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diff --git a/old/50769-0.txt b/old/50769-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3f51cc9..0000000 --- a/old/50769-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7164 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stone Art, by Gerard Fowke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Stone Art - Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology - to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-1892, - Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 47-178. - -Author: Gerard Fowke - -Release Date: December 26, 2015 [EBook #50769] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - - - - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - - - - - - - - - STONE ART - - BY - - GERARD FOWKE - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - - Introduction 57 - Basis for the work 57 - Classification of objects and materials 57 - - The arts and their distribution 60 - Districts 60 - Descriptive terms 62 - Ground and pecked articles 62 - Grooved axes 62 - Celts 72 - Gouges 82 - Chisels and scrapers 83 - Chipped celts 86 - Hematite celts 86 - Pestles 87 - Pitted stones 91 - Cupped stones 91 - Mullers 93 - Grinding and polishing stones 93 - Hammerstones 94 - Grooved stones other than axes 95 - Mortars 96 - Sinkers 97 - Perforated stones 98 - Discoidal stones 99 - Spuds 109 - Plummets 110 - Cones 113 - Hemispheres 114 - Paint stones 115 - Ceremonial stones 115 - Functions and purposes 115 - Gorgets 116 - Banner stones 120 - Boat-shape stones 124 - Picks 125 - Spool-shape ornaments 125 - Bird-shape stones 125 - Shaft rubbers 126 - Tubes 126 - Pipes 128 - Chipped stone articles 132 - Materials and manufacture 132 - Spades 133 - Turtlebacks 136 - Smaller chipped implements 139 - Materials and modes of manufacture 139 - Classification of the implements 142 - Stemless flints 143 - Characters and uses 143 - Larger implements 144 - Smaller objects 147 - Stemmed flints 150 - Straight or taper stems 150 - Expanding stems 156 - Perforators 164 - Character and uses 164 - Stemless forms 165 - Stemmed forms 167 - Blunt arrowheads, or “bunts” 168 - Scrapers 169 - Stemmed 169 - Stemless 169 - Cores 170 - Flakes 171 - Miscellaneous forms 174 - Notes on beveled flints 177 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Museum number Page - - FIG. 29. Grooved ax, showing groove projections (82379) 63 - - 30. Grooved ax, showing pointed edge (99318) 64 - - 31. Grooved ax, showing groove entirely around (83360) 65 - - 32. Grooved ax, slender, showing groove entirely around - (116240) 65 - - 33. Grooved ax, showing grooved back 66 - - 34. Grooved ax, showing grooved back (90512) 66 - - 35. Grooved ax, showing rounded back (71575) 67 - - 36. Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back 68 - - 37. Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back (71258) 68 - - 38. Grooved ax, Keokuk type (71566) 69 - - 39. Grooved ax, showing adze form (84348) 69 - - 40. Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove (72211) 69 - - 41. Grooved ax, showing wide edge (90862) 69 - - 42. Grooved ax, showing curved edge (91746) 70 - - 43. Grooved ax, showing single groove projection (62907) 70 - - 44. Grooved adze (114526) 71 - - 45. Grooved adze, showing curved blade (131483) 71 - - 46. Notched ax, showing polished edge (62753) 72 - - 47. Celt, showing blade thick near edge (71413) 73 - - 48. Celt, showing blade thick near edge (91518) 73 - - 49. Celt, showing long, slender form (114494) 74 - - 50. Celt, nearly round section (65652) 75 - - 51. Celt, nearly round section (65661) 75 - - 52. Celt, showing nearly diamond section (65698) 76 - - 53. Celt (112509) 77 - - 54. Celt (83111) 77 - - 55. Celt (82917) 77 - - 56. Celt, showing “bell-shape” and roughening for handle - (Tho. 7882) 78 - - 57. Celt, showing rectangular section (114151) 78 - - 58. Celt, showing wedge-shape (98427) 79 - - 59. Celt, showing half-elliptical section (72059) 79 - - 60. Celt, showing half-elliptical section (65440) 81 - - 61. Celt, showing concave sides (115504) 81 - - 62. Thin, polished celt (83056) 82 - - 63. Thin, polished celt (114021) 82 - - 64. Thin, polished celt (114157) 82 - - 65. Celt, showing thin, gouge-form edge (92034) 83 - - 66. Celt, chisel-form (91418) 83 - - 67. Celt, chisel-form (82464) 83 - - 68. Celt, chisel-form (131697) 83 - - 69. Celt, chisel-form (82949) 84 - - 70. Celt, chisel-form (116300) 84 - - 71. Celt, showing scraper-form edge 85 - - 72. Scraper (83346) 85 - - 73. Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge (72289) 85 - - 74. Adze or scraper (90528) 85 - - 75. Chipped celt (87571) 86 - - 76. Chipped celt (83272) 86 - - 77. Chipped celt (113837) 86 - - 78. Hematite celt (91920) 87 - - 79. Hematite celt (113925) 87 - - 80. Hematite celt (87843) 87 - - 81. Hematite celt (90733) 87 - - 82. Handled pestle, with expanding base (90876) 88 - - 83. Pestle, long cylindrical form (115416) 89 - - 84. Pestle, conical (114254) 89 - - 85. Pestle (65452) 90 - - 86. Pestle (71428) 90 - - 87. Pestle, grooved for handle (72276) 90 - - 88. Pestle (131524) 90 - - 89. Cupped stone or paint cup (82509) 93 - - 90. Muller, showing polished surface (116134) 93 - - 91. Muller, showing polished surface (132119) 94 - - 92. Hammerstone (114344) 95 - - 93. Grooved round stone (72277) 95 - - 94. Grooved hammer (107300) 96 - - 95. Discoidal stone (115414) 100 - - 96. Discoidal stone, with perforation (88137) 101 - - 97. Discoidal stone, with perforation (30234) 101 - - 98. Discoidal stone, with secondary depression (82619) 102 - - 99. Discoidal stone, in form of a ring (62708) 102 - - 100. Discoidal stone (90497) 103 - - 101. Discoidal stone (114330) 103 - - 102. Discoidal stone, convex (83142) 104 - - 103. Discoidal stone (91805) 105 - - 104. Discoidal stone (82953) 106 - - 105. Discoidal stone, with V-shaped edges (116198) 108 - - 106. Discoidal stone, used as mortar (131566) 108 - - 107. Discoidal stone, probably used as hammer (97763) 108 - - 108. Discoidal pottery fragment (115873) 109 - - 109. Spud (115544) 110 - - 110. Spud (115925) 110 - - 111. Spud (88130) 111 - - 112. Plummet, grooved near one end (82490) 111 - - 113. Plummet, double-grooved (90746) 111 - - 114. Plummet, grooved near middle (114349) 112 - - 115. Plummet, grooved lengthwise (65318) 112 - - 116. Plummet, grooveless, perforated (65319) 112 - - 117. Plummet, double cone in shape (132140) 112 - - 118. Plummet (131923) 112 - - 119. Plummet (90850) 113 - - 120. Plummet, end ground flat (98659) 113 - - 121. Plummet (116072) 113 - - 122. Plummet, cylindrical (71445) 113 - - 123. Cone (116339) 113 - - 124. Cone (72305) 113 - - 125. Cone (71501) 114 - - 126. Cone (91944) 114 - - 127. Hemispheres 114 - - 128. Hemisphere (90729) 115 - - 129. Paint stone (90731) 115 - - 130. Gorget (88014) 118 - - 131. Gorget (?) (Tho. 7834) 118 - - 132. Gorget, reel-shape (113721) 119 - - 133. Gorget (90649) 119 - - 134. Gorget (72125) 120 - - 135. Gorget, boat shape (114354) 121 - - 136. Gorget, resembling boat-shape stone (107323) 121 - - 137. Banner stone (90657) 121 - - 138. Banner stone (115685) 121 - - 139. Banner stone, reel-shape (63186) 122 - - 140. Banner stone, with horn-like projections (113782) 122 - - 141. Banner stone, crescent-shape (88586) 122 - - 142. Banner stone, crescent-shape (115871) 122 - - 143. Banner stone, crescent-shape (115900) 123 - - 144. Butterfly banner stone 123 - - 145. Butterfly banner stone (90831) 123 - - 146. Banner stone (90714) 123 - - 147. Boat-shape stone (87665) 124 - - 148. Boat-shape stone (72347) 124 - - 149. Pendant (116008) 125 - - 150. Pick (113742) 125 - - 151. Spool-shape ornament (38128) 125 - - 152. Bird-shape stone (88351) 126 - - 153. Shaft rubber 127 - - 154. Tube, one end flattened (90713) 128 - - 155. Tube, conical (88022) 128 - - 156. Tube, hour-glass form (62869) 129 - - 157. Tube, cylindrical (88588) 129 - - 158. Pipe, flat base (90840) 129 - - 159. Pipe (116048) 130 - - 160. Pipe (82390) 130 - - 161. Pipe, ornamented (72134) 130 - - 162. Pipe (115452) 130 - - 163. Pipe, long-stemmed (82832) 131 - - 164. Pipe, short-stemmed (115546) 131 - - 165. Pipe (114168) 131 - - 166. Pipe (114310) 131 - - 167. Pipe (62808) 132 - - 168. Pipe (116024) 132 - - 169. Chipped spade with pointed ends (82661) 134 - - 170. Chipped spade with rounded ends (88155) 134 - - 171. Chipped spade, ovoid (71695) 136 - - 172. Chipped spade (65683) 137 - - 173. Chipped spade, showing handle notches (90925) 138 - - 174. Chipped spade (88428) 138 - - 175. Chipped disk, or “turtleback” (15335) 138 - - 176. Diagram, explaining terms 143 - - 177. Triangular chipped flint (87556_a_) 144 - - 178. Chipped flint (90672) 144 - - 179. Chipped flint (116058) 145 - - 180. Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape (82883) 145 - - 181. Chipped flint, elliptical outline (71562_a_) 145 - - 182. Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline (88353) 145 - - 183. Chipped flint (132186) 146 - - 184. Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical outline - (88122) 146 - - 185. Chipped flint, large, long, sharp point (113767) 146 - - 186. Chipped flint, large (114486) 147 - - 187. Chipped flint (91921_a_) 147 - - 188. Chipped flint (114277) 147 - - 189. Chipped flint, with shoulders (115419) 147 - - 190. Chipped flint, small (62883) 148 - - 191. Chipped flint, triangular (91754_a_) 148 - - 192. Chipped flint, asymmetric (115404) 148 - - 193. Chipped flint, concave edges (82832) 148 - - 194. Chipped flint, triangular (88072) 148 - - 195. Chipped flint, small (131633) 149 - - 196. Chipped flint, short, convex edges (114539) 149 - - 197. Chipped flint, triangular (83235) 149 - - 198. Chipped flint, concave edges (65811) 149 - - 199. Chipped flint, convex base (114405) 149 - - 200. Chipped flint, edges concave (91921_b_) 150 - - 201. Chipped flint, pentagonal (115634) 150 - - 202. Chipped flint, narrow and thick (115665) 150 - - 203. Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless (87555) 151 - - 204. Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless (97754) 151 - - 205. Chipped flint, expanding shoulder (132212) 152 - - 206. Chipped flint, double-curved edges (83409_a_) 152 - - 207. Chipped flint, double-curved edges (113605_a_) 152 - - 208. Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering stem - (72123) 152 - - 209. Chipped flint, with long, tapering stem (82718) 153 - - 210. Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge shape - (91859_a_) 153 - - 211. Stemmed chipped flint (65803) 153 - - 212. Stemmed chipped flint (115405) 154 - - 213. Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid (71562_b_) 154 - - 214. Stemmed chipped flint, short blade (90750) 154 - - 215. Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline (113821) 155 - - 216. Stemmed chipped flint (113726) 155 - - 217. Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem (87847) 156 - - 218. Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or shoulder - (91731) 156 - - 219. Stemmed chipped flint, short (90673) 156 - - 220. Stemmed chipped flint (87664) 156 - - 221. Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made (65817) 157 - - 222. Stemmed chipped flint (65786) 157 - - 223. Stemmed chipped flint (90739_a_) 157 - - 224. Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex (88323) 157 - - 225. Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs (83409_b_) 158 - - 226. Stemmed chipped flint (131775) 158 - - 227. Stemmed chipped flint (71562_c_) 159 - - 228. Stemmed chipped flint, broad point (71562_d_) 159 - - 229. Stemmed chipped flint, slender point (87837) 159 - - 230. Stemmed chipped flint (90760) 159 - - 231. Stemmed chipped flint (114558) 160 - - 232. Stemmed chipped flint, thin (91921_d_) 160 - - 233. Stemmed chipped flint (116059) 160 - - 234. Stemmed chipped flint (113741) 160 - - 235. Stemmed chipped flint (114340) 160 - - 236. Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small stem - (116047) 161 - - 237. Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched (97547) 161 - - 238. Stemmed chipped flint (65614) 162 - - 239. Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem - (113894) 162 - - 240. Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem - (90739_b_) 162 - - 241. Stemmed chipped flint (82686) 163 - - 242. Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders - (91754_b_) 163 - - 243. Stemmed chipped flint (91921_c_) 163 - - 244. Stemmed chipped flint, very rough (91136) 164 - - 245. Perforator, not stemmed (87556_b_) 165 - - 246. Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed (90843) 165 - - 247. Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed (90759) 166 - - 248. Perforator, not stemmed, rough base (91924) 166 - - 249. Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base (87951) 166 - - 250. Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base (88019) 166 - - 251. Perforator, stemmed (113605_b_) 167 - - 252. Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders (91754_c_) 167 - - 253. Perforator, stemmed 167 - - 254. Perforator, stemmed (83409_c_) 167 - - 255. Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point (132226) 168 - - 256. Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt” (132204) 168 - - 257. Stemmed scraper (132190) 169 - - 258. Stemmed scraper (71560) 169 - - 259. Stemless scraper, celt form (131749) 170 - - 260. Stemless scraper, flake (90822) 170 - - 261. Cores (97526) 171 - - 262. Core (97520) 171 - - 263. Flake, chipped for scraper (91968) 173 - - 264. Flake, chipped for knife or arrowhead (97537) 174 - - 265. Flake, slender, probably for lancet (88018) 174 - - 266. Stemmed chipped flint (132176) 174 - - 267. Stemmed chipped flint, winged (132213) 175 - - 268. Stemmed chipped flint (132174) 175 - - 269. Stemmed chipped flint, barbed 175 - - 270. Stemmed chipped flint, broad (132235_b_) 175 - - 271. Stemmed chipped flint 176 - - 272. Stemmed chipped flint, slender (132208) 176 - - 273. Stemmed chipped flint 176 - - 274. Stemmed chipped flint, triangular 176 - - 275. Stemmed chipped flint (132235_a_) 176 - - 276. Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem (63150) 177 - - 277. Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from use 177 - - 278. Stemmed chipped flint 177 - - - - -STONE ART - -By GERARD FOWKE - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -BASIS FOR THE WORK. - -The collection of the Bureau of Ethnology includes almost every type of -stone implement or ornament, and as the investigations and explorations -of the collaborators have extended over nearly all the eastern and -central portions of the Mississippi valley, it furnishes a substantial -basis for showing the geographic distribution of various forms of -objects in use among the aboriginal inhabitants. - -It has not been deemed advisable to utilize material contained in other -collections. Should this be done there would be no reason for drawing -upon one rather than another, and if it were once begun the examination -would finally extend to every collection made from American localities, -a study which, although perhaps desirable, would transcend the scope of -the Bureau plans. - -Much that has been published in regard to the distribution of relics in -various portions of the country is of little value to a paper of this -kind, since few of the objects are sufficiently illustrated or referred -to any class in other than the most general terms; so that it is -frequently impossible to determine the group in which a given article -should be placed. Partly for this reason, partly because the primary -purpose is description of a certain collection made in a definite way, -little space is given to the descriptive work of predecessors in the -field of archeology. The general results of previous work are, however, -carefully weighed in the conclusions reached. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF OBJECTS AND MATERIALS. - -The ordinary division into chipped and pecked or ground implements has -been adopted: the former including all such as are more easily worked -by flaking, and the latter including those made from stone suitable -for working down by pecking into form with stone hammers or by similar -means. The system of nomenclature in general use has been retained, -as it is now familiar to students of North American archeology, and, -while not entirely satisfactory in some respects, is perhaps as good as -can be devised in the present state of knowledge. - -Careful study of the entire collection has failed to show the slightest -difference in the form, finish, or material of implements from the same -locality, whether found in mounds or graves or on the surface; hence no -attempt is made to separate the two classes of objects. Allowance is to -be made for the weathering of a surface specimen, but this is the only -distinction. - -It is not always easy to identify a stone, even with a fresh surface; -in a weathered specimen it is often impossible. For this reason the -material of which a specimen is made may not be correctly named; -frequently the alteration due to exposure will change the appearance of -a rock very much, and in such a case the best that can be done is to -tell what it looks most like. The material of a majority of specimens -however, or at least the classes of rock to which they belong, as -granite, porphyry, etc., are correctly named; to give a more exact name -would be possible only by the destruction or injury of the specimen. -There are a few terms used which may be here explained. - -“Compact quartzite” is a very hard, close-grained, siliceous rock, -sometimes nearly a flint, and again closely approaching novaculite. -“Greenstone” may be diorite or diabase, or it may be a very compact -dark sandstone or quartzite so weathered that its nature can not be -determined from superficial observation. “Argillite” refers to any -slaty rock; it may be so soft as to be easily cut with a knife, or -nearly as hard as quartzite. Usually it is greenish in color. - -A comprehensive study of all available collections will no doubt modify -materially the classification and system of types here presented. - -The quotations from eminent anthropologists given below show the -difficulties in the way of establishing a satisfactory system of types, -or of assigning certain forms to particular localities. In most of -these quotations the substance only of the author’s remarks is given. - -According to Dr. E. B. Tylor, the flint arrows of the Dakota, the -Apache, or the Comanche might easily be mistaken for the weapons dug -up on the banks of the Thames;[1] while cores of flint in Scandinavia -and of obsidian in Mexico are exactly alike,[2] and a tray filled with -European arrowheads can not be distinguished from a tray of American -ones.[3] Prof. Otis T. Mason observes that the great variety of form in -such weapons after they are finished is due partly to nature and partly -to the workman’s desire to produce a certain kind of implement. All -sorts of pebbles lie at the hand of the savage mechanic, none of them -just what he wants. He selects the best.[4] Perhaps the truth about the -shape is that the savage found it thus and let it so remain.[5] - -The state of things among the lower tribes which presents itself to the -student is a substantial similarity in knowledge, arts, and customs, -running through the whole world. Not that the whole culture of all -tribes is alike--far from it; but if any art or custom belonging to -a low tribe is selected at random, the likelihood is that something -substantially like it may be found in at least one place thousands -of miles off, though it frequently happens that there are large -intervening areas where it has not been observed.[6] - -On the whole, it seems most probable that many of the simpler weapons, -implements, etc., have been invented independently by various savage -tribes. Though they are remarkably similar, they are at the same time -curiously different. The necessaries of life are simple and similar all -over the world. The materials with which men have to deal are also very -much alike; wood, bone, and to a certain extent stone, have everywhere -the same properties. The obsidian flakes of the Aztecs resemble the -flint flakes of our ancestors, not so much because the ancient Briton -resembled the Aztec, as because the fracture of flint is like that -of obsidian. So also the pointed bones used as awls are necessarily -similar all over the world. Similarity exists, in fact, rather in -the raw material than in the manufactured article, and some even of -the simplest implements of stone are very different among different -races.[7] - -Tylor again says: - - When, however, their full value has been given to the - differences in the productions of the Ground Stone Age, - there remains a residue of a most remarkable kind. In the - first place, a very small number of classes, flakes, knives, - scrapers, spear and arrow heads, celts, and hammers take in - the great mass of specimens in museums; and in the second - place, the prevailing character of these implements, whether - modern or thousands of years old, whether found on this side - of the world or on the other, is a marked uniformity. The - ethnographer who has studied the stone implements of Europe, - Asia, North or South America, or Polynesia, may consider the - specimens from the district he has studied as types from which - those of other districts differ, as a class, by the presence - or absence of a few peculiar instruments, and individually in - more or less important details of shape or finish, unless, as - sometimes happens, they do not differ perceptibly at all. So - great is this uniformity in the stone implements of different - places and times, that it goes far to neutralize their value - as distinctive of different races. It is clear that no great - help in tracing the minute history of the growth and migration - of tribes is to be got from an arrowhead which might have - come from Polynesia, or Siberia, or the Isle of Man, or from - a celt which might be, for all its appearance shows, Mexican, - Irish, or Tahitian. If an observer, tolerably acquainted with - stone implements, had an unticketed collection placed before - him, the largeness of the number of specimens which he would - not confidently assign, by mere inspection, to their proper - countries, would serve as a fair measure of their general - uniformity. Even when aided by mineralogical knowledge, often - a great help, he would have to leave a large fraction of the - whole in an unclassified heap, confessing that he did not know - within thousands of miles or thousands of years where and when - they were made. - - How, then, is this remarkable uniformity to be explained? - The principle that man does the same thing under the same - circumstances will account for much, but it is very doubtful - whether it can be stretched far enough to account for even - the greater proportion of the facts in question. The other - side of the argument is, of course, that resemblance is due to - connection, and the truth is made up of the two, though in what - proportion we do not know.[8] - -While the several authors quoted do not fully agree, and some are -even slightly self-contradictory, still, if the statements are to be -taken at their face value, it would seem that efforts to make such -classifications are mainly a waste of time. - -It may be premised that in every class of implements there are almost -as many forms as specimens, if every variation in size or pattern is to -be considered; and these merge into one another imperceptibly. Not only -is this the case with individual types, but the classes themselves, -totally unlike as their more pronounced forms may be, gradually -approach one another until there is found a medium type whose place can -not be definitely fixed. - - -THE ARTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. - -DISTRICTS. - -As space would be needlessly occupied by attempting to name each -county, the area from which specimens have been obtained is, for -convenience, divided into districts. These divisions are for use in -this article only, and are not intended as archeologic districts. - -In the tables given under each heading, the names of counties or -districts show where the types described are obtained; the columns -following show the number of specimens of each material mentioned in -the collection of the Bureau. - -Where a limited area only has been examined in any division, the name -of the county is usually given; but where specimens of any kind have -been obtained from different counties near one another, they are -assigned to the district including those counties. The districts are as -follows: - -_Arkansas._ - - Northeastern: Between White and Mississippi rivers. - - Southeastern: Between White and Washita rivers from Clarendon - to Arkadelphia. - - Southwestern: West of Washita river and south of Arkadelphia, - including Bowie and Red River counties, Texas. - - Central: From Dardanelles southward and eastward to the above - limits. - -_Alabama._ - - Northeastern: Bordering Tennessee river east of Decatur. - - Northwestern: Bordering Tennessee river west of Decatur. - Coosa: Bordering Coosa river southward to and including Dallas - county. - - Tuscaloosa: Bordering the Tuscaloosa and Little Tombigbee, and - extending a short distance below their confluence. - -_Ohio._ - - Miami valley: The country along the two Miami rivers, including - Shelby county on the north and Madison and Brown counties on - the east. - - Scioto valley: South of Franklin county, including Adams and - Lawrence counties. - - Central: Including Union, Knox, Perry, and Franklin counties, - and the area within these limits. - -_Wisconsin._ - - Southwestern: The counties bordering on either side of - Mississippi river from La Crosse to Dubuque (Iowa). - - Eastern: The portion between Lake Michigan, Lake Winnebago, and - the Illinois line. - - Southern: Dane and adjoining counties. - -_Iowa._ - - Keokuk: The southeastern corner of the state and adjacent - portions of Illinois and Missouri. - -_Tennessee._ - - Eastern: All the mountain district, with the extreme - southwestern part of Virginia. - - Western: From Mississippi river to and including the tier of - counties east of the Tennessee. - - Northern: The northern half of the interior portion. - - Southern: The southern half of this portion. - -_South Carolina._ - - Northwestern: North and west of a line from Lancaster to - Columbia. As no other portion of the state has been examined - under direction of the Bureau, only the name of the state is - used herein, reference being always to this section. - -_Georgia._ - - Northwestern: The portion northwest of the Chattahoochee. - - Southwestern: Area contiguous to the lower Chattahoochee and - Flint river. - - Savannah: The vicinity of the city of Savannah, where a large - collection was gathered. - -_Kentucky._ - - Northeastern: Between Kentucky, Big Sandy, and Ohio rivers. - - Southeastern: From Estill and Cumberland counties to the - Tennessee and Virginia state lines. - - Central: Between Green and Ohio rivers, west of the last - described districts. - - Southern: From Green river southward and as far westward as - Christian county. - - Western: West of Green river and Christian county. - -_North Carolina._ - - Western: West of Charlotte. - - Central: Between Charlotte and Raleigh. - -_Illinois._ - - Southwestern: From the mouth of the Cumberland to Washington - county, and thence to the Mississippi. - - -DESCRIPTIVE TERMS. - -The various forms of implements will now be considered. As stated -above, the names given the various articles are those by which they are -usually known; but it may be well to define some of the terms used. - -In the grooved axes, _edge_ refers to the cutting portion; _blade_, to -the part below the groove; _poll_ or _head_, to that above the groove; -_face_, to the wider or flat portion of the surface; _side_, to the -narrower part; _front_, to that side farther from the hand, and _back_, -to the side nearer the hand when in use. - -In celts, the terms are the same, so far as they are applicable; -_blade_ referring to the lower half of the implement; that is, to the -portion on which the cutting edge is formed. - - -GROUND AND PECKED ARTICLES. - -GROOVED AXES. - -The implements known as grooved axes seem to be of general distribution -throughout the United States; being, so far can be learned from various -writers, much more numerous east of Mississippi river than west of it. -It must be remembered, however, that thousands of diligent collectors -have carefully searched for such things in the east, while in the west -little attention has been paid to them; consequently, deductions are -not to be made concerning their relative abundance or scarcity, until -further knowledge is gained. The same remark will apply to every form -of aboriginal relic. - -In the eastern and interior states, the grooved axes are far more -abundant than the celts of the same size[9], because as a rule only the -larger implements of this class are grooved. All the ordinary varieties -of axes and hatchets are found about Lake Champlain, by far the most -abundant being celts, or grooveless axes.[10] - -According to Adair and other early observers, the southern Indians had -axes of stone, around the grooved heads of which they twisted hickory -withes to serve as handles; with these they deadened timber by girdling -or cutting through the bark.[11] According to travelers of a later -generation among the western Indians, similar implements were used on -the plains to chop up the vertebræ of buffaloes, which were boiled to -obtain the marrow.[12] - -These statements, which might be multiplied, show that such objects -are to be found widely scattered; none, however, give information more -definite than that the axes are “grooved,” no reference being made to -the shape of the ax or the manner of grooving. - -The various modes of mounting axes and celts in handles are illustrated -in the Smithsonian Report for 1879. - -Stone axes were used in Europe by the Germans at as late a period -as the Thirty Years’ war, and are supposed to have been used by the -Anglo-Saxons at the battle of Hastings.[13] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Grooved ax, showing groove projections.] - -Axes having two grooves occur in considerable numbers in the pueblos -of southwestern United States, but they are extremely rare elsewhere -and unknown in most districts; as the objects are generally small, the -utility of the second groove is not evident. - -The arrangement of stone axes may be based upon the manner of forming -the groove. In one class are placed those which in the process of -making had a ridge left encircling the weapon, in which the groove was -formed. This gives the ax greater strength with the same material. -Usually the groove has been worked just deep enough to reach the body -of the ax; that is, to such a depth that should the projections be -ground off there would remain a celt-like implement (as shown in -figure 29, of chlorite-schist, from Sullivan county, Tennessee). The -axes of this class in the Bureau collection are shown in the following -table: - - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - Eastern Tennessee | 9 | 8 | 4 | 5 | | 1 - Western North Carolina | 1 | 1 | | | | - Central North Carolina | | | 1 | 1 | | - Savannah, Georgia | | 4 | | 1 | | - Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1 | 1 | - --------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---------- - - KEY: - A = Greenstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Granite. - E = Schist. - F = Quartzite. - -In the second class the groove is formed by pecking into the body -of the ax after the latter is dressed into shape; in this pattern a -regular continuous line from edge to poll would touch only the margins -of the groove, leaving it beneath. An apparent medium between the -two is sometimes seen, in which there is a projection on the lower -side of the groove only; this is due, usually, to dressing the blade -down thinner after the implement was originally worked to a symmetric -outline. By continuous or long use the edge of the ax becomes broken -or blunted and requires sharpening, and in order to keep the proper -outline to make the tool efficient, it is necessary to work the blade -thinner as it becomes shorter. No such change is required in the poll, -consequently a projection is formed where originally there was no trace -of one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Grooved ax, showing pointed edge.] - -There are different methods of finishing the ax, which may appear -with either form of groove. The poll may be worked into the shape of -a flattened hemisphere, may be flat on top, with the part between the -groove and the top straight, convex or concave, or may be worked to a -blunt point, with straight or concave lines to the groove. The blade -may taper from the groove to the edge, with straight or curved sides, -which may run almost parallel or may be drawn to a blunt-pointed edge. -This latter form is probably due to breaking or wearing of the blade, -which is reworked, as shown in figure 30, of granite, from Boone -county, Missouri. - -There are a very few specimens, as noted below, in which the ax -gradually increases in width from the poll to the edge; but such -specimens seem to be made of stones which had this form approximately -at the beginning, and were worked into such shape as would give a -suitable implement with the least labor. - -In nearly every instance the groove of an ax with a groove projection -extends entirely around with practically the same depth, and the blade -of the ax has an elliptical section. There are, however, a few with the -back flattened; and while many of the second division may be similar in -section, and in having the groove extend entirely around, yet in this -class are to be placed nearly all of those only partly encircled by a -groove or showing some other section than the ellipse. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Grooved ax, showing groove entirely around.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Grooved ax, slender, showing groove entirely -around.] - -With these exceptions, the second class of grooved stone axes comprises -seven groups, which may be described and tabulated as follows: - -_A._ Grooved entirely around, elliptical section, polls dressed in any -of the ways given above; three or four have the blunt-pointed edge -(figure 31, of granite, from Bradley county, Tennessee). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | | | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 4 | 3 | | 2 | 2 |15 | 4 | 1 | | - |Central North Carolina | | 1 | | | | 1 | | | | - |Western North Carolina | | 2 | | | | 2 | | | | - |Central Arkansas | 1 | | | 1 | | | | | | - |Ross county, Ohio | | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Green River, Kentucky | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | 1 | | - |Keokuk district, Iowa | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | 2 | | 6 | | | 3 | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 2 | 5 | 1 | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Greenstone. - B = Granite. - C = Diorite. - D = Sandstone. - E = Quartzite. - F = Argillite. - G = Slate. - H = Sienite. - I = Porphyry. - -_B._ Long, narrow, and thin, giving a much flattened elliptical -section. These are classed with axes on account of the grooves, -although too thin and usually of material too soft to endure violent -usage. The edges are nicked, striated, or polished, as though from -use as hoes or adzes (figure 32, of argillite, from Bradley county, -Tennessee). - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 18| 1| - |Keokuk district, Iowa | | 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1| | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| | 1| | - |Western North Carolina | 1| | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | 2| - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Slate. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Grooved ax, showing grooved back.