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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..818654e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50822 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50822) diff --git a/old/50822-0.txt b/old/50822-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 701b547..0000000 --- a/old/50822-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6319 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas, by -George Joyce Olin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas - -Author: George Joyce Olin - -Illustrator: Edward Bierly - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50822] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS MESAS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MAMMALS - of the southwest - MOUNTAINS - and - MESAS - - - by - GEORGE OLIN - illustrations by - EDWARD BIERLY - - [Illustration: Uncaptioned] - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - Box 1562, Globe, Arizona 85501 - - Copyright 1961 by the Southwestern Monuments Association. All rights - reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without - permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may - quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine or - newspaper. - - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-11291 - SBN 0-911408-32-0 - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - (formerly Southwestern Monuments Association) - - First printing, 1961. - Second printing, 1971. - Third printing, 1975. - - Popular series no. 9. - - Printed in the United States of America - Arizona Lithographers · Tucson, Arizona - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -With this booklet, as with _Mammals of the Southwest Deserts_, we are -indebted to Dr. E. L. Cockrum, Assistant Professor of Zoology at the -University of Arizona who has checked the manuscript for accuracy. We -are also grateful to him for offering suggestions and criticisms which -have added materially to its interest. - -The writer would also like to voice his appreciation to Ed Bierly whose -magnificent illustrations adorn these pages. His is a talent with which -it is a privilege to be associated. - -Finally our thanks to the editor and his staff. It is not an easy task -to combine text with illustrations, nor to match space with type, yet it -has been done with feeling and precision. - -Together, we hope that you will approve of our efforts. If through this -booklet you gain a better understanding of the mammals that share the -great outdoors with us, or if through it you should become aware of the -urgent necessity of preserving some of our wild creatures, (and wild -places), now before it is too late; we shall indeed be well repaid. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Hoofed Animals 1 - Bighorn (mountain sheep) 2 - Pronghorn (antelope) 4 - Bison (buffalo) 8 - Mule deer 10 - White-tailed deer 13 - Elk 16 - Rodents (Including Lagomorphs) 21 - Snowshoe hare 22 - White-tailed jackrabbit 24 - Mountain cottontail 26 - Pika 28 - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert’s squirrel) 31 - Kaibab squirrel 34 - Arizona gray squirrel 36 - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel (Douglas squirrel, chickaree) 39 - Northern flying squirrel 42 - Western chipmunks 44 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel 48 - White-tailed prairie dog 51 - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) 53 - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) 57 - Mountain vole 58 - Western jumping mouse 59 - Bushy-tailed woodrat (pack rat) 60 - Muskrat 64 - Beaver 67 - Porcupine 72 - Northern pocket gopher 75 - Carnivores (Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans) 79 - Mountain lion 80 - Bobcat 85 - Red fox 87 - Gray wolf 89 - Coyote 92 - Wolverine 95 - Marten 97 - River otter 101 - Mink 103 - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) 105 - Spotted skunk 108 - Striped skunk 110 - Black bear 112 - Grizzly bear 117 - Vagrant shrew 119 - Bats 121 - References 123 - Index 125 - - [Illustration: Life Zones] - - ELEVATION PRECIPITATION - FEET DRY MOIST WET - 14,000 ARCTIC-ALPINE _above - ZONE[1] timber-line; - small, mat-like - plants._ - 13,000 _pika_ - 12,000 _mountain sheep_ - 11,000 HUDSONIAN ZONE _spruce_ _red squirrel_ - 10,000 _fir_ _marten_ - 9,000 CANADIAN ZONE _quaking aspen_ _beaver_ - _Douglas fir_, - _mule deer_ - 8,000 TRANSITION ZONE _tassel-eared - squirrel_ - 7,000 _ponderosa pine_, - _mountain lion_ - 6,000 UPPER SONORAN - ZONE[2] - _pinyon pine_ _deer mouse_ - 5,000 _juniper_ _bobcat_ - _sagebrush_ _pronghorn_ - 4,000 LOWER SONORAN - ZONE[3] - 3,000 _mesquite_, - _kangaroo rat_ - 2,000 _giant cactus_ - 1,000 _kit fox_ - HOT WARM COLD - TEMPERATURE - - - Notes - - - [1]THIS BOOKLET DESCRIBES MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST WHICH LIVE IN THE - LIFE ZONES ABOVE THE LOW DESERT. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS FOR PLANTS OF THESE ZONES. - [2]SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MESAS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - [3]SEE MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR MAMMALS OF THESE ZONES. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - - _Geographic Limitations_ - -The only point in the United States at which four states adjoin is where -Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico come together. With adjacent -portions of California, Nevada, and Texas, they contain all of our -Southwestern Desert. Arizona and New Mexico especially, are known as -desert States and for the most part deserve that appellation. Scattered -over this desert country as though carelessly strewn by some giant hand -are some of the highest and most beautiful mountains in our Nation. They -may occur as isolated peaks magnificent in their loneliness, or as short -ranges that continue but a little way before sinking to the level of the -desert. On the other hand it is in Colorado that the Rocky Mountains -reach their greatest height before merging with the high country in New -Mexico, and all of the States mentioned have at least one range of major -size. - -Two great highways cross this area from East to West. U.S. 66, -“Mainstreet of America,” goes by way of Albuquerque and Flagstaff to Los -Angeles; farther north U.S. 50 winds through the mountains from Pueblo -to Salt Lake City and terminates at San Francisco. Significantly, they -meet at St. Louis on their eastward course, and here for the moment we -digress from geography to history. - - - _Westward Ho_ - -St. Louis in 1800 was a brawling frontier town. Strategically located at -the point where the Missouri River meets the Mississippi, it was the -jumping off place for those hardy souls adventurous enough to forsake -the comforts of civilization for the unknown perils of the West. Already -St. Louis was one of the fur centers of the world. Fashions of the day -decreed that top hats be worn by men. The finest hats were made of -beaver fur and no self-respecting dandy could be content with less. -Trapping parties ascended the Missouri River as far as the mountains of -Montana in search of pelts with which to supply the demand. When the -animals became scarce in more accessible areas, trappers turned their -attention to the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. Hardships of the -overland route, coupled with danger of attack by hostile Indians, -discouraged all but the most hardy of a rugged breed. These “Mountain -Men” as they became known, traveled in small parties with all the -stealth and cunning of the Indians themselves. Gaunt from weeks of -travel across the plains, they could rest in the Spanish settlement of -Santa Fe for a few days before vanishing into the mountains. On the -return trip they might again visit the Spanish pueblo or, eager for the -night life of St. Louis, strike directly eastward across the prairies. -Today’s highways, while not following their trails directly, certainly -parallel them to a great degree. - -Little is known today of these early adventurers. A few written accounts -have been printed, meager records of their catches have been noted, and -here and there crude initials and dates carved on isolated canyon walls -attest their passing. Their conquest of the West has faded into oblivion -but it must be regarded as the opening wedge of American progress into -the Southwest. - - - _Mountains as Wildlife Reservoirs_ - -Today’s traveler spans in hours distances across these same routes that -took weary weeks of heartbreaking toil a century ago. As he rides in -cushioned ease he seldom pauses to reflect on the changes that have -taken place since those early days. The great herds of bison with their -attendant packs of wolves have vanished and in their place white-faced -cattle graze on the level prairies. In the foothills the pronghorns have -taken their last stand. Cities have sprung up on the camping sites of -nomadic tribes that roamed the whole area between the Mississippi River -and the Rocky Mountains. Only the mountains seem the same. - -In winter these massive ranges form a barrier against the storms that -sweep in from the northwest. More important—these great storehouses of -our natural resources that in early days meant only gold and furs, and -perhaps sudden death to the pioneers, have now been unlocked by their -descendants. The glitter of gold and the glamour of furs pales when -contrasted with the untold values that have since been taken out in the -baser metals and lumber. This phase too is now coming to an end. It is -becoming evident that in the face of our ever increasing population -these natural playgrounds are destined to become a buffer against the -tensions that we, as one of the most highly civilized peoples of the -world, undergo in our daily life. Within another century they will -represent one of the few remaining opportunities for many millions of -Americans to get close to nature. As such the proper development and -preservation of mountainous areas and their values is of vital -importance to our Nation. - -Mountains of the Southwestern States have been formed by three major -agencies. These are, in order of importance, shrinkage of the earth’s -interior to form wrinkles on the surface; faulting, with subsequent -erosion of exposed surfaces; and volcanic action. The first method is -responsible for most of the large ranges, such as the coastal mountains -of California and the Rocky Mountains. Faulting is responsible for many -of the high plateau areas where one side may be a high rim or cliff and -the other a gently sloping incline. The Mogollon Rim, extending across a -part of Arizona and into New Mexico, is a classic example in this -category. Volcanic action may result in great masses of igneous rock -being extruded through cracks in the earth’s surface or it may take the -form of violent outbursts in one comparatively small area. Several -mountain regions in Arizona and New Mexico are covered with huge fields -of extruded lava. Capulin Mountain in New Mexico is an example of a -recent volcano which built up an almost perfect cone of cinders and -lava. Less noticeable than the mountains, but important nevertheless, -are the tablelands of the Southwest. These mesas, too high to be typical -of the desert, and in most cases too low to be considered as mountains, -partake of the characteristics of both. - - - _Desert “Islands”_ - -The mountains of the Southwest have been compared to islands rising -above the surface of a sea of desert. This is an apt comparison for not -only do they differ materially from the hot, low desert in climate, but -also in flora and fauna. Few species of either plants or animals living -at these higher altitudes could survive conditions on the desert floor -with any more success than land animals could take to the open sea. -Their death from heat and aridity would only be more prolonged than that -by drowning. Thus certain species isolated on mountain peaks are often -as restricted in range as though they actually were surrounded by water. -At times this results in such striking adaptation to local conditions -that some common species become hardly recognizable. This is the -exception to the rule however; most of the animals in this book are -either of the same species as those in the Northern States or so closely -allied that to the casual observer they will seem the same. Conditions -that enable these species ordinarily associated with the snowy plains of -the Midwest and the conifer forests of the North to live in the hot -Southwest are brought about either directly or indirectly by altitude. - - - _Life Zones_ - -There are in this nucleus of four States a total of six life zones, (See -map on page x.) The two lowest, the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones, -range from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 7000 feet. These -two have been covered in the book “Mammals of the Southwest Deserts.” -The remaining four—Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life -Zones—will furnish the material for this book. The names of these zones -are self explanatory, because they are descriptive of those regions -whose climates they approximate. Unlike the two life zones of the -desert, which merge almost imperceptibly together, these upper zones are -more sharply defined. They may often be identified at a great distance -by their distinctive plant growth. It should be noted that plant species -are even more susceptible to environmental factors than animals and are -restricted to well defined areas within the extremes of temperature and -moisture best suited to their individual needs. Thus each life zone has -its typical plant species, and since animals in turn are dependent on -certain plants for food or cover, one can often predict many of the -species to be found in an individual area. - -The Transition Life Zone in the Southwest usually lies at an altitude of -between 7000 and 8000 feet. It encompasses the change from low trees and -shrubs of the open desert to dense forest of the higher elevations. It -is characterized by open forests of ponderosa pine usually intermingled -with scattered thickets of Gambel oak. These trees are of a brighter -green than the desert growth but do not compare with the deeper color of -the firs that grow at a higher elevation. - -The Canadian Life Zone begins at an altitude of about 8000 feet and -extends to approximately 9500 feet. The Douglas-fir must be considered -the outstanding species in this zone although the brilliant autumn color -of quaking aspens provides more spectacular identification of this area -during the fall. Through the winter months when this tree has shed its -leaves, the groves show up as gray patches among the dark green firs. At -this elevation there is considerable snow during winter and -correspondingly heavy rainfall in summer months. Under these favorable -conditions there is usually a colorful display of wildflowers late in -the spring. - -The Hudsonian Life Zone is marked by a noticeable decrease in numbers of -plant species. At this altitude, (9500 to 11,500 feet), the winters are -severe and summers of short duration. This is the zone of white fir -which grows tall and slim so to better shed its seasonal burden of snow -and sleet. In the more sheltered places spruce finds a habitat suited to -its needs. Near the upper edge of the Hudsonian Life Zone the trees -become stunted and misshapen and finally disappear entirely. This is -timberline; the beginning of the Alpine Life Zone, or as it often -called, the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone. - -Here is a world of barren rock and biting cold. At 12,000 feet and above -the eternal snows lie deep on the peaks. Yet, even though at first -glance there seems to be little evidence of life of any kind, a close -scrutiny will reveal low mat-like plants growing among the exposed rocks -and tiny paths leading to burrows in the rock slides. Among the larger -mammals there are few other than the mountain sheep that can endure the -rigors of this inhospitable region. - -These are the zones of the Southwest uplands. Altitudes given are -approximate and apply to such mountain ranges as the San Francisco Peaks -of Arizona and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in New Mexico. As one -travels farther north the zones descend ever lower until in the Far -North the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone is found at sea level. Since climate -more than any other factor, determines the types of plants and animals -that can live in a given area it is only natural that on these mountain -islands many species entirely foreign to the surrounding deserts are -found at home. Though it would seem that because of the relative -abundance of water at higher elevations the upland species would have -the better environment, this is not entirely true. Balanced against this -advantage are the severe winters which, in addition to freezing -temperatures, usher in a period of deep snows and famine. Even though -many species show a high degree of adaptation to these conditions, an -especially long or cold winter season will result in the death of weaker -individuals. - - - _Man and Wilderness_ - -The effects of man’s presence on the upland species is perhaps not as -serious as on those of the desert. Though he has been instrumental in -upsetting the balance of nature everywhere, it has been chiefly through -agriculture and grazing. Because of the rough broken character of much -high country in the Southwest the first is impossible in many cases and -the second only partially successful. There are other factors however -which menace the future of the upland species. Among these are: hunting -pressures, predator control, and lumbering. Even fire control, admirable -as it may be for human purposes, disrupts the long cycles which are a -normal part of plant and animal succession in forested areas. These are -only a few of the means by which man deliberately or unconsciously -decimates the animal population. They are set down as a reminder that -unless conservation and science cooperate in management problems, it is -conceivable that many of our common species could well become extinct -within the next 100 years. Our natural resources are our heritage; let -us not waste the substance of our trust. - -As our wilderness areas shrink it seems that our people are gradually -becoming more interested, not only in the welfare of our native species -but in their ways as well. This type of curiosity augurs well for the -future of our remaining wild creatures. In times past an interest in -mammals was limited mainly to sportsmen who often knew a great deal -about where to find game animals and how to pursue them. Their interest -usually ended with the shot that brought the quarry down. Today many -people have discovered that a study of the habits of any animal in its -native habitat is a fascinating out-of-doors hobby in a virtually -untouched field. With patience and attention to details the layman will -occasionally discover facts about the daily life of some common species -that have escaped the attention of our foremost naturalists. This is no -criticism of the scientific approach. It is recommended that for his own -benefit the nature enthusiast learn a few of the fundamentals of -zoology, particularly of classification and taxonomy, which mean the -grouping and naming of species. - - - _Classification of Animals_ - -Classification of animals is easy to understand. Briefly, they are -divided into large groups called _orders_. These are further divided -into _genera_, and the genera in turn contain one or more _species_. - -Scientific names of animals are always given in Latin. Written in this -universal language they are intelligible to all scientists, regardless -of nationality. It is a mistake to shy away from them because they are -cumbersome and unfamiliar to the eye. They usually reveal some important -characteristic of the animal they stand for. This is their true -function; it seems to this writer that it is a mistake to name an animal -after a geographical location or a person, although it is frequently -done. The literal translations of specific names in this book will -illustrate this point. See how much more interesting and how much more -easily remembered those names are which describe habits or physical -attributes of the creature. - -Described herein are but a part of the species native to the -Southwestern uplands. Those chosen were selected because they are either -common, rare, or unusually interesting. Collectively they make up a -representative cross section of the mammals that live above the deserts -of the Southwest. - -For further information on these and other mammals of the region see the -list of references on page 123. - - - - - HOOFED ANIMALS - _Artiodactyla_ - (_even-toed hoofed animals_) - - -This order includes all of the hoofed animals native to the United -States. These are the mammals which are ordinarily spoken of as the -“cloven-hoofed animals.” An odd-toed group (_Perissodactyla_), which -includes the so-called wild horses and burros, cannot properly be -included as natives since these animals date back only to the time of -the Spanish conquest of our Southwest. In earlier geologic ages horses -ranged this continent, but in more primitive forms than those now found -in other parts of the world. - -Through a study of fossil forms it has been determined that our present -hoofed animals evolved from creatures which lived on the edges of the -great tropical swamps that once covered large areas of our present land -masses. They were long-legged and splay-footed, well adapted to an -environment of deep mud and lush vegetation. As the waters gradually -disappeared and the animals were forced to take to dry land, their -strange feet underwent a slow transformation. Because they had become -accustomed to walking on the tips of their toes to stay up out of the -mud, the first toe did not touch solid ground at all in this new -environment. Since it was of no use it soon vanished entirely or became -vestigial. Some species developed a divided foot in which the second and -third toes and the fourth and fifth toes combined respectively to bear -the animal’s weight. Eventually the third and fourth toes assumed this -responsibility alone, and the second and fifth toes became dew claws. -These are the cloven-hoofed animals of today. In other species the third -toe was developed to bear the weight, and this resulted in a single-toed -group of which the horse is an example. In all cases an enormous -modification of the nails or claws with which most animals are equipped -has resulted in that protective covering called the hoof. The under -surface of the foot is somewhat softer and corresponds to the heavy pad -that protects the bottom of a dog’s toe. This brief explanation refers -only in the broadest sense to the order as represented in the United -States. The feet of the various species have become so specialized to -their separate ways of life that an individual can usually be easily -identified by its tracks alone. It is quite possible that many species -are still undergoing subtle changes in this respect. - -With but one exception the cloven-hoofed animals of our southwestern -mountains bear either horns or antlers. The exception is the collared -peccary, “javelina,” (_pecari tajacu_) which, during the heat of the -summer, sometimes ascends to the Transition Life Zone in southern -Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Essentially an animal of the low -desert, it will not be included in this book. The species which have -hollow, permanent horns are the bighorn and pronghorn. The pronghorn is -distinctive in shedding the sheaths of its horns each year, but the -hollow, bony core remains intact. In this group both sexes bear horns. -Animals bearing antlers are the elk and the deer. The antlers are -deciduous, being shed each year at about the same time as the winter -coat. Only the males of these species have antlers, any female with -antlers can be considered abnormal. - -The Southwest is fortunate in still having a number of the species of -this order native to the United States. The bison can hardly be -considered a wild species, since it exists now only through the efforts -of a few conservationists who brought it back from virtual extinction. -Mountain goats, caribou, and moose are the only other species not known -to inhabit the Southwest. - -In Nature’s balance the order _Artiodactyla_ seems to have been meant as -food for the large predators. Their protection against the flesh eaters -consists mainly in fleetness of foot, keen hearing, and a wide range of -vision, as evidenced by the large eyes set in the sides of the head. -They are but poorly equipped to actively resist attack by the larger -carnivores. Their best defense is flight. - - - Bighorn (mountain sheep) - _Ovis canadensis_ (Latin: a sheep from Canada) - -Range: This species, with its several varieties, inhabits most of the -mountainous region of the western United States. In Mexico it occurs in -the northern Sierra Madres and over almost the whole length of Baja -California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Among or in the vicinity of more precipitous places in the -mountains. - -Description: A blocky animal, rather large, with heavy, curving horns. -Total length of adult male 5 feet. Tail about 5 inches. Weight up to 275 -pounds. General color a dark gray to brown with lighter areas underneath -belly and inside of legs. The rump patch is much lighter than any other -part of the body; in most cases it can be described as white. Females -are similar in appearance to the males except that they are smaller and -the horns are much shorter and slimmer. Young, one or two, twins being -common. - -Interesting as the desert varieties of this species may be in their -adaptation to an environment that seems foreign to their nature, they -cannot compare with the high mountain animal. Seen against the backdrop -of a great gray cliff or silhouetted against the skyline of a snowy -crest the bighorn has a magnificence that is thrilling. In flight it is -even more spectacular as it bounds from one narrow shelf to another in -an incredible show of surefootedness. Yet this airy grace is exhibited -by a chunky animal that often weighs well over 200 pounds. The secret -lies in the specially adapted hooves with bottoms that cling to smooth -surfaces like crepe rubber and edges that cut into snow and ice or gain -a purchase on the smallest projections of the rocks. The legs and body, -though heavy, are well proportioned and so extremely well muscled that -no matter what demands are placed on them this sheep seems to have a -comfortable reserve of power. No doubt the display of complete -coordination adds to the illusion of ease with which it ascends to the -most inaccessible places. Descents often are even more spectacular, the -animal seldom hesitating at vertical leaps of 15 feet or more down from -one narrow ledge to another. - - [Illustration: bighorn] - -In the high mountains where this sheep prefers to make its home it -usually ranges near or above timberline. During winter storms it may -sometimes be forced down into the shelter of the forests, but as soon as -conditions warrant it will go back to its world of barren rocks and -snow. Here, with an unobstructed view, its keen eyes can pick out the -stealthy movements of the mountain lion, the only mammal predator -capable of making any serious inroads on its numbers. It has few other -natural enemies. A golden eagle occasionally may strike a lamb and knock -it from a ledge, or a high ranging bobcat or lynx may be lucky enough to -snatch a very young one away from its mother, but these are rare -occurrences. - -Bighorns depend mainly on browse for food. This is only natural since in -the high altitudes they frequent little grass can be found. Usually -there is some abundance of low shrubs growing in crevices on the rocks, -however, and many of the tiny annuals are also searched out during the -short summer season. At times a sheltered cove on the south exposure of -a mountain will become filled with such shrubs as the snowberry, and the -sheep take full advantage of such situations. As a rule they keep well -fed for, scanty though it seems, there are few competitors for the food -supply above timberline. - -I have observed these sheep many times in the Rockies. Perhaps my most -memorable experience with this species was on Mount Cochran in southern -Montana. It was a gray, blustery day in September with occasional snow -flurries sweeping about the summits. On the eastern exposure of the -mountain a steep slope of slide rock extended for perhaps 1,000 feet -from one of the upper ridges to timberline. Not expecting to see any -game at that elevation, I made my way up this slope with no effort to -keep quiet. In my progress several rocks were dislodged and went -rattling down across the mass of talus. At the summit of the ridge a low -escarpment made a convenient windbreak against the gale that was tearing -the clouds to shreds as they came drifting up the opposite slope, and I -sat down to catch my breath before entering its full force. As I sat -there surveying the scene spread out below, my attention was attracted -by a low cough close by. Looking to the left about 40 feet away and 15 -feet above me, I saw two magnificent rams standing on a projecting point -looking down at me. They seemed to have no fear; rather they evinced a -deep curiosity as to what strange animal this was that had wandered into -their domain. For the better part of a half hour I hardly dared breathe -for fear of frightening them. At first they gazed at me fixedly, -occasionally giving a low snorting cough and stamping their feet. Then -as I did not move, they would wheel about and change positions, -sometimes taking a long look over the mountains before bringing their -attention back. Finally when the cold had penetrated to my very bones, I -stood up. They were away in a flash, reappearing from behind their -vantage point with two ewes and an almost full-grown lamb following -them. While I watched they dashed at a sheer cliff that reared up to the -summit, and with hardly slackening speed bounded up its face until they -were lost in the clouds. - -Although this happened in 1928 the experience is as vivid in my mind as -though it happened yesterday. Perhaps the most striking feature of -bighorns seen at this close range is the eyes. They might be described -as a clear, golden amber with a long oval, velvety black pupil. Credited -with telescopic vision, they must be some of the most useful as well as -beautiful eyes to be found in the animal kingdom. - - - Pronghorn (antelope) - _Antilocapra americana_ (Latin: antelope and goat, American) - -Range: West Texas, eastern Colorado and central Wyoming to southern -California and western Nevada, and from southern Saskatchewan south into -northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grasslands of mesas and prairies, mostly in the Upper Sonoran -Zone. - -Description: A white and tan colored animal, considerably smaller than a -deer; horns with a single flat prong curving forward. Total length about -4 feet. Tail about 6 inches. Average weight 100 to 125 pounds. Color, -tan or black shading to white under belly and insides of legs. Two -conspicuous white bands under the neck, and the large white rump patch -of erectile hairs are unlike the markings of any other native animal. A -short, stiff mane of dark hairs follows the back of the neck from ears -to shoulders. Hooves black, horns also black except for the light tips -on those of older males. Both sexes horned. Young, usually two, born in -May. - - [Illustration: pronghorn] - -Pronghorns are unique among cloven-hoofed animals of the Southwest. -There is only one species, with