amazon, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 74.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> -Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 90.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> -Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">VII</span>, p. 180.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> -Flint Chips, p. 478.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> -MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> -Some perforated stones that will not come under any of these heads are here noted separately -under the National Museum numbers: -</p> -<p> -131614. An elliptical piece of steatite, with notches at each end for suspension, “tallies” all around -the edge, and four holes on the longer axis.—Bradley county, Tennessee. -</p> -<p> -62879. A steatite ornament, shape like a bird’s head.—Jefferson county, Tennessee. -</p> -<p> -131856. A short, wedge-shape ornament of barite, drilled at the larger end.—Loudon county, Tennessee; -also a similar but much larger ornament of indurated red clay, possibly catlinite, from a mound -in the same county, represented in <a href="#FIG_149">figure 149</a>. The edges of the holes are much worn by a cord. -</p> -<p> -90847. A small ellipsoidal steatite bead, with several deep incisions around the edge.—Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. -</p> -<p> -116335. A small marble bead; form like the rim of a bottle mouth.—Bradley county, Tennessee. -</p> -<p> -113943. Three small pendants of cannel coal. One is in shape like the keystone of an arch, with -hole at smaller end; the other two are apparently in imitation of a bear’s tusk.—Kanawha valley, West -Virginia. -</p> -<p> -91761. A limestone celt, 6½ inches long, either much weathered since made or else never highly -polished, with a large hole drilled in from both sides at the center.—Bartow county, Georgia. -</p> -<p> -116067. A sandstone celt, with a hole drilled near one corner at the top.—Loudon county, Tennessee. -</p> -<p> -97764. A large polished piece of steatite, curved from end to end, or claw-shaped. One end is -pointed; the other blunt and rounded, with a hole drilled through it.—Caldwell county, North Carolina.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> -Gillman, H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 371.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> -Primitive Industry, p. 371.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> -Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 30.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> -Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span> p. 212.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> -Schumacher, Paul; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 548.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> -Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 253.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> -Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 426.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> -Native Races, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 589.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> -Ibid., p. 566.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> -Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 362-364.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> -Hoffman, W. J.; "The Midē´wiwin of the Ojibwa." Seventh Annual Rep. Bur. Eth., 1885-86, p. -278, pl. <span class="smcap">XVIII</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> -Amer. Antiquarian, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 154.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> -Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 268.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> -Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 130.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> -De Forest, J. W.; History of Indians of Conn., p. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> -Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 271.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> -Fossil Men, p. 125.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> -Fossil Men., p. 119.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> -Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. <span class="smcap">XXXI</span>, p. 592.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> -Since this was written several thousand specimens have been found in a small mound near Chillicothe, -Ohio. The nearest point at which similar material is known to exist is between Corydon -and Leavenworth, Indiana.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> -Flint Chips, p. 442.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> -Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 140.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> -Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> -Journal Anth. Ins. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol <span class="smcap">XI</span>, p. 447.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> -Anthropology, p. 245.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">133</a> -Jewitt, Llewellyn; Grave-mounds and their Contents, p. 121.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">134</a> -Stone Implements, p. 374.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">135</a> -Op. cit., p. 245.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">136</a> -Stone Implements, p. 36 (from Craveri).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">137</a> -Stone Implements, p. 36 (from De Pourtales).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">138</a> -Ibid., p. 35 (from Belcher).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">139</a> -Ibid., p. 38.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">140</a> -Crook in Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">141</a> -Catlin; Last Rambles, pp. 184, 185.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">142</a> -Ibid., p. 290.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">143</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 81 (from Belcher).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">144</a> -Ibid., p. 84.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">145</a> -Powers in Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 104.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">146</a> -Ibid., p 374.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">147</a> -Bancroft; Native Races, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 342.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">148</a> -Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 212.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">149</a> -Beckwith in Rep. Pac. R. R. Survey, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">150</a> -History of Virginia.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">151</a> -Redding in Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">XIII</span>, p. 665.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">152</a> -Cheever in ibid., vol. <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 139.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">153</a> -Cited by Stevens, Flint Chips, p. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">154</a> -Hayden Survey, Bull. 3, 1877, p. 547.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">155</a> -MS. account of the Shell Mounds of Oregon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">156</a> -Prehistoric America, p. 170.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">157</a> -Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">158</a> -MS. Shell Mounds of Oregon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">159</a> -Flint Chips, p. 77.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">160</a> -Prehistoric Times, p. 106 (from Dodge and Blackmore).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">161</a> -Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 104.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">162</a> -History of Mankind, p. 188.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">163</a> -Adair; American Indians, p. 403.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">164</a> -Adair; American Indians, p. 410.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">165</a> -Cheever in Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 139.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">166</a> -The section below shows this more plainly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">167</a> -Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">X</span>, p. 116.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">168</a> -Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 74, fig. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">169</a> -Nat. Hist, of N. C., p. 318.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">170</a> -League of the Iroquois, p. 359.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">171</a> -Anahuac, p. 332.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">172</a> -Bourke, John G.; Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 251. See also Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">173</a> -Long; Exp. to Rocky Mountains, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 290. Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 418.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">174</a> -Prehistoric Times, p. 122.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">175</a> -Holub, E., in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. <span class="smcap">X</span>, p. 460.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">176</a> -Stone Implements, p. 48.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">177</a> -Native Races, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 189.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">178</a> -Hayden Surv., Bul. 3, 1877, p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">179</a> -Brickell; Nat. Hist. of N. C., p. 339.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">180</a> -Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 230.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">181</a> -Stone Implements, p. 46.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">182</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 96. Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. 188.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">183</a> -It would seem that in using a wood or horn drill, water would be a disadvantage, as the drill -would swell and wear rapidly away when wet, thus choking the bore. The sand also would be forced -into the drill instead of sticking to its surface, thus being less effective.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">184</a> -Quoted by Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 124.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">185</a> -Evans; Stone Implements, p. 353.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">186</a> -Stone Implements.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">187</a> -Hayden Survey, 1872, p. 653.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">188</a> -Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 236.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">189</a> -Ibid, 1870, p. 390.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">190</a> -Our Wild Indians, p. 256.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">191</a> -Gillespie, Dr. W.; Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. <span class="smcap">VI</span>, p. 260.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">192</a> -Indian Tribes, vol <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 253.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">193</a> -Nilsson; Stone Age, p. 46.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">194</a> -Stone Implements, p. 256.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">195</a> -Stone Implements, p. 263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">196</a> -Ibid., pp. 20, 23, and 35.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">197</a> -Anahuac, p. 99.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">198</a> -Ibid, pp. 231, 232 (note).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">199</a> -Stone Age, p. 261 (note).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">200</a> -Amer. Naturalist, vol. <span class="smcap">XIII</span>, p. 665.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">201</a> -Hayden Survey, Bul. 3, 1877, p. 547.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">202</a> -Flint Chips, p. 77.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">203</a> -Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 104.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">204</a> -Native Races, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 342.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">205</a> -Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 212.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">206</a> -Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 78 (from Powers).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">207</a> -Catlin; Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">208</a> -Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 467.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">209</a> -Stone Implements, p. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">210</a> -League of the Iroquois, p. 358.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">211</a> -Indian Tribes, vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 213.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">212</a> -Cont. to N. A. Eth., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 52.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">213</a> -League of the Iroquois, pp. 306, 308.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">214</a> -Amer. Nat., vol. <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 140.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">215</a> -Our Wild Indians, p. 418.</p></div></div> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber’s Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stone Art, by Gerard Fowke - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - -***** This file should be named 50769-h.htm or 50769-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/6/50769/ - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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