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Grooved ax, showing grooved back.] - -_C._ Grooved on both faces and one side; back hollowed, usually in a -straight line the whole length; front drawn in from the groove to give -a narrower edge (figures 33, of porphyry, from Brown county, Ohio, and -34, of granite, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | 1| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 1 | | 1 | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | 1 | | - |Brown county, Ohio | | | |1 | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Porphyry. - -_D._ Same method of grooving; back is rounded, and may be in a straight -or curved line the entire length, or a broken line straight in each -direction from the groove. The type is illustrated by figure 35, of -granite, from Keokuk, Iowa. This specimen is unusually wide and thin; -generally the outlines are similar to those last described. - - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 5 | | - |Butler county, Ohio | 2 | | | - |Keokuk district, Iowa | 1 | | 1 | - +-------------------------+--------+----------+--------+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Grooved ax, showing rounded back.] - -_E._ Grooved like the last; same general form, except that the back -is flat (figures 36, of sienite, from Brown county, Ohio, and 37, of -granite, from Drew county, Arkansas). - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Miami valley, Ohio | | 2 | 3 | | 5 | - |Brown county, Ohio | | | | 1 | | - |Keokuk district, Ohio | | 1 | | 1 | | - |Brown county, Illinois | | | 1 | 2 | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 2 | | | 2 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 4 | 1 | 2 | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | | 1 | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | 1 | | | - |Licking county, Ohio | | | 1 | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Granite. - D = Sienite. - E = Greenstone. - -_F._ Grooved on both faces and one side, with both sides flat. There -is only one of this form in the collection; it is of argillite, from -Keokuk, Iowa. - -_G._ Grooved on faces only, with both sides flat (figure 38, of -granite, from Keokuk, Iowa). There are from the same place one of -porphyry, one of argillite, and three of sienite. This and the -preceding form seem peculiar to that locality. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Grooved ax, showing flattened curved back.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Grooved ax, showing flattened straight back.] - -There are a few exceptional forms which are not placed with those just -given, since they may have some features common to all except the -Keokuk type, while in other respects they differ from all. Among them -are some entire-grooved or grooved only on the two sides and one face; -the general outline may correspond with some of the regular forms, but -one face is curved from poll to edge, while the other is straight or -nearly so (figure 39, of granite, from Wilkes county, North Carolina). -This specimen has a depression, as if worn by the end of a handle, on -the straight face at the lower edge of the groove. - -None of this form are long enough for hoes, and although they may have -been used for axes and hatchets, their shape seems to indicate use as -adzes. Besides the one figured there are two from Savannah, Georgia; -three from eastern Tennessee, one with a slight groove and very deep -side notches; and three from western North Carolina, two of them -entire-grooved with groove projections. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Grooved ax, Keokuk type.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Grooved ax, showing adze form.] - -Another unusual form, which may come under any of the foregoing -figures, has the groove crossing the implement diagonally, in such a -way as to cause the blade to incline backward (figure 40, of granite, -from Carter county, Tennessee). Besides the specimen illustrated, this -form is also represented by one of granite from northwestern North -Carolina with projection for groove; two of argillite from southwestern -Tennessee; one, widest at edge, from Savannah, Georgia; one from Ross -county, Ohio; and two of granite, highly polished, grooved on faces and -one side, with backs flat, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -Of the axes wider at the edge than at any point above (of which -the specimen illustrated in figure 41, of granite, from a grave at -Kingsport, Tennessee, may be taken as a type,) there are one of diorite -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, which seems to have been of -ordinary pattern but broken and redressed to its present form; and from -Savannah, Georgia, one of uniform taper with diagonal groove, and one -widening irregularly until the blade is fully twice the width of the -poll. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Grooved ax, showing diagonal groove.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Grooved ax, showing wide edge.] - -Many, if not a majority, of the entire-grooved axes have the groove -wide enough for a very large handle, or for an ordinary withe to be -twisted twice around. In those which have one side ungrooved, the -intention was to admit a wedge between the stone and the curve of -the handle. The handles were very firmly fastened; two axes in the -collection have been broken in such a way that on one side, from the -top half way down, the blade is gone, carrying away the groove on that -side; yet the polish of the groove extends over the fractured surface, -which has never been reworked, showing that the tool was long used -after this accident. As the handles could easily slip off over the top -in specimens thus broken, they must have been tightly lashed; perhaps -gum or glue was used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Grooved ax, showing curved edge.] - -Partly finished specimens show that the groove was pecked out and the -edge ground before the remaining parts of the ax were worked. Some -have the edge ground sharp and the groove worn smooth or even polished -by long use, while all the rest of the implement retains the original -weathered surface. A stone was always chosen that could be brought to -the desired form with the least labor, and very often one could be -found that required but little work to make a very satisfactory weapon -or implement or even ornament. - -Occasionally specimens indicate by the manner of wear their application -to certain kinds of work. Sometimes the edge is curved by the wearing -away of one face until it has almost a gouge form; sometimes the side -of the blade next the hand, again that farthest away, is more worn. -This in time would give the blunt-pointed edge. A peculiar finish of -the lower part of the blade, which is also seen in a few celts, is -shown in figure 42, of sienite, from Carter county, Tennessee. One -half of each face has been left full, and the part opposite hollowed -out, giving an ogee curve to the edge. Figure 43, of granite, from -Jefferson county, Tennessee, seems to have a ridge on the upper side -of the groove; but closer examination shows that it once had a groove -projection, and that afterwards the poll was nearly all broken away and -a new groove made lower down, so that what was originally the lower -projection is now above the groove, the remainder of the poll being -worked down to a point. - -There are a few hammers which differ from the ordinary ax only in being -blunt instead of sharp. They may be nothing more than broken axes, -utilized as hammers instead of being resharpened. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Grooved ax, showing single groove projection.] - -Under this head may be placed implements plainly used as adzes. They -are much longer than axes in proportion to their other dimensions, have -one face convex, the other straight or concave. They may be placed -in the same class as the specimen shown in figure 39, and also those -represented in figures 44 and 45, from McMinn county, Tennessee. There -is also a similar adze from Saline county, Arkansas. All the specimens -of this class are of argillite. - -With the grooved axes is also placed a class of implements that may -be called axes notched on the sides. Many of them were no doubt used -as sinkers; but some of the same form, size, and material have the -notches and sometimes portions of the face worn perfectly smooth, while -frequently they are ground to a sharp edge. Again, even in those that -have not the least polish, the edge shows marks that would seem to -result from use as axes, adzes, or hoes. - -There are three divisions of this class of implements, as follows: - -_A._ Unworked, except notches; probably sinkers. - - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | 5 | | | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina | | | 1 | | - |Northeastern Alabama | | | | 5 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | | | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Quartzite. - D = Limestone. - -_B._ Partly ground sharp edges, mostly with polished notches, -sometimes with faces polished from one notch to the other (figure 46, -of argillite, from Cocke county, Tennessee). In addition there are -11 examples of argillite, besides one of mica-schist from eastern -Tennessee and another of sandstone from Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Grooved adze.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Grooved adze, showing curved blade.] - -_C._ Roughly chipped, with notches often at the middle but sometimes -nearer one end. Probably most of these were sinkers; but as above -stated the edges show marks of use, apparently in scraping, digging, or -striking. Of these the following examples are in the Bureau collection: -From several localities in eastern Tennessee, 40 of argillite; from -Montgomery county, North Carolina, 24 of argillite and quartzite; -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and from Savannah, Georgia, a few -specimens of the same materials. - - -CELTS. - -What is true of the uses and distribution of stone axes applies with -much the same force to what are called celts--not a good descriptive -term, but one which is now given to the implement in lieu of something -better. It would appear difficult or impossible to do with these rude -tools any work for which we commonly use an ax or hatchet; and yet, -by the aid of fire, or even without it, the aborigines contrived to -accomplish a great deal with them. - -The Maori of New Zealand do all their wonderful work of wood carving -with only a chisel or adze (of stone or shell).[14] Among the Iroquois, -in cutting trees, fire was applied at the root, the coals were scraped -away with a chisel, and this process was repeated until the tree was -felled. The trunk was divided into lengths in the same way. Similarly -canoes and mortars were hollowed out.[15] The Virginia Indians at an -early day employed a similar process. They also cleared ground for -cultivation by deadening trees with their tomahawks,[16] and used adzes -made of shell in cleaning out the charred wood in making canoes.[17] -The Nootka of the northwestern part of the continent in felling a tree -use a flint or elkhorn set in a handle, this being struck with a stone -mallet. In hollowing canoes a musselshell also is used as an adze, and -sometimes fire is applied. The outside is shaped by similar means.[18] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Notched ax, showing polished edge.] - -Stone chisels have been found in various steatite quarries, where -vessels and other utensils of this material were made, and the marks of -their use is plain both on the vessels in an unfinished state and on -the cores, as well as on the quarry face.[19] - -The different ways of hafting, as shown by specimens in the Bureau -collection, were as follows: - -(1) A hole was cut entirely through a stick and the celt was inserted -so that it would project on both sides; - -(2) The hole was cut partly through, and the celt was pushed in as far -as it would go; - -(3) The top of the celt was set in a socket of deer horn, which was put -into a handle as in form 2; - -(4) Small celt-shaped knives or scrapers were set into the end of a -piece of antler long enough to be used as a handle; - -(5) A forked branch was so cut as to make two prongs of nearly equal -length, and the celt was fastened to the end of one, parallel with it, -the other being used to guide and steady it, a prong being held in each -hand; - -(6) The fork of a root or branch was trimmed so as to make a flat face -at any desired angle, to which the celt was lashed, a shoulder, against -which the end of the celt was set, being sometimes cut in the wood; - -(7) A stick was split its entire length and a single turn taken around -the celt, the ends being brought together and tied, forming a round -handle; - -(8) A stick was split part way, one fork cut off and the other wrapped -once or twice and tied, thus forming a round handle of solid wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Celt, showing blade thick near edge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Celt, showing blade thick near edge.] - -Forms 5 and 6 were used as adzes; forms 7 and 8 are the same methods as -employed in hafting grooved axes. - -A mounting similar to form 4 is seen in some Alaska specimens of -celt-scrapers in which the implement is fastened to a piece of wood so -as to project a short distance, and used like a plane. In all these, -the celt is very firmly fastened to the handle with sinew or rawhide, -which, when put on green, contracts with great force and binds like -wire. - -As to the forms of celts, no division is practicable based on anything -but their entire appearance. The following descriptions and tabulations -represent the material of this kind in the Bureau collection: - -_A._ Round or nearly round section, pointed or flattened at the top, -blade rapidly thickening from the edge; a few are polished at the top, -but most of them show marks of a maul or hammer; all have been highly -polished; all of this class were probably used as wedges, as their -shape renders them more fit for this purpose than for any other; the -battered tops indicate such usage. The few not showing such marks -may have been set into a bumper of wood or horn, or used with wooden -mauls. They vary in length from 2½ to 7½ inches. They are represented -by the specimen shown in figure 47, of argillite, from Lincoln county, -Arkansas; there are also one from a mound in Sumter county, Alabama -(figure 48), and one from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, both of -serpentine and elliptical in section, though the form of the edge puts -them in this class. The following specimens are typical representations -of the class: - - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northwestern North Carolina | 3 | 7 | 2 | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 3 | | | | - |Western Tennessee | | | | 1 | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | 2 | | | | - |Union county, Mississippi | 1 | | | | | - |Madison county, Illinois | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 2 | | | | 1 | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sienite. - B = Argillite. - C = Granite. - D = Rotten limestone. - E = Sandstone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Celt, showing long, slender form.] - -_B._ Long, narrow, elliptical section, pointed top, curved or straight -edges, sides straight or gently curved. None of these seem to have -been put to any rough use, as the edges are quite sharp and the entire -surface is well polished; length from 4¼ to 12½ inches. The type is -illustrated by figure 49, of argillite, from a mound in Monroe county, -Tennessee. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 8 | 3 | | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | 1 | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 6 | 1 | 3 | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | 1 | - |Northeastern Alabama | | | | | 1 | - |Western North Carolina | 1 | | | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Granite. - C = Sandstone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sienite. - -_C._ Thick, almost round section, round-pointed top, nearly straight -to sharp-curved edge, sides gently curved, widest at edge or just -above. Most of these show marks of use as cutting tools or hatchets. -In many the top has been roughened as if for insertion into a hole -cut in a piece of wood; others have this roughening around the middle -or immediately above, leaving a polish at both ends, and these were -hafted probably by means of a stick or withe twisted around them. The -roughening is a secondary operation, having no relation to the making -of the implement; it was produced by pecking after the surface was -polished. In a few cases it extends from the top well down the sides; -but usually it reaches but a little way below the top, or else is in -a circle around the body of the celt. Most of them have sharp edges; -a few have edges either chipped or blunted and polished, showing long -usage. Two from Kanawha valley (one roughened for handle) have the -edges worn in on one of the faces until they almost resemble gouges; -but that they were not intended as such is shown by the concavity being -nearer one side and not reaching entirely across. The length ranges -from 4½ to 10 inches. The type is illustrated by figures 50 and 51, -both of sienite, from Lauderdale county, Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Celt, nearly round section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Celt, nearly round section.] - -This may be regarded as the typical form of celt for eastern United -States, and its geographic distribution is exceptionally wide, as shown -in the table. - -The Bureau collection includes the following specimens of this class: - - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Western North Carolina | 4 | 2 | 9 |16 | | | | | - Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | | | | - Coosa district, Alabama | | 1 | | | | | | | - Ross county, Ohio | | | 1 | | | | | | - Knox county, Ohio | | | | | | 1 | | | - Miami valley, Ohio | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | - Eastern Tennessee | | 5 | | 1 | | | | | - Green river, Kentucky | | | 1 | | | | | | - Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 1 | | 2 | | - Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 4 | 4 | | | | 3 | 1 | - Crawford county, Wisconsin | | | 1 | | | | | | - Southwestern Illinois | | | 2 | | | | | 1 | - Savannah, Georgia | | 3 | 2 | | | 2 | | | - Western Tennessee | | 2 | | | | | | | - ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Porphyry. - B = Sienite. - C = Granite. - D = Argillite. - E = Greenstone. - F = Sandstone. - G = Diorite. - H = Compact quartzite. - -_D._ Of the form last described, except in being much thinner; some -have the tops battered, showing use as wedges; length from 3 to 9 -inches. - - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Eastern Tennessee |11 | 3 | 2 | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | | - Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2 | 5 | 2 | 6 | | | | | - Northwestern Georgia | | | 3 | | | | | 1 | | | - Savannah, Georgia | | | | | 2 | | | | | | - Green river, Kentucky | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | | 2 | | | | | - Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1 | | | - Central Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | 1 | - Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | - Butler county, Ohio | | | | 2 | | | | | | | - Northwestern North Carolina | 8 | 2 | 1 | | | 4 | | | | | - ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Porphyry. - C = Sienite. - D = Diorite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Granite. - G = Hornblende. - H = Greenstone. - I = Serpentine. - J = Compact quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Celt, showing nearly diamond section.] - -_E._ Pointed oval, or nearly diamond section, sides straight or -slightly curved; length 6 to 12½ inches. Few as these are, they vary -considerably in appearance. The group is illustrated by figure 52, -showing a specimen of brown flint, containing numerous small deposits -of chalcedony, from Benton county, Tennessee; polished over the entire -surface, the edge highly so. - -In addition, there are the following examples: From Caldwell county, -North Carolina, one of porphyry and one of granite, the latter -roughened on sides for handle; from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of -gray flint, highly polished over its surface, except the top, which is -much battered; from Cocke county, Tennessee, one of argillite. - -_F._ Elliptical section, flattened or rounded top, edge curved or -nearly straight, sides straight or gently curved, tapering from edge to -top or in a few cases nearly parallel. These present many variations -in finish and in evidence of use. Some are well polished over the -entire surface; some have only the lower part polished; while some are -entirely without polish except at the extreme edge. In some the top -is battered; some have the surface roughened for handle at the top, -others around the middle, still others all over the upper half or even -more than half. One from McMinn county, Tennessee, has a roughly pecked -shallow groove at the middle. Several have the edge very blunt, the -faces at the edge form almost a right angle; these are thickest very -near the edge and become gradually thinner toward the top. Most of this -kind are from Caldwell county, North Carolina; the same form coming also -from Monroe county, Tennessee, and from Savannah, Georgia. The length -is from 3 to 7½ inches. Figure 53, of compact quartzite, from Monroe -county, Tennessee; figure 54, of granite; and figure 55, of sienite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Celt.] - - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Eastern Tennessee | | 4 | 4 |20 | 7 | | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | - Western North Carolina | 1 | | 4 |22 | 4 | 3 | 5 | | | | | | - Montgomery county, N. C.| | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - Coosa district, Alabama | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | | - Southwestern Illinois | | | 1 | | | | 7 | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, W. Va. | | | | 3 | 7 | | 5 | |10 | | 1 | 1 | - Keokuk, Iowa | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | - Southwestern Wisconsin | | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | - Miami valley, Ohio | | | | | | 2 | 3 | | | | | | - Northeastern Arkansas | 1 | | | 1 | | | 2 | | | 2 | | | - Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | - Northwestern Georgia | | | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | | | - Savannah, Georgia | | 2 | | | 2 | | 1 | | | | 7 | | - Yazoo county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mississippi | | | | | 5 | | 2 | | | | | | - ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Hornblende. - B = Serpentine. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Argillite. - E = Sienite. - F = Porphyry. - G = Granite. - H = Micaceous sandstone. - I = Diorite. - J = Greenstone. - K = Sandstone. - L = Flint. - -_G._ Of the same general pattern as the last, except that the sides -widen just before reaching the edge, giving a “bell shape” (figure -56). The length is from 6¼ to 8 inches. In this group there are two -specimens of granite, two of porphyry, and one of sienite, all from -Yazoo county, Mississippi. Two have their tops roughened. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Celt, showing “bell shape” and roughening for -handle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Celt, showing rectangular section.] - -_H._ Rectangular section, occasionally with the corners sufficiently -rounded to give a somewhat elliptical section; top flattened or -rounded; sides straight and parallel or nearly so, sometimes very -slightly curved. Most have polished surfaces; only three or four show -any battering, or roughening for handle. A large one of hornblende from -Lauderdale county, Tennessee, has the edge dulled and polished by use. -Length is from 2 to 9 inches. Figure 57, of argillite, from a mound in -Monroe county, Tennessee. The distribution of this class of celts is -wide, as shown by the following table: - - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 10| 10| 2| 1| | | | | 1| | - |Western Tennessee | | | | | | | 1| | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | 1| 1| 1| | 1| 1| | | - |Green River, Kentucky | | | | | 1| | | | | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | | | 2| 1| | | | | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | | | | 2| 2| 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, W. V. | 1| | | 8| 4| 4| 1| | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | | | | | | | | 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Central Arkansas | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Northwestern North Carolina | | | | | | | | | | 1| - +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Argillite. - C = Porphyry. - D = Granite. - E = Sienite. - F = Diorite. - G = Hornblende. - H = Limestone. - I = Jasper. - J = Serpentine. - -_I._ Thickest at top (wedge form), section elliptical or nearly -rectangular; sides straight or curved, widest at edge or nearly -parallel. A few are roughened for handling, and one or two are battered -at top by hammering; most are small. The type is shown in figure 58, -of granite, from Carroll county, Indiana. This class of celts also is -widely distributed and diverse in material. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 3| 4| | 1| | | | | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | | | | 1| | | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | 1| | 1| | | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1| | | | | | | - |Green river, Kentucky | | | 1| | | | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | | 3| | | | | | 1| 1| | - |Crawford county, Wis. | | | | | | | | | 1| | - |Southwestern Illinois | | 3| 1| | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | | 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| 7| 5| | | 1| | 5| 2| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Hornblende. - B = Granite. - C = Sienite. - D = Comp. quartzite. - E = Argillite. - F = Greenstone. - G = Sandstone. - H = Diorite. - I = Porphyry. - J = Basalt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Celt, showing wedge-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Celt, showing half-elliptical section.] - -_J._ Flat on one side, convex on the other, giving a semi-elliptical -section; sides nearly parallel; top flat or rounded. These were -evidently intended for scrapers; none are at all chipped or battered -from use, and with very few exceptions the whole surface is highly -polished. The flint and jasper specimens, which have been first chipped -into shape, have the facets and edge as smooth as though finished on -an emery wheel. Similar forms, except with flat instead of convex -upper surfaces, are known to have been used as adzes, but these have no -marks of such use. The length ranges from 2 to 8 inches, but most are -small. The type is shown in figure 59, of brown flint, from a grave in -Alexander county, Illinois. - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | | - |Central Arkansas | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | 4 | 1 | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | 1 | | - |Southwestern Illinois | 1 | | | | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky | 2 | | | | | | | | - |Tuscaloosa district, Alabama | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Northwestern North Carolina | 1 | 2| | | | | | 1 | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Graphite. - B = Argillite. - C = Porphyry. - D = Compt. quartzite. - E = Yellow jasper. - F = Gray jasper. - G = Novaculite. - H = Sienite. - -_K._ Similar to last, except that the sides come to a point at the top; -length, 3½ to 9 inches. Very few of either pattern are above 5 inches -long, the larger ones being mostly of flint (figure 60, of sienite, -from Warren county, Ohio). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northeastern Arkansas | 2 | | | | | | - |Western Tennessee | | 1 | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | | | 2 | 5 | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | | 1 | | | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | | | 2 | | 1 | - |Warren county, Ohio | | 2 | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow jasper. - B = Sienite. - C = Diorite. - D = Gray jasper. - E = Argillite. - F = Compt. quartzite. - -_L._ Sides concave, top narrow. Nearly every specimen has the upper -portion pecked rough; one from Bradley county, Tennessee, and another -from Mississippi county, Arkansas, are entirely polished. The latter -has the scraper-form edge to be described later and is of exceptionally -large size; it measures 5½ inches, being the only one exceeding 5 -inches in length. - -_M._ Top flat, round, or pointed; the blade usually begins a little -below the middle, and is perfectly smooth in every case; in some the -blade is not over an inch in length, probably reduced by continual -sharpening. They may have been scrapers, though they do not have that -form; if used as weapons they were probably set into the end of a -piece of antler, which, in turn, was set in a club. The type is shown -in figure 61, of argillite, from Monroe county, Tennessee. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 7| 1| 2| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1| 1| | | - |Northeastern Arkansas | | 1| | 1| | - |Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | 1| - |Southwestern Illinois | 1| | 2| | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Sienite. - C = Granite. - D = Quartzite. - E = Hornblende.KEY - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Celt showing half-elliptical section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Celt, showing concave sides.] - -_N._ Ground down thin, with a flat-elliptical or nearly rectangular -section; sides straight or slightly curved, nearly parallel or tapering -considerably to the top, which is either rounded or flattened. All -are polished over the entire surface; none show any marks of use as -wedges or hatchets, and most of them are too delicate for such use. The -longer ones can be readily grasped in the hand, and are as well adapted -to stripping off the hide of an animal, dividing the skeleton at the -joints, or stripping the flesh from the bones, as anything made of -stone can be; while the smaller ones, set in a handle to afford a grip, -would answer the same purpose. There are three which are sharp at both -ends, one having one symmetrical and one scraper-form edge; one having -a scraper-form edge at each end on opposite sides; and one of rather -soft argillite, unfinished, which has marks of pecking, chipping, and -grinding, showing that any of these methods were practiced, as was -most convenient. All these are from eastern Tennessee. The features -are illustrated in figures 62, of argillite, from a mound, Caldwell -county, North Carolina; 63, of black flinty slate, very hard, from a -mound, Poinsett county, Arkansas; and 64, of argillite, from a mound, -Monroe county, Tennessee. - - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northwestern | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | 2 | 2 | 1 | | | | | | | | | | - |Montgomery county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1 |53 | | | 5 | | 1 | | 4 | | 7 | 2 | | - |Western Tennessee | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | 2 | 1 | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | - |Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mississippi | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | - |Northeastern Arkansas| | | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | - |Southeastern Arkansas| | | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | West Virginia | | | 2 | | | 6 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | | | | - |Northeastern Kentucky| | | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | - |Green river, Kentucky| | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | - |Coosa district, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Alabama | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Marble. - B = Argillite. - C = Sienite. - D = Quartzite. - E = Serpentine. - F = Diorite. - G = Porphyry. - H = Granite. - I = Sandstone. - J = Hornblende. - K = Compact quartzite. - L = Slate. - M = Chert. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Thin polished celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Thin polished celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Thin polished celt.] - - -GOUGES. - -While there are perhaps no true gouges in the collection, there are -some examples of a form between a celt and a gouge, illustrated in -figure 65, of serpentine, from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -Implements of this form are known to have been used to tap sugar -maples, and also to hollow out wooden troughs, and are very common -in the north, though less abundant in the south.[20] It is in those -localities in which bark instead of logs was used for canoes that -they are most numerous. Sometimes they were hollowed the whole length -and used as spiles.[21] They were also employed instead of celts in -hollowing wooden mortars and the like when a more regular concavity was -desired.[22] - - -CHISELS AND SCRAPERS. - -The aboriginal implements known as “chisels” are round, elliptical, or -rectangular in section. The flint and jasper specimens are generally -widest at the edge, the reverse being usually the case with those -of other material. Most of them have marks of hammers at the blunt -end, though some are polished at the top and a few, from eastern -Tennessee, are sharp at both ends. The top (except in the double-edged -ones) is usually flat, though a few are pointed or very thin, almost -with cutting edges. Jaspers and flints are chipped, with the facets -polished, the edges highly so. Any form may occur in any locality. -Almost invariably they have scraper-form edges. The length is from 2 to -6 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Celt, showing thin, gouge-form edge.] - -Typical examples are shown in figure 66, of yellow jasper, from a -grave in Mississippi county, Arkansas; figure 67, of novaculite, -from an unknown locality in Arkansas; figure 68, of serpentine, from -Bradley county, Tennessee; figure 69, of sienite, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina; and figure 70, of gray jasper, from Bradley county, -Tennessee. Some specimens are sharp and worn at both ends, and could -have been used only with handles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -The Bureau collection includes the following specimens: - - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - | District. | A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - Northwestern | | | 1| 2| 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | - North Carolina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Northeastern | | | | | |32| 5| 2| 4| 1| 1| 1| | | | | | - Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Southeastern | | | 1| | | 2| | | | | | | 3| | | | | - Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Coosa district, | | 1| | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | - Alabama | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Warren county, | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ohio | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Southwestern | 2| | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Illinois | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eastern Tennessee| | | |40| | | 1| | | | | | | 2| 1| 3| 1| - Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | - Mississippi | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | 5| | | | | | - West Virginia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Northwestern | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Georgia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Savannah, Georgia| | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - -----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - - KEY: - A = White flint. - B = Serpentine. - C = Sienite. - D = Argillite. - E = Granite. - F = Yellow jasper. - G = Gray jasper. - H = Mottled jasper. - I = Red jasper. - J = Silicified wood. - K = Quartzite. - L = Black flint. - M = Novaculite. - N = Compact quartzite. - O = Porphyry. - P = Sandstone. - Q = Hornblende. - -The high polish sometimes found on the top of a round-pointed celt may -be due to its working slightly in the socket in its handle of wood, -deerhorn, or other material. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Celt, chisel-form.] - -By celts having a scraper-form edge is meant those having the edge to -one side of the median line, due to constant use of one face. This -face, at the edge, is in a straight line from side to side; it may have -a chisel-like flattening, or may curve toward the middle of the celt -for a short distance and then have the same form to the top as the -other face, which is convex or curved, as in the ordinary hatchet-celt. -They form a medium between celts whose faces gradually curve from top -to edge, and the celt-scrapers which are flat on one side. Among the -thicker celts this form is quite rare, though several, especially one -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia (represented in figure 74), are -quite pronounced. In the thinner specimens, however, a majority are of -this pattern, while in some types, nearly all indeed, even those up -to 6 inches long, are so beveled. The type, of which an illustration -is shown in figure 71, is of very hard black slate; the same form is -presented in figures 66 and 70. - -From Bartow county, Georgia, is a scraper made from the edge of a celt -which has been broken diagonally across from one face to the other. A -stem like that of a spear-head has been formed by chipping away the -sides of the part broken, which gives a convenient attachment for a -handle; the original edge is unchanged except in the wear which has -resulted from its new use. - -The specimen shown in figure 72 (of argillite, from McMinn county, -Tennessee) is introduced on account of its undoubted use as a scraper, -and because it is much smaller than some of the chipped flints thus -classified, the edge being less than an inch wide; the sides are -roughly incurved. - -In Bradley county, Tennessee, there were found over 200 specimens of -very small, thin, flat, waterworn sandstone pebbles, which were mostly -in their natural condition, except that they had one side rubbed to a -sharp edge. A few, more slender, were ground to a point. Some of them -have a handle chipped out on the side opposite the edge, sometimes with -nicks in it, made for attachment to a handle by means of a cord. Most -of these specimens are less than 2 inches in length. No suggestion is -offered as to their use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Celt, showing scraper-form edge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Scraper.] - -A granite implement from Union county, Illinois, with nearly -rectangular section, slightly curved sides, rounded corners, and high -polish over the entire surface, having nearly the same thickness -(about an inch) at every part, would seem to be a polishing or rubbing -stone. There are, however, one from Warren county, Ohio, and three -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of almost exactly the same size -and pattern, which have had one end ground off to a sharp edge; so the -specimen may be only an unfinished celt. One of those from Kanawha -valley has had the edge partly broken away, and one face has been -pecked considerably in an attempt to restore it for use; but the -intention was not carried out. Some celts, not of the scraper pattern, -which have the edge to one side of the median line, are perhaps broken -or blunted specimens redressed on one side only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Scraper or adze, with projecting ridge.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Adze or scraper.] - -Figure 73 exhibits a specimen of argillite from Carter county, -Tennessee, probably an adze or scraper, with a projection to keep the -implement from being forced into the handle. The edge is symmetrical, -though much striated. The specimen shown in figure 74 (of granite, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia) represents a peculiar form. There are -several like it in the collection, all but this one from islands in the -Pacific. - - -CHIPPED CELTS. - -On account of their shape and undoubted use, a class of celts, although -neither pecked nor ground, is introduced. Many of them resemble, in -most respects, the so-called paleolithic implements, though sometimes -of better finish. They are made with a rounded top and nearly parallel -sides; rudely triangular; or with the sides curved to a point at the -top. The edge may be straight or curved, and is usually chipped, -though sometimes ground; a few are chisel-shaped. Usually they show -no signs of wear; when they do, it is always in the form of a polish -at the larger end, or on the exposed facets. One of black flint, 8 -inches long, from Kanawha valley, has a scraper-form edge, smoothly -polished. Many, even of those scarcely changed from their original form -and natural surface, have the edges dulled and polished from use as -scrapers or adzes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--chipped celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Chipped celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Chipped celt.] - -The collection includes the following examples: 36 of argillite, -flint, porphyry, and compact quartzite, from Montgomery county, North -Carolina, some with the wider edge sharp (figure 75, of flint); 12 -of limestone and flint from Mason county, Kentucky; 70 of argillite, -a few with the edges ground, from southeastern Tennessee (figure 76, -from McMinn county); over 300 from Kanawha valley, nearly all of black -flint, a few being of diorite or quartzite--some are partly polished, -or have ground edges (figure 77, of black flint, from a mound). - - -HEMATITE CELTS. - -With the exception of two from Iowa and a few from Preston county, West -Virginia, the hematite celts in the collection are from Kanawha valley, -and are small, ranging in length from 1 to 2¾ inches, except one 4½ -and one 5½ inches. They are illustrated in figures 78, 79, 80, and 81, -the last from a mound. Nearly all have been ground directly from the -nodule or concretion in which this ore of iron so frequently appears. -Occasionally one of homogeneous structure has been chipped into form -before grinding, the facets in some cases being rubbed nearly away. -Sometimes they have a rectangular outline, but usually the sides taper -from the edge to the top by a gradual curve, or are parallel a part of -the way and then taper either by a straight or, oftener, by a curved -line. The section is rectangular or elliptical. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Hematite celt.] - -These implements were probably used as knives or scrapers, being set -into the end of a piece of antler, which may in turn have been set -into a larger handle of wood. That some were knives is shown by the -edge which is dulled to a flat polished surface extending from side to -side; and that many were scrapers is shown by their celt-scraper shape, -a half elliptical section, or by the scraper-form edge, seen in the -largest specimen. Some, however, have the edge symmetrical, as in the -hatchet-celts. One has incurved sides, and is roughened on the sides -and on the faces near the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Hematite celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Hematite celt.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Hematite celt.] - - -PESTLES. - -The fact of the ordinary conical or bell-shaped, long-cylindrical, or -somewhat pear-shaped stones having been used for pestles is so well -settled that no confirmatory references are needed. A few citations -may be given in regard to certain forms sometimes differently classed, -especially some of the discoidal stones to be hereafter described. - -According to Stevens, the corn crushers used by the Swiss lake dwellers -are spherical; some are flattened on two sides, like an orange, others -almost round with depressions on four sides. They are about the size -of a man’s fist or rather smaller. The Africans have a piece of quartz -or other hard stone as large as half a brick, one side of which is -convex, to fit the hollow of a larger stone used as a mortar.[23] -Evans observes that disks sometimes show marks of use as hammers or -pestles;[24] one found at Ty Mawr was thick, with a cavity on each -face.[25] In preparing pemmican, the American Indians are known to -have pounded the dried meat to a powder between two stones.[26] This -gives the impression that any suitable stones may have been used; and -the ancient California Indians worked out a round stone as an acorn -sheller, modern tribes using any smooth stone.[27] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Handled pestle, with expanding base.] - -The pestles which have the bottom round or convex are generally found -in the same localities as the hollowed stone mortars. Several forms of -pestles are represented in the collection. They may be grouped as in -the following description and tabulation. - -_A._ With expanding base; bottom flat or slightly convex, often with -a slight depression in the middle. Handle tapering, or of uniform -diameter to the top; in a few, slightly swelling above as if to give a -firmer hold. Top rounded, flat, or pointed. Bottom may be very little -expanded or may have twice the diameter of the handle. Probably used -for pounding grain or seeds on a flat stone, as it could not be used -in a mortar even slightly hollowed. None seem to have been used as -mullers or rubbers. They may have served for hammers, and would be -excellent for cracking nuts, as the pit in the bottom would tend to -keep them from flying out to the side. The type is shown in figure 82, -of quartzite, from Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is -moderately wide, and the material chiefly granite and quartzite, with a -few of other rock varieties, as shown in the table: - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Northeastern Kentucky | 2| 2| | | 1| | - |Eastern Tennessee | 3| 6| | | | 1| - |Ross county, Ohio | 2| 1| | | | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 1| 7| 1| 2| | | - |Southwestern Illinois | | 1| | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| 1| | 1| 1| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Granite - C = Sienite - D = Diorite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Argillite. - -_B._ Almost cylindrical, from 6 to 18 inches long and about two inches -in diameter. Some of the larger ones were probably rolling-pins, as -the ends, either from some fancy finish, or because worked to a point, -are of a shape that would make their use as pestles impracticable. -Even as rollers, some must have been used for crushing grain that had -previously been softened or was not fully matured, as they are of a -soft stone that would wear very easily. The shorter ones are blunt at -the ends, and may have been used in a shallow wooden mortar; none are -adapted for use in stone. The class is illustrated by figure 83, of -soft clay slate, from Cherokee county, Georgia. - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Montgomery county, North Carolina | 1| | | | | - |Northwestern North Carolina | 1| | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 3| 2| 3| 1| | - |Butler county, Ohio | | | | 1| | - |Northwestern Georgia | | | 1| 1| | - |Hopkins county, Kentucky | | | | | 1| - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Argillite. - B = Soft slate. - C = Clay slate. - D = Mica-schist. - E = Quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Pestle, long cylindrical form.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Pestle, conical.] - -_C._ Conical, or truncated cone, bottom flat, convex or curved from -one side to the opposite. Some are quite smooth on the bottom as if -from rubbing either back and forth or with a rotary motion; while many -have the bottom pecked rough, showing use as hammers or pounders. For -those with curved bottoms a rocking motion seems best adapted; with -the palm resting on the longer side, good work could be done in any of -these ways. Typical specimens are shown in figures 84, of quartzite, -from Monroe county, Tennessee; 85, of granite, from Warren county, -Ohio; and 86, of quartzite, from Saline county, Arkansas. A somewhat -aberrant specimen, shown in figure 87, of granite, from Carter county, -Tennessee, has an elliptical base, rounded top, and flat bottom; the -longer sides grooved for handle. A similar one, of quartzite, came -from Warren county, Ohio. There is considerable variety of material, -quartzite largely predominating. Although the geographic range is -wide, the distribution is rather sparse, and several districts are not -represented. - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Arkansas | 2| | | | | | | - |Central Arkansas | 1| | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | 12| 1| | | 1| | | - |Miami valley, Ohio | 3| | 1| | 3| 2| | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| | | 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | | | | 1| - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Marble. - C = Sienite. - D = Hornblende. - E = Granite. - F = Diorite. - G = Sandstone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Pestle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Pestle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Pestle, grooved for handle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Pestle.] - -_D._ Conical, or truncated cone, with top more or less rounded, very -little worked, a stone of approximate form having been chosen and the -angles and corners pecked off; bottom flat, and in some quite smooth; -used as pestles or mullers. The group is represented by 17 specimens of -quartzite, all from southeastern Tennessee. - -_E._ Not dressed at all on the sides, but with both ends worn to -a convex shape. Represented by two specimens of quartzite from -southeastern Tennessee. - -_F._ Cylindrical, flat bottom, dome-shaped top, these portions having -been carefully pecked into shape. Some are smoothly polished on the -bottom, but none elsewhere. Those from Miami valley, and one from -Kanawha valley are much longer than the others. The type illustrated in -figure 88 is of quartzite, from McMinn county, Tennessee. - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 5| 1| 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 1| | 3| | - |Miami valley, Ohio | | | 1| 1| - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Porphyry. - C = Sandstone. - D = Limestone. - - -PITTED STONES. - -There is scarcely a locality in the country where pitted stones are not -found; they are indeed of such frequent occurrence that they are seldom -considered worth the trouble of gathering. - -There can be no “type” among such crude implements; they are almost -invariably waterworn sandstone pebbles, with a pit varying from a -slight roughening of the surface to a hollow half an inch in depth -pecked in each face. They probably belong with hammerstones, as they -seldom show other marks of work, the edge in some being only slightly -marked in one or two places, while in others it is much worn. - -Various numbers of the Journal of the Anthropological Society of Great -Britain and Ireland refer to pitted stones as found in every part -of the world. According to Evans, slight pits aid in holding stone -hammers; they also prevent the jar to a large extent. If used to pound -meat or break bones, it would be hard to hold them when greasy without -pits.[28] Such implements may have had handles of wood with projections -to fit the pits,[29] though this is not probable; but if so a piece of -buckskin on the handle opposite the pits would do better and be more -convenient to apply. - - -CUPPED STONES. - -Conjecture and theory have had full sway in regard to the uses of -cupped stones; but the question is apparently far from solution. There -is a prevalent idea that they were used for cracking nuts; but why -should an Indian make a large number of holes in a great many stones -for such purpose? It is true there would be an advantage in having the -nut stand on one end; but very few stones have depressions that will -allow this. - -Of the southern Indians Adair observes: - - They gather a number of hiccory-nuts, which they pound with a - round stone, upon a stone, thick and hollowed for the purpose. - When they are beat fine enough, they mix them with cold water, - in a clay basin, where the shells subside. The other part is - an oily, tough, thick, white substance ... with which they eat - their bread.[30] - -Lawson’s language regarding the Indians of North Carolina is even more -definite. He says: - - [They gather] likewise hickerie nuts, which they beat betwixt - two great stones, then sift them, so thicken their venison - broth therewith, the small shells precipitating to the bottom - of the pot, whilst the kernel, in the form of flour, mixes it - with the liquor, both these nuts [hickory and chinquapin] made - into meal makes a curious soup, either with clear water, or in - any meat broth.[31] - -Neither of these statements seems to have any reference to cupped -stones. The first is a good description of a mortar with a round -pestle, while the second says nothing about any particular form of -stone; yet they have been referred to time and again as proof of the -nut-stone theory. There would be some difficulty in pounding nuts fine -in small holes half an inch or more below where the pounding stone -could reach. - -C. C. Jones[32] was satisfied that cupped stones were used for cracking -nuts because great numbers of nut-bearing trees grow where they are -found; while Whittlesey, noting the fact that hundreds of them are -found throughout northern Ohio, considered them as sockets in which -the end of a spindle rested. Dawson[33] speaks of “stones having deep -hollows in the sides which were mortars for grinding pigments, or -sockets for fire drills.” - -The cupped stones in the Bureau collection are almost invariably of -reddish sandstone, of varying texture, from a few ounces to 30 pounds -in weight. The holes are from one to twenty-five in number, of various -sizes even in the same stone, and follow the natural contour of the -surface even when that is quite irregular; the stone is never dressed -or flattened to bring the cups on a level; none show any marks of work, -but are the rough blocks or slabs in their natural state. - -Many of the holes are roughly pecked in, but the larger ones -are usually quite smooth, as if ground out, and almost complete -hemispheres. They range from a pit only started or going scarcely -beyond the surface to one 2 inches in diameter. The smaller ones with -one cup pass into the pitted stones. Occasionally at the bottom of a -large cup there is a small secondary hole as though made by a flint -drill. - -The polished cups may have been used for fire-drill or spindle sockets, -though why there should be a number of holes when but one could be used -at a time awaits explanation. The rough ones may have been for holding -nuts, and so long as they were on the same plane any number could be -utilized; but when they are on different parts of the stone, even on -opposite sides, as many of them are, the question remains open. Slabs -or thin pieces nearly always have cups on both sides, while blocks or -thick slabs have them on one side only. On the former a number of -nuts could be cracked with one blow of a flat stone and thrown into -a receptacle of some kind, either side of the stone being used at -pleasure; but there would be no economy of time or work in this method, -and it would be very strange that any one should not learn with so -much experience that a nut should never be laid on the flat side in -cracking. No theory yet advanced accounts for the greater number of -such relics, namely, the irregular fragments of stone with cups at -varying intervals and different levels. - -No division can be made in regard either to size or material of the -stone, or to form or finish of the cups. Many of the smaller ones were -no doubt paint mortars. One well finished specimen of this class is -shown in figure 89; it is of quartzite from 4 feet beneath the surface -in Crittenden county, Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Cupped stone or paint cup.] - -Cupped stones are found wherever representatives of the Bureau have -worked, and numerous references might be given concerning their -existence in other localities. - - -MULLERS. - -The objects known as mullers are generally flat and smooth on one side -and convex on the other, sometimes with a pit in one side or both, -mostly of granite, quartzite, or sandstone; rarely of other materials. - -A fine specimen of white quartz from Elmore county, Alabama, has the -bottom flat and highly polished, the edge perpendicular to bottom and -rounding off into the slightly convex top, with a pit at center. Figure -90 represents a muller of marble or crystalline limestone from a grave -in Randolph county, Illinois. It has a smooth, flat bottom, with convex -top somewhat smaller than the base; around the circumference there is -a depression polished by wear. A similar specimen, of diorite, from -Carter county, Tennessee, seems to be the lower part of a pestle with -expanding base, whose top or handle has been lost, the part remaining -having a place for a handle pecked around it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Muller, showing polished surface.] - -The discoidal stones with this shape were probably used as mullers; -they were also used as pestles in the hollow mortars, as the edge -is often chipped or pecked, which would account for the pits on the -faces. Figure 91 represents a muller of granite from Savannah, Georgia. -Sometimes the base has an elliptical instead of a circular outline, as -seen in other specimens from Savannah. - -Mullers are found wherever there are indications of occupancy for any -considerable length of time. - - -GRINDING AND POLISHING STONES. - -Stones evidently used for grinding and polishing need only to be -mentioned, as they are of widespread occurrence. Implements used for -the former purpose are made of any siliceous stone of convenient -size and suitable texture, from a coarse quartzite to a very fine -close-grained sandstone, according to the class of work to be done. The -markings on them range from the narrow, sharp, incised lines due to -shaping a small ornament, to the broad grooves resulting from grinding -an ax or celt into form. Nearly all of those in museums are small -specimens used for rubbing; but there are many large blocks in various -localities, sometimes several feet square, marked and scored in every -direction by grinding or sharpening the large implements on them. - -Among the polishers may be included a number of small pebbles of very -hard siliceous stone, generally some form of quartz, which by the high -polish show long use. The larger ones may have been used for rubbing -skins in tanning, as they can easily be grasped in the hand. Very -few have changed from their primitive form to a greater degree than -would naturally result from the wear upon them. A few very small ones, -long-ovoid in shape, usually not over 2½ or 3 inches in length, were -probably paint mullers, as they are well fitted for use in small paint -cups. Many of the discoidal stones--which will be spoken of under -the proper head--may have had these functions. The highly polished -specimens are all from the southern states. There is one rubbing stone -of pumice from Craighead county, Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Muller, showing polished surface.] - - -HAMMERSTONES. - -Hammers or hammerstones show every stage of work, from the ordinary -pebble or fragment, with its surface scarcely altered, to the highly -polished round or ovoid “ball.” They are usually of the hardest -available material, and seem to be of more frequent occurrence in -the northern districts than in the southern states, though found -everywhere. Used in their earlier stages merely as tools with which to -fashion other implements, they were assigned to specified purposes when -brought to a better finish or form. A typical example, shown in figure -92, is of granite, from Ross county, Ohio. - -The Sioux used an oval stone, with a piece of rawhide covering all but -the point and attaching it to a withe handle,[34] while the Shoshoni -and Ojibwa made use of a round stone, wrapped in leather, attached by -a string of 2 inches to a handle 22 inches long covered with leather; -this was called a poggamoggan.[35] Rounded stones are said to have -been used by the California Indians as bolas,[36] though it is more -probable that they were slung-shots. The ancient Californians worked -out a round stone for an acorn-sheller; the present Indians use any -smooth stone.[37] Elaborately carved round stones, mounted in handles -as clubs, are known to have been used by the Queen Charlotte Island -Indians for killing fish,[38] and other northwestern Indians have been -observed to use a round stone inclosed in a net and attached to a line -as a sinker.[39] - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Hammerstone.] - -It is not necessary to quote references to the well-known fact that the -Eskimo and the Patagonians made use of round stones of various sizes as -bolas. There is no evidence that our Indians ever used anything of the -sort. - - -GROOVED STONES OTHER THAN AXES. - -Three subclasses of grooved stones, differing in essential features -from axes, may be discriminated. They are as follows: - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Grooved round stone.] - -_A._ Slightly or not at all worked, except the groove; often showing -marks of violent usage. With these may be classed the large stone -hammers of the Lake Superior region. - -_B._ Round or ellipsoid stones; in the latter the groove may follow -either axis. The type (figure 93) is of sandstone from Carter county, -Tennessee. - -_C._ Resembling axes in all but the edge. Of class _A_ there are none -in the collection; their form and size are such that they could have -been for no other purpose than hammerstones. Of class _B_ there are -some from Savannah, which may be sinkers or club heads. According to -Morgan, oval stones with grooves were secured in the heads of war -clubs,[40] and Carver observed that the southwestern Indians used as -a slung-shot a curiously worked stone, with a string a yard and a -half long tied to it, the other end being tied to the arm above the -elbow.[41] - -The specimens of class _C_ may be broken axes. Figure 94 (granite, -from Butler county, Ohio) shows a form quite common throughout central -and western Ohio. They are generally small, have evidently never been -sharp, and were in all probability intended for hammers from the -beginning. - - -MORTARS. - -The Indian mortars in the collection are nearly always of sandstone of -varying degrees of fineness. As is the case with cupped stones, when -made of slabs, both sides have been worked; when of rough blocks, only -one. - -The Senecas and Cayugas are said by Morgan to have used wooden mortars -in which to pound corn after it was hulled,[42] and it is possible that -the long pestles of soft stone were used with wooden mortars, though -some are not well adapted to this use. The Iroquois women pounded in -stone mortars the stony material used in tempering the clay for their -pottery.[43] The California Indians made mortars by knocking a segment -off a bowlder, making a flat surface, and working out with a hammer -and chisel,[44] while the tribes of the interior worked directly from -the surface of a suitable rock. The Yokuts, according to Powers, use -tolerably well made stone mortars, and sometimes place a basket-like -arrangement around the top to prevent the acorns from flying out.[45] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Grooved hammer.] - -No two specimens of the mortars and metate-like stones in the Bureau -collection are alike; the nearest approach that can be made to a -classification is as follows: - -_A._ Smooth and flat on one or both sides; for use with mullers; from -McMinn county, Tennessee, and Allamakee county, Iowa. - -_B._ With round cavities on one or both sides; for round or cylindrical -pestles; from McMinn county, Tennessee. A cobblestone from Bradley -county, Tennessee, has a shallow cavity in either side and a pit in the -center of each. From Kanawha valley there is a slab weighing about 25 -pounds, flat and smooth on one side, as though primarily used with a -muller and the regular even cavity afterward made; on the other side a -cavity and a cupped hole have been worked in from the natural surface. -A slab from Warren county, Ohio, has a shallow cavity worked into one -side and a cupped hole in the other. From Union county, Mississippi, -there is a flattened bowlder with a shallow cavity on each side; a -shallow cup has been pecked on the edge of one of them. From Caldwell -county, North Carolina, comes a bowlder of water-worn mica-schist, -with a shallow cavity and a deeper one on one side, and on the other a -cupped hole opposite each of these cavities. - -_C._ With one side hollowed out, the other flat and smooth. Specimens -of this type come from Caldwell county, North Carolina; McMinn county, -Tennessee, and Bradley county, Tennessee, the last with a pit in the -center and another on the edge of the flat side. - -_D._ With a long, narrow depression on each side. A very large specimen -of fine-grained sandstone from Lincoln county, Arkansas, represents -this type. - -There are, in addition, two pieces of fine-grained sandstone with -uniform thickness of less than an inch and about 10 inches across, from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Hale county, Alabama, respectively. -Both sides are ground perfectly smooth, and flat. The objects were -probably for some culinary purpose. - - -SINKERS. - -The sinkers in the collection may be divided into four classes, viz: -_A_, entirely unworked; _B_, notched on the sides; _C_, encircled by -a groove; and _D_, perforated. Conversely, stones under all these -different heads may have served other and widely different purposes. - -Of the functions of class _A_, only those who have seen them in use -can speak. Stevens mentions that some tribes inclose a round stone in -a sort of net and attach it to a line in fishing;[46] and no other use -can be imagined for some of the specimens in the Bureau collection. - -Specimens of class _B_ are found along water courses in such situations -as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers;[47] they were attached to -grapevines and dragged on the bottom of streams to frighten fish into -nets or traps.[48] Those in the collection are made of ordinary flat -water-worn pebbles, with notches rudely chipped in the sides; a number -are from southeastern Tennessee. - -Of class _C_, while many were perhaps sinkers, more were club heads -and slungshots or hammers. A number have been obtained from Savannah, -Georgia, more or less worked, some being rounded, with grooves of -varying depths and sizes. Small stones of this form are used by -Greenland fishermen as sinkers;[49] and according to Thatcher, a large -stone is by the Indians made fast to a sinking line at each end of a -net, and the net is spread in the water by sinkers at different parts -of it.[50] - -Class _D_ will be referred to under the head “Perforated stones,” from -which they can be discriminated only arbitrarily. - -A number of roughly chipped, somewhat crescent-shaped specimens of -argillite, from half a pound to 2 pounds in weight, collected in -Montgomery county, North Carolina, may have been used as sinkers. - - -PERFORATED STONES. - -Only the larger or rougher perforated stones used as implements are -included in this class. - -Several perforated pieces of steatite, some mere rough fragments, -others with the edges smooth and dressed to a somewhat symmetrical -outline, have been collected about Savannah, Georgia. Some of these -have been drilled, others gouged through apparently with a slender -flint. In the latter group the little projections left by the tool have -been worn smooth. The hole may be near one end or about the center. -Similar pieces have been found in Forsyth county, Georgia; one of -these is worked to an irregular pentagon and smoothly finished. From -Haywood county, North Carolina, there are some very rough fragments, -apparently just as they were picked up, except for the perforation; and -a number of pieces of perforated pottery are from Montgomery county, -North Carolina. - -Perforated stones were used by the southern Indians to drag along the -bottoms of streams and frighten fish into their nets and traps.[51] -Four disks 4 to 5½ inches in diameter, with handles from 13 to 17 -inches long, were found in a cave at Los Angeles, California,[52] and -objects of this character were, according to Schumacher, used by the -Santa Barbara Indians as weights for wooden spades.[53] According to -Abbott many perforated stones are found close to rivers and on shores -in such positions as to leave no doubt of their use as sinkers.[54] -Similar stones were used as sinkers by the Scandinavians in -comparatively recent times; by the Bechuanas for grinding grasshoppers, -spiders, etc., and also as weights for digging-sticks; by some savages -in the Pacific islands as clubs; by the Icelanders for breaking up -salted fish.[55] They were used by the Iroquois as weights for fire -drills;[56] by the Eskimo as clubs, having a rawhide handle secured -by a knot.[57] According to Dale,[58] Layard,[59] Griesbach,[60] and -Gooch,[61] they were used by natives of southern Africa as root-diggers -(to remove earth from the roots), as weapons, and to give weight to -digging-sticks. They were also used by the Peruvian Indians to be -thrown with a stick. Disk-shaped and cylindrical throwing stones, -perforated for the stick, are found among the Swiss lake dwellings.[62] -According to Evans[63] they were used mostly as hammers or clubs. They -are hard and battered on the edges; sinkers would be of softer stone. - -The most complete article that has yet been given concerning the forms -and uses of perforated stones is that by H. W. Henshaw.[64] - - -DISCOIDAL STONES. - -There are numerous references to discoidal stones by various writers, -but a majority of the objects do not fall under any explanation that -has so far been given. - -The Choctaw Indians used disks two fingers wide and two spans around -in playing “chungke,”[65] and the Indians of North Carolina were -much addicted to a sport called “chenco,” played with a staff and a -bowl made with stone.[66] The same kind of game was, or still is, -played with hoops or rings of wood or rawhide by the Iroquois,[67] -the Pawnee,[68] the Apache,[69] the Navajo,[70] the Mohave,[71] and -the Omaha;[72] also, with rings of stone, by the Arikara,[73] the -Mandan,[74] and other tribes. - -The game of chungke, however, will account for only a small part of -the great number of stones of this form. The Indians of southern -California, in manufacturing pottery, make the clay compact and smooth -by holding a rounded and smooth stone against the inside.[75] The -Fijians, in making pottery, use a small, round flat stone to shape the -inside,[76] while the Indians of Guiana use ancient axes or smooth -stones for polishing the clay in making their vessels.[77] According to -Evans,[78] pitted disks were used as pestles, hammers, or mullers; a -thick one with pitted ends was found in a mortar at Holyhead.