several subspecies; a variety -_mexicana_, once common along the Mexican border, is considered extinct -in this country. The pronghorn has no “dew claws” like most other -animals with divided hooves. It has permanent bony cores in its horns -but sheds the outer sheaths each year. When these drop off the -succeeding sheaths are already well developed. Although at first these -new sheaths are soft and covered with a scanty growth of short stiff -hairs, corresponding to the velvet in antlered animals, it does not take -long for them to harden and become dangerous weapons. They reach full -development at about the time of the rut; bucks have been known to fight -to the death in the savage encounters that break out at this time. - -Were it not for its unusual horns the pronghorn probably would be known -by a common name such as the white-tailed antelope, for the beautiful -white rump patch is undoubtedly its next most conspicuous feature. -However, at least two other animals have been named “antelope” because -their posteriors have some similarity. They are the white-tailed ground -squirrel and the antelope jackrabbit of the Sonoran Life Zone. The -ground squirrel (_Citellus leucurus_) has merely a white ventral surface -on its tail which may or may not act as a flashing signal when flipped -about, but the antelope jackrabbit (_Lepus alleni_) has a rump patch -that bears a striking likeness to the pronghorn’s both in appearance and -manner of use. In both cases the rump patches are composed of long, -erectile white hairs which are raised when the animal is alarmed. In -flight they are thought to act as warning signals; at any rate they are -very effective in catching the eye, and on the open plains the -pronghorn’s can be seen at a distance where the rest of the animal is -indistinguishable. It may well be, on the other hand, that this flashy -ornament is meant to attract the attention of an enemy and lead it in -pursuit of an adult individual rather than allowing it to discover the -helpless young. Neither animal can be matched in speed on level ground -by any native four-footed predator. - -In times past the pronghorn usually lived in the valley and prairie -country. In the Southwest it roamed over much of both the Upper and -Lower Sonoran Life Zones, wherever suitable grass and herbage could be -found. On the prairies of the Midwest bands of pronghorns grazed in -close proximity to herds of buffalo. During the middle of the last -century it was the only animal whose numbers even approached those of -the latter. More adaptable than the buffalo, it has retreated before the -advance of civilization and taken up new ranges in rough and broken -country which is unsuited to agriculture. As a rule this is much higher -than its former range. Pronghorns are no longer found in the Lower -Sonoran Life Zone, except as small bands that have been introduced from -farther north. The greatest population now ranges in the upper portions -of the Upper Sonoran and along the lower fringe of the Transition Life -Zone. The animal has always been considered migratory to some extent -because it moved from mesa summer ranges to the protection of warmer -valleys during winter months. This habit is even more pronounced in -later years at the higher levels it now inhabits. These slim, -long-legged creatures are virtually helpless in deep snow and avoid it -whenever possible. They have even been known to mingle with cattle and -join with them at the feed racks during severe winters, an indication of -the extreme need to which shy pronghorns are sometimes reduced. - -They are essentially grazing animals. In the past they ate prairie -grasses during the summer; in winter these same grasses made excellent -hay that lost little in nourishment from having dried on the roots. In -addition, they ate low herbage and nibbled leaves, buds, and fruits from -shrubs that grew along the watercourses. Their food today is much the -same except that in the many areas where they receive competition from -range cattle they undoubtedly resort to more browse than formerly. - -Natural enemies of the pronghorn are legion, their success indifferent. -Every large carnivore will snap at the chance to take one, and even the -golden eagle has been known to kill them. The most serious depredations -are carried out on those young too small to follow the mother. However, -these attacks are fraught with danger, for the females are very -courageous in the defense of their young and at times several will join -in routing an enemy. In addition to this protection accorded them by -adult members of the band, the young have an almost perfect camouflage -in their plain coats that blend so closely with the color of the grass -in which they usually lie concealed. Because of their fleetness, few -adults fall prey to predators. Many attempts have been made to clock the -speed of the pronghorn in full flight but the estimates vary greatly. -Although a fast horse can keep up with one on smooth, level ground, it -is soon outdistanced on stony soil or in rough country. - - [Illustration: baby pronghorn] - - - Bison (buffalo) - _Bison bison_ (Teutonic name given to this animal) - -Range: At present bison exist only in widely scattered sanctuaries. In -Colonial times they ranged from southern Alaska to the Texas plains, -from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, and as far south as Georgia. -They are known in historic times in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mainly grasslands; a comparatively small number known locally -as “wood” bison lived in the fringes of the forests. - -Description: Although bison are familiar to almost everyone, some -figures on weights and dimensions may be surprising. Bulls weigh up to -1800 lbs., reach 6 feet height at the shoulders and up to 11 feet in -length, of which about 2 feet is the short tail. Cows average much -smaller from 800 to 1000 pounds, and rarely over 7 feet long. Both sexes -have heavy, black, sharply curving horns, tapering quickly to a point, -and a heavy growth of woolly hair covering most of the head and -forequarters. A large hump lies over the latter and descends sharply to -the neck. The head is massive, horns widely spaced, and small eyes set -far apart. A heavy “goatee” swings from the lower jaw. All these -features combine to give the animal a most ponderous appearance. -Nevertheless, bison are surprisingly agile and are not creatures with -which to trifle, especially in the breeding season, when bulls will -charge with little provocation. Like most wild cattle, bison normally -bear but one calf per year. Twins are uncommon. - -The history of the bison is unique in the annals of American mammalogy. -It hinges on simple economics, reflecting transfer of the western -prairies from Indian control to white. It is a pitifully short history -in its final stages, requiring only 50 years to drive a massive species, -numbering in the millions, from a well balanced existence to near -extinction. Yet considering the nature of civilization and progress -there could have been no other end, so perhaps it is well that it was -quickly over. - -For countless centuries the bison had roamed the prairies, their -seasonal migrations making eddies in the great herds that darkened the -plains. They were host to the Indian, and to the gray wolf, yet so well -were they adapted to their life that these depredations were merely -normal inroads on their numbers. They drifted with the seasons and the -weather cycles, grazing on the nutritious grasses of the prairie. -Weather and food supply; these were the main factors which controlled -the “buffalo” population until the coming of the white man. - -The first white man to see an American bison is thought to have been -Cortez, who in 1521 wrote of such an animal in Montezuma’s collection of -animals. This menagerie was kept in the Aztec capitol on the site of -what is now Mexico City. There the bison was an exotic, hundreds of -miles south of its range. In 1540 Coronado found the Zuni Indians in -northern New Mexico using bison hides, and a short distance northeast of -that point encountered the species on the great plains. The eastern edge -of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico seems to have been the western -limit of bison in the Southwest. Unfavorable climate, plus the -comparatively heavy Indian population of the valley probably combined to -halt farther penetration in that direction. - -From 1540 until 1840 the white man limited his activities on the western -plains to exploring. American colonization had reached the Mississippi -River, but remained there while gathering its forces for the expansion -which later settled the West. Under Mexican rule, the Southwest -progressed very slowly. Then in the span of 50 years a chain of events -occurred which determined the destiny of the West and sealed the fate of -the bison herd. - - [Illustration: bison] - -Outstanding among these events were: the War with Mexico, 1844; the 1849 -Gold Rush to California; the Gadsden Purchase in 1854; and completion of -the transcontinental railroad in 1868. The first three added new and -important territory to the United States. This made construction of -transportation and communication facilities a vital necessity, hence the -railroad. Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 divided the -bison population into southern and northern herds and made market -hunting profitable. Three factors contributed to extermination: profit -in the traffic of hides, meat, and bones; control of troublesome Indian -tribes through elimination of one of their major sources of food; and -finally, removal of any competition on the grassy plains of Texas and -Kansas against the great herds of Longhorn cattle which were beginning -to make Western range history. In 1874, only 6 years after completion of -the Union Pacific, the slaughter of the southern herd was complete. It -is of interest to note that not one piece of legislation was passed to -protect the southern herd. - -The northern herd did slightly better. Closed seasons were established -in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, Montana in 1872, Nebraska in 1875, -Colorado in 1877, New Mexico in 1880, North and South Dakota in 1883. -Nevertheless, the herd dwindled, and by 1890 was nearly extinct. Since -that time, through careful management, a few small herds have been -established in Parks and refuges, but today the bison must be considered -more a domesticated animal than a wild one. - -Although the animal was not as important economically to the -southwestern as to the plains Indians, it was a religious symbol of some -value. Archeological finds far west of the historic range, and dances -still used in ceremonies, reveal that several southwestern tribes sent -hunting parties eastward into bison country. This must have been very -dangerous, for plains Indians would have considered them invaders. Bison -were food, shelter, and clothing to them. Imagine their consternation -when white men began to slaughter the source of their living. - -There are today but few reminders of the great herds of the west. -Perhaps one well versed in the ways of these wild cattle could still -find traces of the deeply cut trails which led to the watering places, -or shallow depressions where the clumsy beasts once wallowed in the mud. -Many of the Indian dances recall the importance of this animal to -primitive man. Perhaps our most constant reminder is the coin which -commemorates this symbol of the wild west, showing the Indian on one -side and the bison on the other. - - - Mule deer - _Odocoileus hemionus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Greek: - hemionus, mule) - -Range: Western half of North America from Central Canada to central -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Forests and brushy areas from near sea level to lower edge of -the Alpine Life Zone. - -Description: A large-eared deer with a tail that is either all black -above or black tipped. Total length of an average adult about 6 feet. -Tail about 8 inches. The coat is reddish in summer and blue-gray in -winter. Under parts and insides of legs lighter in color. Some forms of -this species have a white rump patch, others none. The tail may be -black-tipped, or black over the whole dorsal surface, but is more -sparsely haired than that of other native deer and is naked over at -least part of the under surface. Only the bucks have antlers. These are -typical in forking equally from the main beam. They are shed every year. - - [Illustration: mule deer] - -The mule deer is typical of the western mountains. Even in early days it -was never found east of the Mississippi and now is seldom seen east of -the Rockies. Only one species is recognized in the United States, -although over its vast range are many subspecific forms. All are notable -for the size of their ears, from which derives the common name “mule.” -The black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, long considered a distinct -species, is now rated a subspecies of the mule deer. - -In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into two -groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. East -of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group; -westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop -abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a -whitetail subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found -along the Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory -also occupied by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule -deer of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of -North Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and -well within the western range of the plains white-tailed. - -Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished -from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the animal is -seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most prominent -field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough country, -bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward on the level -but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. The -white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing -gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually -straining every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the -rough, broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes -considerable commotion. - -I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped on a steep -mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, crackling of -hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight created the -impression of a landslide. - -Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed deer -is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the great -white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no way to be -used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side as is -that of the white-tailed. - -Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game -species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule -and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often -look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is -not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk, -especially at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that -forks equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five -points, these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam -near the head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of -the beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of -numbering those of one antler only; the method often used in the East -counts all of the points of both. The number of points does not -necessarily denote the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the -antlers will increase in size and points with every new pair until -maturity is attained. They will then grow to approximately the same size -for several years. In old age, the antler development will usually -dwindle with each succeeding year until, in senility, they may be as -small as those of a young deer. The condition of teeth and hooves is a -more accurate indication of age even though this method lacks prestige -of the time-honored system of points. - -It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be established -in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of extinction. -It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear before long -because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture or -lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the higher -mountains for many years to come. - - - White-tailed deer -_Odocoileus virginianus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin: - of Virginia) - - [Illustration: white-tailed deer] - -Range: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, north -into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Brushy and wooded country. - -Description: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged from -side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the Southwest, -two geographic variants occur, the subspecies _virginianus_ and the -subspecies _couesi_; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, and -seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border. -_Odocoileus virginianus_ of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually -weighs between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to 300. The average -adult animal will measure around 6 feet in total length. Tail about 10 -inches. Color is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the winter -coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface of tail are white. Ears -are small. Antlers have upright tines from a single beam. - -As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found in -the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because it -was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout the -prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most -abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to the -Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific -Northwest, and the subspecies _couesi_ extends westward along the -Mexican border to the Colorado River. - -The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by any of -three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are: -shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method of -running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from the -head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from -forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule deer -the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather than -remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired all -around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and “wigwagged” -from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the hams, -presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The mule -deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and does -not wave from side to side in running. The “whitetail” runs at a brisk -gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds away with a -series of ballet-like leaps. - -This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their -westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for -its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin -moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early -days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range, -although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United -States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly -settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and -hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if -predator elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the -relative overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of -browse, disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has -been a problem in some of the Northern States. “Whitetails” are -gregarious creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times, -especially during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together -and their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As -succeeding snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the “deer yards” -and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white barrier -as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the yard is too -great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve to death -before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous area occupied -by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. The herds -merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too deep. This -seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed as a -migratory animal in some localities. - -In line with this migratory tendency the “whitetail” follows a varied -but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time of shedding -the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their antlers. -With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities suffer. -They leave the group with which they have spent the winter and ascend to -the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly afflicted -individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their dignity. The -does, left behind, have problems of their own. These include driving the -yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order that the does may -give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers that arrive in -midsummer. By this time the adults have put on the short, yellowish-red -summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, but covered with pale spots, a -combination that blends well with lights and shadows in the brushy -places where the does choose to hide them. As soon as the fawns are -large enough to follow their mothers the little family groups begin a -gradual trek up the mountainside. There are several reasons for this -exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, better browse, and fewer -stinging insects. - -While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been -staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new -antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the -brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of the -does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at the -peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are soon -outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become -progenitors of the following year’s fawns. The simplicity of this system -is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one -of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in -numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior -strain. In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is -not always the _number_ of animals that is the prime consideration. A -smaller group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be -desired than a larger population in average condition. - -Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the Prairie -States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked by -many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the “guinea -pig” in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost any -environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only a -little protection to become well established. The “key” deer of the -Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds, -is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the “Sonora -fantail,” native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, is -greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish. - - - Elk - _Cervus canadensis_ (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada) - -Range: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Also -found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, central -California, and various small areas in those Western States where it has -been introduced. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys. - -Description: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin neck, and a -light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 inches. -Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 pounds, with -a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter in winter. Longer -hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane that is distinguishable -at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually six points on adult -males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves are black. Young -usually one, although twins not rare. - -The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the -southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known not -only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern States. -In fact, one of its common names, “wapiti,” is of eastern American -Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of Canada -and the Northern States call it “wapitiu” (pale white) to distinguish it -from the darker colored moose with which it was associated in that -region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the United -States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many herds now -found in Western States have been introduced to take the place of those -thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has been the case in -Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam’s elk disappeared before 1900. -This elk, now known only from scanty records and a few mounted heads and -skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only was it larger than the Wyoming -elk which now takes its place, but it had correspondingly massive -antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what could happen easily to -the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California which has been reduced -to a dangerously small herd. The elk now present in the Southwest, -chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals brought down from the -large herds of the Yellowstone Park area. In their new homeland they -maintain the same habits that characterize the species in Wyoming. - -Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the United -States. The degree to which they band together varies with the seasons -and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During summer months -the bands are small and widely scattered high in the Transition Life -Zone and even higher at times. With the advent of cold weather they work -their way down to lower country, and winter finds them gathered in -sheltered grassy valleys. This exodus to winter quarters can be one of -the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it is not uncommon for -herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals to move into one of -the more favored valleys. They have the instinct so highly developed -among most animals of knowing when a storm is imminent, and the -migration may be completed within a period of 48 hours, or even less if -foul weather is brewing. - -The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one small -area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of feed. -Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, and -many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed areas they -were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing dry grass -beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter losses that -would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively mild -winters and small population, the animals experience little difficulty -in weathering the storms without human aid. The present herds appear -well established, and with proper conservation measures should be a -valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come. - - [Illustration: elk] - -Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal range -of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed two -definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter garb is -put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown woolly -underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to almost -black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and white than -the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often called the “gray” -coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep through the mountains -and insulates the wearer against snow that is driven into the outer -surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way for a light summer -coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, and the animals are -unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The summer coat is made up -of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The pelage is glossy when -compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter coat. In color it is -tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump patch is a light tawny -color in both coats. - -With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which they -have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general -deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption of -tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in their -weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging branches. -They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins to grow. As -with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet covers the -new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the antlers -develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity before -the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers “catches -up,” so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity, -attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk in -the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely -tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip -off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the hard -core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines -which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully -symmetrical that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the -largest pairs on record has a length of beam of 64¾ inches and a spread -of 74 inches. - -A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have definite -names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is known as the -“brow” tine; the next to it as the “bez” tine. Collectively they are -called the “lifters,” formerly known as “war tines.” The next point -inclines toward the vertical; this is the “trez” tine. The fourth is the -“royal” or “dagger” point, and the terminal fork of the antler forms the -final two points which are called “surroyals.” - -Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals handle -them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the body is -carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. In this -posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without undue -strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; this -throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the nose -parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without catching -on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the elk creates less -disturbance than most large forest animals when in flight. Antlers as -weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom serve this -function. Males have been severely injured and even killed in fights -among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting is done by -striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually with a -chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing the hide of -the