[79] Under -the head of pestles and of perforated stones further references will be -found that may apply as well to this form of implements. - -No kind of relic is more difficult to classify. From the smooth, -symmetrical, highly-polished chungke stone they gradually merge into -mullers, pestles, pitted stones, polishers, hammers,[80] ornaments, -and the ordinary sinker or club-head, so that no dividing line is -possible. Theories constructed on a basis of their use may be far from -correct. - -They present various forms and degrees of finish; many have the -natural surface on both sides with the edge worked off by grinding or -pecking, the latter being produced probably by use as a hammer; the -sides may be ground down while the edge remains untouched; or the sides -may be pecked and the edge ground, being probably of a thick pebble -originally. Some of the finer grades, as chalcedony and quartz, that -have received the highest finish, appear to have had all the work done -by grinding or rubbing, as even those only slightly worked bear no -signs of hammering or pecking. When of the harder materials they are -generally made of water-worn pebbles as nearly the desired form as can -be found; in fact, some specimens which are in their natural state, -entirely unworked, require a very close examination to distinguish them -from others whose whole surface has been artificially produced. In the -jasper conglomerates from Arkansas, however, there is a regular series -from a roughly chipped disk to one of the highest polish and symmetry. -The larger ones of quartz, particularly those with concavities in the -sides, must have been patiently wrought for years before brought to -their present state. Many of the smaller ones, especially sandstone, -seem to have been designed for grinding or polishing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Discoidal stone.] - -The following groups are represented in the collection: - -_A._ Sides hollowed out, edge convex; 2 to 6 inches diameter, -seven-eighths to 2¾ thick. - -1. Edges of concavity sharp. - -_a._ Cavity a regular curve from side to side. The type (figure 95) is -of quartz, from Cherokee county, Georgia. There are also, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia, one of sandstone, of which one side has been -worked out by a flint, the little pits being distinctly visible, while -the other side has natural surface; from Loudon county, Tennessee, one -of quartzite, 6 inches diameter, which has been used as a mortar, the -cavities being roughened, with their edges broken and scarred (the -edge of the stone is battered entirely around midway between the sides -as though used for a hammer); from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of -quartzite, about the same size as last, with a slight pit in the center -of each cavity, the edges of the concavity being considerably chipped, -and the edge of the implement very smooth; from Polk county, Tennessee, -one of quartzite, 3½ inches in diameter, with the edge polished except -in one spot, where it shows marks of use as a hammer or pestle--it -has been used also as a mortar, the edges of the concavity being much -chipped and broken; one each from Craighead county, Arkansas, of -novaculite; Randolph county, Illinois, of granite; Cherokee county, -Georgia, of quartz; and Obion county, Tennessee, of sandstone. In the -four last mentioned the entire surface is quite smooth or even highly -polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Discoidal stone, with perforation.] - -_b._ With a small perforation at the center. The type is shown in -figures 96 (of sandstone, from a grave in Union county, Illinois), -and 97 (of granite, from Virginia). There is another specimen, of -sandstone, from Red River county, Texas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Discoidal stone, with perforation.] - -_c._ With a secondary depression in each cavity. Figure 98 (yellow -quartz, highly polished, from Fulton county, Georgia) is typical. There -is also one of quartzite, with a secondary depression in one side only, -from Roane county, Tennessee, which may be supposed, from this and -other imperfections, to be unfinished. - -2. Edges of concavity rubbed off blunt. These are grouped simply -by form, as the specimens from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and -northeastern Kentucky are nearly all roughly finished, quite different -from the smooth or polished ones from farther south. Some are worked -out into the form of a ring, and there is every stage between that -form and the flat disk whose sides show no trace of pecking. Figure -99 (quartzite, from Sevier county, Tennessee) illustrates a typical -example, roughly worked but entirely perforated, and figure 97 shows -the same type in another form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Discoidal stone, with secondary depression.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Discoidal stone, in form of a ring.] - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| 1| | | | | | - |Crittenden county, Arkansas | | 1| | | | | - |Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | | - |Randolph county, Illinois | | | 1| 2| | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| | | 1| | | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | | | 1| | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | 1| 1| 1| - |Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 22| | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartz. - B = Novaculite. - C = Flint. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Granite. - -_B._ Flat or slightly concave sides, edges straight and at right angles -to the sides; diameter, 1⅝ to 5 inches. The type shown in figure 100 is -of sandstone from Lauderdale county, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Discoidal stone.] - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Lauderdale county, Alabama | 1| | | | | - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | 1| 1| 1| | - |McMinn county, Tennessee | 1| | | | 4| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartzite. - C = Very fine schist. - D = Yellow jasper. - E = Argillite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Discoidal stone.] - -_C._ Sides flat; edges straight, sometimes rounding off into the sides; -diameter, 2¼ to 6 inches; thickness, three-quarters to 2¼ inches. -A number from southeastern Tennessee, especially the smaller ones, -are quite rough, being merely pecked or chipped into shape with no -subsequent rubbing. Figure 101 (chalcedony, from a mound in Monroe -county, Tennessee) represents the type. The material is variable. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Tennessee | | 5| 5| 1| 3| 1| | | 9| - |Western Tennessee | | 1| | | 1| | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| | | | | | 7| | 1| - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1| | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartz. - B = Sandstone. - C = Argillite. - D = Chalcedony. - E = Limestone. - F = Marble. - G = Granite. - H = Jasper conglomerate. - I = Quartzite. - -_D._ Like the last, except much smaller. Very few are polished over -the entire surface; some are rubbed more or less on the edges or -sides, but a majority have the edge rough as it was chipped or pecked -out; many have either the edge or sides in the natural state. From -those smoothly polished to those very rudely worked the gradation is -such that no dividing line can be drawn. This is true, also, of the -smaller specimens of other types. Some of the quartzite specimens are -very loose in texture. From seven-eighths to 2 inches in diameter and -one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch thick. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 54| 64| | | 32| 1| 12| 4| | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | 1| 1| 4| | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 7| | | | 20| | | | 1| - |Northeastern Kentucky | | 14| | | | | | 5| | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Marble. - B = Sandstone. - C = Argillite. - D = Granite. - E = Red jasper. - F = Quartzite. - G = Micaceous sandstone. - H = Limestone. - I = Quartz. - J = Cannel coal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Discoidal stone, convex.] - -_E._ Convex on both sides, edges straight. One of white quartz from -Caldwell county, North Carolina, has the sides much curved, making the -stone very thick in proportion to its width; there is a deep pit on -each side, the entire surface being highly polished. Diameter, 2 to 3½ -inches; thickness, three-fourths to an inch and a half. Illustrated -by figure 102 (of porphyry, from a grave in Caldwell county, North -Carolina). - - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - | District. | A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| R| S| - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - |Eastern Arkansas | 3| 1| 1| 1| 4| 7| | 1| | | | 7| 1| | | 1| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (many of these | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | rough and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | entirely | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | without | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | polish) | | | 1| | |88|29| | 1| 1|31|27| 8| 1| 1| 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | West Virginia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (rough) | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | | | | | | | - |Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mississippi | | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | - |Caldwell county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | North Carolina | | | | | | 1|10| | | | | 4| | | 1| 2| 1| 2| 1| - +------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow jasper. - B = Iron ore. - C = Mica schist. - D = Novaculite. - E = Jasper conglomerate. - F = Quartzite. - G = Quartz. - H = Hornblende. - I = Marble. - J = Clayey limestone. - K = Argillite. - L = Sandstone. - M = Limestone. - N = Sienite. - O = Granite. - P = Chalcedony. - Q = Steatite. - R = Black flint. - S = Porphyry. - -_F._ Same form as the above; 1¼ to 2 inches in diameter, one-half to -seven-eighths of an inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Elmore county, Alabama | | | | 2| 1| | | 1| | 1| - |Western North Carolina | | | | 1| | | 2| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | | 2| | 1| 9| | 1| | - |Bartow county, Georgia | 1| 1| 1| 2| | | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | 3| | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | | 4| | | | - |Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | | | | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Jasper. - B = Mica schist. - C = Micaceous sandstone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Quartz. - F = Marble. - G = Argillite. - H = Sandstone. - I = Limestone. - J = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Discoidal stone.] - -_G._ Flat or slightly convex on one or both sides, edge straight, one -side wider than the other. Some have the edge battered or chipped and -it is always at the angle of the edge with the wider side. From 1⅝ to -3½ inches in diameter, and three-fourths to an inch and a half thick. -The specimen shown in figure 103 (of compact quartzite, from Bartow -county, Georgia) is typical. The material is quite diverse. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1| 2| | | 2| | 1| | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | | - |Bartow county, Georgia | | | | | | | 1| 1| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | | 1| | | | | | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | 3| | | | 1| 1| 2| - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Marble. - C = Quartzite. - D = Quartz hornblende. - E = Granite. - F = Quartz. - G = Compact quartzite. - H = Sienite. - I = Chalcedony. - J = Schist. - K = Flint. - -There are also of this type, one of very hard black stone (not -identified) from Red River county, Texas, three-fourths of an inch -in diameter; one of barite from Bartow county, Georgia, one inch in -diameter, three-fourths inch thick; and one of granite, from Chester -county, South Carolina, an inch in diameter. There are also one of -quartzite from Drew county, Arkansas, with a shallow pit on each side; -one of the same material from southeastern Tennessee, with a deep pit -gouged in smaller side; and from the same locality, three of quartzite, -one of quartz, and one of sandstone, each with a deep pit in the larger -side. All of these are small and none of them polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Discoidal stone.] - -_H._ Convex sides and curved edges; size as in group _G_. The type -(figure 104) is of quartz, from Caldwell county, North Carolina. - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Catahoula parish, Louisiana | | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | | 1| 2| 3| | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 2| | | 1| | - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 1| | | | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Jasper conglomerate. - B = Quartz. - C = Limestone. - D = Quartzite. - E = Sandstone. - F = Conglomerate. - -_I._ Same form, rough and not polished; 1 to 2¾ inches in diameter, -one-half to 1 inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 50| | | 3| 11| 10| - |Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 3| | | 3| - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | | 1| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 36| 1| | | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Flint. - C = Yellow jasper. - D = Argillite. - E = Quartz. - F = Sandstone. - -_J._ Sides slightly convex, edge slightly curved; 2¼ to 3½ inches in -diameter, three-quarters to an inch and a half thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West | 1| | | | | | | | - | Virginia (evidently | | | | | | | | | - | used for a hammerstone) | | | | | | | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 3| 4| 1| 2| 1| | | - |Lauderdale county, Tennessee | | | 1| | | | | | - |Caldwell county, North Carolina| | 2| | | | | 1| | - |Fulton county, Georgia | | | | | | | | 1| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartz. - C = Quartzite. - D = Chalcedony. - E = Argillite. - F = Clayey limestone. - G = Steatite. - H = Sienite. - -_K._ Sides flat; edges convex; roughly finished, no polish; 1⅛ to 2¼ -inches in diameter, three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | 4| 1| 7| - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartz. - C = Quartzite. - -_L._ Not polished; roughly chipped edges; 2 to 3½ inches in diameter. - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Mississippi county, Arkansas | 1| 1| 1| 3| - |Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | | - |Union county, Mississippi | 3| | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Quartzite. - C = Chalcedony. - D = Yellow jasper. - -_M._ Edges V-shape; 1¾ to 2½ inches diameter, 1 to 1½ inches thick. The -type (figure 105) is of granite, from Randolph county, Illinois, with -insunk pecked sides and polished edge. A specimen from Kanawha valley, -West Virginia, is of flint, with only the edge worked; apparently a -hammer. One from Craighead county, Arkansas, has flat sides and the -entire surface polished; another from McMinn county, Tennessee, is also -polished entire. A good specimen from Cocke county, Tennessee, is of -flint, one side rubbed flat, the other a rounded cone, highly polished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Discoidal stone, with V-shaped edges.] - -_N._ Sides hollowed out; edges straight or slightly curved; very thick; -used as mortars, hammers, or pestles. This form gradually merges into -disk-shaped, pitted, or entire dressed hammers, which in turn run into -the ordinary hammerstones. The types are figures 106 (quartzite, from -Bradley county, Tennessee) and 107 (quartzite, from Nicholas county, -Kentucky). There are in this group from eastern Tennessee three of -quartzite, 2¼ by 4½ inches, 4¼ by 5¾ inches, and 1¾ by 3¼ inches, and -one of granite, 2¾ by 3 inches; from Caldwell county, North Carolina, -one of granite; and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, three of -quartzite. The last four are evidently hammers or pestles. In addition -there is a specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, of ferruginous -sandstone, 3 inches in diameter. On one side there is a pit and on the -other a shallow, mortar-like cavity extending entirely across. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Discoidal stone, used as mortar.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Discoidal stone, probably used as hammer.] - -_O._ One side flat, the other rounded; of convenient size for grasping. -In some the bottom is quite smooth. There is sometimes a pit in one or -both sides, more frequently in the bottom. They were used as mullers -or pestles; in the latter, either the side or the edge may have been -the pounding surface. The line between these implements and the -cylindrical, dome-topped pestles can not be drawn (see figure 91). - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 2| | | - |Southwestern Wisconsin | 2| | 1| 1| - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | - |Crittenden county, Arkansas | 1| | | | - |Jackson county, North Carolina| 1| | | | - |Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | 2| 1| 2| 8| - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Quartz. - C = Sandstone. - D = Granite. - -_P._ Sides flat; edge convex; same size and use as last. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Southeastern Tennessee | | 1 | 1 | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | 5 | | - |Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1 | - |Madison county, Alabama | | | 1 | | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Quartzite. - B = Quartz. - C = Sandstone. - D = Granite. - -_Q._ From southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia there are -many disk-shape fragments of pottery, small, thin, and coarse, with -the edges roughly chipped; and from northeastern Kentucky there are -similar pieces, except that they have been fashioned from fragments of -limestone and sandstone. These specimens are illustrated by figure 108 -(pottery, from a mound in Bartow county, Georgia). - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Discoidal pottery fragment.] - - -SPUDS. - -It has been a puzzle to archeologists to assign to any class the -peculiar stones called “spuds.” They are usually of a comparatively -soft material, carefully worked and polished, and bear no marks of -rough usage. On the other hand, they seem too large for ornament. -Perhaps their office may have been in some ceremony or game. Something -similar in form seems to be denoted in the following extracts: - -Col. James Smith[81] says, speaking of the Indians of western -Pennsylvania, that as soon as the elm bark will strip in spring, the -squaws, after finding a tree that will do, cut it down, and with a -crooked stick, broad and sharp at the end, take the bark off the tree, -and of this bark make vessels. The Twana Indians, who formerly lived at -the south end of Hoods canal, Washington, in barking logs use a heavy -iron implement about 3 feet long, widened and sharpened at the end;[82] -and the tanbark workers of our day use an instrument of somewhat -similar form. - -The ordinary spud is too weak to endure such usage, though it is -claimed by old people living in the Shenandoah valley, Virginia, that -in the last century the Indians in that locality used an implement of -this pattern for stripping the bark from trees. The implement may have -been used in dressing hides, the hole being for attachment of a handle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Spud.] - -A celt of argillite, highly polished, from Loudon county, Tennessee, of -the pattern shown in figure 64, has a neatly drilled cylindrical hole -about a third of the way from the top; but such cases are unusual. The -spuds may be divided into three general classes, as follows: - -_A._ Blade circular in outline, including 180 degrees or more, or -semielliptical with either axis transverse; sides of stem straight or -slightly curved, parallel or slightly tapering to top, which is either -straight or slightly rounded; shoulder nearly at right angles to stem, -with sharp or rounded corners or sometimes barbed; stem and blade not -differing greatly in length. The type of the class, presented in figure -109, is of clay slate, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee. The -other six specimens in the collection were distributed as shown in the -table. - - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Western North Carolina | 1| 1| | | 1| - |Monroe county, Tennessee | | | 1| 1| | - |Phillips county, Arkansas | | | | | 1| - |Pulaski county, Arkansas | | | | | 1| - +---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Green slate. - B = Mica-schist. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Clay slate. - E = Quartzite. - -_B._ Lower part of the blade a half circle or less; top square or -slightly rounded; stem rapidly widening, with increasing curve to the -blade, making an angle with it; stem and blade nearly the same length. -A specimen of green slate, from Mississippi county, Arkansas, is -illustrated in figure 110. Another, of compact quartzite, comes from -Loudon county, Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Spud.] - -_C._ Handle or stem round; very much longer than the blade, which -is semicircular or semielliptical, with square or barbed shoulders. -Illustrated in figure 111 (probably of chloritic slate, from Prairie -county, Arkansas). - - -PLUMMETS. - -The specimens known as plummets vary considerably in form, size, and -degree of finish, indicating diversity of purpose, and different -writers have assigned to them various uses. - -According to Abbott, one of these relics was found at Salem, in a -mortar.[83] Stevens says, quoting from Schoolcraft, that the Pennacook -Indians used sinkers very much like a plummet in shape.[84] In -Florida very rough plummets with deep grooves are found in the shell -mounds, which were no doubt used as sinkers. The Indians of southern -California use them as medicine stones to bring rain; the Eskimo use -similar stones as sinkers, but have them perforated at the end. The -larger objects of this form may have been used as pestles.[85] They -might be made very efficient in twisting thread, as they revolve for a -considerable time when set in motion. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Spud.] - -The general form is ovoid, sometimes quite slender, sometimes almost -round; the ends may be either blunt or pointed. They may be grooved -near the middle or near either the larger or smaller end. Some have two -grooves, some are only partially grooved, while others have the groove -extending lengthwise. There are forms that differ somewhat from this -description, but such are rare. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Plummet, grooved near one end.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Plummet, double-grooved.] - -Many small and otherwise unworked waterworn pebbles and pieces of -steatite pots from southeastern Tennessee and from Montgomery county, -North Carolina, have grooves near the middle or near one end; they were -probably applied to some of the uses for which plummets were intended. - -The plummets in the Bureau collection may be grouped as follows: - -_A._ Grooved near smaller end. The types are illustrated in figure -112 (sandy limestone, from a mound in Catahoula parish, Louisiana), -and figure 113 (hematite, double grooved, with notches cut in various -places, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). Other specimens -are, one from Arkansas county, Arkansas, of sandstone, and one each -from Brown and Randolph counties, Illinois, both of hematite. - -_B._ Grooved near larger end. A good example, of hematite, is from -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, with a second groove partially around -the middle. - -_C._ Grooved near the middle. The class is represented by a beautiful -specimen (figure 114) of hematite, with the groove much polished and -irregular, and a deep notch cut in one end, from Ross county, Ohio. -Another specimen, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is a double -conical implement of hematite, elliptical in section with both ends -ground off on flatter sides only. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Plummet, grooved near middle.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Plummet, grooved lengthwise.] - -_D._ Grooved lengthwise. This class includes a plummet of quartzite, -from Yellowstone park (figure 115), and another of hematite, much -shorter than the Yellowstone specimen and with blunt ends, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Plummet, grooveless, perforated.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Plummet, double cone in shape.] - -_E._ Grooveless. A good specimen (figure 116) is of quartz and mica, -elliptical in section, pointed at ends with one end perforated, from -Yellowstone park; another, from Randolph county, Illinois, of hematite, -rough, perhaps unfinished. - -_F._ Double cone, with one end ground off flat and hollowed out. The -type (figure 117) is of granite, one of three from Savannah, Georgia. - -_G._ Top flattened and hollowed out; sides incurving to the middle; -lower half a hemisphere. The class is represented by figure 118 -(quartzite, from Randolph county, Illinois), and figure 119 (sandstone, -from Adams county, Ohio). From Kanawha valley there is one of hematite, -similar in form to the last. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Plummet.] - -_H._ Ovoid, with the smaller end ground off flat.[86] A good specimen -of this class (figure 120) is of magnetite, from Caldwell county, North -Carolina. From Savannah, Georgia, there are two of sandstone, both -smaller than the type and rough; from Kanawha valley there is one of -quartzite, nearly half ground away, leaving almost a hemisphere; and -from eastern Tennessee there are one of magnetite and one of quartzite, -the latter nearly round. - -_I._ Cylindrical. A unique specimen, from a mound in Loudon county, -Tennessee, is illustrated in figure 121. It is of sandstone; a short -cylinder with incurved sides, each end terminating in a blunt cone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Plummet.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Plummet, end ground flat.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Plummet.] - -Figure 122 represents a piece of smoothly dressed steatite from Desha -county, Arkansas, with a two-thirds round section, the ends rounded, -with a groove near one end, which may be classed with the plummets. -There are pieces of sandstone from the same locality which connect -this pattern with the simpler “boat-form” stones, except that the flat -side is ground smooth instead of being hollowed. This is only one of -numerous examples where the shapes of implements whose “typical forms” -seem utterly dissimilar merge into one another so gradually that no -line of demarkation can be drawn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Plummet, cylindrical.] - - -CONES. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Cone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Cone.] - -The relics known as “cones” have the base flat and the side curving -slightly; usually the curve extends regularly over the top, but -sometimes the apex is rubbed off flat. The conic surface may form -an angle with the base, or the line of junction may be rounded into -a curve. They vary considerably in thickness, some being nearly -flat, others having a height equal to the diameter of the base. One -of steatite from Savannah, as also one of sandstone from Kanawha -valley, has a slight pit or depression on the flat side. Among the -best examples are one (figure 123) of steatite from Bradley county, -Tennessee, and another (figure 124) of hematite from Loudon county, in -the same state; one (figure 125) of compact quartzite from a mound in -Ogle county, Illinois, and a fourth specimen (figure 126) of granite -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. The distribution is as follows: - -FIG. 125.--Cone. - -FIG. 126.--Cone. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 3 | 4 | | | | - |Ogle county, Illinois | | | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | | | - |Haywood county, North Carolina| | 1 | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Hematite. - C = Compact quartzite. - D = Granite. - E = Sandstone. - - -HEMISPHERES. - -Hemispheric stones, like the cones, can receive a name only from the -form and not from any known or imagined use to which they could have -been applied. - -All such specimens in the collection, except one, are from Kanawha -valley, and of hematite; many if not most of them have been ground -down from the nodule, and were probably paint stones originally; at -least, the material rubbed from them was used as paint while the maker -had their final form in view. One, however, has been pecked into shape -and is entirely without polish. In all, the base is flat and varies -in outline from almost a circle to a narrow ellipse. A section of the -stone parallel to either axis of the base varies from a little more -to a little less than a semicircle. Typical forms, both from Bracken -county, Kentucky, are illustrated in figure 127. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Hemispheres.] - -The specimen, illustrated in figure 128 (yellow quartz, from a mound -in Kanawha valley) is intermediate between cones and hemispheres. -The sides are polished, while the flat bottom and rounded top are -roughened. As it has faint red stains, it may have been used as a -paint-muller. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Hemisphere.] - - -PAINT STONES. - -The articles known as paint stones scarcely come under the head -of implements. Some of the hematite pieces are incipient celts, -hemispheres, or cones; but most of them were used merely to furnish -paint, at any rate until rubbed down quite small. They are of every -degree of firmness, some being as brittle as dry clay, others like -iron. Most pieces in the collection are from Kanawha valley, but others -are from southeastern Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, and Caldwell -county, North Carolina. From the last-named section, as well as from -Chester county, South Carolina, and McMinn county, Tennessee, come -pieces of graphite more or less rubbed; and one has been sent in from -Elmore county, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Paint stone.] - -The specimen illustrated in figure 129, from a mound, is a good example -of the manner in which the harder hematite was ground. - - -CEREMONIAL STONES. - -FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES. - -The so-called “ceremonial stones” are variously subdivided and named by -different writers. They are supposed to have been devoted to religious, -superstitious, medical, emblematic, or ceremonial purposes; to be -badges of authority, insignia of rank, tokens of valorous deeds, or -perhaps some sort of heraldic device; in short, the uses to which they -might, in their different forms, be assigned, are limited only by the -imagination. - -According to Nilsson the ancient Scandinavians wore “victory stones” -suspended around their necks,[87] and the Eskimo wear charms and -amulets to bring success in fishing and hunting.[88] Adair (1775) -says that the American Archi-magus wore a breastplate made of a white -conch-shell, with two holes bored in the middle of it, through which -he put the ends of an otter-skin strap and fastened a buck-horn button -to the outside of each.[89] An explanation of the purpose of many of -the smaller perforated stones also may be found in Nilsson’s remark[90] -that the small ovoid or ellipsoid ones were used as buttons; a string -being tied to the robe at one end, run through the hole and tied in a -knot. - -The various Indians of Guiana in their leisure hours often fashion -highly ornamental weapons and implements which they never use except -ceremonially, but keep proudly at home for show.[91] - -So, too, the Yurok and Hupa Indians of California, as well as some -of the tribes of Oregon, have very large spearheads or knives, which -are not designed for use, but only to be produced on the occasion of -a great dance. The larger weapons are wrapped in skin to protect the -hand; the smaller ones are glued to a handle. Some are said to be 15 -inches long.[92] The Oregon Indians believed the possession of a large -obsidian knife brought long life and prosperity to the tribe owning -it.[93] - -Some of the wild tribes of the interior have something which they -regard as the Jews did the Ark of the Covenant. Sometimes it is known; -again it is kept secret. The Cheyenne had a bundle of arrows; the Ute -a little stone image, and the Osage a similar stone.[94] The Kiowa had -a carved wooden image, representing a human face; the Ute captured it, -and the Kiowa offered very great rewards for its return; but the Ute, -believing the Kiowa powerless to harm them so long as it was retained, -refused to give it up.[95] - -The North Carolina Indians, when they went to war, carried with -them their idol, of which they told incredible stories and asked -counsel;[96] and as a token of rank or authority, the Virginia Indians -suspended on their breasts, by a string of beads about their neck, a -square plate of copper.[97] These were worn as badges of authority. -The native tribes, from our first acquaintance with them, evinced a -fondness for insignia of this kind.[98] - -Simply for convenience the ceremonial stones in the Bureau collection -will here be divided into two general classes. The first, comprising -those pierced through the shortest diameter, will be called gorgets, -which name, like that of celt, has no particular meaning, but is in -common use. The second class will comprise all others, which will have -some name that may or may not be suitable to their form, but by which -they are usually called. In this class are included boat-shape stones, -banner stones, picks, spool-shape ornaments, and bird-shape stones, as -well as engraved tablets or stones.[99] - - -GORGETS. - -The relics commonly called gorgets have been found in Europe; they may -be convex on one side, concave on the other, and are supposed to be -for bracers.[100] It is said that the Miami Indians wore similar plates -of stone to protect their wrists from the bowstring.[101] Herndon and -Gibbon remark that a gold ornament in shape like a gorget, but not -pierced, is worn on the forehead by some of the Amazon Indians.[102] -According to Schoolcraft the so-called gorgets were sometimes used as -twine-twisters;[103] but Abbott holds that while some may have been -twine-twisters, or may have been used for condensing sinews or evening -bowstrings (that is, reducing the strings to a uniform diameter), most -were simply ornaments, as they are generally found on the breast of -a buried body.[104] Stevens is even more conservative, holding that -they were neither twine-twisters nor devices for condensing sinews or -evening bowstrings, as they show no marks of wear in the holes.[105] - -Some writers suppose the gorgets to have been shuttles; but this -supposition can hardly be entertained, although it is true, according -to Chase, that the Oregon Indians passed thread with a curved bone -needle.[106] As twine-twisters they would be about as awkward as -anything that could be devised. As to evening bowstrings, it would seem -that if a string were too large in places to pass through a hole it -could not be pulled through; pounding and rolling the wet string with -a smooth stone, or some such means, would be the remedy. The bracer -theory is plausible; but no one seems ever to have seen a gorget used -for this purpose. - -Few of the gorgets in the Bureau collection show such marks of wear -around the edges of the hole as would be made by a cord; but the -majority are thus worn at the middle, where the hole is smallest. Some -specimens among every lot are not perforated, or only partially so; -the drilling seems to have been the last stage of the work. The hole -is almost always drilled from both sides, and the few in which it goes -entirely through from one side would probably have had it enlarged -later from the other. A number are fragments of larger gorgets, the -pieces having been redrilled. - -Some of the specimens have various notches and incised lines, the -latter being sometimes in tolerably regular order; but there is not the -slightest indication that these marks had any meaning or were intended -for any other purpose than to add to the ornamental appearance of the -stone. - -If they were to be worn at the belt or on any part of the dress they -could easily have been fastened by a knotted string, or if the wearer -desired he could have an ornamental button of some kind. If suspended -around the neck, in order to make them lie flat against the breast they -probably had a short cord passed through the perforation and tied -above the top of the object, the suspending cord being passed through -the loop thus formed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Gorget.] - -The principal division is into group _A_ with one hole and group _B_ -with two holes, though in many cases this forms the only difference -between two specimens. - -_A._ General outline rectangular, or perhaps slightly elliptical, -sometimes with one end somewhat narrower than the other, or with one -end rounded off, or with the corners slightly rounded. Perforation -commonly near one end. The form is represented by the specimen with two -perforations illustrated in figure 133, which otherwise fully answers -the description. The argillite specimens have the broader ends striated -as though used for rubbing or scraping, but in other respects conform -to those of other materials. The materials are generally the softer -rocks, as shown in the accompanying table: - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 2 | 3 | 2 | | 3 | - |Wilkes county, North Carolina| | | | 1 | | - |Knox county, Ohio | | 1 | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | 7 | 2 | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - C = Sandstone. - D = Schist. - E = Argillite. - -A related type is rectangular or with incurved sides (forming either a -regular or broken curve) and rounded ends, and differs in having the -perforation near the center. The same pattern sometimes has two holes. -It is illustrated in figure 130 (striped slate, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia). There are also from the same place one each of -slate, cannel coal, and clay slate, and from eastern Tennessee one each -of slate, shale, and clay slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Gorget(?).] - -There are a number of small pebbles, thin and flat, with a hole -drilled near the edge, from southeastern Tennessee, North Carolina, -and southeastern Arkansas. One of these, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina, is of banded slate; the others are of clay slate or -sandstone. Two of them have straight and zigzag lines on both faces, -and notches around the edge. - -Allied to these are a number of pieces of flat stone from southeastern -Tennessee, Kanawha valley, and North Carolina, with the faces partially -rubbed down smooth, the edges being untouched. They are of slate, talc, -or argillite. - -From southeastern Tennessee and North Carolina there are several -pieces of steatite, which may have been for sinkers. Some have a hole -near one end, others a hole at each end, while still others are not -perforated. All have been worked over the entire surface, and some of -them are well polished. One of these is represented in figure 131. - -_B._ Gorgets with two holes. Of these there are several subdivisions, -differing more or less widely in form. They are as follows: - -1. Thick, with both the sides and the ends incurved or reel-shape; -faces flat or slightly convex. This form is represented by the specimen -shown in figure 132, from a mound, Knox county, Ohio. There is another -from the same place, a third from Kanawha valley, and a fourth from -Butler county, Ohio; all of green slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Gorget, reel-shape.] - -2. Rectangular, or with sides or ends, or both, slightly curved, either -convex or concave; faces flat. Shown in figure 133 (green slate, from a -grave in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Nicholas county, Kentucky, | | 1| | | | | - | with ends V-shaped | | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 11| 3| 3| | | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 6| 1| 1| 1| | | - |Ogle county, Illinois | 1| | | | | | - |Forsyth county, Georgia | | | | | | 1 | - |Haywood county, N.C. | | | | | 1| | - |Davidson county, N.C. | | | | | | 1 | - |Chautauqua county, N.Y. | 1| | | | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Slate. - B = Limestone. - C = Sandstone. - D = Shale. - E = Argillite. - F = Fine quartzite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Gorget.] - -3. Widest at middle, with single or double curve from end to end; very -thin; both sides flat. - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1 | 4 | | - |Davidson county, North Carolina | 1 | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 1 | - |Eastern Tennessee | 5 | | 1 | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Slate. - B = Sandstone. - C = Schist. - -4. Same outline but thicker; one face flat, the other convex. -Represented by figure 134 (shale, from Jackson county, Illinois). The -distribution of the form is as follows: - - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | | 2| | 3| 1| 1| | - |Haywood county, North Carolina | | | 1| 2| | | | - |Davidson county, North Carolina| | 1| | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| 2| | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | | | | - |Jackson county, Illinois | | | | | | | 1| - |Desha county, Arkansas | 1| | | 1| | | | - +-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - A = Sandstone. - B = Slate. - C = Schist. - D = Steatite. - E = Talc. - F = Argillite. - G = Shale. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Gorget.] - -5. Same outline, but quite thick, approaching the “boat-shape” stones -in form. In some the flat side is slightly hollowed out. A majority of -them are not perforated. The type (figure 135) is of sandstone, from a -mound at Adelphi, Ohio. - -There are also, from Butler county, Ohio, Kanawha valley, West -Virginia, and Savannah, Georgia, one each of slate; from Ross county, -Ohio, two, and from Kanawha valley, and Cocke county, Tennessee, one -each, all of sandstone. There are two (of sandstone and slate) from -Kanawha valley, which differ from the others in having the sides -parallel, giving them a semicylindrical form. - -The pattern of the specimen illustrated in figure 136 (striped slate, -from Butler county, Ohio, of which a number have been found in -that state), may be classed between the gorgets and the boat-shape -stones. The shorter end of the object has, sometimes, a projection -or enlargement at the top, apparently for suspension, although no -perforated examples have been found. - - -BANNER STONES. - -Under the head of “banner stones” are placed ornaments having the -ends at right angles to the perforation. The hole is drilled in a -midrib, from which the faces slope by either straight or curved lines -to the edges. The two halves of the stone are symmetrical. In most -specimens one face is flatter than the other, even plane in some cases. -Some specimens are finished to a high polish, before the hole is -started; others have the hole completed with the exterior more or less -unfinished. The specimens in the Bureau collection may be classified as -follows: - -_A._ Rectangular or trapezoidal, with sides and ends sometimes -slightly curved inward or outward. - -_B._ Reel-shape. - -_C._ Crescentic. - -_D._ Butterfly pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--Gorget, boat-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Gorget resembling boat-shape stone.] - -The last three varieties may be considered as only modifications of the -simple rectangular banner stones. By rounding off the corners of the -articles or dressing them to sharp points, by cutting away portions -from the sides or by trimming away the central portions at either -or both ends of the perforations, all these different forms may be -produced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Banner stone.] - -_A._ A typical specimen is illustrated in figure 137. It is of slate, -and was taken from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Another -good example, shown in figure 138, is of sandy slate, from a grave in -Monroe county, Tennessee. The geographic range of this type is wide, -though the objects are not abundant. - - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1| 1| | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2| | | | - |Hancock county, Illinois | 1| | | | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| 3| | 1| 1| | - |Eastern Tennessee | | | 2| 1| 1| 1| - +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Granite. - B = Steatite. - C = Slate. - D = Sandstone. - E = Compact quartzite. - F = Diorite. - -_B._ The reel-shape banner stones are somewhat variable, but are fairly -illustrated in figure 139, representing a specimen of argillite from -Sevier county, Tennessee. - -A related form has the middle cut from one end, leaving two horn-like -projections extending parallel with the hole. An example of this form, -shown in figure 140, is of banded slate, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Banner stone, reel-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Banner stone, with horn-like projections.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Banner stone, crescent-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--Banner stone, crescent-shape] - -_C._ The crescentic banner stones might better be termed “semilunar,” -since most of them are flat at one end and curved at the other. -Occasionally one has both ends curved and parallel, the sides also -slightly curved, making the article reniform. Others have the ends -straight and parallel, with the sides curved or like the zone of a -circle. Two have a midrib for the hole, with the sides dressed down -quite thin, as with the butterfly gorgets. All were finished in form -before the drilling was done, though some had not received their -final polish. The type is illustrated in figures 141 (steatite, -from northwestern North Carolina), 142 (pagodite, from Rhea county, -Tennessee), and 143 (sandstone, from Jefferson county, Tennessee). The -last form is sometimes called a perforated ax, but the material and -fragile make exclude it from every class except the ceremonial stones. - - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | - |Western North Carolina | 2 | | | | 1 | | - |Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | 2 | - |Eastern Tennessee | | 1 | | | 2 | | - +---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - C = Granite. - D = Reddle. - E = Pagodite. - F = Talc. - -_D._ The “butterfly” gorgets are so named from their resemblance to a -butterfly with expanded wings. The sides or wings are usually quite -thin, either semicircular or like a spherical triangle in outline. The -perforated mid-rib is shorter than the wings and carefully worked. -A good example, shown in figure 144, is of ferruginous quartz from -Monongahela, Pennsylvania, and that illustrated in figure 145 is of -banded slate from Kanawha valley. There is also one of the latter -material from Lewis county, Kentucky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Banner stone, crescent-shape.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Butterfly banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Butterfly banner stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Banner stone.] - -An aberrant form is elliptical in section at the middle, round or -nearly so at the ends, the sides expanding rapidly from end to middle -by double curves. It is represented by figure 146 (ferruginous quartz, -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia), and by a specimen of quartzite -from Union county, Mississippi. - - -BOAT-SHAPE STONES. - -There are two types of relics, perhaps ceremonial, for which no use has -been determined, and which are named from their general resemblance to -the form of a boat. They are as follows:[107] - -_A._ With flat face more or less hollowed, sides triangular and -parallel. A number are not perforated. The type is shown in figure 147 -(striped slate, from Davidson county, North Carolina). - - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |Davidson county, North Carolina | | 1| | | | | - |Southeastern Arkansas | 1| | 2| 1| | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1| - |Eastern Tennessee | | | 1| | 1| 1| - +--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Compact quartzite. - B = Slate. - C = Sandstone. - D = Porphyry. - E = Barite. - F = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Boat-shape stone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Boat-shape stone.] - -_B._ Coming to a point at each end; flat side, deeply hollowed; -perforations near the ends, with a groove between them in which the -suspending cord rested. Some have a flattened projection in which the -groove is made. The type (figure 148) is of steatite, from a grave in -Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is as follows: - - +------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +------------------------+---+---+ - |Central North Carolina | 3| | - |Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1| - |Savannah, Georgia | | 1| - +------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Steatite. - B = Slate. - - -PICKS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Pendant.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Pick.] - -The relics known as picks from their form and not at all from their -function vary considerably in size. Not all are perforated. A good -example, shown in figure 150, is of striped slate, from Knox county, -Ohio. There are also in the collection, from Union county, Mississippi, -one specimen of greenstone; from Jackson county, North Carolina, one of -slate, and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, one each of steatite -and slate. The last named is the half of a larger one that was broken -at the part drilled, and has had a hole drilled near the larger end of -this fragment, which has not been reworked. - - -SPOOL-SHAPE ORNAMENTS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Spool-shape ornament.] - -Relics of spool shape, probably ornamental rather than industrially -useful, are not uncommon in copper, though very rare in stone. The -specimen shown in figure 151 is of sandstone, from Jackson county, -Arkansas. There are also, from Prairie and Lonoke counties, one each of -sandstone, and from Jackson county two of the same material; from Clark -county there is one of pinkish slate, with the stem drilled between and -parallel to the faces, the others with stems drilled lengthwise. - - -BIRD-SHAPE STONES. - -Stone relics of bird form are quite common north of the Ohio river, -but are exceedingly rare south of that stream. A good example, shown -in figure 152, is of granite, from Vernon county, Wisconsin, and the -collection embraces another specimen, of sandstone, from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Bird-shape stone.] - -According to Gillman, bird-shape stones were worn on the head by the -Indian women, but only after marriage.[108] Abbott[109] quotes Col. -Charles Whittlesey to the effect that they were worn by Indian women -to denote pregnancy, and from William Penn that when squaws were ready -to marry they wore something on their heads to indicate the fact. -Jones[110] quotes from De Bry that the conjurers among the Virginia -Indians wore a small, black bird above one of their ears as a badge of -their office. - - -SHAFT RUBBERS. - -The shaft of an arrow is straightened by wetting and immersing it in -hot sand and ashes, and bringing into shape by the hand and eye. To -reduce the short crooks and knobs it is drawn between two rough grit -stones, each of which has a slight groove in it; coarse sand is also -used to increase the friction.[111] - -Again, a rock has a groove cut into it as wide as the shaft and two or -three times as deep. Into this the crooked part of the shaft is forced, -and by heating or steaming becomes flexible and can be easily made -straight, which shape it will retain when dry.[112] - -A somewhat different device for the same purpose appears in the Bureau -collection. It is illustrated in figure 153 (of fine sandstone); there -was another part to correspond with that shown. The specimen is from -Monongahela, Pennsylvania. - - -TUBES. - -As the use of stone tubes by the Indians has given rise to considerable -discussion, the following references to the various ways in which they -have been employed may help to settle it. - -Schoolcraft observed that the Dakota Indians used a horn tube in -bleeding; one end was set over the cut, and the other vigorously -sucked.[113] Powers says that the Klamath Indians use tubes for -smoking,[114] while H. H. Bancroft says that the Acaxees of Mexico -employ “blowing through a hollow tube” for the cure of disease,[115] -and also that the Indians of southern California inhale smoke of -certain herbs through a tube to produce intoxication.[116] According -to C. C. Jones the Florida and Virginia Indians used reeds in treating -diseases by sucking or blowing through them, and also used them in -cauterizing; and he observes that the Indians of Lower California -employed similar processes, using stone tubes[117] instead of reeds. -Hoffman illustrates the removal of disease through the agency of a tube -of bone by a Jĕs´sakīd´ or medicine-man of the Ojibwa.[118] Read calls -attention to the fact that the old Spanish writers describe a forked -wooden tube, the prongs being inserted in the nostrils, while the other -end was held over smoldering herbs, and suggests that the Indians may -have used stone tubes in the same way.[119] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Shaft rubber.] - -The Indian mode of inhaling smoke would produce the same result, -whether drawn through the mouth or into the nostrils. - -The use of stone tubes for astronomical purposes, which has been -discovered by some imaginative writers, is, of course, absurd; -nevertheless they are useful in viewing distant objects on a bright -day, especially when looking toward the sun. - -Nearly all of the tubes made of soft material with tapering perforation -seem to have been gouged rather than drilled. Schumacher observes that -the California Indians drilled their tubes from both ends and enlarged -the hole from one end by scraping, the mouthpiece being made of a bird -bone stuck on with asphaltum.[120] - -There are five classes of stone tubes in the collection of the Bureau, -as follows: - -_A._ One end flattened and expanding into a wing on either side. -This class is illustrated by figure 154 (from Kanawha valley, West -Virginia). The corners of this specimen have been trimmed off; the -typical form is indicated by the dotted lines. There are also from the -same locality one of quartzite, and from Ross county, Ohio, one of -sandstone. - -_B._ Conical; the bore more tapering than the exterior. Represented by -the specimen shown in figure 155, of sandstone, from a mound in Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Sevier county, Tennessee | 1| | | | - |Savannah, Georgia | | 1| | | - |Western North Carolina | | 1| 1| | - |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | 1| - +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Steatite. - C = Slate. - D = Clay slate. - -_C._ Hour-glass shape, usually but not always with a narrow ring or -projection around the smallest part. Exterior with gently curving -outlines; the perforation is usually in the form of a double cone, with -the points at the smallest part of the tube, which may or may not be -midway between the ends. A good specimen, illustrated in figure 156, is -of steatite, from Sevier county, Tennessee. - -_D._ Of nearly uniform diameter inside and out; section circular, -elliptical, or flattened on one side. This form is exemplified by -figure 157, a specimen from North Carolina. There are also one each -from Caldwell, Haywood, and Montgomery counties, North Carolina, all of -slate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Tube, one end flattened.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Tube, conical.] - -_E._ Round or elliptical in section, ¾ to 2½ inches long; probably -beads. The collection includes specimens from Bradley county, -Tennessee, of steatite; from Savannah, Georgia, of ferruginous -sandstone; and from Union county, Mississippi, of jasper. - - -PIPES. - -So much has been written concerning pipes that few references seem -necessary, and none will be given except from Col. R. I. Dodge, who, -after an experience of many years among the Plains Indians, says -that the latter have different pipes for different occasions, as the -medicine pipe, peace pipe, council pipe, and a pipe for common use. -Each is sacred to its own purpose.[121] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Tube, hour-glass form.] - -In an article so highly prized by its owner, great pains would be -expended to give an ornamental appearance to one which would be used -on important ceremonial occasions; and it would be carved or worked in -a manner gratifying to its maker or the one for whom it was intended. -This fact, and the statement quoted above, will explain the great -variety in form from a limited area. Still, in some sections of the -country there are certain types that prevail, and may be in some cases -peculiar to these localities; such, for instance, are the long stemmed -pipes from western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. - -In many pipes of soft stone the bowl is gouged out instead of drilled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Tube, cylindrical.] - -The pipes in the Bureau collection embrace the following classes: - -_A._ Stem with an elliptical or somewhat triangular section; the bowl -near one end, leaving a projection in front; stem hole in long end. The -form is shown in figure 158. From Caldwell county, North Carolina there -are two similar pipes of steatite. Another, from Preston county, West -Virginia, differs only in having the stem hole in the short end. - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Pipe, flat base.] - -_B._ Same form of stem; no projection in front, the bottom of the -stem curving up gradually into the front of the bowl. This type is -represented by figure 159 (of steatite, from a mound in Loudon county, -Tennessee). There are also, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, an -example of talcose slate, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, one -of steatite. - -_C._ Stem having a midrib in which the hole is bored. One of steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina, has a prow; the others have -not. Another of steatite from Loudon county, Tennessee, has a slender -projection below the bowl, as if for a handle. The axis of the -bowl and that of the stem meet at any angle between 100° and 170°. -Figure 160 represents a typical specimen, of steatite, from a mound -in Sullivan county, Tennessee. There are also, from Caldwell county, -North Carolina, and Kanawha and Preston counties, West Virginia, one -each, and from Sullivan county, Tennessee, two, all of steatite; and -there is an example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of material not -identified. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Pipe.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Pipe.] - -_D._ With bowls and stems either round or square; very large. A good -example (figure 161) is of red sandstone, from southeastern Missouri; -it is the only pipe in the entire collection of the Bureau on which is -shown any attempt at ornamentation. From Jefferson county, Tennessee, -and Savannah, Georgia, there are one each, of steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Pipe, ornamented.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Pipe.] - -_E._ Cylindrical bowl, with a square-edged groove around it near the -middle, below which the bottom has a somewhat celt like form, with stem -hole in one side. A small hole is drilled near the edge at the bottom, -probably for the purpose of suspending feathers or other ornaments. The -type is represented by figure 162 (of limestone, from Crawford county, -Wisconsin). Pipes of the same form are found also in central Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--Pipe, long-stemmed.] - -_F._ Round stem from one-half inch to 10 inches long; bowl at extreme -end, set on at various angles from nearly a right angle to almost a -straight line. Good examples are illustrated in figure 163 (steatite, -from Caldwell county, North Carolina) and 164 (also of steatite, from -a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee). The other specimens in the -collection are distributed as shown in the table: - - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - |Eastern Tennessee | 4| 7| - |Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 22| - |Chester county, South Carolina | | 1| - +--------------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--Pipe, short-stemmed.] - -_G._ Same form of stem, short, with flange around the top of the -bowl. Represented by one of sandstone, from a mound in Monroe county, -Tennessee (figure 165), and three of sandstone and two of marble from -eastern Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--Pipe.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Pipe.] - -_H._ Small, stem more or less squared, bowl upright. There are two -examples of this class from Monroe county, Tennessee, each having a -flat projection or ridge on top of the stem, which is perforated for -attachment of ornaments. The type, represented in figure 166, is of -clay slate, from Monroe county, Tennessee. It will appear from the -following table that the distribution of this form is limited: - - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - |District. | A | B | C | - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - |Savannah, Georgia | 1| | | - |Eastern Tennessee | 1| 1| 2| - |Western North Carolina | | | 3| - +-----------------------+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Sandstone. - B = Clay slate. - C = Steatite. - -_I._ Egg-shape bowl, stem hole in the side. One from Bradley county, -Tennessee, of argillaceous limestone, has a hole drilled from end -to end, but no stem hole. It may have been made so intentionally, -or the drilling may have been carried too far and the specimen left -unfinished. The type is of barite, from Sevier county, Tennessee (shown -in figure 167). Another specimen, from McMinn county, Tennessee, is of -argillaceous limestone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--Pipe.] - -_J._ Form like last, with a flange around the top of the bowl. A -typical specimen, shown in figure 168, is of steatite, from Loudon -county, Tennessee. There are, also, from Preston county, West Virginia, -one of sandstone, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, two of -steatite. - -_K._ Bowls egg-shape, but quite long and sometimes rather pointed at -the bottom; stem hole in the side. This class includes the following: -From Savannah, Georgia; Roane county, Tennessee; and Adams county, -Ohio, one each of sandstone; from Holt county, Missouri, one of -micaceous sandstone; from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, one of -indurated red clay, possibly catlinite; and from Caldwell county, North -Carolina, three of steatite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--Pipe.] - - -CHIPPED STONE ARTICLES. - -MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE. - -The chipped implements in the Bureau collection, are nearly always made -of some form of flint or similar chalcedonic rock, as it is easily -chipped and can be brought to a keen edge or point. Sometimes quartz, -quartzite, argillite, or even a more granular rock is used; but this is -infrequent, and is due to the scarcity of the more desirable material. - -In the spades and hoes first to be considered the flaking seems to have -been by percussion mainly, if not entirely; the same method appears to -have been employed in obtaining flakes from blocks, to work into the -smaller implements. Some of the processes used in making them will be -hereinafter described. - - -SPADES. - -It must be admitted that most Indians depended largely on agriculture -for subsistence; some historical works that represent them as barbarous -hunters, depending entirely on the chase, will, on the same page -perhaps, relate how Virginia and New England pioneers were saved from -starvation by supplies of corn, beans, and pumpkins obtained from the -Indians. This being the case, some method of cultivation was necessary. - -It is not to be inferred that “cultivation” implies all that is now -meant by the term; the Indian seems merely to have worked the hill in -which his corn was planted and not the whole surface of the field, a -shallow hole being scooped out in which the grain was dropped, and as -the stalk became larger the dirt was heaped up around it. The remains -of many “Indian old fields” in various parts of the country show this, -there being no long ridges as in cornfields of the present day, but -only a great number of these detached hills. The great scarcity of -implements suitable for such work argues nothing, for in most parts -of the country stone easily worked and adapted to the purpose is -unobtainable. - -There are a few flint deposits found in southern Illinois in which the -material occurs in nodules that can be made with even less work than a -piece of wood into suitable implements; and in the country which may be -considered as belonging to this archeologic district the flint hoes and -spades are tolerably abundant. In other portions of the country, wood, -the shoulder blades of large animals, and musselshells perforated for -attachment to a handle, were formerly used; the shells are frequently -found, but the other materials have long since disappeared. - -Early observations on the industries of the aborigines are significant. -Thus, according to De Forest, the Connecticut Indians used spades -rudely constructed of wood, or of a large shell fastened to a wooden -handle;[122] and Palmer[123] figures a hoe made of horn, 14 by 5 by -one-fourth inches, in a wooden handle 5 feet long, which is split and -slipped over the smaller end; such, with others of wood and stone, -were used among the Utah Indians before iron was introduced. Dawson -holds that they were probably prepared in large numbers for the -planting time, when the whole tribe mustered to till the fields, and -that when the work was over they were gathered and hidden in some -safe place until the next season.[124] This may have been the case -to some extent, but the specimens found in these hiding places seldom -have marks of use, and it is more probable that they were the property -either of persons living at a distance or of an individual manufacturer -in some particular village, being thus concealed for safe-keeping until -there was a demand for them or, perhaps, to await a convenient time for -transportation. A sedentary tribe would have no more reason for hiding -this than any other kind of property. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Chipped spade with pointed ends.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Chipped spade with rounded ends.] - -The chipped implements known as spades are frequently found buried in -large numbers. Two caches were disclosed by high water in 1884, near -Caseyville, Kentucky, containing, respectively, 57 and 75 specimens -from 6 to 13 inches long. - -The most common form is that having an oval or elliptical outline, with -the ends either coming to a point or rounded. Long use of those having -pointed ends would wear them off until they approached the others in -form; but so many of both patterns show no evidence of use that this -distinction must be considered intentional. The principal varieties are -as follows: - -_A._ Those with pointed ends. Figure 169 represents a typical specimen -of yellow flint, from Union county, Illinois. - - +----------------------------+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | - +----------------------------+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2| - |Southeastern Arkansas | 2| | - |Cheatham county, Tennessee | | 1| - |Union county, Mississippi | 1| | - +----------------------------+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow flint. - B = Grey flint. - -_B._ Those with the ends rounded. Represented by figure 170 (yellow -flint, from Union county, Illinois). - - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - | District. | A | B | C | D | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - |Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2| | | - |Cheatham county, Tennessee | | | 1| | - |Lauderdale county, Tennessee | 1| | | | - |Polk county, Tennessee | | | | | - |Lauderdale county, Alabama | | | | 4| - |Craighead county, Arkansas | 1| | | | - +-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+ - - KEY: - A = Yellow flint. - B = Grey flint. - C = Brown flint. - D = Argillite. - -A specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, has had a portion of the edge -broken squarely. The polish over this fractured surface shows that it -was long used after breaking without being rechipped to a sharp edge. -This indicates usage only in loose ground, as it evidently would be -quite difficult to force the square, broken part into a hard soil or -tough sod. - -The specimens from Polk county, Tennessee, are pecked or chipped, -or both, and are quite roughly made. They are neither scratched nor -polished, and may be unfinished implements of some other class, though -agreeing closely with the flint spades in shape and size. - -_C._ A modification of the last form has the upper portion chipped -away along the sides until it is ovoid, with a blunt point, leaving -the lower part a regular curve. An example, shown in figure 171, is of -grayish brown flint, from Scott county, Missouri. There are also one -each from Mississippi county, Missouri, and Hopkins county, Kentucky, -of the same material. - -_D._ Like the above, but much shorter in ratio to the width, and with a -flatter curve. The type, figure 172, is of yellow flint, from a mound -in Obion county, Tennessee. There are also three from Union county, -Illinois, one of them with almost the same dimensions. - -_E._ Semicircular outline, with sides notched for securing the handle, -as in arrowpoints and spearheads. Represented by figure 173, showing a -specimen of gray flint from a mound in Mississippi county, Arkansas. -There are four additional specimens, all from Union county, Illinois. - -_F._ A related form, also notched for attachment of handle. Figure 174 -represents an example of yellow flint, from Poinsett county, Arkansas, -the only one of this shape in the collection. - -From Jackson county, Illinois, there is a series beginning with a small -scraper and a small scraper-like celt, and passing gradually into the -large spades or digging-tools, there being a number of intermediate -forms and sizes. Two specimens, only 6 inches long, have the glazed -surface so characteristic of these implements, which could have been -produced only by long-continued use in digging. - -From a workshop at Mill creek, Union county, Illinois, there are a -large number of pieces in every stage of work. Among them can be made -series of all the different types here given, from the nodule in its -natural state to the completed implement. Near by is a flint deposit -showing extensive aboriginal quarrying. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Chipped spade, ovoid.] - -Dawson,[125] in speaking of these implements, says: “The rudest of all -rude implements, similar to the paleoliths of Europe, were used by the -more settled and civilized agricultural nations.” While the majority of -them are rude, simply because there was no necessity for elaborate work -or fine finish in tools of this class, yet there are many specimens -(as, for example, the one shown in figure 171) which in symmetry and -workmanship will compare favorably with the larger specimens of other -types, due regard being had to the fact that the coarse flint of which -they are usually made does not admit of the most delicate execution. - - -TURTLEBACKS. - -The singular name “turtleback” is suggested instantly on seeing a -specimen of the class so designated by Abbott and others. As commonly -used, it refers to rude or unfinished leaf-shape implements of -any size, which may be found in great abundance almost anywhere. -It is used here, however, to denote more especially the disks or -almond-shaped pieces of flint or chert sometimes found cached in -considerable numbers. - -Perkins[126] records the discovery of such caches in Vermont; an -exceptional case, as they are seldom found outside of the Mississippi -valley. The southern portion of Illinois has furnished more than any -other section; those found there are almost invariably made from -nodules of bluish gray hornstone, the concentric lines being strongly -marked.