opponent. - -Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content -merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort -is a high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it -seems to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn. -The call begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds -and then rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo, -drops by swift degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is -followed by several coughing grunts that can be heard only at close -range. Bugling can be heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet -evening one of the greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this -clear challenge flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is -quickly returned from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere -whispers in the distance. - -Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts from -August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended as a -challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with their -lords’ great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently, -and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal spirits. -Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence. - -The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins are not -uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and is an -awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with light -spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it remains -hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps constant -vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, but -this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that are -only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions, -wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the calf -be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with sharp -hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the smaller -predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her bristling -show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the mother, she -warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark. - -The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in other -American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths without -known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls have the -greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished and stain -a light brown. - - - - - RODENTS - _Including the Lagomorphs_ - (_hares and pikas_) - - -Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is not an -unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other mammals -throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; the largest -to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver and the -porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all others of -the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of the large -number of species represented and the varying conditions under which -they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics. -They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, by one -common characteristic—that of having long, curving incisors. As a rule -these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only exception -being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These properly -belong to the order _Lagomorpha_ but will be included here with rodents. - -The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums being -a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other mammals, -they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of the animal. -This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting edges must -undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy coat of -enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at best -covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged -surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it receives -during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform -sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar -arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average play in -this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either -behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately -the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or -otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its -opposite will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take -food and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all -rodents, and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus -left between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars -accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally -compressed face so typical of rodent features. - -Food habits of the various types of rodents differ to a great degree. -Perhaps the term omnivorous might be applied to most of them because -virtually all rodents will eat insects and meat in addition to the usual -fare of vegetable matter. A few might be classed as insectivorous or -even carnivorous. Some species store up hoards of food against lean -seasons; others eat like gluttons when food is abundant and hibernate -through times of want; still others are equipped to spend the whole year -in a busy search for something to eat. - -Habitats are equally diverse. Some species live below the earth, some on -the surface of the ground, at least two species are aquatic, and a few -are arboreal. Regardless of where they live, the great majority are home -builders. They strive to locate their homes in the most protected places -and usually line their nests with soft materials. Outstanding exceptions -are the jackrabbit and the porcupine, both of which lead nomadic lives. - -In spite of their secretive habits, rodents suffer a tremendous -mortality. Practically all carnivorous animals, most predatory birds, -and many snakes prey on rodents, and for many of them these persecuted -animals form the chief food. This situation is not as harsh as it might -seem, for most rodents are prolific to a high degree. Elliott Coues -summed up their place in Nature’s balance very aptly: “Yet they have one -obvious part to play,... that of turning grass into flesh, in order that -carnivorous Goths and Vandals may subsist also, and in their turn -proclaim, ‘All flesh is grass.’” - - - Snowshoe hare - _Lepus americanus_ (Latin: hare ... of America) - -Range: Found throughout the greater part of Canada and Alaska with -extensive penetrations into the Southwest in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, -and western Nevada. Its occurrence in northern California is rather -rare, and is confined to only a few higher mountain ranges. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the vicinity of streams or in conifer forests in the -Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones. - -Description: A small, chunky hare with medium long ears and large hairy -hind feet. An average individual will have a total length of about 18 -inches with a tail less than 2 inches. Hind foot about 6 inches in -length. Summer pelage brown, except feet and belly white, and tail -brownish black above. Winter coat white except for the tips of the ears -which are black. Young, three to six, born in May or June. - -The snowshoe hare, found sparingly in mountains of the Southwest, is the -same as that which lives in the muskeg not far from the Arctic Circle. -The climate of the mountain zones is surprisingly like that of the north -country even though the terrain is different. The closest equivalent is -to be found in the brushy borders of mountain streams, and here the -“snowshoes” are most often found. During summer they feed on grasses, -herbs, and leaves of many different shrubs and the tender tips of young -branches. Winter, a period of famine for many animals, is just the -opposite for these large-footed hares. Able to run about on the surface -of snowdrifts, each new snowfall lifts them closer to the tender twigs -that earlier in the year were far above their reach. Clean diagonal cuts -much like those made with a knife mark their depredations and, since -they are hearty eaters, the whole tops of many favorite food shrubs may -be pruned out in one season. - -In common with several other hunted creatures and a comparatively few -that hunt, the “snowshoe” undergoes a complete change of color between -its summer and winter coat. The transformation begins when the first -snows are due, and usually the white coat is complete when the snows lie -deep on the mountains. It is not, as was once supposed, a case of the -brown guard hairs turning white, but a molt. The summer guard hairs are -shed and white ones taken their place. The under fur changes color to a -less marked degree. Close to the skin the animal is still brown. -Outwardly it is pure white except for black ear tips. Marvelous as this -protective coloration is, it is not absolute proof against enemies. -There are many, and chief among them are lynxes, bobcats, wolves, -weasels, and great horned owls. In many places in the far north the -snowshoe hare is the chief host of the lynx, their numbers fluctuating -in unison. - - [Illustration: snowshoe hare] - -Like most other hares the “snowshoe” spends a great share of its leisure -time in a “form.” This is usually nothing more than a well concealed -hollow. The semi-darkness under low hanging evergreens is much favored -by these nocturnal animals for this purpose. They do not, at any time, -frequent burrows, the closest approach to this kind of home being in -winter when they are sometimes completely snowed under. They suffer but -little during severe storms, because their long, fluffy fur is -protection against the cold. Their greatest danger lies in the -possibility of being buried alive in the event of a freezing rain -following the snow. - -The young are born in late spring or early summer. They come into the -world amid plushy surroundings indeed. The mother has lined the surface -nest with soft hair pulled from her own coat, and a softer, more -comfortable nursery could hardly be imagined. The little hares are born -fully furred, with eyes open, and usually with the incisor teeth already -through the gums. Their development is rapid, and long before cold -weather arrives they are out on their own. - - - White-tailed jackrabbit - _Lepus townsendi_ (Latin: hare ... for J. K. Townsend) - -Range: North of the Canadian border to the southern portion of Colorado -and Utah, and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Mississippi River. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Plains and open country, in the foothills, and even in the high -mountains. Found in both Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - -Description: A large hare with a white tail and a lanky build, found -usually only in open country. Total length (average) 18 to 24 inches. -Tail up to 4 inches. Ears up to 6 inches in length. Weight 5 to 8 -pounds. Color varies with the seasons. The summer coat is buffy gray, -the winter coat is white. The tail, long for a hare, is white throughout -the year. The tips of the ears are black both summer and winter. Young, -three to six in a litter, born in May. There may be a second litter -during late summer. As with all the hare family, the young are well -furred and have their eyes open at birth. - -The white-tailed jackrabbit is the largest hare native to the United -States. Its great size is further emphasized by its rangy build and long -legs and ears. Such physical characteristics are usually marks of an -animal that is fiercely pursued by its enemies. This denizen of the open -country is no exception. It is preyed upon by innumerable predators, -including man, the most relentless and cunning of all. Yet its place in -the modern world is still secure, for though it is almost totally -lacking in offensive weapons, Nature has given it defensive advantages -far beyond most other creatures. Perhaps the most important is the -deceptive speed with which it floats across the prairie. Fastest of its -tribe and exceeded in this respect by only one native animal, the -pronghorn, this lanky jackrabbit simply runs away from most pursuit. -Effective though this tactic is, the animal uses it usually as a last -resort, preferring to employ the exact opposite, that of crouching -motionless in an effort to avoid detection. Absolute immobility is -itself an admirable defense, but when augmented by camouflage such as -this creature possesses it is even more effective. - -Like most members of the hare family, the white-tailed jackrabbit is -more active at night than during the day. It spends most of the daylight -hours resting in a form that it hollows out under shelter of a low shrub -or large tuft of grass. In summer the tawny coat blends well with the -color of the surroundings, and the winter coat is possibly even more -effective. Then the crouched body resembles nothing more than a mound of -snow; the black tips of the ears suggest black weed stems sticking up -through the white surface. - - [Illustration: white-tailed jackrabbit] - - - Mountain cottontail - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ (Latin: sylva, wood and Greek: lagos, hare. For - Nuttal) - -Range: Western United States but east of the coastal range of mountains. -The northern limits are along the Canadian border; the southern limits -in central Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mountains of the west through the Transition and Canadian Life -Zones. Seldom found below the pines. - -Description: The “powder puff” tail is the best field characteristic by -which to recognize this rabbit, usually the only cottontail in its range -at the elevations given above. It is one of the largest of its kind, -averaging 12 to 14 inches in total length with the tail less than 2 -inches long. Average weights run from 1½ to 3 pounds. Ears are -relatively short and wide for a cottontail. Color varies somewhat with -relation to habitat, but in general it is gray with a faint yellowish -tinge. Darkest areas are about the back and upper sides; under parts are -light to almost white. The winter coat is heavier than the summer, but -much the same color. The underside of the tail is the cottony white so -well known to city and country dwellers alike. From the scanty records -available on the number of young it would seem that three to four -constitute the average litter. Perhaps the higher elevations at which -they live keep them free from many of the predators to which their -lowland cousins succumb, and thus they are able to maintain their -numbers with smaller families. - -Though often found in the depths of the forest, these shy rabbits prefer -to live in the brushy thickets that border high mountain meadows and -line the streams. There, in true cottontail fashion, they venture into -the open to feed, always ready at the first sign of danger to scurry -back to safety under tangled branches. Once fairly entered into the maze -of paths that they alone know, there is little danger of capture. There -they can count themselves safe from further pursuit by the larger -predators and have a distinct advantage over those their own size or -smaller. Although so clever at turning and doubling back in their chosen -refuges, they seldom use much evasive action when surprised in the open. -Their first thought seems to be to reach cover in the straightest -possible line, and as a consequence many are snapped up by predators who -not only rely on this behavior but often gain the advantage of a -surprise attack as well. - -Food habits are much the same as those of other cottontails, modified to -some extent by the different plant associations with which they are -found. In summer, tender grasses and herbs are the favorite fare, but in -winter when deep snow isolates them from even the taller herbs, these -adaptable animals turn to bark and such small twigs as meet their taste. -At this time even the tips of conifer twigs are often eaten. Access to -this food, which during the summer is usually out of reach, is -facilitated by the growth of long hair on the bottom of the feet, -especially on the hind feet. Though these seasonal “snowshoes” do not -approach those of the Arctic hare in size, they serve very well to -support the lighter cottontails as they move over the soft surface. They -are especially useful when the animal stands on its hind feet to reach -some inviting bit that would be out of reach in the normal crouching -position. During this operation it reaches for food with the mouth -alone; the forepaws cannot be used to gather food, but hang loosely in -front of the body as an aid to balance. - - [Illustration: mountain cottontail] - -This inability to grasp or handle objects with the front feet is -characteristic of all those animals which in the United States we call -“rabbits.” Though here included with the rodents, the jackrabbits, -snowshoe hares, and cottontails all lack the dexterity with the forepaws -with which the rest of the group is endowed. The structure of the bones -is much like that of the ungulates in that the feet cannot be turned -sideways. Thus front legs are used mainly for running, digging, and -washing the face and ears, a procedure much like that employed by -domestic cats, except that it is carried out with the sides of the paws -rather than the insides of the wrists as Tabby does. - -Though it lives in a different habitat than other closely related -species, the mountain cottontail shares many of their habits. It is a -nocturnal animal, seldom seen at large except at dusk or in early -morning hours. During the greater part of the day it seeks refuge under -some brush pile or deep in the recesses of the slide rock. On occasion -it will make itself a form in long grass or under a shrub, but usually -prefers more substantial protection. In areas which are being logged, -cottontails are quick to take advantage of the shelter offered by huge -piles of limbs and debris left by loggers. Later in the season, when the -piles are burned, it is not unusual to see as many as three or four -cottontails scurry from one pile. - -Nests for rearing the young are not of such great concern to these -rabbits. Perhaps they instinctively choose places where an enemy would -never expect to find them. Many are mere hollows in tall grass or -shallow burrows in an accumulation of pine needles. They are lined with -soft grasses or needles and hair which the mother pulls from her own -body. More hair and grass fibers are cleverly matted together to form a -loosely woven blanket which she pulls over the nest when she leaves. It -is arranged with such cunning and blends so well with the surrounding -that unless one sees the rabbit leave it is only by accident a nest is -discovered. The three to five young are born blind and naked, but thrive -so well in the warm nest that in about a month they are fully furred and -able to leave. At this age they are extremely playful little creatures, -often indulging in a game much like tag, although to a human observer it -is never quite clear just who is “It.” - -In this connection it is interesting to note than among the “hunted” -mammals the play spirit is usually manifested by running games in which -there is little if any physical contact. By contrast, the young of -predators indulge in wrestling games featuring use of teeth and claws, -often beyond the point where fun ceases and anger begins. - - - Pika - _Ochotona princeps_ (Mongol name of pika ... Latin: chief) - -Range: Mountainous areas of the western United States, western Canada, -and southern Alaska. Found in the southwestern United States in Utah, -Colorado and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Talus slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine Life Zones. - -Description: A small animal bearing some resemblance to a guinea pig; -found only among or in the vicinity of rock slides. Total length from 6½ -to 8½ inches. No visible tail. Color, gray to brown. Eyes small, ears -large and set well back on head. The front legs are short and are -exceeded but little by the hind legs. They are all quite concealed by -the long hair of the sides. This gives the animal much the appearance of -a mechanical toy as it glides smoothly over the rocks. The soles of the -feet are covered with hair, the only bare spots on the feet being the -pads of the toes. The call is distinctive, the most common being an -“eeh” repeated several times. This sound is shrill, but has a falsetto -quality as though it were being produced during an inhalation. Young -thought to number from three to six. - - [Illustration: pika] - -Far up on the mountainside, above timberline but below the eternal -snows, a great field of talus rests uneasily on the massive slopes of -bedrock. From a distance it seems merely a smooth gray scar that softens -the otherwise abrupt lift of the summit. A closer inspection reveals it -as a tumbled mass of variously shaped slabs of stone varying from tiny -fragments to huge blocks weighing many tons. Its entire bulk is shot -through with chinks and crevices of every conceivable shape and form. - -Here and there a wisp of grass or an occasional stunted shrub has found -a precarious foothold among the slabs. Other low matlike plants occur in -considerable numbers. The only sounds are faint whisperings of wind -among the rocks and a distant sighing from the forest below. Suddenly a -sharp “eeh-eeh” breaks the silence, then all is quiet again. The shrill -sounds are repeated, this time from a different quarter. You look toward -the sound but see nothing. Finally, if you are lucky, your eyes focus on -a little face somewhat resembling that of a tiny cottontail rabbit, -peering at you from the safety of a home among the rocks. It is the pika -you see and this rock slide is his castle. - -The pika bears a superficial facial resemblance to the rabbit, to which -it is most nearly related. This is occasioned no doubt by the long silky -whiskers and deeply cleft upper lip, for the eyes are small and the -ears, while large, are shaped much differently from those of its larger -relative. Its other physical characteristics are entirely unlike those -of the rabbit. The chunky body, short legs, and almost total lack of a -tail are more like those of the guinea pig to which it is more distantly -allied. Several species are known. All are inhabitants of the Northern -Hemisphere and all, whether Asiatic, European, or American, are found -living in rock slides at or above timberline. In the western United -States the pika is known by a variety of other common names of which -“coney,” “little chief hare,” and “rock rabbit” are perhaps the best -known. - -Living as it does in only one type of habitat, the pika has developed -highly specialized habits. The most remarkable is its practice of -cutting hay for winter food. At timberline the growing season is short, -but the herbs and grasses which this animal eats spring up and mature in -a matter of weeks. During this time the pika lives high on the succulent -leaves and stems, but during the latter part of the season it carefully -harvests enough food to last through the coming winter. None of this -hoard is carried directly into the burrow. Instead, it is painstakingly -transported to suitable areas which are exposed to the hot sun, and -there piled in miniature haycocks and left to cure. No human harvester -ever worked harder to gather his crop or laid it up with more care than -this tiny husbandman. Fortunately its tastes are not critical; thus, -although the individual plants are scattered, the pika is able to select -a sufficient store from the considerable number of species represented -at this altitude. - -In Utah and Colorado the “haying” time arrives with the height of the -summer blooming season. At timberline this usually occurs during August. -As though realizing that a hard frost would ruin its delightfully -fragrant crop, the pika sets furiously to work. After cutting down as -much herbage as it can handle at one time, it gathers the mass into an -unwieldy bundle and carries it by mouth to one of the sites it has -selected as a curing place. Usually these areas have been used the -previous season for the same purpose, and a mass of the least edible -stems remain to mark their location. Depositing the load on this base, -the pika scurries away for another bundle. Long familiarity with routes -across the uneven rocks enables it to make its way with never a misstep, -even though the load carried may be of such size that vision to the -front is completely obscured. Working early and late the pika -distributes its harvest among the various piles. As a result, the hay -dries out evenly and when cold weather calls a halt to the work each -little stack is perfectly cured without a trace of mildew. The truly -monumental work to which this little creature goes is shown by as many -as a half dozen haycocks, each of which may contain up to a bushel or -more of feed. - -Comparatively little is known of the pika’s life history. What has been -recorded has been noted during those periods when it was seen on the -surfaces of rock slides. What goes on deep in the labyrinths of its -habitat can only be conjectured. It seems reasonable to suppose that in -some subterranean cavity the pika has constructed a comfortable nest -lined with soft grasses. Certainly it remains active all winter, -although buried under many feet of snow, for in the spring its stacks of -hay have been largely consumed. - -The number of young is thought to range from three to six. They probably -are born in early summer, as when they appear on the surface, usually in -late July or early August, they are about half grown. Though family ties -are closely knit until the young mature, pikas cannot be considered -gregarious animals. The scarcity of food alone would be sufficient -reason to prohibit large groups in one small area. Each adult takes up -squatter’s rights on a territory large enough to support it, and -thereafter holds it with but little interference from others of its -kind. - -Few natural enemies prey on the pikas. The very openness of their -habitat prevents the larger predators from stealing up unseen. Hawks and -eagles account for some, and weasels are able to penetrate their -underground maze at will, but the natural fecundity of the species seems -to balance these losses very well. To the nature student the pika offers -a tempting challenge. It is far from being a rare animal, yet at the -same time it is one about which almost nothing is known. As -qualifications for learning its secrets, one must be somewhat of a miner -and considerable of an arctic explorer. - - - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert’s) - _Sciurus aberti_ (Latin: shade-tail ... for Col. J. J. Abert) - -Range: Northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, extreme southeastern -Utah, and south central Colorado in the United States; also found in the -Sierra Madre Mountains of northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: The only squirrels in the United States that have -conspicuous pencils of hair on the tips of the ears. _Sciurus aberti_ is -a large squirrel with a total length of about 20 inches. Tail about 9 -inches. The summer pelage is brown on the back, with gray sides and pure -white underparts. The beautiful bushy tail is silvery below and gray -above. During summer the long ears have no tassels on the tips. -Beautiful as is the summer coat, it is far surpassed by the winter one. -Then the heavier fur becomes richer brown on the back, and the contrast -between the gray and white areas is further emphasized by appearance of -a narrow black band between them. The ears too become more spectacular -with the addition of the penciled tufts which give this animal its -common name. Breeding habits of this squirrel are variable and evidently -depend to a great extent on the food supply. There may be as many as two -litters in a fruitful year and none at all in a lean year. The usual -number is three or four young to a litter. These are born sometimes in a -hollow tree, but more often in a bulky nest of leaves built in a tree -top. - -No mammal of the United States has a more appropriate generic name than -the large tree squirrel. _Sciurus_ literally translated means -“shade-tail” and refers of course to the beautiful and useful appendage -sported by all of our arboreal types of squirrels. It is doubtful if any -can equal the striking plume carried by _aberti_; certainly none can -surpass it. Its distinctiveness is not occasioned by its size, for -several species have tails that are longer. Rather, its elegance is -derived from the width, the striking coloration, and the easy grace with -which the animal displays its beauty. Whether in full flight across a -grassy clearing or in repose on some lofty limb, the first field mark of -this unusual squirrel will be the tail; the second, the tasseled ears. - -As the map shows, _Sciurus aberti_ and its many forms are confined in -the United States mainly to the high country along parts of the Colorado -River, and also to that great escarpment known as the Mogollon Rim, -whose length is divided about equally between New Mexico and Arizona. In -this range is found what is often referred to as the “greatest unbroken -stand of ponderosa pine to be found in this country.” Of the many -species of plants and animals found as associates of this forest, -perhaps none is more dependent on ponderosa pine than the tassel-eared -squirrel. This rough-barked tree furnishes a major source of food and -shelter. In return, for Nature always demands that restitution be made, -the squirrels plant a part of the seeds that insure continuation of the -ponderosas. - -It is a common belief that squirrel’s diet consists of nuts and little -else. This is true only to a degree. A squirrel is fond of nuts and will -eat and hoard them during the short season when they are available. For -the greater part of the year, when its stores have been depleted, it -turns to many other types of food among which are fruit, herbage, leaf -buds, and flowers. Favorite food of the tassel-eared squirrel is, of -course, the large single-winged seeds found under scales of ponderosa -pine cones. Next favored are acorns from the oak that mingles with pine -at the lower edge of the Transition Life Zone. If the season is good, -great quantities of cones and acorns are buried for future use. These -are hidden singly, not in caches, as is the habit of some squirrels. In -the event the squirrel does not return for its hidden stores, some of -the seeds will sprout eventually and take their part in the slow cycle -of growth and decay that is continually going on in the forest. - -During months when these favorite foods are scarce, squirrels find the -cambium layer of young pine twigs very acceptable. This is the tender -layer that lies between the wood and the bark. In the growing season it -is especially sweet and nutritious. This was as well known to the -Indians as the squirrels, and they too took advantage of the supply -during times of famine. The squirrel obtains this food by cutting off -the terminal clusters of needles, then severing a denuded portion of the -branch, of a size that may be conveniently carried to a favorite eating -place. Here the outer bark is deftly removed, the edible portions -consumed, and the base wood cast to the ground. Although large numbers -of the terminal twigs are taken, the trees seem to suffer no serious -damage from this seasonal pruning. - - [Illustration: tassel-eared squirrel] - -In selecting a nesting site the tassel-eared squirrel turns again to its -favorite tree, the ponderosa pine. Because few of these healthy giants -have knotholes or cavities of a size to accommodate this large species, -the nests are usually built in the thick upper growth of branches. -Material for their construction consists of small twigs of deciduous -trees, cut with the leaves on them. These are cleverly woven together so -that as the leaves wither and dry they tend to hold the bulky mass -together. Aspen branches frequently are used when available, the large, -almost round leaves combining to form a warm wall and at the same time a -thatch impervious to all but the most driving rains. Several exits are -provided in case an enemy should enter the nest, and the interior is -lined with soft fibers. Usually more than one nest is built by each -squirrel, so that in an area where they are common the bulky homes are -conspicuous not only for their size but by reason of their numbers. With -several ports in a storm, so to speak, the squirrels weather the winter -very well. During the coldest days they remain snugly curled up in their -nests, but on bright, still days they will be seen searching out their -hoarded supplies, even though they may have to dig through several -inches of snow to get to them. At such time their gruff bark, deep in -timbre, may be heard for a considerable distance. - -Breeding takes place in early spring, often before the snow is off. The -squirrels are fully polygamous, which is one of the reasons this species -can almost disappear and then restores its numbers within a season or -two. There may be two litters each year, the first arriving as early as -May and the second in August or September. As mentioned before, this -species is variable and the young may differ in coloration from their -parents and from each other. Melanistic individuals are frequent; these -should not be confused with the Kaibab squirrel which they resemble -superficially. Several subspecific forms are recognized but are not -easily identified by the layman. - -One’s first introduction to this beautiful species is an experience long -to be remembered. It was no less interesting to the early naturalists -who first penetrated the wild regions where it lived. Their accounts -abound with adjectives such as, “handsome,” “graceful,” etc. Dr. S. W. -Woodhouse, who accompanied the Sitgreaves expedition on the exploration -of the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, noticed it at once and formally -described it as a species in 1852. Since that time it has been -introduced into many of the “sky island,” mountains that lie south of -its original range. It adapts very well to new conditions, seeming to -need only a favorable climate and a ponderosa pine forest in which to -live. What effect its presence will have on these new surroundings is -not yet known. There is always danger that the native plants and animals -will suffer from such new competition in an established association. -Such introductions should never be made without a study of all the -factors involved. - - - Kaibab squirrel - _Sciurus kaibabensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... from the Kaibab, a forest - in northern Arizona) - -Range: An area approximately 30 × 70 miles in size in northern Arizona. -The southern limit is bounded by the north rim of the Grand Canyon of -the Colorado, and much of the range is included within the boundaries of -Grand Canyon National Park. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests in Canadian and upper Transition Life -Zones. - -Description: A tassel-eared squirrel with an _all white_ tail. In size -this species is the same as _Sciurus_ _aberti_ but the coloration is -different. The Kaibab squirrel has the same rich, chestnut brown area -along the back and upper part of the head, but the sides are deep gray -and underparts gray to black. The tail is either all silvery white or it -may have barely discernible light gray edging on the upper surface. -Nesting and breeding habits are the same as with _aberti_. - - [Illustration: Kaibab squirrel] - -This beautiful squirrel has a distinctive appearance and an uncertain -specific rank. It is included here because of all the mammals discussed -in this booklet it best exemplifies the effects of isolationism. There -is little doubt that the ancestors of both _aberti_ and _kaibabensis_ -were of one common stock. How the progenitors of the Kaibab squirrel -came to be marooned on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is of little -moment. Perhaps they were already there when the Colorado plateau was -young and the river was just beginning its mighty task. Possibly they -emigrated later when the gorge was not as deep as it is now. At any -rate, it can be assumed that they have lived on the North Rim for -thousands of years, isolated from their cousins on the South Rim by only -20 miles of thin air horizontally, but a trip on foot that involves a -descent of a mile through two life zones (Upper Sonoran and Lower -Sonoran), a crossing of a wide and turbulent river, and an ascent to the -South Rim through the same two desert zones. Surely this is an -undertaking for a squirrel of the cool forests that would be too -hazardous to be successful, even if attempted. - -The factors that have changed this squirrel’s coloration are not -definitely known, but climatic conditions are probably at least -partially responsible. The North Rim is approximately a thousand feet -higher than the South Rim and is considerably colder. At this higher -elevation much of the Kaibab squirrel’s habitat falls within the -Canadian Life Zone. This in turn makes certain vegetable food available -which is rare or unknown on the South Rim. Thus diet also may have -something to do with its unusual appearance. - -At various times the Kaibab squirrel has been known as a distinct -species, _Sciurus kaibabensis_; at others, it has been considered merely -a subspecies of _Sciurus aberti_. The latter is its standing at this -time. Regardless of specific rank, it is a form that should be -stringently protected. The population is small and goes through the same -fluctuations as _Sciurus aberti_. During the summer of 1946 only one -individual was known in the area around Grand Canyon Lodge, where they -usually were found in some numbers. At such times the heedless -destruction of only a few squirrels could conceivably result in the -extermination of this rare and beautiful animal. - - - Arizona gray squirrel - _Sciurus arizonensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... of Arizona) - -Range: Central to southeastern Arizona and adjacent parts of western New -Mexico in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with the native black walnuts of canyons, or often -found among the pines on canyon rims. - -Description: The common gray tree squirrel to be found in the range -given above. The Arizona gray is a large animal. Total length is from 20 -to 24 inches with a large tail accounting for from 10 to 12 inches of -this measurement. In the typical form the color is dark gray above with -underparts and feet pure white. The tail also is dark gray with a -silvery white margin. The finest examples of this species may be found -along the edge of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico. Farther -south the pelage often has a yellowish or brownish tinge. In the -mountains along the border the Arizona gray squirrel should not be -confused with the Mexican fox squirrel (Apache squirrel) which here -barely invades the United States. The Mexican cousin, about the same -size as _Sciurus arizonensis_, is definitely yellowish brown and has -lighter underparts of the same color. Like other large tree squirrels of -the west, the Arizona gray builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs, -usually in the upper branches of a deciduous tree. Young, four or five -to a litter; under exceptionally favorable conditions two litters may be -reared in one season. - -When compared with the royal tribe of Abert’s squirrels, this common -gray animal of the Southwest seems but a peasant. When it is seen alone -comparisons are forgotten. Deliberate in its movements, whether crossing -the forest floor or traveling the leafy aisles of the tree tops, it -seems always to have calculated its next maneuver. The result is a -careless grace that presents the sturdy body and beautiful tail to the -best advantage. Calm in temperament and with but little of the -suspicious nature that is characteristic of the smaller squirrels, the -Arizona gray may easily be tamed in outdoor surroundings and becomes one -of the most satisfactory of wild friends. It is not recommended, -however, that they be fed from the hand or handled at any time. -“Familiarity breeds contempt” is a saying that does not apply to humans -alone. A squirrel’s bite can be serious as well as painful. - -Both Mearns and Bailey, who wrote of this species many years ago, -mention it as occurring mostly among the walnut trees of the Upper -Sonoran Life Zone. Perhaps during the intervening years the press of -civilization has driven them from their chosen habitat into a higher -elevation. At any rate, although they still frequent the more isolated -valleys, they are now found also in considerable numbers among the pines -of the Transition Life Zone. The rough broken country along the Mogollon -Rim seems best suited to their requirements, and they are now quite -abundant there. - - [Illustration: Arizona gray squirrel] - -Along the border of the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones this -adaptable animal finds a wide variety of food. Although the squirrels -generally are known as gatherers and storers of nuts, there are many -other types of vegetable food that they will take when conditions -warrant. The cambium layer of bark and leaf buds of various species of -trees are eaten in spring when nut stores have been depleted. Berries, -fruit, and even flowers form a considerable part of the diet during the -summer. In the fall the ripening crop of pine nuts and walnuts provides -not only food for immediate use but stores for the long winter season -when, unless enough has been laid by, the unfortunate may starve to -death. The gathering period is a time of unremitting labor. From dawn to -dusk the squirrels work feverishly carrying nuts to the hiding places -they have selected. Sometimes these are in a hollow tree or a nest, but -usually the harvest is buried in the humus and debris that collect about -the bases of trees. - -There are two phases to the work. In the first the squirrel works in the -tree cutting off the cones or nuts and letting them fall to the ground. -When a considerable number have been thrown down, it descends and -carries them away, one at a time. The latter operation is the most -dangerous since enemies have an undue advantage over this aerialist when -it is on the ground. During the harvest the squirrels plainly show the -effects of their work. In gathering pine cones the fur of their forelegs -and undersides becomes matted with pitch. The juice of walnut fruits -(related to the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_, which the early -pioneers used as a source of dye for coloring their hand-loomed cloth) -stains their underparts a dirty brown. These marks of their labor remain -with them until the summer coat is shed to make way for the heavy winter -pelage. - -When the generic name _Sciurus_ (meaning shade-tail) is mentioned, I am -reminded of an Arizona gray squirrel I observed several years ago. -During late fall my wife and I were camped near the headwaters of the -Hassayampa River in a mixed forest of hardwoods and conifers. Our -arrival had interrupted the work of a squirrel which was gathering -walnuts in the immediate vicinity, but he soon became accustomed to our -presence and renewed activities. Every sunny hour he was busy storing -the nuts, many of them at the base of an old pine tree near camp. -Shortly thereafter a fall storm set in and lasted for several days. It -developed into a pattern of misty drizzle followed by periods of -clearing weather when the sun might appear for a few minutes. During -sunny intervals the squirrel would appear, but as soon as it became -overcast again he would as quickly disappear. Finally we discovered his -retreat. When it would threaten more rain he would run up the trunk of -the pine to the first branch. Here he would turn his rump to the hole -and hunch up into a small furry ball with his long bushy tail laid -forward over his back and head and extending down in front of his nose, -forming an admirable protection against the few drops that spattered -down through the thick foliage overhead. - -Squirrels are not the only animals who use their bushy tails for -protection against the elements. Many mammals curl up and wrap the tail -around themselves for warmth, but only the squirrel tribe has a tail -long, wide, and flat enough to be used as a roof. Though the origin of -the term _Sciurus_ has been lost, it is not too far fetched to suppose -that it was suggested by a squirrel’s use of its tail as a parasol. - - - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel - (DOUGLAS SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE) - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti_ (Greek: tamia, steward and Latin: - sciurus, shade-tail ... of the Hudson, named after Fremont) - - [Illustration: spruce squirrel] - -Range: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico in the Hudsonian and -Canadian Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Conifer forests, preferably spruce, in the higher mountains. - -Description: A small gray squirrel, usually the only squirrel to be -found at the elevation at which it lives. Total length 13 to 14 inches. -Tail 5 to 6 inches. Two distinct colors of pelage are seasonal. The -winter coat is olive gray to rufous gray above with lighter underparts; -the summer coat is brownish gray to yellowish gray with almost white -belly and feet. A black stripe along the sides is prominent at all -seasons. The tail is narrow and noticeably shorter than the body. It is -gray beneath, rufous gray above, with black border and a black tip. -Little is known of the breeding habits. The four young are born in early -summer and by August are usually out foraging with the mother. - -Spruce squirrels (distribution shown in accompanying map) include -several of the more than two dozen varieties of red squirrels in the -United States belonging to the species _hudsonicus_. Combined with -several subspecies of the Douglas squirrels, (species _douglasi_, the -“chickaree” of the far western mountains), they make up the genus -_Tamiasciurus_. This term, a combining form of _Tamias_ (the genus of -chipmunks) and _Sciurus_ (that of squirrels) clearly indicates -relationship of the red squirrels to both groups. It is equally apparent -in the field where the short narrow tail, the black stripe along the -side, and the nervous disposition remind one of the chipmunks, while the -arboreal habits, comparatively large size, and coughing bark are -distinctively squirrel-like. - -The spruce squirrel is seldom, if ever, found below an elevation of 6500 -feet, and then only in the shady canyons on the northern exposure of -mountains. From this low it will be found up to timberline, or rather -just below that point at which the trees are too stunted to offer the -required protection. It prefers the dense shade of heavily forested -areas, so is rare near the southern limit of its range, and increasingly -common in the northern portion. - -In common with the rest of its group, this bright-eyed little animal -keeps well informed on everything that goes on in the territory it has -chosen as its own. Any intruder is thoroughly investigated, then as -thoroughly castigated, and driven out if possible. Since these squirrels -seem to recognize each other’s domain, a trespasser of its own kind -usually leaves at the first sign of trouble. With larger animals and -humans the attack consists of psychological rather than physical -warfare. From a limb at a safe distance above the ground, the doughty -warrior chatters and scolds with increasing vehemence as long as a -passive interest is displayed by the imagined adversary. At the first -threatening movement it disappears in a flash around the opposite side -of the tree. Scratching noises and falling flakes of bark, together with -noises of peevish defiance, indicates that it is working its way up the -trunk. Suddenly it reappears on another limb some distance above the -first and the real show begins. Paroxysms of rage, stamping of feet, -waving of tail, and streams of invective all are meant to show that one -step closer spells trouble. A few squeaks from your pursed lips and this -tremendous bluff gives up to curiosity. In a few minutes the erstwhile -challenger is back on the first limb trying to make out what this -strange creature is about. This amusing procedure can be carried out -over and over again, and usually is, just to observe the stuttering -rages of which this tiny creature is capable. With more considerate -treatment they soon become quite tame, although even then a quick -movement will send them helter skelter to the closest tree. - -It is well that this squirrel is a quick and tireless worker. The seeds -it extracts from the spruce cones are so tiny it takes an enormous -number of them to provide that energy. With such a quantity to handle, -it is not so careful in storing the crop as some larger squirrels. A -comparatively few cones are buried in the soft loam beneath the trees; -the rest are stuffed into holes beneath the spreading roots or simply -piled in heaps near the base of the trunk. In a year when cones are -plentiful there may be a bushel or more in one of these piles. With -several such piles within easy reach of the warm nest fastened in the -branches of a nearby conifer, the small harvester has prospects of an -easy winter ahead. Only in the most inclement weather are these active -animals confined to their nests. They keep tunnels open to their -supplies, and each snowfall adds to the security of the caches. All -winter long the stockpiles diminish while the snow beneath some favorite -perch becomes littered with the scales and discarded centers of the -cones. By spring, which comes late at this elevation, the cones are gone -and the squirrel returns to its summer diet of leaf buds, seeds, -berries, mushrooms, and herbs. - -The spruce squirrel is the last of what might be called the true -squirrels in this book and, because the group has much in common as -regards food, enemies, and relations to mankind, a short summary might -be in order. - -As has been mentioned, the principal diet of these animals is vegetable. -However, all of them, if opportunity offers, will take birds’ eggs and -young birds. This is not intended in any way as a condemnation of the -squirrel tribe. Their inroads on the bird population are what might be -termed “natural losses.” Nature long ago established a norm in bird -reproduction which takes such losses into account. - -The enemies of squirrels are legion. From the air, the larger hawks and -owls, and even eagles, are ever alert to swoop in on them. On the ground -lynx, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes take their toll. In northern Utah and -Colorado the marten is one of the most important local controls on the -squirrel population. Fast and powerful, the marten is equally at home on -the ground or in the trees, and it is a fortunate squirrel that can -escape one. The toll taken by all of these predators is high, yet the -natural fecundity of the squirrel is so great that the population -sometimes gets out of hand and disease has to eliminate the surplus. - -In their relationship to man the squirrels are among the most remarkable -of our native mammals. It is not ordinarily the purpose of this book to -point out the economic importance of our mammals, but the beneficial -work carried on the squirrels is too important to pass by. One of the -most valuable natural resources that America has is forests. To the arid -Southwest the mantles of living green that cover the mountains are -invaluable. These are sweeping statements, but they are sober facts. - -Squirrels play a considerable part in perpetuating this national -heritage. The fact that they do this more or less accidentally merely -serves to call attention to the subtle patterns in which all living -things move to serve one another. Take their simple mechanics of storing -a pine cone, for instance. A hole is dug to a depth of several inches in -the soft duff under a shady conifer. The cone is pushed firmly into the -bottom of the hole and tamped into place with several vigorous shoves of -the nose. Then the hole is carefully filled and smoothed over so that no -marauder will discover it. This procedure may be repeated hundreds of -times by one individual. If the animal never returns (and the rate of -mortality among squirrels is high), the cone can be considered planted. -Not only is it planted at the correct depth and in the most suitable -material for successful germination and growth, but it is full of plump -fertile seeds. Through some instinct the squirrel knows which nuts and -cones are healthy and fully developed. If you doubt this, examine some -of those they have left on the tree. Invariably they will be infested by -insects or “inferior” in some other respect. One of the favorite sources -of pine nuts for reforestation projects in the Northern States is the -stockpiles of the red squirrel. The scales of the cones are tightly -closed when they are taken, but as they open on the drying floor the -healthy, fertile nuts prove the unerring judgment of the harvester. - - - Northern flying squirrel - _Glaucomys sabrinus_ (Greek: glauco, silvery and Greek: mys, mouse) - -Range: Widely distributed throughout most of our Northern States and -Canada. In the section covered by this book, found only in northeastern -and south central Utah, with possible occurrence in northwestern -Colorado. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with conifer forests of Transition to Alpine Life -Zones. - -Description: Our only airborne mammal with a long bushy tail. Total -length 9¾ to 11½ inches. Tail 4½ to 5½ inches. Characteristic of this -species is the fold of skin along each side from the fore to the hind -leg. There is considerable color variation in the numerous subspecies of -this squirrel. In general the upper parts vary from dark brown to -cinnamon brown. Sides of face gray; underparts white to pinkish cinnamon -beneath. Hind feet are brown, fore feet gray. The flying membrane is -brownish black above, white to cinnamon beneath. The eyes are large and -dark brown. Young, two to six in a litter, born in spring; a second -litter is sometimes produced in early autumn. - -Because flying squirrels are almost entirely nocturnal, they are seldom -seen. This is unfortunate, for they are among the most interesting -forest creatures. Probably more people have seen flying squirrels -through the predations of a house cat than in any other way. Gentle and -unafraid, the squirrels fall easy prey to this night prowler, which -sometimes brings them home to show its owners. Strangely enough, the -victims often are not injured seriously, and if taken from the cat and -allowed to recover from their initial fright they will glide about the -room with much of the grace they display in the wild. - -Properly speaking, these squirrels do not fly; that is to say, they are -incapable of sustaining level or ascending flight. Rather they climb to -some height in a tree then launch out and glide to a lower point, -usually the trunk of another tree. As the angle is usually quite sharp -they attain considerable speed. They check this momentum by inclining -upwards just before reaching their objective. This results in a -four-point landing against the tree trunk, sometimes with an impact that -can be heard for some little distance on a quiet night. During these -flights, which may extend 50 yards or more, they are able to change -direction or maneuver against wind currents. This is done by -manipulating the flying membrane and using the tail as a rudder. After a -flight they usually ascend to the safety of the foliage above. They -cannot be considered awkward on the ground, but it is not their chosen -habitat. Flying squirrels are more arboreal than any of our mammals, -excepting a few species of bats. - - [Illustration: northern flying squirrel] - -Little is known of the habits of this unusual squirrel, but they differ -considerably from those of its relatives who are active during the sunny -hours. Instead of living in a bulky nest hung in tree branches, this -nocturnal aerialist chooses a hollow tree or an abandoned woodpecker’s -hole where the sun’s rays never penetrate. Nests have been found also -under slabs of bark hanging to old lightning-blasted snags. Lined with -soft fibers and shredded bark, they often shelter whole families of -flying squirrels for, unlike the other squirrels, these gentle creatures -get along together. In fact, they might almost be considered gregarious. -Contrary to ordinary squirrel behavior, they never bark or scold. Their -only utterance is a fine whistling squeak, and this is heard usually -only in the nest. - -Though delicate in appearance the flying squirrel is extremely hardy. It -is abroad throughout the winter, being confined to its nest only during -stormy weather. It stores food for the winter, but its caches are -usually above ground in hollow trees and crevices rather than buried in -the loam. Their food consists mostly of pine nuts, seeds, and acorns, -but they are also fond of meat. Many a flying squirrel has met its death -trying to take the bait from a trap set for larger game. This taste is -unexplained; it is not known to prey on other animals. - - - Western chipmunks - Genus _Eutamias_ (Greek: eu, well or good and tamias, steward) - -There are at least four species of chipmunks native to the area covered -by this book. Ordinarily but one, or perhaps two, species of a genus -have been chosen for discussion. In this case, however, the chipmunks -are such provocative little creatures and their presence causes so much -interest that all four species will be included, although briefly. Since -the ranges and life zones of some of them overlap in many areas, -positive identification of a species will be difficult in those places, -but in others one species will be dominant or alone. Here the more -subtle characteristics and behavior of that type can be fixed in mind, -and in time it will be less difficult to separate one from the other. -Remember that most of these species have several subspecies. These -generally occur along the upper or lower edges of the life zone -frequented by the type. In the field they are usually indistinguishable -from the type to any but the most practiced observer. - - 1. Colorado chipmunk (_Eutamias quadrivittatus_) - - [Illustration: Colorado chipmunk] - -Range: Northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, most of Utah, and all but -the most northern portion of Colorado. This chipmunk lives largely in -the Transition Life Zone. The closely related species _umbrinus_, -commonly called “Uinta chipmunk” inhabits the Canadian and Hudsonian -Life Zones in the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains of northeastern Utah. - - [Illustration: _Colorado_] - - [Illustration: Uinta chipmunk] - - [Illustration: _Uinta_] - - 2. Gray-necked chipmunk (_Eutamias cinereicollis_) - - [Illustration: gray-necked chipmunk] - -Range: Central Arizona eastward into southwestern and south central New -Mexico. Total length 7½ to 10 inches. Tail 3½ to 4½ inches. Transition -Life Zone and above. _Neck and shoulders gray._ - - [Illustration: _Gray-necked, Cliff_] - - 3. Least chipmunk (_Eutamias minimus_) - - [Illustration: least chipmunk] - -Range: Western Colorado, western Utah, northern and eastern Arizona, -northern and central New Mexico. Inhabits all zones from Upper Sonoran -to Alpine. Total length 6⅔ to 9 inches. Tail 3 to 4½ inches. _The -smallest chipmunk with proportionally the longest tail. Tail carried -straight up when running._ - - [Illustration: _Least_] - - 4. Cliff chipmunk (_Eutamias dorsalis_) - - [Illustration: cliff chipmunk] - -Range: North and western Utah extending through southeastern Arizona and -western New Mexico. Found mainly in the Upper Sonoran Zone. Total length -8⅘ to 9½ inches. Tail 3⅘ to 4½ inches. _The most indistinctly striped of -any of these chipmunks._ - -Generally speaking, chipmunks are the link between ground squirrels and -tree squirrels. Physically they have characteristics of both groups, a -combination that is pleasing indeed. A field mark that is a positive -identification of the chipmunk group is the striped face. In addition to -facial stripes, chipmunks also are striped along the back. The pattern -consists of a dark to black median line bordered by two more similar -lines of varying intensity along each side. These fine lines are -separated by broader bands of contrasting color ranging from chestnut to -white. The latter characteristic is shared by several of the ground -squirrels, which often are confused with chipmunks. Predominant colors -of southwestern chipmunks run to rufous, chestnut, and grayish white -with the dark to black lines mentioned above. Underparts are always -considerably lighter than the back. Chipmunks’ tails are usually shorter -than their bodies, flattened horizontally, and short haired when -compared with tree squirrels. All species have cheek pouches of -considerable capacity. - -As will be seen from ranges given above, habitat of the chipmunks -encompasses the whole area from sagebrush-covered foothills to -timberline. Their densest population, however, is to be found in thick -forest about midway between these two extremes. Here their bright colors -and sprightly actions do much to enliven somber surroundings. Despite -their wonderful climbing ability, they are most often seen at ground -level or just a little higher. They are fond of areas containing fallen -trees. The prostrate trunks serve admirably as highways for their forays -in search of food, and under the litter which accumulates around them -are many havens into which a hard pressed chipmunk may pop when pursued -by an enemy. The territory appropriated by each of these little -creatures is explored with the most minute care, and all places of -refuge are noted for future emergencies. Any attempt to chase them will -reveal their uncanny memory for these temporary hiding places and that -they are seldom at any great distance from one. - -Their permanent homes usually are underground, excavated beneath the -roots of trees or in rocky terrain. At the end of a narrow tunnel a room -of considerable size is worked out. The dirt is often carried out by a -side tunnel, which is permanently plugged with soil when the excavation -is completed. The underground chamber is lined with soft grasses and -fibers as insulation against the cold. At the higher elevations the -ground may freeze to a depth of several feet during the long winters. -Permanent nests are sometimes built in hollow logs, but almost never in -holes in upright trees. Chipmunks have little taste for upstairs -apartments. In addition to the large cavity which contains the nest, -several storage chambers are constructed to hold the winter’s food. -These may be connected to the main apartment by tunnels or may be -entirely independent of living quarters and some distance away. As a -special feature, many of the more elaborate homes have a separate -chamber reserved for sanitary purposes. Like most of our native rodents, -chipmunks are fastidiously clean in their habits. - -It is difficult to discuss the habits of a group as large and of such -wide distribution as our southwestern chipmunks in any but a most -superficial manner. In general they are much more terrestrial than -squirrels and prefer brushy, rock terrain to the more open forests -frequented by their larger relatives. Nevertheless, they are adept -climbers and do not hesitate to take to the trees in search of food or -to escape their enemies. These arboreal excursions are usually limited -to one tree; they do not ordinarily attempt the daring leaps from one to -another that are characteristic of the squirrels. They progress quietly -while on the ground, threading their way through the undergrowth so -expertly that their presence is often undetected. - -Normally chipmunks are shy creatures at first acquaintance, but if their -friendship is encouraged they often become bold to the point of being -unwelcome. Woe to the camper whose grub box is invaded during his -absence. These tiny opportunists can carry away a surprising amount of -food in a very short while. Their natural diet differs widely according -to habitat. Chipmunks of the foothills eat a great variety of grass -seeds, berries, and cactus fruits. These are possibly the favorite foods -of the whole group, but as the elevation increases this supply becomes -limited and is supplemented by juniper berries, acorns, and pine nuts. -Considerable quantities of these less perishable foods are laid away for -future needs. During the summer months herbage, fungi, small tubers, and -some insects add variety to an otherwise dry menu. - -It is doubtful if any southwestern chipmunks enter true hibernation -during the winter. Those of lower elevations are active throughout the -colder months, except when a period of exceptionally inclement weather -will force them to remain underground for a few days. At higher -elevations they will disappear, perhaps for weeks at a time, but it is -assumed they remain active in their underground quarters. The fact that -during the fall they do not lay on a coat of fat, like many species -which are known to hibernate, substantiates this theory. - -Breeding habits of chipmunks are not too well known. The number of young -averages from four to six. Those species living at low elevation -sometimes bear two litters each year; those at higher elevations are -limited to one. Like the ground squirrels, the young are able to leave -the burrow when but little more than half grown. At this early age they -present a rather ludicrous appearance with their large heads and -sparsely-haired tails. This is a time of great danger, for the -youngsters are easily caught by predators which would be eluded with -little difficulty by a mature individual. Principal predators of the -chipmunks are bobcats, hawks, foxes, and coyotes. The last two often dig -out the burrows. The marten is possibly their worst enemy, but -fortunately for the chipmunk tribe is a rare animal throughout its -range. - -Chipmunks are quite common in several of our southwestern National Parks -and Monuments. Despite signs to the contrary, the public cannot resist -feeding these little beggars, and many are the situations that develop -from this practice. I recall camping at Bryce Canyon National Park where -the least chipmunk is a common resident. Upon our return from Rainbow -Point one day we spied a chipmunk with bulging cheek pouches leaving our -tent for its den somewhere on the edge of the canyon rim. We found that -our visitor had entered the grub box and gnawed a neat hole in the top -of a carton of rice. Although we had been gone but a short time, more -than half the contents had already been carried away. This was a state -of affairs that needed mending so we decided to teach the marauder a -lesson. On his return trip we waited until he had entered the carton and -then clapped a dishtowel over the hole. The cellophane window in the -side of the carton gave us an excellent view of our prisoner. -Interrupted in his pilfering, he at first tried to get out of the carton -but, finding no exit, returned to stuffing his cheek pouches with more -rice. When they were filled to capacity he calmly sat back and returned -stare for stare. In the end we let him go and gave him the rest of the -rice, exacting such payment as we could by taking pictures of his -labors. - - - Golden-mantled ground squirrel - _Citellus lateralis_ (Latin: citellus, swift, and lateralis, belonging - to the side, referring to the stripe along the side) - -Range: Western United States and Canada. In the area covered by this -book to be found in western Colorado, from northeastern Utah south -through central Utah to central Arizona thence east into western New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Higher mountains of this area. Usually found in evergreen -forests of the Transition, Hudsonian, and Canadian Life Zones. It -sometimes occurs near the upper limits of the Upper Sonoran Zone. - -Description: A chipmunk-like ground squirrel lacking the stripes along -the sides of the face characteristic of the chipmunks. Total length 8½ -to 12½ inches. Tail 2½ to 4½ inches. There is much color variation in -this species. Head coppery to chestnut, upper surfaces of body brownish -gray to buffy. A light to white stripe bordered with black is present on -each side of the back. Under surface of tail gray to yellow. Tail short -but fully haired. Under surfaces of body lighter, gray to buffy gray. -Legs short, body chunky in comparison with chipmunks. Young, four to -eight, with but one litter each year. - -The golden-mantled ground squirrel has been chosen from the rather large -group of southwestern ground squirrels because it is most typically a -mountain dwelling species. As such it does not have the advantages of a -long summer season like its lowland relatives. This results in two -definite periods each year. One is feverish activity during summer, a -time of breeding, rearing the young, storing food, and laying on fat for -the cold months ahead. The other in winter is the exact opposite—a long -interval of hibernation when, buried deep under the snow in a snug -burrow, the squirrels sleep away the winter. - -Though hampered by the short summers of higher elevations, the -golden-mantled ground squirrels manage to lengthen the season slightly -by a very simple expedient. Instinct prompts them to dig their burrows -on a southern exposure, often under the base of a log or in a rock -slide. Here the snow melts away first and they often have a bare spot of -ground in front of the burrow several weeks in advance of the season. -The squirrels emerge from their long sleep weak and emaciated, and their -first days above ground are spent soaking up the warm sunshine and -waking up, so to speak. During this period they live on stores laid away -the previous summer, and by the time the snow has melted they are fully -active and ready for mating. - - [Illustration: golden-mantled ground squirrel] - -As with the ground squirrels of lower areas, the summer diet consists -largely of whatever starts to grow first. During late spring, grass, -buds, young leaves, and flowers are eaten. Later, seeds of the annuals -are gathered, berries are taken whenever possible, and insects often -form a considerable part of the diet. As fall comes on, acorns, pine -nuts, and a great number of smaller seeds and fruits become available. -At this time the ground squirrels must not only lay on enough fat to -maintain themselves through hibernation, but must also store away enough -food to tide them over between the time of their emergence and the -appearance of new growth. Evidently this is an adaptation forced upon -them by the exceptionally long winter season. Most rodents which lay on -coats of fat preparatory to hibernation depend almost entirely on it to -carry them through. With a hibernating period of from 5 to 7 months, -however, it is not difficult to realize the problems this ground -squirrel must face. - -Though the golden-mantled ground squirrel resembles the chipmunks in -appearance, its temperament is quite different. Chipmunks are bright, -nervous little sprites, always pursuing their activities with explosive -energy. The ground squirrels move more sedately, as though they had -planned every move and there was no hurry. They love to lie in the sun -in some exposed place and watch the rest of the world go by. In habitat, -too, the species differ materially. Chipmunks choose thick undergrowth -where they can go about their business unobserved. Ground squirrels -prefer more exposed locations where they take their chances in the open, -but with one eye always cocked aloft as insurance against attack by hawk -or eagle. Creatures of the earth, they are always reluctant to climb. -Rarely do they ascend more than a few feet, and then only to reach some -especially toothsome delicacy that their keen noses have detected in a -low shrub or small tree. - -With its wide distribution, visitors to the southwestern mountains can -hardly fail to notice this golden-headed member of the ground squirrel -family. It is easily tamed; too easily in fact for, like the chipmunk, -it can quickly wear out its welcome. In many of the National Parks and -Monuments they compete with chipmunks for the crumbs around camp sites -and picnic tables. Visitors find their cunning way irresistible and feed -them despite warnings to the contrary. Because they do tame so easily -there is always danger that some well-meaning person will attempt to -pick them up. This can lead to unpleasant results. Their long sharp -incisors can inflict a serious wound. - -One of the most fascinating places to observe both chipmunks and these -ground squirrels is from the windows of the long tunnel leading -northward out of Zion National Park. On the talus slopes beneath the -windows a great number of these rodents take up summer quarters, -depending for food on the largesse distributed by visitors as they eat -their picnic lunches on the broad ledges of the windows. Their constant -movements as they run among the rocks seeking stray crumbs result in -many a collision and often an angry dispute as well. This proves a -dangerous game, as rocks sometimes will be loosened by their movements -and roll down the steep incline. I recall seeing a ground squirrel -crushed by one of these miniature rock slides in 1946. - - - White-tailed prairie dog - _Cynomys gunnisoni_ (Greek: kun, a dog and mys, mouse ... for Captain - Gunnison whose expedition took the type) - - [Illustration: white-tailed prairie dog] - -Range: Western Colorado and eastern Utah to central Arizona and New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grassy meadows and mountain parks mainly in the Transition Life -Zone although they are often found both above and below this area. - -Description: A ground-dwelling rodent somewhat resembling a ground -squirrel but several times larger than the biggest species of that -genus. Total length 12½ to 15 inches. Tail 2¼ to 2½ inches. Weight 1½ to -2½ pounds. Color buff to cinnamon buff, the short fully-haired tail -tipped with white. Sides of face darker with a dark area over the eyes. -Legs, feet, and underparts pale cinnamon buff. Young, usually five in -number, born in early summer. - -_Cynomys gunnisoni_ is the representative species of the western group -of prairie dogs. The two remaining of the group, _Cynomys leucurus_ and -_Cynomys parvidens_, both white-tailed species, are very similar and -possibly will be classified with _Cynomys gunnisoni_ in the future. -_Cynomys leucurus_ is found in northwestern Colorado and northeastern -Utah, while _Cynomys parvidens_ is native to mountainous valleys in -central Utah. - -The common name “white-tailed prairie dog” is usually applied to -_Cynomys gunnisoni_, the most widely distributed member of the race. The -range of this species borders on but seldom overlaps that of the -black-tailed prairie dog which lives farther east and at lower -elevation. Climatic and geographic barriers separating these two races -are largely responsible for pronounced differences in their habits. -Prairie dogs are gregarious creatures, perhaps more so than any other -rodent. Formerly the black-tail species inhabited countless thousands of -acres in the Great Plains region. A single colony might occupy an area -several miles in diameter and number many thousands. On this relatively -flat land, every home site was equally advantageous and the grass and -herbage all ideally suited to the prairie dog’s use. Periodic flooding -of their burrows on these level prairies was avoided by building conical -mounds with a rim of earth around the entrance. This ingenious practice, -simple though it seems, represents a long step in the adaptation of -these animals to their environment. - -White-tailed prairie dogs, on the other hand, are limited to the narrow -valleys and infrequent open meadows of the mountains. Here there is -neither room nor food to maintain the huge colonies characteristic of -the black-tailed. Under these conditions the number of individuals in a -town will vary from a few to 200, seldom more. If the town becomes -crowded, many of the inhabitants may migrate to some more favorable -location. This sometimes entails a trip of several miles, a hazardous -undertaking for a small animal whose only escape from large predators is -in an underground burrow. - -Food of this mountain prairie dog is varied. The standard diet of grass -and roots is augmented with browse, bark, and tubers. Bulbs of mariposas -are taken wherever available. Coarse-leaved annuals such as sunflowers -are not passed by. In addition to this vegetable diet, worms, beetles, -and larvae as well as mature forms of most insects are eaten whenever -possible. - -Burrows of white-tailed prairie dogs, though comfortable, are not made -with the painstaking care found in those of the lowland species. There -is no need for a conical mound or built-up rim because there is -virtually no drainage problem on the sloping terrain of the mountains. -Naturally the burrows will not be excavated in the path of flood waters, -but on higher ground. Earth brought out from the underground workings is -piled to one side or in front of the entrance. The mound thus formed is -used as a place to sun bathe or, even more important, as a look-out post -from which to see all that goes on. Because these small colonies do not -have the advantage of numbers, each individual must be especially alert -to approaching danger. Burrows often have more than one entrance, each -with its well-packed sentry post at hand, the underground plan is -simple. It consists of a more or less vertical shaft from which one or -more tunnels extend horizontally. It is common supposition that the -prairie dog digs deeply enough to strike water. This is not so; many -burrows do not go deeper than 6 feet. In any event, they penetrate just -far enough to insure a comfortable average temperature in both summer -and winter. Water requirements of prairie dogs are met largely by the -succulent nature of their food. It is also presumed that during late -summer months when the diet consists to some extent of seeds, a chemical -process within the system transforms some of the starches to water. - -The nest is usually situated in an underground room dug at the end of a -tunnel, less often somewhere along its length. It is a bulky structure, -built of shredded bark or coarse grasses and lined with the softest -fibers obtainable. In these modern days prairie dogs do not object to -paper, rags, and wool. - -The life of the prairie dog is simple. Early in the spring it emerges -from hibernation, a bit groggy but still well padded with fat. This -nourishment sustains it until the first green shoots of grass appear. -From then on food is obtainable in an ever increasing supply, limited -only by the distance to which these indifferent runners dare venture -from their burrows. Summer is a time of eating, of dozing on the mounds -in the warm sun, and of conversing with neighbors in the shrill barking -whistles characteristic of this group. It is also a time of constant -vigilance against predators, of dust bathing to rid themselves of mites -and fleas, and of rearing the young. The four to six young are born in -late spring and first appear at the burrow entrance when about the size -of an average adult ground squirrel. Within a few days they are foraging -for themselves, and about 3 weeks later are able to make their own way. -At this time the mother frequently deserts them and builds herself a new -burrow, leaving her offspring to divide the old homestead as best they -can. As fall draws near, a thick coat of fat is put on, and by the -middle of October most of the town’s inhabitants have retired for the -long winter’s sleep. - - - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) - _Marmota flaviventris_ (Marmota, Dutch name of European species of - woodchuck. Latin: flavus, yellow, and venter, belly) - -Range: Northwestern United States. Common in northern to south central -Utah, northern and southeastern Colorado, and extreme north central New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life Zones in rock slides, -rocky hillsides, under rock piles, and around outcroppings in mountain -meadows. Seldom found below the Canadian Zone but often occurring in the -Alpine Zone to the very summits of the mountains. - -Description: A large, dark, brown marmot with a comparatively long bushy -tail. Total length 19 to 28 inches. Tail 4½ to 9 inches. Body color, -yellowish brown to dark brown above; under parts yellow. The body fur -has a grizzled appearance. Sides of neck buffy, and sides of face dark -brown to black. Light brown to white between the eyes. The feet are buff -to dark brown. Tail dark brown above, lighter below. Young, five to -eight, born in early summer. - -This large western marmot is not too far removed from the ground -squirrels in either relationship or habits. It is the largest -ground-dwelling rodent native to the Southwest. As mentioned above, -marmots occupy a tremendous altitudinal range, reaching from above -timberline down into the Transition Life Zone. This distribution from -arctic to almost desert conditions is responsible for many variations in -their habits. Most important is the practice of estivation by those -individuals which live at the lower elevations. This summer sleep is -used as a defense against that period of drought between rainy seasons. -It usually starts early in June and ends about the latter part of July. -In the higher life zones there is no lack of green food throughout the -summer, consequently marmots there remain active. - -Because of large size and ability to make good use of its sharp teeth -and claws, the marmot’s life is not so restricted as that of many -smaller ground-dwelling rodents. It has enemies, to be sure. Bears, -mountain lions, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and eagles all are alert for -a possible catch. Yet it is so well on guard and has so many burrows -that it is next to impossible to catch one above ground. Should the -marmot be surprised away from a burrow, its bold show of defense often -gains enough time to work its way to a place of safety. When cornered -its appearance alone is enough to make the average predator pause and -consider. With hair standing on end and long claws at the ready, the -marmot clatters its sharp teeth and hisses loudly at the enemy. This -pose is not all bluff. These big rodents are courageous and able -adversaries against any animal up to several times their size. As far as -man is concerned, they are timid and secretive. On many an occasion -their loud, full-toned whistles will be heard, but the whistler will be -nowhere in sight. If cornered, however, they will put up the same -courageous defense they display against other enemies, and certainly are -not animals with which to trifle. - -Burrows are usually in open places where a good view of the surroundings -is obtained. Too, they are almost always in clefts of rocks, under -boulders, or in coarse rocky soil. This lessens the probability of their -being dug out by some large predator. Each marmot usually will have -several burrows, some being “escape” means and one a permanent home. -Well-worn trails lead from one to another, for these are active animals -which travel extensively within the limits of their territories. Escape -burrows may be deep or shallow, as circumstances dictate, but the home -burrow generally is a labyrinth of long passages that terminate in a -nest chamber up to 2 feet across. Several auxiliary tunnels are usually -reserved for sanitary purposes. None is used for food storage; records -indicate that this creature does not lay up stores for later use. The -nest is the usual bulky affair, built of coarse materials and lined with -the softest grasses and fibers obtainable. - -Late to bed and early to rise is characteristic of the marmots. Classed -as a diurnal animal, they nevertheless travel about a good deal at dusk. -During the breeding season they may even make an extended trip at night -to find a mate. Sunrise signals the beginning of the marmot’s day. The -slanting rays have no more than touched the boulder above its burrow -before the inmate will climb up to take advantage of their warmth. It -may stay atop its vantage point for an hour or more. There are many -things a marmot can attend to while taking the early morning sunbath. A -leisurely toilette, whistled comments to neighbors, a long scrutiny of -the terrain for possible danger—all these are matters requiring thorough -attention. - - [Illustration: yellow-bellied marmot] - -Should this procedure be interrupted by a prowling enemy, excitement -runs high. If the intruder is still some distance away, the marmot often -will stand up on its hind legs, picket pin fashion. Each explosive -whistle will be accompanied by several flicks of the tail. When it is -judged time to retire it will dash for its burrow, making sharp chirps -as it goes. Once inside the burrow it may chance another look outside, -and if the caller looks menacing enough the burrow entrance will be -plugged with earth from inside, the chirps becoming fainter as the -barricade is forced into place. Emergence from the burrow after a fright -of this kind is governed to some extent by the time of year. If it is -autumn and the marmot is about ready to hibernate, it may go to sleep in -its cozy nest and not reappear until the next day. Even in spring and -summer it will remain underground for a considerable time before -venturing out again. - -The marmot is by nature a stocky animal. Short-legged and barrel-bodied, -it can lay on a surprising amount of fat for the period of hibernation. -Length of this winter sleep depends on the elevation at which the animal -lives. On the higher mountain tops it begins about October 1. At lower -elevations it may be considerably later. Older individuals usually go -into hibernation first, presumably because they are able to lay on the -necessary fat sooner than younger ones. As a rule they retire by stages, -disappearing for several days at a time; their movements are lethargic -and they act as if already half asleep. The young of the year have spent -the greater part of the summer growing up, and it is rather a grim race -with time to determine whether they will be able to put on enough fat to -carry them through the long winter with a reserve supply, or whether -they can survive the cold weather that greets them. Especially at the -higher elevations, they do not retire until forced to do so by cold -weather. - -Hibernation is as profound with these big rodents as with many of the -ground squirrels. They will curl up into furry balls in their cozy -nests, noses covered with fluffy tails, and sink into a deep sleep that -approaches suspended animation. Bodily functions slow to a fraction of -the normal rate, and the system draws on its store of fat to survive. -The drain on this nourishment is slow, as it necessarily must be, for -this single source of food must last for a period of perhaps 5 months. - -The date of emergence varies. Although February 2nd is recognized as -groundhog day on our calendar, this date would be chilly indeed on the -peaks of our Southwest mountains. Nevertheless, the marmots do appear -before the snow is entirely gone, and once their sleep has ended they -rarely resume it, whether or not they see their shadows. - -Breeding takes place shortly after emergence. The young are born in -April or May. They are born blind; the eyes do not open until about a -month after birth. The youngsters develop rapidly, and by the time they -are half grown a daily session of sunbathing and playful tussles outside -the entrance of the den is part of their routine. By September they are -fully grown, and at this time they usually strike out for themselves, -although cases have been recorded in which the family remained together -through the first winter’s hibernation. - -Marmots have always been favorites of this writer. Their clear-toned -whistle is as much a symbol of the rugged peaks and lovely fir-rimmed -mountain meadows as the coyote’s barks are of the desert. Several -writers characterize marmots as “stupid.” Surely this is an unfortunate -choice of word. Stupid by what standards? Can one species be compared -with another when all must live under the different conditions to which -they have adapted themselves? The mere fact that a balance of Nature has -been attained indicates that each has the adaptations, the habits, and -the degree of intelligence necessary for that species to live in harmony -with the whole. - - - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) - The genus _Peromyscus_ (Greek: pera, pouch, and muscus, diminutive of - mys, mouse) - - [Illustration: deermouse] - -Range: All life zones throughout North America. - -Habitat: Some species of deermouse can be found in almost any -association imaginable. - -Description: A large-eared mouse with white feet. Since there are many -species in this genus and most of them are quite similar, -characteristics common to the greatest number will be given. Bear in -mind that these may not hold true with every species of the genus. - -Deermice are rather small, averaging 7 to 8 inches long. Tail 3 to 4 -inches. Most species are a buffy gray above shading to brighter buff on -the sides and light buff to white beneath. Feet are always white. The -ears are large for a mouse, usually sparsely covered with short, fine -hairs, but in some species almost naked. Eyes appear black but have a -brownish shade when viewed closely in a good light. Tail long, up to the -length of head and body, as a rule sparsely haired; bicolor in some -species. Young, four to six, born almost any time of the year, with -several litters except at higher elevations where only one litter may be -born, and this during late spring. - -In the Southwest the mild climate and plentiful food supply of the lower -life zones combine to attract a great number of small rodents. By far -the greater number of species is found in the Upper and Lower Sonoran -Zones. This does not mean that mice are rare in the high mountains. They -live there in great numbers, but of fewer species. One is the -long-tailed deermouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), probably the most -outstanding member of the genus, and the most widely distributed mouse -in the United States. As might be expected, it is quite variable in -appearance, having at least three distinct color phases. These vary from -golden tan to a dark gray. All phases have a sharper bicolor tail, white -beneath and like the rest of the upper body on top. - -The deermouse is well known to those who are fortunate enough to own -summer cabins in the mountains. This is the little rodent which moves -into the cabin as soon as the vacationer departs. Fortunately it is not -so destructive as the common house mouse (which, by the way, is an -introduced species) and limits its destructiveness for the most part to -building a large and comfortable nest in which to live during the winter -months. Deermice do not hibernate, so they must prepare against the -bitter cold. However, it is not their habit to store food either, and -doubtless many of them starve to death over a hard winter. - - - Mountain vole - _Microtus montanus_ (Latin: small ear ... of the mountains) - - [Illustration: mountain vole] - -Range: The mountainous regions of northwestern United States extending -eastward to central Colorado and southward below the northern borders of -Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Valleys and grassy meadows seldom lower than the Transition -Zone. - -Description: A small sturdy rodent with short tail, total length 5½ to -7½ inches. Tail 1½ to 2½ inches. This is a very short tail for a rodent -of this size, amounting to only about a fourth of the total length. -Color, grayish brown to black above; underparts lighter to a silvery -gray. This is but one of many species found in southwestern mountains. -The Mexican vole and the long-tailed vole are two which share its range. -They are quite similar in appearance and their life histories also are -much the same. - -In several ways this heavy-set rodent resembles the pocket gopher. The -small ears and eyes as well as the short tail are all reminiscent of -that animal. Like many other rodents, voles are quite prolific. From -four to eight young are born in a litter. The number of litters each -year depends to a great extent on the altitude. They have been recorded -in the Canadian Zone, where the summers are too short to permit the -rearing of more than one litter. In the Transition Life Zone they -commonly bear two litters and sometimes more each year. - -These are the small rodents which most people call “field” or “meadow” -mice. In the prairie states this genus is well known for its habit of -congregating under shocks of small grain and corn. Here they build their -nests and temporarily live in peace and plenty. When the shocks are -taken from the field, they are rudely evicted from their snug shelters -to fall prey to the farmer’s dog or to face the prospect of building a -new home before winter descends upon them. In the West, too, this “field -mouse” makes itself at home in agricultural areas, but its native haunts -are the natural meadows in mountain valleys. Here they build tunnels in -the tangled growth of grass, and excavate shallow burrows in the soft -earth. Marshy places are particularly to their liking, because they are -quite at home in water. Too, the thick cover in these areas gives them -considerable protection from their many enemies. A normally high -reproduction rate (several litters per year with up to eight young in -each litter) coupled with a secretive way of life insures their -perpetuation. In cases where a natural balance has been upset, their -population can soar to fantastic heights. In one agricultural district -in Nevada a survey revealed an estimated 8,000 to 12,000 “field mice” -per acre. - -Voles do not hibernate. They are active night and day, summer and -winter. During winter storms they may remain in their snug nests for a -few days at a time, but with the return of clear weather, openings to -their tunnels will soon appear in freshly fallen snow. - - - Western jumping mouse -_Zapus princeps_ (Greek: za, intensive and pous, foot. Latin: princeps, - chief) - -Range: Western United States from central Arizona and New Mexico to -Alaska. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: High mountains in dry places with abundant low ground cover. - -Description: A small rodent, two-toned in color, that leaps through the -grass much like a kangaroo rat. Total length 8 to 10 inches. Tail 4½ to -6 inches. Color buffy along sides, shading to almost black on the back -and white on the underparts and feet. Tail bi-color, dark above and -light gray beneath. Ears relatively long, dark in color with light buffy -marginal lines. Eyes beady, set in long face with sharp nose. Front legs -short but hind legs and feet large and muscular. Young, four to six in a -litter, with no more than one litter a year in the higher elevations. - -The jumping mice are among the most specialized small rodents in the -United States. The genus is typically North American, only one species -being found outside this continent. At some time in the distant past -this little creature adapted itself to a mode of flight much like that -of the kangaroo and jerboa. In this respect it exceeds the kangaroo rats -and pocket mice of the United States, species to which it is distantly -related. Its general build is distinctly like that of the kangaroo, with -the same delicately formed front quarters and heavier hind quarters. The -tail, though not club-shaped like the kangaroo’s, is long enough to -serve the same purpose—that of a rudder to guide the direction of -flight. The hindlegs are muscular enough to propel the body on -proportionally longer jumps than even the kangaroo. Here the resemblance -ceases, however, for the jumping mouse is not related, even distantly, -to this marsupial. The only pouches the jumping mice have are internal -cheek pouches used exclusively for transportation of food. - -Jumping mice have one more peculiarity that set them apart from most -other North American mice; they hibernate. The period of hibernation is -not a short one at the elevations at which these mice live. It may last -for as long as 6 months. Preparation for this extensive period of -inactivity consists mainly in gathering and eating grass seeds until a -thick layer of fat is stored under the skin. With the first cold weather -the jumping mice retire to previously prepared underground burrows and -sleep the winter away. - -Since they are almost exclusively seed eaters, they may have a difficult -time on emerging in the spring. Apparently there is no food cache stored -away for this period, so the hapless rodents must search for what can be -found until the grasses head out again. The method of harvesting grass -seed is unique, and once seen will not be easily mistaken. Living as -they do in a jungle of tall grass, they are not able to reach the heads -nor to climb the slender stems. Instead, they cut off the stem as high -as they can reach, pull the upper part down to the ground and cut it -again. This goes on until the head is brought within reach. Small piles -of grass stems, all cut to an average length, indicate that this is the -species which has been at work. - -Jumping mice seldom will be seen except when in flight. Then their -jack-in-the-box tactics make it almost impossible to determine what they -are really like. They are timid, inoffensive little creatures which, if -caught, will seldom offer to bite. - - - Bushy-tailed woodrat - _Neotoma cinerea_ (Greek: neos, new and temnien, to cut ... Latin: - cinereus, ashy) - -Range: Mountainous portions of western North America from Alaska south -to central California, northern Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Found usually in association with the pines of the Transition -and Canadian Life Zones; crevices in cliffs and among rock slides are -favorite nesting sites. - -Description: This woodrat will be recognized at once by its bushy, -squirrel-like tail. The several other species in the same range have the -usual scanty growth on the tail, so thin as to be almost unnoticeable. -This species is large for a woodrat; total length ranges from 12½ to 18 -inches. Tail 5½ to 8 inches. The soft, thick fur shows wide variation in -color, as might be expected from the great range occupied by this -species with its many subspecies. In general it varies from ashy to -cinnamon above, to pure white on the underparts. Although the head has -the same general shape as that of other woodrats, its appearance is -altered somewhat by long, silky whiskers up to 4 inches in length, and -extremely large ears. The dark, beady eyes, however, are typical of the -genus. The young, from two to six, are born in early summer. This -average of four or possibly less, when the breeding habits of all the -subspecies are taken into consideration, seems low when compared with -other small rodents. The low death rate indicated probably is due not -only to this species’ secretive habits but to a high order of native -intelligence as well. - - [Illustration: bushy-tailed woodrat] - -Many are the names applied to this interesting little animal. “Mountain -rat,” “pack rat,” “trade rat,” and woodrat are some of the most common. -Several stem from the supposition that when the animal takes an article -that suits its fancy, it always replaces it with something which it -supposes to be of equal value. Observation of the creature’s habits will -indicate that these “trades” are entirely by chance. These animals are -continually carrying small objects about and often drop one in favor of -another more to their liking. The fact is that the most attractive items -usually are carried to the vicinity of the nest, and so the scientific -name of one of the subspecies is perhaps one of the most appropriate for -this industrious collector. This subspecific title is _orolestes_, which -translated from the Greek means _oros_, mountain, and _lestes_, robber. - -The penchant for carrying away another’s property leads to many -incidents both comic and tragic. The rats are not at all averse to -sharing a prospector’s cabin, and during hours when the rightful owner -is away at work raise havoc with his possessions. During long winter -nights they are no less industrious, and the mysterious sounds of their -activities will keep even a sound sleeper awake for hours. Eventually -this becomes so exasperating that drastic action is called for. One old -prospector told me of a woodrat that had been bothering him for a long -time. Traps proved of no avail and finally one night he placed his -forty-five on a box beside his bed, together with a candle and matches. -During the night he was again awakened and quietly sat up and lighted -the candle. There on one of his cupboard shelves was the dim form of the -rat. Taking careful aim in the flickering candlelight, he pulled the -trigger and hit the animal “dead center.” The heavy slug literally blew -it apart. Unfortunately it happened to be sitting directly in front of a -5-pound can of coffee. One may assume that without either woodrat or -coffee he slept soundly thereafter. - -My own experiences with this species have been no less exasperating. -When but a youth, my brother and I were quartered in an old bunkhouse -one winter. We chose the smaller of the two rooms as being easier to -keep warm, and after a thorough clean-up moved in. No rank novices, we -wired our watches to a nail driven into the wall and hung our other -valuables from a wire stretched across the room. In the morning our -socks were missing! Thereafter matters were uneventful for a week. The -woodrat would come up through a hole in the corner of the room as soon -as the lights were out. All night long it would make trips through the -connecting door into the adjoining room and carry away loads of cotton -from an old mattress on the unused bed. - -Came the week-end and the Saturday barn dance about 3 miles up the -canyon. Fresh shirts and trousers donned, coats and vests were taken -from the chair backs upon which they had been carefully hung. Behold! -One vest front was completely chewed out and carried away, presumably -for nesting material. This was the last straw; the creature must be done -away with. - -On the following night plans were laid with care. Two 5-gallon oil cans -were placed in the doorway. This left a narrow passageway just wide -enough to accommodate a small jump trap. A piece of newspaper was placed -over the trap and the end of the chain wired to the head of the steel -bedstead. A short time after the lights were put out, a scratching noise -indicated that the animal had come in through the hole. All was quiet -until its nose came into contact with one of the empty cans. Then snap! -A series of squeaks and the rattle of the chain gave warning that the -creature was climbing into bed. As it came in over the head, the wildly -excited occupants left by the foot. When the light was struck the rat -was sitting in the middle of the bed. A heavy boot soon dispatched it -and a semblance of order again returned to the bunkhouse. Strange to -say, no more woodrats came in for the remainder of the season. - -Although such experiences are the rule when this rat has moved into a -dwelling, it is a delightful creature in its native haunts. It is a rim -rock dweller; that is, it likes best to build its nest far back in some -deep crevice of a cliff. If such a location is not available it may find -a protected site in a talus slope or even among the roots of a tree. -Usually these natural fortresses are further reinforced by the addition -of a pile of sticks and miscellaneous materials piled helter skelter -over the nest. The nest itself is quite large, usually a foot or more in -diameter, built of the softest and warmest materials at hand. Somewhere -adjacent to the nest will be found one or more caches of food against -the time when the snows are deep and famine stalks the land. As has been -mentioned, the woodrat is usually associated with the pines of the -Transition Life Zone and above, and pine nuts are one of its most -popular items of food. Acorns, seeds, berries, stone fruits, and some -vegetation round out its vegetable diet. It will also eat meat whenever -available although, except for insects, shows little inclination to kill -its own. With such a varied menu, it seems entirely proper to call this -rodent omnivorous. - -One of the most characteristic marks of the woodrat’s home is a strong, -musky odor. This is not an indication of uncleanliness. The animal is -most fastidious in its toilette but has this body odor in large measure. -A study skin will retain a strong trace of it for many years. Whether it -functions for an identification to others of the species is not known, -but it could well serve this purpose. - -Although classed as a nocturnal animal, the bushy-tailed woodrat is -often active throughout the daylight hours. They are not gregarious -creatures; yet, since suitable nesting sites may not be found in some -areas, other more favored localities often will harbor considerable -numbers of the animals. Overhanging ledges may shelter the piles of -litter denoting a nest every few feet. In such cases, a well-worn trail -will lead from one to the other. This is not an indication that a colony -lives there in peace and harmony. These rats are truculent creatures -among themselves, and if a stranger should venture into a nest mound, he -is evicted with many indignant squeaks and a fearsome snapping of teeth. -The interloper seems to know he is out of order and usually leaves the -nest at once without more than a token show of resistance. In neutral -territory such as a cabin, however, several woodrats may share the area -quite peacefully, but to the great annoyance of the human occupant. - -The variety of sounds produced by such a group is quite amazing. Added -to the usual high-pitched squeaks and patter of running feet are the -mysterious rustlings of paper and other objects being dragged about. A -peculiar thumping sound indicates a gait which I have never seen but -often heard at night. It must be somewhat like the leaping flight of a -kangaroo rat, at least it indicates a swift succession of leaps across a -flat surface such as a floor or roof. Perhaps the broad surface -presented by the flat of the bushy tail is of assistance in this -maneuver. Then, like most rodents, the woodrat will thump with its hind -legs as an alarm signal. This is perhaps the most noticeable sound of -all, for it marks the instant cessation of all activity for every member -of its kind within hearing distance. The “ear-splitting silence” that -follows this signal literally presses in on one in the darkness. - - - Muskrat - _Ondatra zibethicus_ (French Canadian word from the Iroquois and Huron - Indian word for muskrat. Latin: the odorous substance of the civet - alluding to the musk secreted by the muskrat) - -Range: Virtually all of North America north of the Mexican border. -Muskrats are found from near sea level to as high as 10,000 feet above -it. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This large rodent can exist only near a permanent water supply -which is deep enough to shelter it from its enemies. This may be a lake, -a marsh, or a running stream. - -Description: A large aquatic rodent whose long, flat tail undulates from -side to side when it swims. Total length 18 to 25 inches. Tail 8 to 11 -inches. Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The thick, dark brown fur of the upper -body is overlaid with brown to black guard hairs. The legs are short but -powerful. The front feet are small, but the hind feet are relatively -large and partially webbed, with stiff hairs on the edges of the webs -and along the sides of the toes. The long, black tail is flattened -vertically. It is so scantily haired that it may be said to be naked, -but is covered with small scales up to 2 millimeters in diameter. The -head is quite similar to that of a vole. The ears are so short as to -barely protrude through the fur, and the eyes are small. Average number -of young thought to be six per litter. Several litters may be born each -year. - -The presence of muskrats in a shallow lake or marsh is not difficult to -detect. This is their chosen habitat, and here in water about 1½ feet -deep, they build their characteristic mounds of rushes and cat-tails. -Here they may also be seen on quiet days swimming about and carrying on -their normal activities. In much of the Southwest, however, such -favorite habitats are few and far between and the muskrats must take -their choice, if there be one, between the few permanent streams and -irrigation canals. In these altered circumstances they react quite -differently; they may often be present in considerable numbers without -anyone being the wiser. The change in habits required by this different -environment illustrates the great adaptability exhibited by many of our -most common mammal species. - -The most important requirement of a muskrat is a permanent body of water -of a depth sufficient for it to dive into and escape from its enemies. -Given this, it will at once set about constructing a home. In a lake or -marsh, there is little or no current. In sheltered bays, where wave -action is slight, the bottom often will be muddy. In the shallow water -along the shore, water plants such as tules and cattails will become -established. This is indeed muskrat heaven, for these and other aquatic -plants are both their food and building materials. The most edible -portions of the plants are the roots and the stem portions which are -below the surface of the mud. When one of these choice tidbits has been -cut free by the muskrat’s sharp teeth, it is carried to some favorite -place to be eaten. This may be a mud bar well sheltered by overhanging -vegetation from prying eyes, the end of a log projecting above the -surface of the water, or perhaps the roof of the “house.” The discarded -portion of the stem is buoyant and usually lodges among the remaining -plants until needed for building purposes. - - [Illustration: muskrat] - -When the muskrat house is being built, a great quantity of this flotsam -is piled up until the resultant mound may project as much as 3 feet -above the water and be 5 or 6 feet in diameter. The nest is built above -the waterline in this half-submerged “haystack.” Entrance to the living -quarters is by a tunnel which usually starts through the mud a short -distance from the base of the house, goes under the edge of the -structure, then inclines upward to the nest. Only one entrance is -necessary for even if some enemy should tear through the tangle of -rushes deep enough to reach the nest, it would take so long that every -inmate could easily escape by this submarine route. The house serves one -more important purpose in the far north. When the ice lies thick over -the marsh and seals this water world away from air, the muskrats can -still take short forays under the ice for food and return again to free -air, without which no mammal can exist. - -Had the muskrat learned to build dams such as beavers construct, the -species might very well be near extinction in the Southwest, since such -structures would seriously interfere with irrigation. However, since -they have accepted conditions as they are, the muskrats do very well for -themselves in the shallow streams and irrigation ditches. In fact, their -population under the adverse conditions of today is probably far above -that of the days before the white man arrived on the scene. Do not -assume from this statement that a whole new way of life has been opened -up for the muskrat. There has always been a “bank” muskrat that lived in -burrows in the stream banks. This fast-water addict has now taken full -advantage of the artificial streams that are the forerunners of -agriculture almost everywhere in the Southwest. The burrows built into -the canal banks seem to be identical with those constructed under -natural conditions. - -The “bank” muskrat builds three types of shelters, each with a definite -and necessary function. These might be called the feeding burrow, the -shelter burrow, and the breeding burrow, respectively. The first two are -simple in design and have few variations, but the breeding burrow may be -extremely complex. If a choice is available, all burrows will be in a -bank along the swiftest flow of water, as on the outside of a curve in -the canal, for instance. This prevents the entrances from silting shut -as they would in the more quiet reaches. - -There are two types of feeding burrows. The first and more common -consists of a cut made just above water level in the side of a vertical -bank. If possible, it is behind a portiere of hanging grass or weeds, so -as to be completely screened from view. This is merely a safe place to -which the muskrat can take its food and eat without being bothered by -enemies. The second type of feeding burrow is more elaborate, consisting -of several such chambers along the bank connected by short tunnels. -These seem to be community shelters since they are used by several -individuals at the same time. The added safety provided by the -connecting tunnels seems to be the advantage in this type of dining -room. - -The shelter burrow not only affords escape from enemies, but may be a -sleeping burrow as well. It consists of two tunnels which start at -different levels under water and join just before they reach the main -chamber, which of course, is above water level. The two tunnels assure -an escape route if one or the other is invaded by an enemy. Each muskrat -may have several of these shelter burrows. The one used as a sleeping -burrow will be furnished with a soft nest of shredded leaves. Cattail -leaves are a favorite material for this purpose. Wet, green cattail -leaves in a damp underground cavern make a poor bed by most standards, -but no doubt, it seems a dry, cozy retreat to the muskrat as it emerges -dripping from its underwater tunnel. - -The breeding burrows are large and elaborate in design. There is reason -to believe they are not always the work of one individual. They may even -represent combined efforts of several generations of muskrats. Often -they are a labyrinth of tunnels connecting many nesting chambers, each -with a nest of different age. This can be determined by the yellowing of -the shredded leaves. As might be expected, there are usually a number of -tunnels leading from this maze into the water. A half dozen of these -underwater entrance tunnels is not unusual. All this room gives the -young a place to exercise before they are able to take to the water. - -Young muskrats are surprisingly precocious. They are able to leave the -nest when very small, and at 4 weeks of age are weaned and capable of -taking care of themselves, although only about one-fourth grown. At this -stage, they are peculiar looking little individuals. The fur is still in -the woolly stage, dark and bluish in color. The guard hairs have not yet -appeared, and altogether they have an unkempt appearance. This rapidly -disappears, however, when they leave the burrow. Their progress is so -rapid that young born early in the spring are believed to breed during -the following fall. - -Though ordinarily confined to the immediate vicinity of water, muskrats -sometimes are found in amazing places. The urge to travel sometimes -influences them to go across country for many miles to some other body -of water. They may also become overcrowded in an area so that food -becomes scarce and some may leave on that account. It is not uncommon in -the Middle West for them to burrow into a farmer’s root cellar in early -fall and spend months in this haven of warmth and good food before they -are discovered. Floods may carry them many miles away from established -haunts and leave them stranded on high ground when the waters recede. A -muskrat found in this predicament is not an animal with which to trifle. -If it cannot escape by water, it will probably elect to make a stand. -The long, sharp incisors are formidable weapons indeed, and any enemy, -including man, had best allow judgment to become the better part of -valor. - -The tracks of muskrats are so characteristic that they cannot be -mistaken for those of any other animal. Strangely enough they resemble -to a striking degree those of certain types of extinct reptiles called -dinosaurs. The tracks of the two small front feet are close together and -overlapped somewhat by those of the larger hind feet. Between the tracks -is the sinuous trail left by the sharp-edged tail. - - - Beaver - _Castor canadensis_ (Latin: a beaver ... from Canada) - -Range: The beaver, like the muskrat, can be found almost everywhere in -North America north of the Mexican border. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near any water supply of enough volume, with or without -damming, to provide security for a beaver family. - -Description: The largest North American rodent; further distinguished by -having a broad flat tail. Total length 34 to 40 inches. Tail 9 to 10 -inches. Weight from 30 to 60 pounds. In color the beaver varies from a -deep, rich brown in the northern states to a much paler shade in desert -regions of the Southwest. The soft, rich underfur is partially concealed -by coarse, rather stiff guard hairs. The brown color of the upper parts -shades to a chestnut under the belly and on the inner sides of the legs. -The forefeet are small with well developed claws. They appear naked but -have a scanty cover of coarse hairs. The hind feet are large and webbed, -and are similarly covered with a few coarse hairs. - -The body of the beaver has somewhat the appearance of a kangaroo in that -the rear portion is heavy and appear overdeveloped in comparison with -the more stream-lined head and forequarters. Much of this impression is -gained from the heavy, flat tail which is thick and muscular at the -point where it joins the body. One of the most useful appendages -possessed by any creature, the tail is paddled-shaped horizontally and -about an inch thick in the middle, tapering to thin edges and tip. It -appears naked, but is covered with scales. - -The young, averaging four in number, are born in the late spring and, -although they are soon able to take care of themselves, the family -remains together for most of the year. - -Indications of beavers in an area are their dams or the distinctive -stumps left by their tree felling. Beaver tracks are seldom found. -Although this aquatic animal often leaves the water, and may go a -considerable distance overland, its tracks usually are obliterated by -the passage of the heavy rump and the dragging tail. - -The beaver, perhaps as much as any other factor, was instrumental in -opening up western America to civilization. Even before the Thirteen -Original Colonies had become firmly established along the eastern -seaboard, venturesome men were working westward in search of more beaver -to supply the ever-increasing demand for this soft-rich fur. Industrial -empires were founded on this traffic in skins which came from as far -west as the Mississippi River. By the early 1800’s, the trappers had -penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, and in 1806, upon the return of the -Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Pacific Northwest, they swarmed to -the headwaters of the Missouri River system. Prior to this, the -Southwest had been given little attention by the fur industry. It was -considered an inhospitable region, inhabited by hostile Indians, and -with a few settlements of Spanish colonists who, up to that time, had -actively resisted the intrusions of the more aggressive Americans. -However, by the year 1820, relations had improved to such a degree that -a few of these hardy individuals were trapping on the headwaters of the -desert rivers. Later, their activities spread to include the entire -length of these remarkable watercourses. - -These were the Mountain Men, a hard-as-nails breed of frontiersmen in a -class by themselves. In the period from 1820-1854, when a large part of -the Southwest became part of the United States through the Gadsden -Purchase, they roamed the plains and mountains of the American Desert. -Their roster includes such legendary figures as Bill Williams, Pauline -Weaver, Kit Carson, and James Pattie. Their argosy was a quest for the -rich, brown beaver pelts which were a golden fleece indeed when -presented to the fur traders in far-off St. Louis. In time, their -moccasined feet beat a broad path across the western plains—a path then -known as the Santa Fe Trail, but identified today as U.S. 66, the “Main -Street of America.” - -Today, many of the streams which supported beaver colonies in the desert -places have vanished entirely, and others have been so effectively -harnessed for irrigation and power that there is no place for beavers in -them. In the higher mountains, however, there are many streams remote -from civilization where clear ponds still sparkle in the sunlight, and -the splash and dripping of busy beavers can be heard on quiet, summer -evenings. Because beavers quickly become established under any -conditions which are at all favorable, they have been reintroduced into -numerous places where they had been extinct for many years. Usually this -is good conservation practice, but under some conditions, it may prove a -mistake. Ecologically speaking, beavers probably are the most important -creatures in any animal community of which they are members. This is -because these busy engineers not only impose a tremendous drain on the -surrounding area for material, very often they also radically alter the -character of the terrain to fit their own needs. - - [Illustration: beaver] - -The life history of the beaver is one of the most interesting of all -mammals. It has been studied for centuries by naturalists in both the -New and Old Worlds, for the beaver, with but few differences, is native -to both. All this study and observation notwithstanding, the habits are -still only partially known. This is because the beaver is mainly a -nocturnal creature which spends most of its daylight hours in the -concealment of a lodge or burrow. Then, too, in the northern latitudes -where the ponds are covered with ice throughout the long winters there -is little opportunity to observe this phase of its existence. There is -but one species of beaver in North America but about two dozen -subspecies. The northern types and those which live in the mountains of -the Southwest seem to be dam builders who live in beaver “lodges.” Those -which inhabited rivers of the lower desert were mostly “bank” beavers -which lived in burrows in the banks of streams. This latter type is rare -today. - -Perhaps the best way to understand the ecological importance of the -beaver is through watching the rise and decline of a typical colony. -Picture if you will a small, shallow stream flowing gently down a narrow -valley in the mountains. Bordering the low banks is a thicket of alders. -Back of them a thick growth of aspens extends to the edge of the valley -and mingles with the spruce trees on the slope. Down this slope comes a -young male beaver at a clumsy gallop, his broad tail striking the ground -with an audible thump at every lope. This emigrant has struck out for -himself because the colony to which he belongs has become crowded. He -finds the stream and, since the water is too shallow to conceal him, -crouches under an overhanging bank until darkness falls. - -As soon as it becomes completely dark, he hunts for a suitable place to -build a dam and soon finds a site to his liking. On one side of the -stream a thick clump of alders projects from the bank, and on the other -a water-soaked log is half buried in the bottom of the creek. From these -anchor points, he begins his dam, building toward the middle from each -side. The work calls for a great deal of the alder brush to be cut and -sunk in the bed of the stream. There it is weighted down with rocks and -mud until secure. Additional brush is brought and interwoven with the -first; gradually the structure grows until in a few days it converts the -stream into a quiet pool deep enough to hide the beaver, should an enemy -appear. As the water rises it covers the bases of the alders, which -begin to die in the pond. - -The beaver next turns his attention to building a lodge. Selecting a -point to one side of the current entering the pond, he begins as he did -with the dam by sinking brush to the bottom and weighting it down with -rocks. As he builds, he cleverly fashions several underwater entrances -to the house that will be. When he has finished, the house projects -several feet above the water, and the materials are so thoroughly -interlaced and plastered that even the most determined enemy would -despair of gaining entry to the living room. Debris from the -construction has floated downstream to become lodged in and on the dam, -making it more secure and watertight that it was when first built. - -With the dam and the lodge both completed, the next task is to collect a -food supply for the following winter. This is carried on intermittently -during the autumn. It consists of cutting down aspens, whose bark the -beaver dearly loves, sectioning the branches and small trunks into -pieces which may be handled conveniently, and dragging them to the pond. -Once in the water, they are weighted down and will remain in good -condition for a long time. The beaver is joined in this task by a female -which has also migrated from an overcrowded colony. Two need more food -than one, consequently their trails begin to head a little farther into -the aspen forest as they work through the crisp autumn nights. These -trails converge as they leave the forest and approach the pond, and end -in a few well-developed mud slides that enter the water. Constant -traffic of the wet beavers leaving the water keeps the slides moist and -slippery. - -As winter settles in on the mountains, a thin skim of ice begins to form -on the edges of the quiet water on cold nights. Then one night it -freezes completely over. This causes the beavers no inconvenience at all -because if on one of their underwater excursions they should wish to -surface for air, they have but to swim to a shallow place with firm -bottom, and with one quick lift of their powerful muscles break a hole -through the ice with their backs. They can break surprisingly thick ice -in this way. The beavers live in comfort and plenty throughout the -winter. The living room of the lodge has been furnished with comfortable -beds of the cattails that have already become established along the edge -of the pond. The lodge, although tightly built, still admits enough air -for the beavers and food is stored in plenty on the bottom of the pond. -As the bark is gnawed from the aspen branches, the bare poles are added -to the bulk of the house or used in further construction of the dam. -Before