[127] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Chipped spade.] - -The Bureau has secured a large number from southern Illinois, ranging -from 3½ to 7½ inches in length, some nearly circular, others having a -length nearly twice the breadth. All have secondary chipping around the -edges. Many of the larger ones and most of the smaller have the edges -more or less worn or polished in such manner as would result from use -as knives or scrapers. A typical specimen is shown in figure 175. - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--Chipped spade, showing handle notches.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--Chipped spade.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--Chipped disk, or “turtleback.”] - -Stevens[128] denies in strongest terms that these relics are unfinished -implements, saying it is the worst possible form into which flint -could be chipped for carrying or for future work. On the other hand, -Cheever[129] says the Indians of California usually carry a pouch of -treasures, consisting of unfinished arrowheads or unworked stones, to -be slowly wrought out when they are industriously inclined. Catlin, -too, observed that the Apache sometimes carry bowlders of hornstone a -long distance to obtain material for arrowheads;[130] and according to -im Thurn, the various Indian tribes of Guiana have each their special -manufacture and exchange with other tribes.[131] Tylor says: - - Till lately the Patagonians, when they came on their journeys - to a place where suitable flint or obsidian was to be found, - would load themselves with a supply of lumps to chip into these - primitive currier’s scrapers.[132] - -Both Jewitt[133] and Evans[134] say that stones of this character were -used as sling-stones; but there is no evidence that North American -Indians ever used slings. Speaking of similar stones, Tylor remarks: - - They were used either as knives or scrapers; with the curved - side upward (or out) there would be no danger of cutting a hide - in skinning game, and they could be used to cut up the flesh; - while by putting the pointed end in the handle they could be - used as scrapers.[135] - -The smoothed edge in so many specimens substantiates the last -statement, while the theory that they are unfinished implements finds -support in the fact that nearly all the nodules from which they are -made have an ellipsoid form, and the present shape of the implement -would result from chipping away the useless weathered surface to lessen -the weight. - - -SMALLER CHIPPED IMPLEMENTS. - -MATERIALS AND MODES OF MANUFACTURE. - -In the remaining portion of this paper, which will treat of the -smaller chipped implements, a plan somewhat different from that of the -preceding part will be followed. - -As already stated, these specimens are almost invariably made of some -form of flint; this term including chalcedony, basanite, jasper, chert, -hornstone, and similar rocks. So common is its use that the term -“flints” is gradually being adopted as a name for all the different -classes of arrowheads, knives, drills, etc. The exceptions are not -numerous enough to justify separate classification, so no tables of -material will be used. Further, the great abundance of such relics in -all portions of the country makes useless any allusion to the number -from any particular locality; about the only limitation to their -discovery is the amount of time and care which one chooses to give. - -Before entering on the description, some quotations may be given in -regard to methods of making these chipped implements. - -According to Evans, the Mexican Indians take a piece of obsidian in the -left hand and press it firmly against the point of a small goathorn -held in the right, and by moving it gently in different directions they -chip off small flakes until the arrow is complete;[136] they also -cut a notch in the end of a bone, into which the edge of the flake -is inserted and a chip broken off by a sideways blow.[137] According -to the same author, the Eskimo sometimes set the flake in a piece of -split wood. The arrow is roughly chipped by blows with a hammer, either -direct or with a punch interposed, and is then finished by pressing -off fine chips with a point of antler set in an ivory handle.[138] Not -only leaf-shape barbed arrows, but also ones either with or without -the stem, can be produced by pressure with a point of antler; the -former, however, are the more easily made, and were probably earlier in -use.[139] - -The Plains Indians lay the flat side of a flake of obsidian on a -blanket, or other yielding substance, and with a knife nick off the -edges rapidly. In their primitive state they probably used buckskin -instead of the blankets, and pointed bone or horn instead of the -knife.[140] - -The Apache holds the flake or flint in his left hand, places his punch -at the point where the chip is to be broken off, and it is struck by an -assistant, thus knocking a chip from the under side; the flake is then -turned and the process repeated, until the arrow is complete. The stone -is held in the hand, as it can not be chipped on a hard substance.[141] -A punch observed by Catlin in use by these Indians was a whale tooth -6 or 7 inches long, with one round and two flat sides. The Fuegians, -according to the same authority, use a similar process and make as fine -implements.[142] - -The Eskimo make a spoon-shaped cavity in a log, lay the flake over it, -and press along the margin, first on one side and then on the other, -like setting a saw, until they form two sharp serrated edges. The -working tool is a point of antler firmly bound into a piece of ivory. -The same plan is used by widely separated peoples.[143] - -Nilsson, in chipping out gun flints with a stone hammer, found it -necessary to have the point operated on lie immediately above a point -that rested on the rock “anvil” which he used.[144] - -The Veeard or Wiyot of California used a pair of buck-horn pincers -tied together with a thong at the point; they first hammered out the -arrowhead in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nipped -off one tiny fragment after another.[145] The Klamath cover the hand -with a piece of buckskin to keep it from being cut, and lay a flake -along the ball of the thumb, holding it firmly with the fingers. With a -point of antler from 4 to 6 inches long, they press against the edge, -thus removing scales from the opposite side; they turn the flake around -and over frequently, to preserve symmetry.[146] - -The Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, holds the edge of the -flake against it, and with his stone hammer chips off flakes, finishing -the base first, and gently chipping the whole arrow into shape. Both -obsidian and glass are used.[147] The Shoshoni Indians used the same -process.[148] - -A Pit River Indian has been seen to make a very sharp and piercing -arrow from a piece of quartz, with only a piece of round bone, one end -of which was hemispherical with a small crease in it (as if made by a -thread) one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The arrow was made by pressing -off flakes by main strength, the crease being to prevent the bone from -slipping, and affording no leverage.[149] John Smith (1607) says of the -Powhatan Indian: - - His arrowhead he maketh quickly, with a little bone, of any - splint of stone or glass.[150] - -The Cloud River Indian used two deer prongs, one much smaller than the -other, the points ground to the form of a square, sharp-pointed file. -He had also some pieces of iron wire tied to sticks and ground in the -same manner; these were better than the deer horn, because harder, and -not needing to be sharpened so often. The flake was held firmly in the -left hand, guarded by a piece of buckskin; he pressed off chips with -the larger tool, turning the arrow end-for-end when done on one side, -so as to keep the edge opposite the middle line. The notches for barbs -were worked out in a similar manner with the smaller tool.[151] - -Some of the California Indians prefer agate and obsidian for their -implements, as the close grain admits more careful working. They use a -tool with its working edge shaped like a glazier’s diamond (apparently -a piece of bone or antler with a square-cut notch on the side); the -flake is held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool -is used to chip small fragments.[152] Peale makes similar statements, -and adds that the notches are of different sizes to suit the different -stages of work.[153] - -The Klamath Indians, according to Schumacher, have a slender stick 1½ -feet long, with a piece of sea-lion tooth, or antler, fastened to the -end of it. Holding one end under the arm to steady it, they take a -flake in the left hand, wrapped in a piece of buckskin so as to leave -only the edge exposed, and by pressure with the point of the tool break -off flakes as large as necessary, the last being quite fine, to give -sharp edges to the arrow. The notches are worked out by means of a -point of bone 4 or 5 inches long, without a shaft.[154] Chase gives a -similar account, but says that iron points have now taken the place of -the bone or horn points formerly used.[155] - -It may not be out of place in this connection to give a few quotations -in regard to the length of time required for making an arrowhead. - -According to the Marquis de Nadaillac, the Mexicans could turn out -a hundred flint knives (probably only unworked obsidian flakes) an -hour,[156] while Crook says that the Plains Indians with only a knife -for nicking off the edges, will make from fifty to one hundred arrows -in the same period.[157] Chase found that a Klamath Indian required -five minutes to complete a perfect arrowhead;[158] though Stevens -observes that a Shasta Indian spent an hour in chipping one from a -flake of obsidian,[159] and Lubbock states that the most skillful -Indian workmen can not hope to complete more than a single arrow -in a day’s hard work.[160] Powers also speaks of the aborigines of -California as "using that infinite patience which is characteristic of -the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, upon a single piece;[161] and -Tylor notes “that utter disregard of time that lets the Indian spend a -month in making an arrow.”[162] - -The last two references are probably to the large and finely worked -pieces used for ceremonial or ornamental purposes. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE IMPLEMENTS. - -The only practicable division of the greater part of the smaller flints -is into stemmed and stemless, the former having a prolongation at the -base for firmer attachment to a shaft or handle, the latter being of a -triangular or oval shape. The stemmed implements may be barbed or not, -and the stem either narrower or broader toward the end. - -The name “arrowhead” so commonly applied, fits only the minority of -specimens, as none but the smaller ones could be so used; the larger -are too heavy. The longest stone arrowpoint in the extensive collection -of arrows in the National Museum measures two and five-eighths inches -in length and is narrow and thin. An arrowpoint two inches in length is -seldom seen. The larger specimens were probably knives and spearheads; -but it would be difficult to assign any certain use for a particular -type, the markings on so many indicate usage for which their shape -would seem to render them unsuitable. It is probable that a single -specimen served a variety of purposes. - -Wood, bone, and shell were also used to a considerable extent, in -the manufacture of implements for which flint would seem much better -adapted. Thus for fish spears the southern Indians used canes, -sharp-pointed, barbed, and hardened in the fire,[163] while knives were -formerly made of flint or cane; these are still used when the hunting -knife has been lost.[164] The California Indians had arrows tipped -with hard-pointed wood for common use, and with agate or obsidian for -war.[165] - -The accompanying diagram (figure 176) will render plain the different -terms used in the following descriptions: - -[Illustration: FIG. 176--Diagram, explaining terms. - - KEY: - _a_ Point. - _b_ Edge. - _c_ Face. - _d_ Bevel.[166] - _e_ Blade. - _f_ Tang. - _g_ Stem. - _h_ Base. - _i_ Notch. - _k_ Neck. - _m_ Barb, or shoulder. -] - -The only difference between barb and shoulder is that the barb is -prolonged toward the base. The shoulder is called squared or rounded -according to whether the edge of the implement makes an angle or a -curve where drawn in to form the stem. - -In the stemless specimens the base is the end opposite the point. - -A tapering stem means one narrowing toward the base; straight, one -whose sides are parallel; and expanding, one which is widest at the -base. - - -STEMLESS FLINTS. - -CHARACTERS AND USES. - -The stemless flints are triangular or oval in outline. For convenience -they will be divided into those small enough for arrowpoints (not above -2½ inches long) and those which are too large for such purpose. The -latter reach to the length of 7½ inches. They are chipped to a sharp -edge all around. The ratio of width to length varies from 1:4 to 4:5. - -These objects were mostly for use as knives, scrapers or spearheads. -Some of the thicker ones were spikes for clubs. Abbott[167] mentions -three triangular jasper implements 3 to 4 inches long from graves, -associated with fragments of large bones which showed plainly that -they had been used for clubs, and the Iroquois are known to have used -a club with a sharp-pointed deer-horn about four inches long inserted -in the lower side. Schoolcraft[168] illustrates a pointed stone with -a square section (apparently of the class usually called “picks”), -mounted in a club which is curved at the end to let the spike set in -the end at a right angle to the handle; and Brickell observes that the -North Carolina Indians used clubs or long poles, in the ends of which -were fastened artificially sharpened stones, or horns of animals.[169] -Morgan also notes that among the Iroquois rows of arrow-shaped chert -heads about two feet in extent have been found lying side by side. They -were set in a frame and fastened with thongs, forming a species of -sword.[170] According to Tylor the Mexicans had a similar sword, with -obsidian teeth gummed in holes in a war club,[171] and Bourke observed -at Taos pueblo a similar weapon with iron teeth.[172] But the number of -specimens found mounted indicates that most of them were used as knives -or scrapers. - - -LARGER IMPLEMENTS. - -_A._ With base and edges straight or slightly convex; corners square. -The type illustrated in figure 177 is from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Similar forms come also from eastern Tennessee; central -and western North Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto -valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern and -southwestern Arkansas; northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and Coosa -valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern -and central Kentucky; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--Triangular chipped flint.] - -_B._ Base straight or nearly so; edges parallel most of the length, -curving abruptly to a point; usually with one face less convex than the -other, even quite flat, giving a plano-convex section; medium size. -The specimen shown in figure 178, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, -is representative. Other examples come from eastern Tennessee; central -North Carolina; northwestern Alabama; Kanawha valley; and southwestern -Illinois. - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Chipped flint.] - -_C._ Base straight or nearly so; corners square or slightly rounded; -edges convex, curving gradually and regularly to the point; usually -widest about one-third of the way above the base; varying much in -width, and in length from 6½ inches down to the arrowpoint. A few of -the largest have the edges slightly expanding at their junction with -the base, for firmer attachment to a handle. The type is figure 179 -(from Loudon county, Tennessee). Other specimens are from eastern -Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, -Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; eastern, southern, -and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Arkansas; central and -northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; southwestern -Illinois; and Coosa valley, Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--Chipped flint.] - -_D._ Narrow and thick; up to 6 inches long; convex base; edges straight -to the base, where they expand somewhat, giving the implement a bell -shape. The largest specimen in the lot (figure 180) has both faces -polished almost the entire length, a feature absent from all the -others. This example is from Caldwell county, North Carolina. The form -is found also in central and western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, -northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and northeastern Arkansas. Few -of the flints occur in the collection except from the two localities -first mentioned, where they are moderately abundant. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape.] - -_E._ Elliptical outline; some very thin, others resembling celts. -One from Kanawha valley has the projecting facets and ridges on one -face very smooth from use, those on the other being still sharp, as -when first chipped. The one figured has the edge worn smooth entirely -around, seemingly from use as a cutting tool, the ends being most worn. -Represented by figure 181 (from Dane county, Wisconsin). Found also in -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; northeastern -Arkansas; central and western North Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; -Kanawha valley; and South Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Chipped flint, elliptical outline.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline.] - -_F._ With the outline a continuous curve from the point entirely -around, the base being regularly rounded. This is the model of the -pointed oval or leaf-shape flint. Sometimes one face is flatter than -the other, being less worked, or in a few cases the unaltered flat side -of a flake. Usually they are quite symmetrical, but occasionally one -edge is more curved than the other. The type illustrated in figure -182 is from Vernon county, Wisconsin. Other specimens are from western -and central Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, -and central Ohio; southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley; northeastern -Kentucky; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northwestern and -northeastern Georgia, and Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--Chipped flint.] - -_G._ With convex edges and slightly convex base; being a medium between -the triangular and the leaf-shape. Some are quite narrow and thick, -others wide and thin; the former probably clubs or spearheads, the -latter knives. A good example, shown in figure 183, is from Savannah, -Georgia. Others are from central Arkansas; central Ohio; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley; central North Carolina; southern Wisconsin; -northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; northeastern Alabama; and South -Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical -outline.] - -_H._ Pointed at each end; mostly elliptical, though sometimes widest -near one end; from 5 to 12 inches long. Nearly all are thin and -finely worked, with sharp edges. One from Cheatham county, Tennessee, -has a deep notch on each edge about one-third of the way from one -end, this end being somewhat rounded. The type (figure 184) is from -Lonoke county, Arkansas. Other specimens are from central Arkansas, -southwestern Illinois, northern and eastern Tennessee. - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Chipped flint, large, long sharp point.] - -_I._ A similar pattern, but having one end continued into a narrow -point, shown in figure 185, is from Bartow county, Georgia. Another of -the same kind comes from Loudon county, Tennessee. - -_J._ Similar to group _H_, but with the edges straight for more than -half the length, probably to afford a more convenient hold for the -hand. The form is shown in figure 186, representing a specimen from -Mississippi county, Arkansas. Others are from northwestern Georgia, -southwestern Illinois, and northeastern Arkansas. There are a few -similar in method of chipping to those of group _I_, but smaller and -very narrow, from eastern and western Tennessee and northeastern -Arkansas. - -_K._ Double-pointed or lenticular in outline; quite symmetrical; from -2 to 4 inches long; thin and well worked. Represented in northeastern -Arkansas; South Carolina; central and western North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; Scioto valley, and central Ohio; Kanawha valley; and -northwestern Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Chipped flint, large.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Chipped flint.] - -_L._ With straight or concave base; edges diverging by straight or -slightly convex lines for about half the length from the base, then -curving to the point. There is considerable variation in the relative -width of these, as well as the amount of concavity at the base. None -with this outline of the edges has a convex base. From 2 to 6 inches -long. The form is illustrated by figures 187 (from Lawrence county, -Ohio), and 188 (from Blount county, Tennessee). In addition to the -specimens figured, there is material in the collection from Scioto -valley, Ohio; central and western North Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; Brown -county, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa -valley in the same state; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--Chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Chipped flint, with shoulders.] - -_M._ A modification of the last form in which the edge expands just -at the base, forming a point at each corner or shoulder. Illustrated -in figure 189. The specimen figured is from Forsyth county, Georgia. -Others are from northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Wisconsin; and Kanawha valley. - - -SMALLER OBJECTS. - -Small triangular or oval arrowpoints, differing from those previously -described in being too small for any similar uses, few of them being -so much as two inches in length, and varying from that size to not -more than half an inch. Nearly all are very thin, though some of the -narrower ones may have a diamond or thick lenticular section. Some are -very slender, so much so that they are usually classed as perforators; -others are equilateral. Both the base and edges may be straight, -convex, or concave. A few have a shallow notch in each edge just above -the corner; nearly all, however, have both base and edge continuous. - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--Chipped flint, small.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -The groups and subdivisions which have been recognized among the -smaller chipped flint objects in the Bureau collection may be -enumerated as follows: - -_A._ Concave base. The concavity may vary from almost a straight line -to one-third the length of the flint. Usually symmetric, as in figures -190 and 191, though sometimes one tang or barb, if it may be called -such, is longer than the other, as in figure 192. A very few have -beveled or serrated edges. - -1. Convex edges. The type, shown in figure 190, is from Jefferson -county, Tennessee. Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; Union -county, Mississippi; northwestern Georgia, and Bibb county and Savannah -in the same state; central and western North Carolina; Miami and -Scioto valleys and central Ohio; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South -Carolina; and southwestern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--Chipped flint, asymmetric.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--Chipped flint, concave edges.] - -2. Straight edges, as in the specimen illustrated in figure 191, from -Ouachita county, Arkansas. Similar specimens are found in northeastern -and southwestern Arkansas; western and central North Carolina; Kanawha -valley; eastern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern -Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Union county, -Mississippi; and northeastern Kentucky. - -3. Concave edges. This abundant form is illustrated in figures 192 -(Cherokee county, Georgia), 193 (Caldwell county, North Carolina), -and 194 (Washington county, Virginia). Other specimens are from -northwestern Georgia and Savannah; central and western North Carolina; -Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern -Arkansas; South Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, -Alabama. This subdivision of group _A_ is abundant, as well as widely -distributed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -_B._ With straight bases. These are all small, the broad ones being -short and the long ones slender. Most of them are both short and narrow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--Chipped flint, small.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--Chipped flint, short, convex edges.] - -1. Convex edges as in figures 195 (McMinn county, Tennessee) and -196 (Bradley county, Tennessee). The form is widely distributed, -being represented by specimens from eastern Tennessee; northeastern, -southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; -northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha -valley; Union county, Mississippi; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern -Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; southern and southwestern -Wisconsin; and western North Carolina. - -2. Straight edges. Exemplified by the specimen shown in figure 197, -from McMinn county, Tennessee. Found also in eastern Tennessee; -northeastern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, -Mississippi; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern, -southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North -Carolina; Bartow county and Savannah, Georgia; South Carolina, and -northeastern Kentucky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--Chipped flint, triangular.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--Chipped flint, concave edges.] - -3. Concave edges, as in figure 198 (from Bledsoe county, Tennessee). -Other examples of this class are from eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, -Ohio; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley, West -Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; western and central North Carolina; -northeastern Alabama; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_C._ Convex bases. Less abundant than the preceding, and the forms -representing it are less variable. Its sub-groups are as follows: - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--Chipped flint, convex base.] - -1. Convex edges. Some of these have a slight reverse curve at the base, -giving a slight barb or shoulder. A few are widest at or near the -middle, with bases somewhat pointed, but most of them are widest at -the junction of the base and edges. They are mostly of the leaf-shaped -type, but quite small. Figure 199 (Mississippi county, Arkansas) is a -good example. Others are from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; -eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; northwestern -Georgia; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois, and Miami valley, -Ohio. - -2. Edges concave or nearly straight. There are very few of this form, -as nearly all with the base convex have the edges also convex. The type -(figure 200) is from Lawrence county, Ohio; others are from Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; and southeastern and southwestern -Arkansas. - -Two exceptional forms, which may be considered modifications of the -triangular, come from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. -The first, which is pentagonal, is shown in figure 201; the second, -a medium between a perforator and a deeply serrated, triangular -arrowpoint, is shown in figure 202. - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--Chipped flint, edges concave.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--Chipped flint, pentagonal.] - -While it is likely that the smaller flints, last described, were -intended for arrows, it can not be stated with confidence whether they -were for use in war or in hunting. It is said that some of the western -Indians used barbless arrows with, long, tapering blades, firmly -attached to the shaft, for hunting, while for war barbed arrows, only -slightly attached, were employed.[173] - -In many arrows with triangular points in the National Museum the sinew -with which the flint is fastened to the shaft is brought over the -corner or shoulder in such a way as to bind the point as firmly as -could be done if it were barbed or stemmed, so that when the shaft is -drawn from a wound the point must come with it. If an arrowhead of this -form were inserted in a shaft, which was then wrapped behind the flint, -the latter would remain in the wound when the shaft was withdrawn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--Chipped flint, narrow and thick.] - -There is no reason for supposing that only the larger points were used -for war purposes; the greater penetrating power of the thin, sharp ones -would seem to fit them especially for such work, and it is probable -that the smaller straight or tapering-stemmed flints (next to be -described) were also utilized for this purpose, as they could be easily -detached. Those with expanding stem may have been used for hunting, as -they could be permanently fastened to the shaft. - - -STEMMED FLINTS. - -The abundant and variable material of this class may roughly be grouped -by form into two divisions, in the first of which the stem is tapering -or straight, while in the second the stem is generally expanding. - - -STRAIGHT OR TAPER STEMS. - -_A._ Square or rounded shoulders; stem concave at base; edges usually -convex, rarely straight or concave. Nearly all are of quartzite or -coarse flint, roughly worked, the one illustrated (figure 203) being -above the average, and are mostly from western North Carolina and the -adjacent portions of South Carolina and Tennessee. All of them exceed -three inches in length. Those from Savannah, Georgia, are usually -much wider relative to the length than the specimens in the Bureau -collection from other localities. - -The specimen figured is from Montgomery county, North Carolina; others -are from western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern -Tennessee; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and northwestern -Georgia and Savannah. - -_B._ Similar to the last, except that the base is straight or convex, -instead of concave. Large size, and nearly all of rough finish; mostly -of argillite or flint, a few of quartzite. Varying considerably in -width, as well as in thickness, some having almost a diamond section, -others wide and thin, the latter generally having the edges worked -quite sharp. Some are made from a large flake which has been dressed -on one side only. One from Montgomery county, North Carolina, has the -end opposite the stem worked round and sharp, similar to the blunt -arrowheads, but its size excludes it from this class. From Savannah -there are several which are chipped very thin, and smoothly finished, -but they are exceptional; some from this locality are very large, -reaching 5 by 3 inches, while others are almost as wide as they are -long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--Chipped flint stemmed, barbless.] - -The specimens of this form are chiefly from western and central North -Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Georgia, -and Savannah; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois; northwestern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; -Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and central Ohio. - -_C._ Of the same general form as the last, but much smaller, and -finely worked. Most seem to be intended for arrowheads. The specimen -illustrated in figure 204 is from Caldwell county, North Carolina; -others are from South Carolina; western and central North Carolina; -Union county, Mississippi; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and -Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Miami valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless.] - -_D._ Convex edges; stem usually tapering with straight base, though it -is noticeable that some are straight with convex base. Resembling the -last in form, but slender; from 1¾ to 4¼ inches long. From western and -central North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and Savannah, -Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--Chipped flint, expanding shoulder.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--Chipped flint, double-curved edges.] - -_E._ Differing from specimen shown in figure 203, in having the edges -expand at the shoulders in a projection or point, and varying more -in size, some being small enough for arrowheads. All from Savannah -(including the example shown in figure 205) are of smoother finish -than those from other sections, and are usually larger, ranging -from 2½ to 4½ inches long. There are some from this locality with -base straight or convex. Found also in western and central North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Coosa -valley and northeastern Alabama; Brown county, Illinois; northeastern, -southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia. - -_F._ Edge having a double curve, being convex toward the point, and -curving outward at the shoulders. Few of them are barbed, though many -have the shoulder much expanded. Base sometimes convex or concave, but -more often straight; in a few it is somewhat pointed. In most of the -smaller specimens the base is notched, but of these none are over 2½ -inches long. Stem tapering or expanding, rarely straight. A few have -the base rubbed smooth and dull, or even polished (this feature appears -in other forms, as noted); it seems to result from use as a knife or -scraper, but the implement as a whole does not appear to be adapted -to such use. None of them are over 3½ inches long, except a few from -Savannah; all from there are wide, but from other places the longer -ones are all narrow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--Chipped flint, double-curved edges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering -stem.] - -The specimens illustrated (figures 206 and 207) are from Madison -county, Alabama, and Kanawha valley, respectively. Others are from -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Catahoula -parish, Louisiana; western and central North Carolina; southwestern -Illinois and Brown county in the same state; South Carolina; -southwestern Arkansas; and Miami valley, Ohio. - -_G._ Convex edges; sharp points; stem always long and tapering; base -somewhat pointed, or outline of whole stem forming a regular curve. -Some slightly barbed, but mostly with only a small shoulder. The -specimens vary much in size, and also in delicacy of workmanship. -Classed by function the group would probably be divided among several. -The example shown in figure 208 is from Jackson county, Illinois. -Others come from southwestern Illinois; eastern Tennessee; South -Carolina; Kanawha valley; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern -Arkansas; western and central Arkansas; and southern Wisconsin. - -_H._ Similar to group _G_, save that the edges are straight while the -stem is somewhat shorter. All the specimens are small. Found in western -North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and -southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--Chipped flint with long, tapering stem.] - -_I._ Differing from group _G_ in having concave sides; none are barbed, -and some have very wide shoulders. Nearly all are large. Two from -Savannah have the base straight, all the others being of the common -type. The type (fairly exemplified in figure 209) is from Union county, -Illinois, and others come from southwestern Illinois; southwestern -Arkansas; South Carolina; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West -Virginia; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge -shape.] - -_J._ Lozenge or diamond shape; the four edges straight or nearly so, -varying a little toward convexity or concavity. In some the base -does not come to a point but is rounded or truncated; sometimes, -though seldom, there is a slight shoulder. From 1¼ to 3½ inches long. -A typical example, shown in figure 210, is from Chester county, -South Carolina. Additional material is from South Carolina; Kanawha -valley; Brown and Ogle counties, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; western -North Carolina; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia; southeastern and -southwestern Arkansas; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, -Alabama. - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_K._ Edges usually convex, sometimes nearly straight, gradually -rounding off into the stem, which may be straight, tapering, or -slightly expanding; base straight or slightly convex. All of these -are narrow, mostly thick, and none over two inches long. The type -(figure 211) is from Bledsoe county, Tennessee; others are from eastern -Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; -northwestern Georgia; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; -Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; -and northeastern and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_L._ Edges convex, a very few being straight; shoulders square or -somewhat rounded, in two or three somewhat expanding. Stem usually -straight, sometimes tapering; base straight or convex. Varying much -in size and relative width, being from 1¼ to 4½ inches long, and from -¾ to 2½ inches wide; some slender, others broad. Nearly all are quite -roughly made. Illustrated in figure 212 (from Cherokee county, Georgia). - -Like many other forms of small chipped implements, the distribution -in this type is wide. It comes from northwestern Georgia and about -Savannah; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; Miami valley, Ohio; -southwestern Illinois; western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; and -southwestern Arkansas. - -_M._ Convex edges; sharp points; very slight shoulders; stem tapering -by curved lines; base convex or somewhat pointed. All made of quartz, -quartzite, or coarse flint, and differing from the following group only -in being very slender and, owing to the material employed, much more -roughly finished. Found in western North Carolina, in South Carolina, -and in southwestern Arkansas. - -_N._ Convex edges; remarkably symmetrical outline; most specimens -finely finished; slight shoulders; tapering stem, with convex base, the -whole stem having a quite regularly curved outline. From 2 to 4½ inches -long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid.] - -The type which is shown in figure 213 is from Dane county, Wisconsin. -This group also is widely distributed, being found in southern and -southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; -Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio, and the central part of the same -state; northeastern, central, and southeastern Arkansas; western North -Carolina; and Kanawha valley. - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--Stemmed chipped flint, short blade.] - -_O._ Differing from group _N_ only in having longer stems and shorter -blades, the latter sometimes less than an inch. Illustrated in figure -214 (from Kanawha valley). Found also in Scioto valley and in central -Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern -Georgia. - -_P._ Convex edges; square shoulders; stem forming a quite regular -and continuous curve, slightly expanding in some specimens. The one -shown in figure 215, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, has the most -symmetric outline of any specimen in the entire collection. There -are other specimens from Kanawha valley, and also from northeastern -Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; Washington county, Pennsylvania; eastern -and western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_Q._ Similar to group _P_ except that stem and base are straight. They -are symmetric and well finished, vary more in size than those of the -last group, being from 1¼ to 4¼ inches long, the others not reaching -either of these limits. - -The type (figure 216) comes from Knox county, Ohio, and other specimens -from Miami valley and central Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; northeastern -Kentucky; Kanawha valley; eastern and western Tennessee; eastern, -southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia; and southwestern Illinois. - -_R._ Edges generally convex, sometimes straight; base straight or -convex, only rarely concave; shoulders usually square, sometimes -rounded; stem expanding by straight lines. From less than an inch to 3½ -inches long, mostly about the medium. - -The form, which resembles that shown in figure 216 in a general way, -is widely distributed, its range including Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and -Scioto valleys, Ohio; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia, as well as -the northwestern part of the state; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley, -West Virginia; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; northeastern Kentucky; -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North -Carolina; and northeastern Alabama. - -_S._ Differing from group _Q_ in having the blade short, stem long (in -some cases longer than blade), and only slight shoulders. Base somewhat -convex in a few specimens; from an inch to 2¼ inches in length. From -Kanawha valley; northwestern Georgia; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -southwestern Arkansas; southern Wisconsin; and northeastern Alabama. - -Beginning with those of group _N_ and ending with those last described, -all the best worked and most finely finished specimens are from Kanawha -valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky, and the central and -southern parts of Ohio. - -_T._ Convex edges; square shoulders; slender; very long and slender -tapering or straight stem, coming almost to a point at the base. -Illustrated in figure 217 (from Kanawha valley). Others are from -central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; and -Catahoula parish, Louisiana. The specimens from the two latter -districts have the stem wider and less pointed than the others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or -shoulder.] - -_U._ With one large, much expanded shoulder, the other being absent or -very slight; both edges convex, or one convex and the other straight; -stem sometimes straight, but usually tapering, being almost pointed -in some; base usually convex, sometimes straight, rarely concave. A -specimen from Ross county, Ohio, has the base deeply notched; it seems -to have been symmetrical originally, and one barb or shoulder being -broken, to have had that edge dressed down. Many were thus reworked, -but in most cases it is evident that the form is original. Some are -slender, others broad. - -The type shown in figure 218 is from Bowie county, Texas. Other -examples are from southwestern Arkansas; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; -Scioto valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; western and central North -Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; northeastern Alabama; as -well as from northwestern Georgia and about Savannah. - - -EXPANDING STEMS. - -In this class of flints the stem is expanding, unless the contrary is -stated. The majority of specimens having barbs belong to this class; -while those with straight or tapering stem usually have only square or -rounded shoulders, the barb seldom appearing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--Stemmed chipped flint, short.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_A._ Short and broad; base usually straight, sometimes convex, rarely -concave; notched in from edges to form the stem; very seldom with -well-defined shoulders, and never barbed. The type, illustrated in -figure 219, is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Found also in -northeastern Kentucky; western North Carolina; northwestern Georgia and -about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Union -county, Mississippi. - -_B._ Edges convex, seldom straight; base straight or rarely convex or -concave; notched in on edges close to base, so as to leave a slight -tang; thin and well worked; from an inch to 2¼ inches long. All from -Savannah have concave bases; a few are notched so as to have slight -shoulders, and they are somewhat larger than from other localities. -They fit better in this group, however, than in any other. A typical -example, shown in figure 220, is from Montgomery county, North -Carolina. Others are from central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; various localities in South Carolina; and about -Savannah, Georgia. - -_C._ Roughly made; unsymmetrical, seemingly made hastily; of various -patterns, including all the common shapes. Nearly all with convex -edges, few straight, none concave. Base straight or concave, often the -natural surface or fracture of the stone. Sometimes made from the tip -of a broken larger specimen. From 1 to 5 inches long; slender or wide; -usually thick, except when made from a thin flake. Edges notched just -at the base in some, leaving a slight tang; others have the corners -chipped out. This group is quite variable in size and in character of -workmanship, as well as in form. The material also is variable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The types (figures 221 and 222) are, respectively, from Bledsoe and -Polk counties, Tennessee. The range includes eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; eastern and southwestern -Wisconsin; northeastern Alabama and Tuscaloosa valley; South Carolina; -southwestern and northeastern Arkansas; central Ohio and Scioto valley; -northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Georgia, as well as Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex.] - -_D._ Edges convex, rarely straight; base straight or convex; slender; -from 1¼ to 4 inches long; usually thin; deeply notched, with edges -worked close to base, leaving the latter as wide as the blade, or -nearly so. This form could be quite firmly attached to a shaft or -handle. It is illustrated by figure 223, representing one of the -specimens from Kanawha valley. It is found also in southwestern -Illinois and Brown county in the same state; eastern, southern, and -southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; northwestern Georgia; central Ohio and Scioto valley; -southeastern Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; and Coosa and Tuscaloosa -valleys, Alabama. - -_E._ Edges convex; base straight or convex; shoulders square or -rounded; stem expanding by curved lines. A few are small enough for -arrows, but most of them are large or of medium size. The specimen from -Vernon county, Wisconsin, illustrated in figure 224, is representative. -The group is characteristic of southwestern Wisconsin; Kanawha valley; -central Ohio and Scioto valley; western and central North Carolina; -eastern Tennessee; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern -Illinois; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_F._ Edges straight or convex; long barbs, sometimes reaching to -the base; stem straight or slightly tapering; base straight, or -very slightly convex or concave, usually well finished. One barb is -sometimes longer than the other, or the stem may be to one side of -the center line. Sometimes made of a flake, the flat side being left -untouched. - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs.] - -The type shown in figure 225 is from Madison county, Alabama. It is -found generally in northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and also in -eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Holt county, Missouri; -southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; northwestern -Georgia and about Savannah; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Kentucky, and western and central North Carolina. - -_G._ Similar to the last, but with stem expanding by straight or curved -lines; base always straight in larger specimens, sometimes convex or -concave in smaller ones. Barbs varying in length, short in some and -reaching nearly to the base in others. From three-fourths to 3¾ inches -in length, and varying much in width. - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -Figure 226 represents a typical example from Jackson county, Illinois. -The range, which is quite wide, includes southwestern Illinois; -northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Miami and -Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; -western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; -northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_H._ Wide blade; short; convex edges; square shoulders or slight barbs; -base convex or concave; stem broad and expanding by curved lines; -generally thick. Those with convex base are all of medium size, while -those with concave base range from an inch to 4 inches in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The form is indicated in figure 227, representing a good specimen -from Dane county, Wisconsin. It is found over southern Wisconsin; -northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; southwestern Illinois and Brown -county in the same state; central North Carolina; northwestern Georgia -and about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; and Keokuk, Iowa. - -_I._ Edges parallel, or nearly so most of the length, with abrupt -curve to the point; base straight or slightly convex; stem expanding -by straight or curved lines; notched in from the corners of the base -giving long barbs, which, in a few, project slightly beyond the line of -edges; thin; well worked; from 2 to 4 inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--Stemmed chipped flint, broad point.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender point.] - -The specimen illustrated in figure 228 is from Dane county, Wisconsin, -and there are several others from southern Wisconsin; southwestern -Illinois; Scioto valley, Ohio; and Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_J._ Edges convex or sometimes straight; base straight or slightly -convex. Notched in on the edges, leaving the stem nearly or quite as -wide at the bottom as the blade; corners of the base square or slightly -rounded. Mostly small, suitable for arrows, though a few are larger, -up to 3¼ inches. A few of these have the base polished. Some of the -small ones are made of flakes having the natural, conchoidal shape and -worked on one side only. Typical forms, shown in figures 229 and 230, -are from Kanawha valley, and Nicholas county, Kentucky, respectively. -The distribution extends also over southern and southwestern Wisconsin; -Miami valley, Ohio; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern Kentucky; Brown -county, Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; eastern -Tennessee, and about Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Stemmed chipped flint, thin.] - -_K._ Straight or convex edges (a few serrated or beveled); base -straight, sometimes polished; notched in from the corners so as to give -sharp barbs, with wide stem expanding by straight lines. Medium size. -Illustrated in figure 231 (Bradley county, Tennessee). Found in eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; South -Carolina; and about Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_L._ Very thin; well worked; usually quite symmetrical; base straight -or slightly concave; stem expanding by curved lines; with shoulders -or barbs; base with sharp tangs. Some specimens quite slender, others -almost as wide as long. Few are above two inches in length. The edge -is sometimes a broken line instead of a regular curve. The form is -shown in figures 232 and 233, representing specimens from Lawrence -county, Ohio, and Loudon county, Tennessee, respectively. Others are -from Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; -western and central North Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; -northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Illinois. - -_M._ Convex edges; usually quite symmetric; base generally straight, -although sometimes convex or concave; stem expanding by straight or -curved lines, and notched in from the corners by a narrow notch whose -sides are parallel. Sometimes beveled (or feathered). The barb as -well as the notch of the same width throughout its entire length. The -type (figure 234) is from Knox county, Ohio, and similar forms come -from central Ohio; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; southern -Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; -and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_N._ Straight, or rarely convex, edges; base straight or slightly -curved, with rounded corners; notched in on the edges above the -corners, with sharp barbs. Nearly every specimen is beveled, and some -are serrated. Base polished in many of them even when slightly concave. -A good example from Ross county, Ohio, is represented in figure 235. -Others are from Miami and Scioto valleys and elsewhere in Ohio, as -well as from Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern Alabama; -southwestern Georgia, and about Savannah in the same state. The style -of chipping is frequently such as to give serrated edges, as in the -specimen figured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small -stem.] - -_O._ Long; slender; thin; short, small stem; convex base; notched -upward from the corners of the base; short barbs. The type shown in -figure 236 is from Loudon county, Tennessee, and other specimens come -from eastern Tennessee and southeastern Arkansas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched.] - -_P._ Convex edges and base; sometimes, though very seldom, the edges -are nearly straight; the typical, leaf-shape implement, except for the -notch, which is always worked in from the widest part of the specimen -at right angles to the axis. The base is invariably polished, even in -the smallest specimens. From Licking county (figure 237) as well as -from Miami valley and throughout central Ohio; Kanawha valley; eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; northeastern Alabama; southern -Wisconsin; and about Savannah, Georgia. - -_Q._ Edges less convex than the last, sometimes straight; the notches -are worked in nearer the base, going in an angle of about 45 degrees, -instead of perpendicular to the middle line or axis. Sometimes the -blade is of uniform thickness until very close to the edges, which are -worked off in a double chisel-edge. Very few of these, or of group _P_, -are small enough for arrows. Usually symmetrical and well finished; the -base always polished, but whether from use or to add to the utility of -the specimen can not be determined. From Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, -Iowa; southwestern Wisconsin; and eastern Tennessee. - -_R._ Differing from the two last described only in being longer, and -in having the stem always come to a point by either convex or concave -lines, instead of being regularly convex; base never polished. From -Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and central Arkansas. - -_S._ Edges usually straight, sometimes concave, rarely convex; notched -in deeply from edges; seldom barbed; stem nearly always wider than -the blade, and large. Base convex; occasionally somewhat concave with -rounded corners, and nearly always polished. Some (including all from -the Savannah collection) are beveled and a few have blunt and rounded -points, apparently broken specimens reworked. From less than an inch -to nearly 3 inches long. Even among the very small ones, some have the -base polished. - -An implement of this form, or of any form in which the stem is wide -or with very long tangs, and especially with concave base, would be -well adapted for hunting purposes. The wide stem would allow firm -attachment to a shaft, whether as an arrow or a spear, and at the same -time would be very difficult to withdraw from a wound. The shaft would -impede the flight of an animal pierced by the weapon, particularly in -weeds or bushes; though greater force would be required with these than -with the more slender points to make them effective. - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The type delineated in figure 238 is from Warren county, Ohio, and -the form is well represented also in Scioto and Miami valleys, Ohio; -western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; southern -and southwestern Wisconsin; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; -northeastern Kentucky; northeastern Alabama; and about Savannah, -Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide -stem.] - -_T._ Convex edges; base straight, or slightly convex or concave, -with square corners, and nearly always polished; stem as wide as the -blade or wider. Some rather slender, others as wide as long. Very few -are beveled, except those from Savannah, all of which are thus made. -From three-fourths to 2¼ inches long. Found in eastern Tennessee; -Kanawha valley (including the specimen shown in figure 239); western -North Carolina; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; South Carolina; -southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; and in the vicinity of -Savannah. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide -stem.] - -_U._ Edges usually straight, sometimes convex; base regularly concave, -or rounding off into a convex curve at the corners, and nearly always -polished. The stem in all is wider than the blade. Those from Savannah -are all beveled, and but few of them have polished bases. The type, -illustrated in figure 240, is from Kanawha valley, and others come from -Kanawha valley; southern Wisconsin; Scioto valley; eastern Tennessee; -southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_V._ Edges convex, seldom straight, never concave; usually well -finished; base concave; notch worked in from the edge above the corner -so as to leave the upper portion of the tang parallel to the lower, -or base; corners square. Few are beveled. The length is from 1 to 4 -inches, the width also varying considerably; some are widest at or -near the middle of the blade, others are as wide at base as at any -other part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -The form is illustrated in figure 241 (Union county, Illinois). The -distribution is wide, including southwestern Illinois; northwestern -and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha -valley; South Carolina; northwestern Alabama; eastern Tennessee; -eastern and southern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; -southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, -Iowa; and Union county, Mississippi. - -_W._ Edges usually convex, sometimes straight; notched in on the edges -above the corners; base concave; some slender, others broad. Somewhat -resembling the two preceding types, but more roughly made. From 1 to -4 inches long. Represented by material from western and central North -Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and -Coosa valley, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders.] - -_X._ Small; very slender; convex edges, with wing-like barbs or -shoulders; stem slightly expanding by curved lines. This rather rare -type, shown in figure 242 (from Ouachita county, Arkansas), is known -from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas, as well as eastern -Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia. - -_Y._ Edges mostly straight, in a few convex; base straight, convex, or -concave, in some specimens of each being polished; notched in on the -edges just above the corners, notches usually slight; always widest at -base. A few, including all from Savannah, are serrated or beveled. Very -few are over an inch and a half long. They are nearly always thick. One -from Kanawha valley has the point worn perfectly smooth and the edges -polished half way to the base, showing use as a drill. Points of this -form would make the countersunk holes so common in gorgets and other -flat stones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -This form is widely distributed. The type (figure 243) is from Lawrence -county, Ohio. Its range includes Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; -northwestern Georgia and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; -southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; western -North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; southwestern Arkansas; South -Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; and eastern Wisconsin. - -_Z._ Very rough finish; blade more or less worked by first chipping -(there being usually no secondary chipping) to convex edges; base -generally the natural surface of the nodule or pebble from which the -implement was made; notches worked in roughly on the edges. They were -probably knives or spears, or in some cases celts or chisels, though -none show polish. With these are placed a few that seem to be the -points of larger rough implements, broken and having notches worked in -the fragments. A typical form, shown in figure 244, is from Mississippi -county, Arkansas. It occurs also in northeastern Arkansas; Scioto -valley, Ohio; western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and Kanawha -valley, West Virginia. - - -PERFORATORS. - -CHARACTER AND USES. - -The implements variously classed by different writers as awls, drills, -needles, rimmers or reamers, and the like, seem to represent a graded -series, and as no distinction can be made in the different kinds, if, -indeed, there is any room for distinction, they are grouped under one -term, “perforators.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--Stemmed chipped flint, very rough.] - -Very few of the specimens could be used as drills, as most of them -are too thin; only those with a rhomboidal or triangular section -would seem adapted to this purpose, and the majority even of these -seem too fragile. It is more probable that drilling was done with -a stick or horn, with sand as a cutting medium, except in the thin -tablets of slate or similar stone and in shells. The thicker flints -would answer very well for this purpose, and the countersunk holes -appear to indicate such an instrument. For sewing, bone would be -more easily worked, and better suited than flint. The double-pointed -slender specimens may have been used for bait-holders in fishing; bone -implements of a similar shape, with a hole drilled at the middle for -attaching a line, have been seen in use among the Indians of Florida. - -Some such implement was no doubt used in the manner of a burin, -especially in making the fine lines on the ornamented shells or stones; -certain flints in the collection may have served such a purpose. - -Lubbock considers it proved that the stone of which ornaments, -carved axes, etc., are made could be worked with flint, and that the -engraving on the Scotch rocks, even on granite, was executed with this -material;[174] and Bushmen are known to use triangular pieces of flint -for cutting figures in rocks.[175] Evans[176] observes that there are -five ways of making holes in stone, viz.: (1) Chiseling or picking, with -“picks,” “celts,” or “drills” of flint or other stone; (2) boring with -a solid borer, as wood, hard or soft, or horn with sand and water; -(3) grinding with a tubular grinder, as horn, cane, elder, etc., with -sand and water; (4) drilling with a stone drill, e.g., of flint or -sandstone; (5) drilling or punching with metal. It should be remembered -that there are no evidences of the use of any metal except copper for -economic purposes by the aborigines of the United States; and nearly -everything of this material seems to have been ornamental in character. -Bancroft says that the Nootka, in boring in wood, use a bird-bone -drill worked between the hands,[177] while according to Schumacher, -the Santa Barbara Indians chip out rough disks of shell, pierce them -with a flint drill, and enlarge the hole with a slender, round piece -of sandstone.[178] The Atlantic coast Indians drilled shell beads with -a nail stuck in a cane or stick, rolling the drill on their thighs -with the right hand, and holding the shell in the left;[179] and the -southern Indians, according to C. C. Jones, pierced shell beads with -heated copper drills.[180] Evans has found that ox-horn and sand make -good borers,[181] while low tribes on the Amazon make crystal tubes an -inch in diameter and up to 8 inches long by rubbing and drilling with a -flexible shoot of wild plantain, twilled between the hands, with sand -and water;[182] and Tylor expresses the opinion that such operations -are not the result of high mechanical skill, but merely of the most -simple and savage processes.[183] - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--Perforator, not stemmed.] - - -STEMLESS FORMS. - -_A._ Base straight or nearly so; edges straight and parallel, sometimes -half the length from the base, thence with concave curve which is -reversed near the end to give a blunt point; these, usually the wider -ones, are always thin, and were probably knives. The smaller ones, -resembling the small triangular arrows except for the sharpened upper -end, may have been for arrowheads, though the sharp points would have -served well as awls or needles. Many of the smaller ones seem to be -made from small broken arrowheads; exemplified by the specimen from -Montgomery county, North Carolina, shown in figure 245. The collection -includes material from western and central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; Kanawha valley; northeastern Alabama; South Carolina; -Keokuk, Iowa; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.] - -_B._ Slender, somewhat larger about the middle and tapering to a point -at each end, or regularly and gradually decreasing from base to point. -Some are undoubtedly arrowheads, as they are too blunt or too thin -to have been used for piercing. Others show marks of use which could -have been produced in no way except by drilling in stone. The specimen -illustrated in figure 246 (from Kanawha valley) shows this to a marked -degree, while that shown in figure 247 (from Nicholas county, Kentucky) -is without such indications. The distribution of this form is wide, -including Kanawha valley; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; -southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Wisconsin; Coosa valley, Alabama; -northwestern and southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; -and Scioto valley, Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--Perforator, not stemmed, rough base.] - -_C._ With the base very large in ratio to the point or piercer; -sometimes the entire implement is worked smooth or thin, again it is -the natural fragment or chip of stone entirely unworked except a point -flaked on one part or edge. The piercer varies from one-fourth of an -inch to two inches in length. It could have been utilized only as an -“awl” or “needle,” the base being held by the thumb and finger. This -variable form is represented in figure 248 (from Lawrence county, -Ohio). It comes from Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; western and central -North Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern and -southeastern Arkansas; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.] - -_D._ Piercer thin and slender; base thin, expanding to a wing-like -projection on each side. Very few are strong enough to have been -used for drilling even in soft material, but they are excellent for -piercing leather or similar substances. The expanding wings would make -them good points for hunting and fishing arrows, as they would have -great penetrating power and be very difficult to extract from a wound, -while allowing very firm attachment to a shaft. The type, shown in -figure 249, is from Kanawha valley. Other specimens come from the same -locality, and also from southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in -the same state; eastern Tennessee; Keokuk, Iowa; Scioto valley, Ohio; -northeastern Kentucky; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia. - -_E._ With slight expansion at the base. These may be thick or thin, -wide or narrow, and, according to their different forms, might be -used as drills, piercers, or arrowheads. A good example (presented in -figure 250) is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. It is found also in -northeastern Kentucky, northeastern and southeastern Arkansas; eastern -Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southwestern Wisconsin. - -All of the foregoing perforators are without stems, unless the larger -portion left at the base may be considered as such. - - -STEMMED FORMS. - -The form of the stem and shoulders among perforators is often the same -as in the stemmed arrowheads, etc., previously described. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -_A._ Stem usually tapering; shoulder more or less defined; never -barbed; blade wide at the part next to the stem, tapering rapidly -by concave lines to a sharp point. Probably spearpoints or large -arrowheads with the blade worked to a point. The type, shown in figure -251, is from Kanawha valley. - -[Illustration: FIG. 252.--Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders.] - -_B._ Slender point; wide wings or shoulders; stem straight or nearly -so; the implement having the form of a cross. Some are less than an -inch long, and very delicately worked, while others reach 3 inches -in length, and are thick. Some from Savannah have very broad stems. -There is a good example (figure 252) from Ouachita county, Arkansas, -and others from southwestern Arkansas; western North Carolina; and -Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 253.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 254.--Perforator, stemmed.] - -_C._ Narrow and thick almost of a diamond or round section; stem -expanding or straight; with slight shoulders, sometimes slightly -barbed. Some of the thinner ones, probably arrows, have a lenticular -section; a few are triangular in section. This form is well suited for -drilling, and many of the specimens show marks of such use, especially -the one illustrated (figure 253), the edges of which are striated -almost the entire length. This is from Mason county, Kentucky; and -the distribution of the type includes Kanawha valley; Scioto valley, -Ohio; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama; western and central -North Carolina; southeastern and northeastern Arkansas; Brown county, -Illinois; South Carolina; and northeastern Kentucky. Thus the type is -common and its geographic range broad. - -_D._ Long, slender point; shoulders wide or slightly barbed; stem -straight, tapering, or expanding; edges straight or concave. Some -would make good piercers for soft material, but very few could be used -as drills. A majority would be good arrowheads. Some have the edges -smooth, but if this was caused by drilling it must have been done in -enlarging holes already made, since the implements so marked are very -thin. The faces of the blades show no polish or smoothness, such as -might result from use as knives. The specimen illustrated (figure 254) -is from Madison county, Alabama; others from northeastern Alabama and -Coosa valley; Scioto valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western and -central North Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; and -Savannah, Georgia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 255.--Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point.] - -_E._ Stem may be of any form; wide shoulders; never barbed; point or -piercer narrow, well worked, with edges parallel its entire length, and -terminating in a cutting edge instead of a point. This form (shown in -figure 255) is found only in the collection from Savannah, Georgia. - - -BLUNT ARROWHEADS, OR “BUNTS.” - -Certain arrowheads have the end opposite the base rounded or flattened -instead of pointed. Commonly, both faces are worked off equally, to -bring the edge opposite the middle line of the blade, though sometimes -it may be a little to one side. The stem and base are of any form found -in the common patterns of arrowheads. Few are barbed, though many -have shoulders. For the most part, they are probably made from the -ordinary spearpoints or arrowheads and knives that have had the points -broken off, though some seem to have been intentionally made this way -originally. A few are smooth or polished at the ends, as though used as -knives or scrapers; but most of them have no marks except such as would -result from being struck or shot against some hard substance; even this -being absent in many of them, as in the specimen represented in the -accompanying figure. - -Jones says that crescent-shaped arrows were used by southern Indians -for shooting off birds’ heads,[184] and it is known that chisel-shape -arrows were much used during the Middle Ages.[185] - -[Illustration: FIG. 256.--Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt”.] - -This type of aboriginal implement or weapon is shown in figure 256, -representing a specimen from Savannah, Georgia. Other examples come -from eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; -southern and southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; Scioto -valley, Ohio; and Savannah, Georgia. - - -SCRAPERS. - - -STEMMED. - -The same remarks as to form and method of making apply to stemmed -scrapers as to blunt arrows, except that the chipping of the end is -always from one face so as to produce a chisel edge. This edge is -frequently smooth or polished from use. They would answer very well for -smoothing down articles made of wood, or for cleaning hides in tanning; -they would also serve excellently for removing scales from fish, and as -they are usually abundant in the vicinity of good fishing places, they -were no doubt employed for this purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 257.--Stemmed scraper.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 258.--Stemmed scraper.] - -The material in the Bureau collection is represented by the specimens -shown in figures 257 and 258, from Savannah, Georgia, and Dane county, -Wisconsin, respectively. Other examples come from southern Wisconsin; -southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern -Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; central North Carolina; eastern -Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia. - - -STEMLESS. - -A few quotations regarding the use and mode of manufacture of stemless -scrapers may be given: - -According to Evans, they are made by laying a flake flat side up on a -stone, and chipping off around the edge with a hammer. The point struck -must rest directly on the under stone, and but a thin spall is struck -off at each blow.[186] Leidy observed that the Shoshoni by a quick blow -strike off a segment of a quartz bowlder in such a way as to form a -circular or oval implement flat on one side, convex on the other, which -is used as a scraper in dressing buffalo hides;[187] and according to -Knight the Australians obtain, in exactly the same way, specimens which -they use as axes.[188] Peale remarks that while hides are green they -are stretched on the ground and scraped with an instrument resembling -an adze;[189] and Dodge says more explicitly that when the stretched -skin has become hard and dry, the woman goes to work on it with an -adze-like instrument, with a short handle of wood or elkhorn tied on -with rawhide; holding this in one hand, she chips at the hardened skin, -cutting off a thin shaving at every blow.[190] - -The scrapers of this class in the Bureau collection are as follows: - -_A._ Chipped over the entire surface to the form of the ordinary celt, -except that the scraping edge is in the same plane with one face. Some -have a scraping edge at each end. In a few the flat or straight face is -chipped off slightly, bringing the edge toward the middleline; but this -was probably done after the implement had become broken or blunted from -use. When there is any polish, it is always on the flat face, showing -use as an adze, or, possibly, as a plane. Varying much in width, some -measuring almost the same in either direction, while others are more -like the “chisel” celts, though the position of the cutting edge shows -their use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 259.--Stemless scraper, celt form.] - -A typical specimen (figure 259) is from Jackson county, Illinois; -others come from Brown county and the southwestern part of the state -generally; from northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern -Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; and central Ohio. - -[Illustration: FIG. 260.--Stemless scraper, flake.] - -_B._ Flakes or spalls, chipped always from the concave side of the -fragment. Some of the smaller specimens, usually those of somewhat -circular outline, are chipped nearly, or in some cases entirely, around -the edge. Figure 260 represents a specimen from Mason county, Kentucky. -Others come from northeastern Kentucky; eastern Tennessee; Holt county, -Missouri; Kanawha valley; southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, and -central Ohio; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; and -Savannah, Georgia. - - -CORES. - -The generally accepted name “cores” is applied to the blocks from which -are struck off the flakes to be next described. - -Dr. Gillespie[191] claimed that objects of this kind were made so -intentionally, and that the flakes are simply the refuse or waste -material. He gives six reasons for this belief, but an examination of -the objects themselves would show that he is in error. That some might -have been used as scrapers may be true, but very few are suited for -such work, and not one shows the least mark of wear that could result -from this use. - -The specimens in the Bureau collection, with perhaps half a dozen -exceptions, are from the aboriginal quarries at Flint ridge, in Licking -county, Ohio, or of the material so abundant at that place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 261.--Cores.] - -All are small, few being of a size to furnish flakes over three inches -long. The flakes were undoubtedly struck off by means of stone hammers, -hundreds of which are to be found about the quarries, or removed by -pressure, many showing the bulb of percussion, others being perfectly -smooth on the flat face. Usually all the flakes were obtained from only -one side of the core until it became too small to work (figure 261). -Occasionally they were chipped from opposite sides, leaving the core of -a conical or cylindrical shape (as represented in figure 262). - -[Illustration: FIG. 262.--Core.] - -Cores and finely chipped implements of the Flint ridge stone have been -taken from the mounds in Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Scioto -valley, Ohio, showing that the mound-builders are to be credited with -at least a part of the great amount of work done in those localities; -but it seems a mistake to say, as some authors have done, that the -“turtlebacks” found in caches in southern Illinois are from the same -source, as the stone is entirely different, and occurs abundantly in -the vicinity in which the specimens are found. - - -FLAKES. - -The use to which were put the narrow, thin flakes so abundantly found -in many parts of the world has caused some discussion. Schoolcraft -says that the Dakota bleed patients by scarifying with these flakes; -or sometimes one is fixed into the end of a piece of wood, held over -a vein, and driven in as far as the wood will let it go,[192] the use -being similar to that of the modern fleam. Harpoons in the Kurile -islands are made of bone, with a deep groove along each side; in -these grooves thin and sharp flat flakes are fastened with gum.[193] -According to Evans, similar flakes were used for scraping,[194] just as -broken glass is used among modern woodworkers. Flakes have been found -in the Swiss lakes in wooden handles in the fashion of Eskimo knives; -also in Australia with skin wrapped around one end to protect the -hand.[195] - -All the flakes in the Bureau collection are small, few of them being -over three inches long. They are found elsewhere with a length of over -a foot; but the nature of the flint occurring in the United States is -seldom such as to allow flakes to be struck off equaling in size those -found in Europe. - -Evans says that blows with a pebble will form just such flakes as those -produced by an iron hammer; the blows must, however, be delivered in -exactly the right spot and with the proper force. Cores sometimes -show markings of hammers when struck too near the edge. Flakes can -be produced by using a pebble as a set or punch and striking it with -a stone. The use of a set was probably the exception rather than the -rule, for great precision may be obtained simply with a hammer held in -the hand. The Eskimo use a hammer set in a handle to strike off flakes, -or strike them off by slight taps with a hammer of jade, oval in shape, -about 2 by 3 inches, and secured to a bone handle with sinew.[196] - -According to Tylor, the Peruvian Indians work obsidian by laying a -bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it until the stone -cracks;[197] while the Indians of Mexico hold a piece of obsidian 6 -or 8 inches long between their feet, then holding the crosspiece of a -T-shape stick against the breast they place the other end against the -stone and force off a piece by pressure.[198] - -Nilsson says that the Eskimo set a point of deer horn into a handle of -ivory and drive off splinters from the chert,[199] and Redding saw a -Cloud river Indian make flakes thus: Holding a piece of obsidian in his -hand, he placed the straight edge of a piece of split deer horn, four -inches long and half an inch in diameter, at a distance from the edge -of the stone equal to the thickness of the arrow he wished to make; -then striking the other end with a stone he drove off a flake.[200] -Schumacher observed that the Klamath Indians heat a stone and break it -into fragments at a single blow.[201] - -According to Stevens the Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, -and holding on the anvil the stone which he is working,[202] strikes -off a flake one-fourth of an inch thick with a stone hammer; but Powers -says the Shasta Indians heat a stone and allow it to cool slowly, which -splits it into flakes,[203] and Bancroft that they place an obsidian -pebble on an anvil of stone and split it with an agate chisel to the -required size.[204] The Shoshoni or Snake Indians of the northwest work -in the same way,[205] and certain California Indians strike off flakes -from a mass of agate, jasper, or chalcedony with a stone hammer,[206] -while the Apache break a bowlder of hornstone with a heavy stone hammer -having a twisted withe for a handle.[207] - -Schoolcraft says experience has taught the Indians that some varieties -of hornstone (flint) are less easily fractured than others, and that -the conchoidal form is found best in softer varieties; also that -weathered fragments are managed with greater difficulty than are those -freshly quarried.[208] - -Evans points out that in making gunflints much depends upon the -condition of the stone as regards the moisture it contains, those that -have been too long exposed on the surface becoming intractable, and -there is also a difficulty in working those that are too moist. Some of -the workers, however, say that a flint which has been some time exposed -to the air is harder than one recently dug, yet it works equally -well.[209] - -It is related that in former times white hunters in Ohio and Kentucky, -when they needed a gunflint, would select a fragment from the surface, -where practicable, and soak it in oil for several weeks “to make it -tough;” otherwise it would shatter to fragments when struck. - -[Illustration: FIG. 263.--Flake, chipped for scraper.] - -Frequently the large flat spalls knocked from blocks or chunks of flint -in shaping them, or in obtaining pieces to work, are of such form that -very little additional labor converts them into serviceable scrapers, -knives, spears, or arrows. A number of such pieces are found in the -collection. These, however, are not considered in the flakes now to be -described: - -_A._ Edges bluntly chipped (from the concave side) for use as scrapers. -They may or may not have notches for attachment to a handle. An example -from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is shown in figure 263. Others come -from southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, -and central Ohio. - -_B._ Trimmed only enough to give a general leaf shape, the faces being -left unchanged; for use as knives or arrowheads, most of them being -exceedingly small; notched, or with continuous edges. This form is -represented by the specimen from Licking county, Ohio, illustrated in -figure 264. It is found in central Ohio; northeastern Arkansas; Coosa -valley, Alabama; eastern Tennessee; and western North Carolina. - -[Illustration: FIG. 264.--Flake, chipped for knife or arrow head.] - -_C._ Long, slender, with three or four facets on one face, caused by -others having been struck off above. The edges are as keen as broken -glass, and the points are usually quite sharp. In a great many the -points have been worked off by fine, secondary chipping. When this is -done, it is always at the end which was struck in knocking off the -flake. In some cases it may be due to the shattering effects of the -blow; but in many specimens the evidence is plain that it was done -afterward for the purpose of making a sharper point. Some flakes of -this kind have notches for attachment to a shaft, probably for arrows; -such specimens, however, are without the secondary chipping, and the -notches are at the end opposite the one struck. - -[Illustration: FIG. 265.--Flake, slender, probably for lancet.] - -A good example, shown in figure 265, is from Kanawha valley, and there -are others from the same locality, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio; -and Union county, Mississippi. - - -MISCELLANEOUS FORMS. - -From the Savannah collection there are several forms of chipped -flints which, while resembling the foregoing in various ways, present -characters which make it necessary to place them by themselves; -and while containing a majority of the types described above, this -collection has many that have no counterpart from any other section -visited by the Bureau collectors. Some of these unique specimens of -aboriginal art are among the following: - -[Illustration: FIG. 266.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_A._ Edges double curved, expanding to a wide point at the shoulder; -stem straight or tapering; base either straight or slightly convex. The -type of the group is quite well represented in figure 266. - -_B._ Edges concave; base and stem straight; very wide projections or -wings at the shoulders, going in by straight or curved lines to the -stem (illustrated in figure 267). - -_C._ Edges concave, changing to convex at the shoulders, and curving -around to the stem, which is straight or slightly expanding; base -straight or very slightly convex (figure 268). - -_D._ Convex edges, widening into greatly expanding barbs; base -straight; stem expanding by straight lines (figure 269). - -[Illustration: FIG. 267.--Stemmed chipped flint, winged.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 268.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -_E._ Broad; double-curved edges; notched in from the base, and barbs -worked so as to be narrowest near the blade, with the ends straight or -round; stem expanding by straight lines; base straight (figure 270). - -_F._ Edges nearly straight to the barbs, which are worked off to a -point toward the stem; base convex and wide; stem expanding by curved -lines (figure 271). - -[Illustration: FIG. 269.--Stemmed chipped flint, barbed.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 270.--Stemmed chipped flint, broad.] - -_G._ Rather slender; base nearly straight, either convex or concave; -stem rapidly expanding; notched in from the corners, making long -slender barbs which project beyond the line of the edges (as -illustrated in figure 272). The same form comes from Dougherty county, -southwestern Georgia, as well as from Savannah. - -_H._ Straight or convex edges; base straight or slightly convex; stem -to one side of the center, leaving one barb longer and larger than the -other (figure 273). - -_I._ Triangular, notched in from the bottom; barbs extend down even -with the base, or the base is sometimes worked back, leaving it shorter -than the barbs; some are beveled (figure 274). The same form is found -in southwestern Georgia. - -_J._ Broad; straight edges; base straight or concave; stem straight or -expanding; long, rounded barbs (figure 275). - -[Illustration: FIG. 271.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 272.--Stemmed chipped flint, slender.] - -_K._ From Arkansas county, Arkansas, there is an implement of basanite -or black jasper, of the general type of figure 180 or 182, the point -being broken off. The base has been worked down to a sharp edge, the -stem highly polished on both faces. This polish does not extend to -the faces of the blade, but both edges are rubbed smooth so far as -they now extend. Whether the implement was originally pointed and used -as a knife or spear, this sharp edge being given the stem after it -was broken, or whether it was so made in the first place, can not be -determined. Like the various forms with polished base, the specimen -seems to indicate a manner of mounting or of use the reverse of what -would be expected. It is shown in figure 276. - -[Illustration: FIG. 273.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 274.--Stemmed chipped flint, triangular.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 275.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -Figure 277 shows an implement from Licking county, Ohio, somewhat of -the form of figure 205, except that it is wider and much thinner. It is -worn smooth on each edge for ¾ inch from the point, the point itself -being quite blunt. This probably results from use as a knife or drill; -though, if due to the latter cause, the material on which it was used -must have been quite soft or thin. Similar wear is seen on implements -from the same locality of the form of figures 176 and 223, but this -article is smaller than those represented by the figures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 276.--Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 277.--Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from -use.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 278.--Stemmed chipped flint.] - -In figure 278 is shown a small knife of the pattern so common in -specimens mounted in antlers, from the Swiss lake dwellings. In outline -it resembles the arrowheads having straight edges and a convex base; -but the side view shows the purpose for which it was made. Similar -pieces are found throughout central Ohio, and along Ohio river from the -Kanawha to the Miami. - - -NOTES ON BEVELED FLINTS. - -In the beveled flints the side-chipping producing the bevel is always -to the left, as may be seen in figure 235; only one exception to this -has been found. It has been supposed that this is done to give a rotary -motion to an arrow. Morgan[210] says that “arrowheads are occasionally -found with a twist to make the arrow revolve in its flight;” and the -same statement has often been made by others. It may be objected, -however, that very few of these beveled specimens are small enough -for arrowheads; and modern archers have shown that the shape does not -affect the flight of the arrow. - -Schoolcraft,[211] Powers,[212] Morgan,[213] and Cheever[214] say that -the modern Indians sometimes have a spiral arrangement of the feathers -on their arrow to produce a rotary motion or “rifling.” This rotary -motion is supposed to keep the arrow in a straight course, as without -it a deviation from the direct line would tend constantly to increase. -But as showing that the rotary motion is not always desired, Dodge says -that sometimes the blade, in regard to the string notch, is set so as -to be perpendicular, to go in between the ribs of game; again, so as to -be horizontal, to go in between the ribs of an enemy.[215] - -The beveled flints were probably used for skinning game, as they are -better fitted for this than for anything else, and would serve such -purpose better than almost any other form of the smaller chipped -flints. The bevel is such as would be necessary if the implement were -held in the right hand and pulled toward the user. - -There are a great many specimens in the collection, both in the ground -or pecked and in the chipped implements, which can not be classified -with any of the objects herein described; but they are to be considered -as due rather to individual whims than as representative of a type. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Anahuac, p. 101. - -[2] Ibid., p. 98. - -[3] Dawson, Sir William; Fossil Men, p. 121. - -[4] Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 741. - -[5] Ibid., p. 748. - -[6] Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. 169. - -[7] Lubbock, Sir John; Prehistoric Times, p. 569. - -[8] Early History of Mankind, p. 203. - -[9] Abbott, C. C., in American Naturalist, vol. X, p. 494. - -[10] Perkins; Ibid, vol. XIII, p. 738. - -[11] Adair; History of American Indians, p 405. - -[12] Long, S. H.; Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, p. 211. - -[13] Knight, E. H.; Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 242. - -[14] Wood, J. G.; Natural History of Mankind, p. 200. - -[15] Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[16] Beverly, Robt.; History of Virginia, 1722, p. 198. - -[17] Wyth, John; Graphic Sketches, part I, plate 14. - -[18] Catlin, Geo.; Last Rambles Among the Indians, pp. 100-101. - -[19] Mohr, Smithsonian Report for 1881, p. 618; Barber, Amer. Nat., -vol. XII, p. 403; McGuire, Ibid., vol. XVII, p. 587; Walker, Science, -vol. IX, p. 10; Schumacher, Eleventh Annual Report of Peabody Museum, -p. 263. - -[20] Dawson, J. W.; Fossil Men, p. 16. - -[21] Ibid., p. 132. - -[22] Morgan, L. H.; League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[23] Stevens, E. T.; Flint Chips, p. 174. - -[24] Evans, John; Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[25] Ibid., p. 227. - -[26] Dodge, R. I.; Wild Indians, p. 254. Schoolcraft, H. R.; Indian -Tribes, vol. IV, p. 107. Catlin, Geo.; North American Indians, vol. I, -p. 416. - -[27] Powers, Stephen; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. III, p. -433. - -[28] Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[29] Ibid., p. 213. - -[30] Adair, James; American Indians, p. 409. - -[31] Lawson, John; History of North Carolina, p. 53. - -[32] Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 315-320. - -[33] Fossil Men and Their Modern Representatives, p. 112. - -[34] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate I, fig. 3. - -[35] Lewis and Clarke; Travels, p. 425. - -[36] Powers; Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, vol. III, p. 52. - -[37] Ibid., p. 433. - -[38] Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 119. - -[39] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[40] League of the Iroquois, p. 359. - -[41] Carver, Jonathan; Travels in North America, p. 191. - -[42] Report to Regents of the Univ. of New York, vol. II, p. 86. - -[43] Schoolcraft; Notes on the Iroquois, p. 239. - -[44] Schumacher; 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody Museum, p. 264. - -[45] Powers; Contributions to N. A. Eth. vol. III, p. 377. - -[46] Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[47] Abbott, C. C.; Primitive Industry, chap. 28. - -[48] Jones, C. C.; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338. - -[49] Nilsson, S.; Stone Age, p. 25. - -[50] Thatcher, B. B.; Indian Traits, vol. I, p. 70. - -[51] Jones; Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 338. - -[52] Amer. Naturalist, vol. XX, p. 574. - -[53] Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 41; also 11th Ann. Rept. Peabody -Museum, p. 265. - -[54] Primitive Industry, p. 244. - -[55] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 95. - -[56] Ibid., p. 96. Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 381. - -[57] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 499. - -[58] Dale, L.; in Journal of Anth. Inst. of Great Br. and Ireland, vol. -I, p. 347. - -[59] Layard, E. L.; in ibid., appendix, c. - -[60] Griesbach, C. L.; in ibid., p. cliv. - -[61] W. D. Gooch says they were used as club heads by the predecessors -of the Bushmen, who now use them as diggers; ibid., vol. XI, p. 128. - -[62] Knight, E. H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 232. - -[63] Stone Implements, p. 194. - -[64] Bul. Bur. of Eth., “Perforated Stones from California.” - -[65] Adair; American Indians, p. 402. - -[66] Lawson; History of North Carolina, p. 98. - -[67] Morgan; League of the Iroquois, p. 299. - -[68] Irving, J. T.; Indian Sketches, vol. II, p. 142. - -[69] Cremony, J. C.; Life Among the Apaches, p. 302. - -[70] Matthews, W.; Smithsonian Report for 1884, p. 814. - -[71] Report of Pacific Railroad Survey, vol. III, p. 114. - -[72] Long; Expedition to Rocky Mountains, vol. I, p. 205. - -[73] Brackinridge, H. M.; Views of Louisiana, p. 256. - -[74] Catlin; North American Indians, vol. I, p. 132. - -[75] Schumacher; in Twelfth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 622. - -[76] Lubbock; Prehistoric Times, p. 648. - -[77] Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ireland, vol. II, p. 647. - -[78] Stone Implements, p. 218. - -[79] Ibid., p. 227. - -[80] For any or all of which purposes they may have been used in the -course of their manufacture. - -[81] Captivity Among the Indians, Lexington, 1799; reprinted, -Cincinnati, 1870, p. 36. - -[82] Eells, Myron; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 81. - -[83] Primitive Industry, p. 229. - -[84] Flint Chips, p. 581. - -[85] Henshaw in Amer. Jour. Arch., vol. I, pp. 105-114. - -[86] Pear-shaped stones with the smaller end cut squarely off are -frequent in Georgia; they are about the size of turkey eggs. Jones; -Antiq. Southern Indians, p. 372. - -[87] Stone Age, p. 215. - -[88] Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 408. - -[89] American Indians, p. 48. - -[90] Stone Age, p. 83. - -[91] Im Thurn in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. XI. p. 445. - -[92] Powers; Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. III, pp. 52 and 79. - -[93] Chase; MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[94] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 131. - -[95] Abbott; Primitive Industry, p. 373. - -[96] Brickell, John; Nat. History of N.C., p. 317. - -[97] Wyth; Graphic Sketches, part I, plate 8. - -[98] Schoolcraft in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., vol. I, p.401, pl. I. - -[99] I am informed by Prof. Cyrus Thomas that he noticed in the -collection of Mr. Neff. Gambier, Ohio, a “boat-shape stone” attached to -the underside of a stone pipe, which the owner informed him was thus -attached when found. - -[100] Evans; Stone Implements, p. 383. - -[101] Amer. Antiquarian, vol. II, p. 100. - -[102] Expl. in the Valley of the Amazon, vol. II, p. 74. - -[103] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 90. - -[104] Amer. Naturalist, vol. VII, p. 180. - -[105] Flint Chips, p. 478. - -[106] MS. Rept. on Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[107] Some perforated stones that will not come under any of these -heads are here noted separately under the National Museum numbers: - -131614. An elliptical piece of steatite, with notches at each end for -suspension, “tallies” all around the edge, and four holes on the longer -axis.--Bradley county, Tennessee. - -62879. A steatite ornament, shape like a bird’s head.--Jefferson -county, Tennessee. - -131856. A short, wedge-shape ornament of barite, drilled at the larger -end.--Loudon county, Tennessee; also a similar but much larger ornament -of indurated red clay, possibly catlinite, from a mound in the same -county, represented in figure 149. The edges of the holes are much worn -by a cord. - -90847. A small ellipsoidal steatite bead, with several deep incisions -around the edge.--Kanawha valley, West Virginia. - -116335. A small marble bead; form like the rim of a bottle -mouth.--Bradley county, Tennessee. - -113943. Three small pendants of cannel coal. One is in shape like -the keystone of an arch, with hole at smaller end; the other two -are apparently in imitation of a bear’s tusk.--Kanawha valley, West -Virginia. - -91761. A limestone celt, 6½ inches long, either much weathered since -made or else never highly polished, with a large hole drilled in from -both sides at the center.--Bartow county, Georgia. - -116067. A sandstone celt, with a hole drilled near one corner at the -top.--Loudon county, Tennessee. - -97764. A large polished piece of steatite, curved from end to end, or -claw-shaped. One end is pointed; the other blunt and rounded, with a -hole drilled through it.--Caldwell county, North Carolina. - -[108] Gillman, H.; in Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 371. - -[109] Primitive Industry, p. 371. - -[110] Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 30. - -[111] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I p. 212. - -[112] Schumacher, Paul; Hayden Surv., Bull. 3, 1877, p. 548. - -[113] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 253. - -[114] Contributions to N.A. Eth., vol. III, p. 426. - -[115] Native Races, vol. I, p. 589. - -[116] Ibid., p. 566. - -[117] Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 362-364. - -[118] Hoffman, W. J.; "The Midē´wiwin of the Ojibwa." Seventh Annual -Rep. Bur. Eth., 1885-86, p. 278, pl. XVIII. - -[119] Amer. Antiquarian, vol. II, p. 154. - -[120] Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 268. - -[121] Dodge; Our Wild Indians, p. 130. - -[122] De Forest, J. W.; History of Indians of Conn., p. 5. - -[123] Peabody Mus., 11th Ann. Rept., p. 271. - -[124] Fossil Men, p. 125. - -[125] Fossil Men., p. 119. - -[126] Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. XXXI, p. 592. - -[127] Since this was written several thousand specimens have been found -in a small mound near Chillicothe, Ohio. The nearest point at which -similar material is known to exist is between Corydon and Leavenworth, -Indiana. - -[128] Flint Chips, p. 442. - -[129] Amer. Naturalist, vol. IV, p. 140. - -[130] Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187. - -[131] Journal Anth. Ins. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol XI, p. 447. - -[132] Anthropology, p. 245. - -[133] Jewitt, Llewellyn; Grave-mounds and their Contents, p. 121. - -[134] Stone Implements, p. 374. - -[135] Op. cit., p. 245. - -[136] Stone Implements, p. 36 (from Craveri). - -[137] Stone Implements, p. 36 (from De Pourtales). - -[138] Ibid., p. 35 (from Belcher). - -[139] Ibid., p. 38. - -[140] Crook in Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420. - -[141] Catlin; Last Rambles, pp. 184, 185. - -[142] Ibid., p. 290. - -[143] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 81 (from Belcher). - -[144] Ibid., p. 84. - -[145] Powers in Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[146] Ibid., p 374. - -[147] Bancroft; Native Races, vol. I, p. 342. - -[148] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 212. - -[149] Beckwith in Rep. Pac. R. R. Survey, vol. II, p. 43. - -[150] History of Virginia. - -[151] Redding in Amer. Naturalist, vol. XIII, p. 665. - -[152] Cheever in ibid., vol. IV, p. 139. - -[153] Cited by Stevens, Flint Chips, p. 78. - -[154] Hayden Survey, Bull. 3, 1877, p. 547. - -[155] MS. account of the Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[156] Prehistoric America, p. 170. - -[157] Smithsonian Report for 1871, p. 420. - -[158] MS. Shell Mounds of Oregon. - -[159] Flint Chips, p. 77. - -[160] Prehistoric Times, p. 106 (from Dodge and Blackmore). - -[161] Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[162] History of Mankind, p. 188. - -[163] Adair; American Indians, p. 403. - -[164] Adair; American Indians, p. 410. - -[165] Cheever in Amer. Naturalist, vol. IV, p. 139. - -[166] The section below shows this more plainly. - -[167] Amer. Naturalist, vol. X, p. 116. - -[168] Indian Tribes, vol. II, p. 74, fig. 5. - -[169] Nat. Hist, of N. C., p. 318. - -[170] League of the Iroquois, p. 359. - -[171] Anahuac, p. 332. - -[172] Bourke, John G.; Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 251. See also -Dodge; Our Wild Indians, plate 5. - -[173] Long; Exp. to Rocky Mountains, vol. I, p. 290. Dodge; Our Wild -Indians, p. 418. - -[174] Prehistoric Times, p. 122. - -[175] Holub, E., in Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. X, p. 460. - -[176] Stone Implements, p. 48. - -[177] Native Races, vol. I, p. 189. - -[178] Hayden Surv., Bul. 3, 1877, p. 43. - -[179] Brickell; Nat. Hist. of N. C., p. 339. - -[180] Antiq. of the Southern Indians, p. 230. - -[181] Stone Implements, p. 46. - -[182] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 96. Tylor; Early History of Mankind, p. -188. - -[183] It would seem that in using a wood or horn drill, water would be -a disadvantage, as the drill would swell and wear rapidly away when -wet, thus choking the bore. The sand also would be forced into the -drill instead of sticking to its surface, thus being less effective. - -[184] Quoted by Dawson; Fossil Men, p. 124. - -[185] Evans; Stone Implements, p. 353. - -[186] Stone Implements. - -[187] Hayden Survey, 1872, p. 653. - -[188] Smithsonian Report for 1879, p. 236. - -[189] Ibid, 1870, p. 390. - -[190] Our Wild Indians, p. 256. - -[191] Gillespie, Dr. W.; Jour. Anth. Inst. Gt. Br. and Ird., vol. VI, -p. 260. - -[192] Indian Tribes, vol I, p. 253. - -[193] Nilsson; Stone Age, p. 46. - -[194] Stone Implements, p. 256. - -[195] Stone Implements, p. 263. - -[196] Ibid., pp. 20, 23, and 35. - -[197] Anahuac, p. 99. - -[198] Ibid, pp. 231, 232 (note). - -[199] Stone Age, p. 261 (note). - -[200] Amer. Naturalist, vol. XIII, p. 665. - -[201] Hayden Survey, Bul. 3, 1877, p. 547. - -[202] Flint Chips, p. 77. - -[203] Contributions to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 104. - -[204] Native Races, vol. I, p. 342. - -[205] Schoolcraft; Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 212. - -[206] Stevens; Flint Chips, p. 78 (from Powers). - -[207] Catlin; Last Rambles Among the Indians, p. 187. - -[208] Indian Tribes, vol. III, p. 467. - -[209] Stone Implements, p. 17. - -[210] League of the Iroquois, p. 358. - -[211] Indian Tribes, vol. I, p. 213. - -[212] Cont. to N. A. Eth., vol. III, p. 52. - -[213] League of the Iroquois, pp. 306, 308. - -[214] Amer. Nat., vol. IV, p. 140. - -[215] Our Wild Indians, p. 418. - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stone Art, by Gerard Fowke - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONE ART *** - -***** This file should be named 50769-0.txt or 50769-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/6/50769/ - -Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, The -Internet Archive (American Libraries) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at -http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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