long, the mild southwestern winter merges into spring. - -In late spring the beaver family is considerably increased by the -arrival of four miniature beavers. They weigh but 1 pound each at birth -and are fully furred. At this time, the father is ostracized and the -mother and her young live together in the lodge. When the young are -about 3 weeks old, they take to the water for the first time. They -quickly learn the beaver method of swimming; this is to kick with the -hind feet and let the forelegs trail loosely alongside the breast, using -the flat tail both as elevator and rudder. The young beavers are called -kits, and indeed are as playful as true kittens can be. It is most -amazing to watch them cavorting about in the water with as much ease as -youngsters of other mammals do on dry land. As autumn nears, this play -is exchanged for the sterner duties of existence, and the young take -their places as adults of the family. - -Fifty years pass. As the colony increases the dam must be made larger, -new lodges must be built; and when the trails to the aspen forest become -too long, canals are dug part way out to lessen the hazards which may -befall the beaver on dry land. The pond gradually silts up to higher and -higher levels until at last it is full of black, fertile soil. All of -the aspens within reach are finally cut down and the hungry beavers turn -to the resinous bark of the spruces. Finally the struggle is given up. -The beavers migrate to a new location, and the following spring a -freshet tears out the center of the dam. Now the pond is gone. With it -are gone the trout that played in its depths, and the teal that rested -there on their way south. In its place is a beaver meadow, a grassy park -in the center of the spruce forest with spring flowers spangling its -green surface. Aspens are already beginning to crowd in about its edges, -and the creek is cutting deeper into its soft soil with every spring. -Before long heavy erosion will begin to take its toll, and some day in -the future a male beaver will again come galloping awkwardly down the -slope. - -The changing conditions which such a cycle bring about are almost -impossible to evaluate. At least three climax types of environment are -represented: those of the alder thicket, the beaver pond, and the beaver -meadow. In a graphic fashion this cycle illustrates what is going on in -Nature continually, more slowly perhaps, but just as surely. - - - Porcupine - _Erethizon dorsatum_ (Greek: to irritate in allusion to the quills and - Latin: pertaining to the back) - -Range: Most of North America north of the Mexican border. Notable by -their exception are the south central and southeastern United States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually associated with conifer forest, yet may sometimes be -found miles from any forest. An inhabitant of all life zones up to -timberline (Arctic-Alpine). - -Description: A black to grizzled black and yellow creature covered with -quills. Total length 18 to 22 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight 10 to -28 pounds. Body short and wide; supported by short bowed legs. Tail -heavy and muscular, armed with short slender quills. Head small with -dull eyes and long black whiskers, but with short ears. The incisors are -extremely large and are of a bright, rich yellow color. The quills are -shortest on the face and reach their greatest length near the middle of -the back. Often they are nearly hidden in the coarse, seal brown to -black underfur. The long guard hairs are also seal brown close to the -body, but change to a rather sere yellow at the tips. Only one young is -brought forth each year in a den among the rocks, or sometimes in a -hollow log. The young are among the most precocious of any mammal. - -The porcupine in North America is considered as belonging to but the one -species _dorsatum_, although there are seven subspecies. The most common -subspecies found in the Southwest is _epixanthum_ (Greek _epi_, upon, -and _xanthus_, yellow), sometimes called “yellow-haired” porcupine. The -porcupine is unique among North American mammals in bearing the sharp -quills which are perhaps its most interesting feature. Certainly they -are responsible in large part for the unusual life history of this -misunderstood animal. - -Quills are no more than greatly modified hairs, and in sorting through -the various types of pelage on a porcupine’s back, a few examples will -be found which are intermediate between the hair and the quills. This -does not mean that coarser hairs gradually turn to quills. Each follicle -produces hair or quill, as the case may be, for the life of the animal. -A quill consists of three well-defined parts: a solid sharp tip usually -black in color; a hollow shaft, which is white; and a root similar to -that of a hair. - - [Illustration: porcupine] - -The sharp tip is smooth for a fraction of an inch, but from this point -on, it is covered with a great number of closely appressed barbs. These -can be felt by rubbing the quill the “wrong” way between thumb and -forefinger. It has been found that these barbs flare away from the -surface, when the quill is immersed in warm water. It seems natural that -they would do the same when embedded in warm, moist flesh. At any rate, -quills are always difficult to extract, and if left in the victim they -penetrate ever more deeply until they may pierce some vital organ and -cause death. In other cases, they have been known to work entirely -through body or limb and emerge on the opposite side. This is due to -muscular action of the victim, some movements tending to force the point -farther, the barbs at the same time effectively preventing any retreat. - -Below the barbs the tip of the quill flares to join the shaft. Pure -white and opaque, this portion is used by Indians to form decorative -bands of quill work on the fronts of buckskin vests and jackets. This -part is also hollow, and before removal of a quill from the flesh is -attempted, a little of the end should be cut off. This collapses the -shaft and makes extraction somewhat more easy, but very little less -painful. Actually there is little excuse for a human to become involved -with one of these mild-tempered creatures, but sometimes dogs are badly -hurt in encounters with them. - -The root is the portion by which the quill is attached to the body. -Although it is a common belief that the porcupine can “throw” its -quills, the truth is that the root portion is extremely weak and the -quills are easily withdrawn from the body when the barbed tip is driven -into an enemy. In fact, any violent movement of the animal may dislodge -quills, even though nothing has touched them. There are several -well-authenticated accounts of quills having been flipped for several -feet in this way, but in each case, it was entirely accidental and -through no conscious effort of the porcupine. In other words, the -armament of this slow, awkward creature should be considered strictly -defensive in every respect. - -Like the skunk, which can also defend itself most effectively, the -porcupine has little apparent fear of its enemies. When threatened with -violence it simply brings its head down between the forelegs and turns -its rump toward the attacker. With hair and quills erect it resembles a -soft furry ball. Appearances are seldom more deceiving! The guard hairs -half conceal a spot on the back where a whorl of long quills radiates -out in a large “cowlick.” Should any enemy touch these long guard hairs, -the muscular tail is thrashed vigorously about in an effort to drive the -somewhat shorter but equally keen-pointed tail quills into the attacker. -With every attempt at attack from another angle, the porcupine turns so -as to present its rump to the enemy. There is one Achilles heel, -however, in this otherwise almost perfect defense. It is the unprotected -underparts, which at times of danger are always kept pressed against the -ground or against a tree trunk. A few carnivores, among them the -mountain lion and the fisher, are known to kill the porcupine by -flipping it over on its back and tearing it open. Even these large -predators seldom escape unscathed, however, and both lions and fishers -are known to have died from the effects of quills accidentally taken -into the digestive tract. - -To those who have heard that porcupines live only on bark and always -girdle the host trees, it may come as a surprise to find that this is -only partly true. Although “bark” is eaten to some extent throughout the -year, it is seldom the main diet. When a great deal is taken from one -tree, it is gnawed off in an aimless pattern which may or may not girdle -the tree. During the spring and summer, a porcupine becomes a browser on -tender leaves and twigs in the undergrowth. In autumn and winter, it -feeds more on mistletoe and pine needles than on bark. With its low -reproduction rate, there is little danger of it eating up our forests, -unless its natural enemies are removed. - - - Northern pocket gopher - _Thomomys talpoides_ (Greek: thomos, a heap and mys, mouse. Latin: - talpa, a mole) - -Range: From northwestern United States and southwestern Canada to as far -south as northern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Soft loam in the open places in the high mountains. Seldom -found below 8,000 feet, but up to elevations of over 13,000 feet in New -Mexico. - -Description: The characteristic mounds of earth built up by this group -of burrowing rodents are usually the best indication of their presence. -The northern pocket gopher is of medium size. Total length 6½ to 9½ -inches. Tail 1¾ to 3 inches. It is usually gray in color with darker -patches behind the rounded ears. Eyes and ears are small. The short tail -has a bare, blunt tip. Front claws are long and curved. The entire body -is well muscled and gives an impression of power. Average number of -young thought to be about four. At the high elevations at which this -species lives, the young are not seen until rather late in summer. - - [Illustration: northern pocket gopher] - -The northern pocket gopher is one of the hardiest rodents on the North -American Continent. Even so, it would not be able to survive the climate -of the inhospitable regions it sometimes inhabits were it not for the -fact that is spends almost all its life underground. This creature does -not hibernate, but continues busily at the task of searching out food -when most other subterranean dwellers are curled up fast asleep in their -cozy nests. Why the gopher should continue working, while its ground -squirrel cousins sleep, is hard to say. It would seem that it has the -same opportunities to lay on fat for a winter’s rest. The chief reason -seems to be that the bulbs and roots upon which it feeds are always -available so long as the gopher keeps extending its underground -workings. On the other hand, the ground squirrels, which gather their -food aboveground, are cut off from this supply as soon as cold weather -drives them to shelter. - -The pocket gophers are much alike. There are three genera and a -considerable number of species represented in the Southwest but, except -for variations due to climate and terrain, their habits are similar. -Burrows usually are constructed in deep loam or alluvial soils. These -tunnels seem to follow an aimless pattern. Their course is marked by -mounds of earth thrown out of the workings at irregular intervals. When -the gopher is engaged in throwing out this excavated earth, the entrance -to the tunnel is left open until the job is completed, then tightly -plugged to prevent enemies from entering. The tunnels themselves are -rather small in diameter, considering the size of the gopher, for if it -wishes to retrace its steps and there is no gallery near at hand in -which to turn around, it can run backward almost as easily as forward. -There are usually numerous rooms excavated along the course of the -tunnels. In one is a warm nest constructed of grass and fibers. Others -are utilized for storage rooms and at least one is reserved as a toilet, -thereby keeping the rest of the workings sanitary. When the ground is -covered with snow the northern pocket gopher especially is quite likely -to extend its activities aboveground. Here it builds its tunnels through -the snow and often packs them tightly with earth brought up from below. -This remains as earth casts, when the snow melts and forms a -characteristic mark of its presence. - -Chief foods of pocket gophers are the bulbs, tubers, and fibrous roots -encountered in the course of their diggings. Whenever an especially -abundant supply is found, the surplus is stored away as insurance -against the time when future excavation produces nothing. Gophers also -eat leaves and stems whenever available. Some plants are pulled down -through the roof of the tunnel by the roots, and some are gathered near -its mouth, although these trips “outside” are fraught with danger. -Coyotes, foxes, and bobcats all are willing to chance an encounter with -this doughty little scrapper for the sake of the tasty meal he will -furnish. - -Little is known of gopher family life. For the most part, they are -solitary individuals, avoiding others of their kind. At breeding time, -however, they may travel some distance across country to find a mate. -These trips usually are carried out under cover of darkness. The young -average four in number. They are born late in the spring and do not -leave to make their own homes until early autumn. - -Physically the gopher exhibits a striking adaptation to its way of life. -The fur is thick and warm. It keeps soil particles from working into the -skin at the same time it protects the wearer from the chill of his -underground workings. The heavy, curved front claws are admirable -digging tools. In especially hard soil, the large strong incisors are -also pressed into service for this purpose. To remove the dirt from the -tunnel, the gopher becomes an animal bulldozer. The front legs are -employed as a blade pushing the soil, while the powerful hind legs push -the body and load towards the nearest tunnel opening. The pockets from -which this creature gets its common name are never used for hauling -earth. They are hair-lined pouches located in each cheek and utilized -for carrying food to the storerooms. There they are emptied by placing -the forefeet behind them and pushing forward. Last, by virtue of its -location, but certainly not least in usefulness, is the short, almost -hairless tail. It is used as a tactile organ to feel out the way when -the gopher runs backwards through the tunnels. In some respects, it is -of more use than the eyes although the gopher uses these too, as can be -attested by the quickness with which it detects any movement near the -mouth of its tunnel. - -The gopher’s place in Nature seems to be akin to that of the earthworm. -By turning over the soil, the gopher enables it to more readily absorb -water and air. At the same time, fertility is increased by the addition -of buried plants and animal matter. This is indeed a fair exchange for -the plants it destroys in its quest for food. - - - - - CARNIVORES - _Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans_ - - -This group is distinguished from other animals by having canine teeth in -both jaws. The function of these teeth is to catch and hold other -animals, for carnivores are the predators. This is the most highly -developed branch of the animal world and reaches a peak of -specialization in man who, while lacking some of the physical -qualifications of the other predators, has developed a brain which has -enabled him to gain and keep ascendancy over all other animals. -Considered with the group in this book are two other orders, the -Insectivora and the Chiroptera. These orders embrace the mammals in -North America that live principally on worms or insects rather than on -other mammals. They are the shrews and bats, respectively. - -Since carnivores are the hunters rather than the hunted, they enjoy far -greater mobility than, for instance, the rodents. It is not necessary -that they have a burrow in which to escape the attacks of other animals, -for it is unusual for them to prey upon each other. Most of the -predators remain in one area only from choice or, in the case of adult -females, in order to rear the young. Few of them hibernate; bears and -skunks do spend a considerable time during the cold weather in a torpor, -but it is an uneasy sleep at best, as anyone who has disturbed these -animals at this time can attest. As far as the Chiroptera are concerned, -some species of bats hibernate and others migrate to a warmer climate to -spend the winter. Since most of the predators are active all winter, -while many of the rodents are in hibernation, this can be a period of -famine for carnivores. At the same time, it is a season of increased -danger for those species which are still active and upon which these -predators prey. - -Because these hunters are continually stalking other animals, their -habitats are as varied as those of their quarries. Thus, the mountain -lion is a creature of the rimrock, where he can most conveniently find -deer browsing on mountain-mahogany; while his smaller cousin, the -bobcat, stalks smaller animals in the slope chaparral. The wild dogs -hunt plains and brushy country for ground squirrels and rabbits. In the -weasel family we find the marten in the treetops pursuing squirrels, the -weasel hunting mice in the meadow, and mink and otter pursuing prey near -to or in the water, Some species, such as the bears, are omnivorous and -may be encountered almost anywhere that a plentiful supply of food of -any kind can be found. Practically all of the species, excepting bats -and skunks, can be considered diurnal as well as nocturnal, but the -majority are most active during the hours between dusk and sunrise. - -Since the carnivores’ purpose in Nature’s scheme is to control the -vegetable eaters, it follows that each predator must be somewhat -superior, either physically or mentally, or both, to the species upon -which it preys. The associations between pursuer and pursued may be -casual with species such as the coyote, which preys on a great number of -smaller species, or they may be sharply defined as with the lynx, which -in certain localities depends almost entirely upon the snowshoe hare for -food. The apparent ferocity with which some predators will kill, not -only enough for a meal, but much more than they need, cannot as yet be -explained. This habit is most pronounced in the weasel family. It may be -that more than ordinary control is called for in the case of their host -species, rodents in most cases. Whatever the reason, this wanton killing -has not upset the balance which these species maintain. Man, the most -ruthless and intelligent predator of all, is the only species which has -been successful in exterminating others. - -The predators hold a favored place in the esteem of most naturalists. At -first, sympathy for the weak and indignation against the strong are -perfectly natural human feelings. As the necessity for control and the -wonderful way in which Nature attains a balance becomes apparent, the -role of the predator becomes more and more appreciated by the student. - - - Mountain lion -_Felis concolor_ (Latin: a cat of the same color; referring no doubt to - the smooth blending of the body coloration) - -Range: At present, mostly confined to the western United States and -Canada, and all of Mexico south to the southern tip of South America. -There are a number of mountain lions in Florida, and persistent reports -indicate that they may be making a comeback in a number of other Eastern -States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: As the range indicates, habitats vary widely. Mountain lions in -the Southwest show a preference for rimrock country in the Transition -Life Zone or higher, but they are often seen in all the life zones. - -Description: A huge, tawny cat with long, heavy tail. The long tail is a -field mark identifying the young, which, having a spotted coat, -otherwise resemble young bobcats to some degree. Total length 72 to 90 -inches. Tail 30 to 36 inches. Weight 80 to 200 pounds. Color may vary -from tawny gray to brownish red over most of the body, the underparts -being lighter. The head and ears appear small in proportion to the lean -muscular body. The teeth are large, the canines being especially -massive. Like most members of the cat family, the mountain lion has -large feet with long, sharp claws. The tracks show the imprint of four -toes together with a large pad in the center of the foot. The young may -be born at any time of the year. Only one litter is born every 2 to 3 -years, and the average number of young is three. - -Probably no species of mammal in the New World equals the mountain lion -in farflung distribution. From the Yukon to Patagonia, this elusive -carnivore can still be found in considerable numbers in spite of -aggressive campaigns against it. In the United States, it is the chief -representative of the wild cats, a group noted for fierce and predacious -habits. Fortunate indeed is the person who sees one of these great -felines in the wild. This may not be as difficult as one might imagine -because mountain lions often travel through comparatively well settled -areas. It is especially possible in the Southwest, for the four-State -area covered by this book contains the heaviest population of mountain -lions in the United States. However, the comparative abundance of this -carnivore has not resulted in a better understanding of it. The mountain -lion is still one of the least known and most maligned creatures of our -times. - - [Illustration: mountain lion] - -The Mexicans know this cosmopolite as “leon.” In Brazil it is called -“onca.” Perhaps the most distinguished name, and rating as the first in -New World history, is “puma,” given it by the Incas. Early American -settlers of the east coast called it “panther,” “painter,” and -“catamount.” In the northwestern United States, it is known as “cougar” -and in the Southwest, as mountain lion. Although there is but the one -species _concolor_, there are a number of subspecies. About 15 are now -recognized, most of them geographical races and not markedly different -from the species. Four of these subspecies are found in the four States -with which we are concerned. One of the most interesting is -_hippolestes_ which inhabits the State of Colorado. Translated from the -Greek this is “horse thief,” an appropriate epithet indeed for this -ghostly marauder. As might be expected from their vast distribution, the -several subspecies have a tremendous vertical range. In the Southwest -they are found from near sea level in southwestern Arizona to the tops -of the highest peaks in Colorado. - -In the more than four centuries that have elapsed since the white man -first set foot on soil of the New World, a great mass of folklore -concerning the mountain lion has accumulated. Half fact, half fiction, -these tales have been repeated from one generation to another and few -details have been lost in the telling; indeed, in most cases, several -have been added. Most common are those which describe its fierceness and -its attacks on man. In the main, these tales are lurid and convincing, -but they do not stand up under scientific scrutiny. It is true that such -attacks have occurred; one of the most recent and best verified was that -on a 13-year old boy in Okanogan County, Washington, in 1924. It -resulted in the death and partial devouring of the unfortunate -youngster. Yet sensational as this incident was, it resulted in -publicity far out of proportion to its importance. In fact, articles -concerning this case are still appearing at intervals. The truth of the -matter is that very few authentic cases of mountain lion attacks upon -humans have ever occurred in the United States, and that most of these -_could_ have been caused by the mountain lion’s being rabid. Certainly -such attacks are not typical behavior of the normal animal. As far as -man is concerned, the lion will take flight whenever possible, and even -when cornered it is not nearly so pugnacious as its little cousin, the -bobcat. - -Other stories about the mountain lion often emphasize the bloodcurdling -screams with which it preludes its stalk of some unfortunate person deep -in the forest. The facts are that there is no reason to believe that -lions cannot or do not scream, but most authorities agree that such -vocal expressions are most likely to be made by an old male courting his -lady love or warning away a rival. The cats are creatures of stealth and -cunning that creep upon their prey as noiselessly as possible. Lions -would hardly announce their presence with the sort of screams with which -they are credited. It seems safe to say that at least 90 percent of -these alleged screams can be traced to owls or amorous bobcats. -Oftentimes these sounds have been linked to large tracks found in the -vicinity as proof that a mountain lion was in the area. This has led one -author to remark that “the witness usually is unable to distinguish the -track of a large dog from that of a mountain lion.” In addition, the -infrequent screams made by captive mountain lions indicate that such -sounds in Nature would be far from spectacular. They consist of a sound -that is more like a whistle than the demoniacal wail so often ascribed -to the wild animal. - -Many stories are told of a person, usually a pioneer ancestor, who has -been followed by a mountain lion. In most cases this person has returned -to the area suitably armed and with witnesses who found tracks of the -beast together with those of their friend. Strange to say, such -incidents are not at all uncommon. They have been recorded and verified -a number of times. In these cases the animal often has made no effort at -concealment but has followed the person quite openly. Despite this -boldness it seems there is no sinister motive, merely a naive and -surprising curiosity on the part of the big cat as to what kind of -creature man is. It is most unfortunate that so little data have been -recorded in these instances, yet this is quite understandable under the -circumstances. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Finally, in most stories there is only one size of mountain lion—big! As -the story makes its rounds the lion never gets smaller; it invariably -grows larger. Somehow the records have missed all these really big -lions. Any lion which measures more than 8 feet in length and 200 pounds -in weight will be an extremely large, old male in the record class. The -average will be much smaller. Statistics show most lions to be 5 to 7 -feet in length and 80 to 130 pounds in weight for adult females, and 6 -to 8 feet in length with weights of 120 to 200 pounds for adult males. -Errors in estimating the size of these big cats are easily accounted -for. In the first place the lion is a long, low, sleek creature that -gives an impression of being longer than it is. Too, its size is -unconsciously exaggerated by many people who are impressed with its -tremendous power and agility. Many of its feats of strength seem -impossible for an animal so small. Lastly, its tanned hide may be -available for measurement. Actually this proves nothing; hides often are -stretched 2 feet or more at the time the animal is skinned, and tanning -does not shrink them appreciably. - -None of the above is meant to detract in any way from the reputation of -the mountain lion or its place in American folklore. It is the third -largest predator in the Southwest, being exceeded only by the jaguar and -the bear in size, and surpassing them both in agility. In the past, it -has been feared and hated by those whose herds and flocks have suffered -from its depredations. Their efforts to exterminate it have resulted in -grave biological problems at times, but in the light of more advanced -study it seems probable this big carnivore will be spared in the future -to keep its rightful place in our wilder areas. - -The mountain lion “goes with the deer”; that is to say, its function is -to keep deer in check so that they will not eat up their range and -starve to death. Though at first glance such a possibility seems out of -the question, this has become a serious problem in recent years. It will -be further intensified as suitable deer range becomes more restricted -with the advance of civilization. Another function of the mountain -lion-deer relationship is to weed out the diseased and inferior -individuals so that the deer herd will remain healthy and up to good -physical standards. It may be argued that the same end is reached by -hunting, and so it is, with one major exception. The nimrod, intent on a -fine trophy head, takes the buck in the prime of life, a time when he -should be sireing the herd of the future. The cougar does not -consciously select its victims; it takes the most easily caught, thus -leaving the wisest and healthiest survivors as breeding stock. - -Though deer are the lion’s preferred food, many other species of mammals -are preyed upon when deer are scarce. These range in size from the -smallest rodents to animals as large as elk. Among the more unlikely -species recorded are skunk and bobcat. The lion also has the dubious -distinction of being one of the chief predators of the porcupine. Dining -on this last species is fraught with danger, however, because no matter -how expertly the carcass is removed from its spiney covering, a few -quills will penetrate the flesh of the diner. Little prey other than -mammals is ever taken. Birds are not easily caught by such a large -animal and, although it does not shun water, it is poorly equipped to -take any form of aquatic life. The mountain lion will not eat carrion -except under the most dire circumstances and prefers food that it has -killed itself. - -There are two principal methods by which the mountain lion catches its -prey. The stalk and pounce technique of the common house cat is most -effective in brushy country where the low crouch of the lion places its -bulk behind the close ground cover. With tip of tail twitching, it -creeps forward until a short run and spring, or the spring alone, will -carry it to the front flank of the unsuspecting victim. If the neck of -the hunted is not broken by the impact of the heavy body, the sharp -claws or massive canine teeth are brought into play to rip the jugular -vein and end the struggle. In the other method of hunting, the lion -chooses a ledge above a game trail and simply waits there until some -animal to its liking passes below. The weight of its body usually is -sufficient to bear the victim to the ground and it is soon dispatched. -Mountain lion studies in California have determined that in hunting deer -the animal will catch one in every three attempts. It has been estimated -that in an area of heavy deer population each mountain lion will kill -one each week. It is of interest to note that in many places in the -Southwest deer are on the increase, indicating the need for more -predators to keep down their number. - -Since the mountain lion has few enemies, its reproduction rate is low. -Two to four kittens are born in each litter, but usually at 2- to 3-year -intervals. Dens are sometimes located deep among the rocks; others may -be no more than a grass nest in the brush on a rocky ridge. Like -domestic kittens the young are born blind. They have an interesting -color pattern at birth, a strongly spotted coat and a faintly ringed -tail. This completely disappears when they are about half grown, leaving -them with the tawny reddish coat which blends so well with their -surroundings. They mature at about 2 years of age; beautifully evolved -killers which must be admired by everyone who has come to understand the -methods by which Nature regulates the animal world. - - - Bobcat - _Lynx rufus_ (Latin: name of animal, and rufus, reddish) - -Range: Common throughout much of the United States and Mexico. Found -throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This common species is found in all zones wherever there is -sufficient cover to hide it. - -Description: A bobcat distinguished from the lynx by having small ear -tufts, a more rufous color, and a black band which crosses only the -upper surface of the tail tip. Total length 30 to 35 inches. Tail 5 -inches. Weight 15 to 30 pounds. This is a chunky animal with long, -muscular legs and large feet. The sides of the face are heavily streaked -with black, backs of ears dark, coat generally tawny to rufous above, -underparts lighter. Dark spots rather prominent throughout coat, insides -of front legs often barred with darker color. Young from two to six, -usually born in early spring; only one litter per year. - -These are the most common wild members of the cat family in the -Southwest. Their distribution over the United States takes a strange -pattern, inasmuch as they are not found in several of the midwestern and -southeastern States, and in a large area in central Mexico. In all there -are a dozen subspecies of _Lynx rufus_ in North America. They are tough -little predators, among the last to retreat before the advance of -civilization. In fact, they may often be found on the very fringes of -our larger cities, existing on the rats that infest the city dump. - -In the wilder areas, which are the bobcat’s appropriate home, its tracks -are distinguishable from those of the larger _Felidae_ only by their -smaller size. Like the larger members of the cat family, it is equipped -with a set of strong retractile and extremely sharp claws. Although -there are five toes on each front foot and only four on the hind feet, -the tracks of both feet are similar. This is because the fifth toe, -corresponding to our thumb, is so high on the inside of the foreleg that -normally it does not touch the ground. During normal travel the claws -are always in the retracted position and never show in the tracks. All -native cats have a tendency to place the hind feet in the tracks left by -the front feet, so that in effect each track is a double print. This may -be one of the reasons a cat’s approach is so silent! - - [Illustration: bobcat] - -Bobcats have numerous traits in common with their relative, _Lynx -canadensis_ (not treated in this book because of its extreme rarity in -the Southwest), but are more versatile in their dietary tastes. While -the lynx is sufficiently dependent on the snowshoe hare that its -population corresponds closely in fluctuation with that of its “host,” -the bobcat has a much less discriminating appetite. It also loves -snowshoe hares and rabbits, but takes various other mammals as -opportunity offers, and ground-living birds. Bobcats will even eat -carrion, but prefer fresh meat. They are reliably reported to eat -porcupines, young pronghorns, deer, and sheep, both bighorn and -domestic; and they sometimes kill adult deer, although this is a -difficult and dangerous proceeding. Usually a kill is at least partially -covered with debris, and the cat will return at least once to feed again -on it. - -Though bobcats are the least spectacular of our native cats they are the -most numerous and evenly distributed. Thus collectively they may be of -more importance in Nature’s master plan than we realize. Their role may -even increase in importance as time goes on, because of the increasing -scarcity of the larger cat species. - - - Red fox - _Vulpes fulva_ (Latin: a fox ... fulva, meaning deep yellow or tawny) - -Range: Found throughout most of North America north of the Mexican -border. Exceptions in the United States are areas in the southeastern -and central States and desert portions of the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest these foxes are restricted to wooded areas of -mountains. They usually are found in the Transition Life Zone or higher. - -Description: About the size of a small dog, having a bushy tail with -white tip. Total length 36 to 40 inches. Tail 14 to 16 inches. Weight 10 -to 15 pounds. Besides the type, this fox has at least two well-defined -color phases with many intermediate forms. These will be considered -separately. A typical western form of red fox will be more yellow than -red. The brightest red will be a rufous median line running down the -back. This fades to an ochre yellow along the edges and grades to the -lighter yellow of the sides. The tail is usually dark yellow with black -guard hairs and always a white tip. The underparts are light yellow to -white. Fronts of feet and lower legs and backs of ears are always very -dark to black. The underfur is lead-colored. The head is small with -large ears, yellowish eyes having elliptical pupils, narrow nose and -jaws. The young, four to six in a litter, are born early in the summer -and but one litter is produced each year. - -The western form of red fox might more aptly be named the “yellow” fox, -since it is definitely more yellow than red. To add to the confusion, -the gray fox, _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_, of the West usually has more -good red in its coat than the red fox. However, the gray fox is a -denizen of the desert and will not often be found at elevations -preferred by the red fox. In addition, its tail is tipped with black; -this definitely separates the two species at a glance. The differences -of color phases within the red fox group are more pronounced and have -led many people to consider them separate species. The two most distinct -types of these varieties are known as the “cross” fox and the “black” or -“silver” fox. - -The term “cross” fox refers neither to the disposition of the animal nor -to its being a hybrid variety, although it often is cross or mean and is -not a hybrid. It alludes to the dark cross on its back. This is formed -by a dark to black median line crossing at right angles to a dark band -that traverses the shoulders. Its effect is increased by considerable -amounts of gray and black mixed with the normal yellow color of the -sides. The long hairs of the tail are yellowish gray to black, the -general effect being dark but, as with the type, the tip is pure white. -As might be expected, there are many gradations between this color phase -and the type, some of them being among the most striking and beautiful -foxes in the world. - -The “black” or “silver” fox is a melanistic form of the red fox. In the -most striking form it is a smooth shining black, the general sombreness -of its coat being relieved by a sprinkling of silvery white guard hairs. -These are thickest in the area of the shoulders, on the posterior -portion of the back, and on the top and sides of the head. The -underparts, though black, lack the lustrous “finish” so evident on the -back and sides. The tip of the tail is pure white in this form also. -This is the “silver” fox of commerce, an animal which through selective -breeding has become standardized in the fur industry. Nevertheless, the -black color is a recessive character, as evidenced by the throw-backs -that often make their appearance in otherwise black litters. Without -constant vigilance on the part of breeders, the “silver” fox would soon -become a rarity again. The Mendelian law cannot be cancelled out by a -few generations of selective breeding. - -The foxes are the smallest canines native to the United States. Though -they look much larger because of their long fur and bushy tail, the -average red fox will not outweigh a large house cat. They make up for -this lack of size, however, by being exceedingly quick in their -movements. They are thus able to catch many of the small mammals which -outmaneuver coyotes and wolves. Rabbits are about the largest mammals -with which they can cope, but mice, woodrats, pikas, and ground -squirrels are all a common part of their diet. In addition, they take -many large insects and ground nesting birds and eggs whenever possible. -Foxes are not as omnivorous as coyotes, but they relish berries and -stone fruits and sometimes raid watermelon patches. - -The social life of foxes is most interesting. The family is a closely -knit unit which as a rule does not break up until the young are well -able to care for themselves. Foxes are monogamous; that is, they -normally choose their mates for life. Dens may be in burrows dug in the -soil or in deep crevices in the rocks. They are usually in some spot -where there is a good view of the surrounding territory. The pups are -born rather early in the spring and by early summer will be playing -around in the den entrance, although they do not venture to any distance -until much later. Should the den be approached while the young are in -it, the female often will be very bold in her attempts to lead the -intruders away from it. As soon as the young are weaned the male joins -his mate in bringing food to them. By early fall, the family is hunting -together. - -The red fox has been a symbol of sagacity and cunning since long before -Aesop. Much of this reputation is well earned, as witness their stubborn -withdrawal as civilization surrounds them. Yet sometime one wonders if -their wisdom is not overrated. I am reminded of an old female who every -year whelped her young in the mouth of a tile drain which drained a -marshy piece of ground that had since become dry. The upper end of the -tile was buried some 15 feet below the surface of the ground. My friend -would watch the area until the pups were about half grown. Then he would -block the entrance to the tile with a box trap and catch them as hunger -drove them out to the bait. This went on for several years, the old -vixen never seeming to learn from bitter experience that her family -would be taken away from her. - - [Illustration: red fox] - - - Gray wolf - _Canis lupus_ (Latin: dog ... a wolf) - -Range: Canada and Alaska north to the northern coast of Greenland. In -the United States it is found in three widely separated areas in Oregon, -Utah and Colorado, and New Mexico and Arizona. It extends south into the -tablelands of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest the wolf, like the coyote, is leaving the -plains, which are its chosen habitat, to live in the broken country of -the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. Carries -its short, bushy tail above the horizontal when traveling. The gray wolf -is almost unbelievably big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19 -inches. Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to 170 pounds. -These animals show a tremendous variation in color, but the average -individual will appear very much like a big German shepherd dog. From -this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska -to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is -distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The -straw-yellow eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much -more like a dog’s than a coyote’s. The feet, in keeping with the rest of -the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with -canines, the first toe or “thumb” does not touch the ground. The hind -foot has but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each -year the single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the -average is assumed to be from 6 to 8. - -The wolf’s association with man is older than recorded history. When man -first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is believed to -have been the progenitor of the dog. As man’s partner in the chase, it -helped him become the one superior animal capable of exterminating it. -At the present time, man has come close to doing just that. Only a few -of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the United States. Those are -concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and some of them undoubtedly have -come across the border from Mexico. Before long the species probably -will become extinct in this country, but the large numbers remaining in -Alaska and Canada should persist for many years. - -Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. Who, as a -child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little Red Riding -Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? Long before -animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children’s books were well -thumbmarked at the page where the “big bad wolf huffed and puffed and -blew the house down.” To “keep the wolf from the door” is an expression -as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th century when the animal -became extinct in England. The wolf has always been a symbol of taking -ruthlessly. The genus _lupinus_ (Latin: wolf), a beautiful group of -plants of the pea family, is so called because early botanists thought -it robbed the soil. The “wolf” so often encountered at house parties is -included in this class. None of these characterizations gives a good -impression, and all are indicative of man’s feeling toward the wolf. It -is most unfortunate that man so often condemns anything which interferes -with his own economic progress. Nature has a place for the wolf, a -specialized task for which it is admirably adapted. - -In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains in -great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and -coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were -relatively safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These -were quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest -portions, the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white -man exterminated the bison, the wolves’ host was gone and they turned to -the logical substitute, the white man’s cattle. This could have but one -result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was -driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group -isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and New -Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of wolves -from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back and forth -across the border in response to local conditions. During the -extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a -considerable extent. - -Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which the -gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, the -wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts had -been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time the -wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild creatures. -Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by complete -isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. To this -end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible places in -the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, and I -consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains in -years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence of a -cold winter night. - - [Illustration: gray wolf] - - - Coyote - _Canis latrans_ (Latin: dog ... barking) - -Range: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is found -in all life zones and among many different associations. - -Description: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic -range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble a -rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good field -mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal is running -and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. Average total -length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny to reddish -gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs and feet. -There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the tail also is -somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; despite an -impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large coyote seldom -weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that of a -medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge -toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes are -moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups, -although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that -coyotes are in an area is their “singing” during the evening. They will -sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day. - -There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote in its -relationship to other animals than any other North American mammal -today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking a 10 minute -walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living things, plant or -animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing conditions -presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which survive do so -because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as well as take -from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of the coyote to -withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination indicates that -this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. Certainly -many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its -associations have never been fully explored and others have not been -discovered. - -In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent -documentary films in its favor, the coyote’s place in Nature is now -becoming better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason -why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to the -fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog with what most -naturalists agree is a higher degree of native cunning and intelligence -than that of the average domestic breed. In general, this attitude seems -to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate stories circulated by -word of mouth. A few hours spent in reading the scientific literature on -the coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading -try J. Frank Dobie’s _The Voice of the Coyote_ (Little, Brown & Co., -Boston 1949) or _Sierra Outpost_ (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila -Loftberg and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the -coyote for what it is—one of the more important creatures in animal -society. - - [Illustration: coyote] - -When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, the -coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes of -the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but sharing -with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray wolves. -With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads upon the -rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was also a -scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger animals -which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were practically -exterminated, the coyote “took to the hills” and now is as frequently -encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther west in the -desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization has -advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills until now -its “song” is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size and -omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with its -success in this new environment. - -About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the coyote is -large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to catch the -smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. The rest -is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are less often -encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable -portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus -fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in -considerable quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat. -Besides this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will -usually take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations -against the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost -entirely of the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain -sheep, the coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records -of such occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game. -Nature meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such -predation by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would -restore the balance before long. Nature’s laws are as definite as those -of human society and far more sternly enforced. - -The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its -variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule -coyotes, like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the -other will usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early -spring, followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter -of up to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft -soil close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More -rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have -been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging -shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not allowed to -approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, he brings -his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them to the -young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, both -parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They usually -come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. If a -human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location at -once. - -When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new phase of -their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance like a -group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful new -world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself, -however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This is -the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be taken -away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every passing day. -The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young into the coyote -way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along the perimeter of -her range, bringing food to them as she makes her rounds. In either -event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by the following -spring are mature animals. - -Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler, -the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will -learn every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of -great importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in -the matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be -deep within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and -called upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts. -The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be -intercepted en route tonight. - -Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This is -especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a -combination is especially efficient in running down such animals as -jackrabbits and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in -a circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the -animal is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn -hunting is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time -their young are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to -pursue and kill coyotes. - -It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will -soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the -ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously -affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is -deplored by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that -the West should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with -its legends and history. - - - Wolverine - _Gulo luscus_ (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed; - purblind) - -Range: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, and -possibly New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near timberline in the most remote areas. - -Description: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat -resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. Tail 7 -to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with no -sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color on top -of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish bands -which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. The -underparts are lighter and usually a “blaze” or spot of white decorates -the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally powerful, -the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These register -rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat like that of -a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are not well known, -but it is assumed the den is located among rocks in talus slopes. The -average number of young is thought to be four or less. They are born -early in the year. - -This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly will never be seen -by anyone who reads these lines, so scarce has it become in the United -States. Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little -understood, and because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado -several times, and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico, -it is here included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see -this celebrated creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune. - -The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to the -white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals which -goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its -shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It -is a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall -probably never fully learn before it becomes extinct. - -When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North America they -found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce with the -wolverine. They called it “Carcajou,” a term said to have been derived -from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent spirit. -I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but I well remember -that it was considered a “windigo” or evil spirit. Eskimos coveted its -fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The long guard hairs -protected the face from the bitter air without collecting frost, and the -underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs. - - [Illustration: wolverine] - -The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. _Gulo_, the Latin -term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the -animal. _Luscus_, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors -suggest, blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be -almost invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first -wolverine taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to -have lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any -rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind. - -The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example of -what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline in the high -mountains of desert country and is also found at or near sea level far -north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, with -exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily with snow. -In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the edges of the -feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small snowshoes, -and enable the animal to travel with less effort. - -Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and clumsy in -build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey to this -awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger predators -away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At such times it -eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. It will -return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, even if -they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which it can -dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes across in -its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators of the -porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams its -isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike. - -The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious -delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be -explained by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems -to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking -into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their -contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or -carried away and hidden. - - - Marten - _Martes americana_ (Latin: a marten ... America) - -Range: North America from Alaska through the greater part of Canada, -thence through northwestern, United States and south into California, -Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up to the -Alpine Zone. - -Description: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large -squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a -short, bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. -Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The -body is a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, legs and -tail. On the chest the color lightens to a pale buff or sometimes a -rather distinct orange. The underparts are lighter than the rest of the -body. The fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in being -almost entirely underfur, there being very few guard hairs. The body is -extremely graceful with relatively long legs and small feet. The head is -small with features somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears -are large for a member of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance -to the face. This alertness is further borne out by the lively movements -of this animal, which is the most active of any in that group. - -The marten, often called “pine marten,” is one of the most solitary -animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps this -is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to -overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually and -not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire -group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could -not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this -clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of -normal needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is -confined to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It -is evidently one of Nature’s methods of controlling the rodent -population. To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt -alone. These factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a -consequence, although there may be many in an area, the marten is -usually found alone except for a brief time during the breeding season -or in the case of a female with young. The male evidently has no part in -bringing up the family. - -The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its range, -and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to be seen -by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat is among -the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock slides, and -the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their homes there. -Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, hunting in the -talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the trees in winter -when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. It is an extremely -hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned squirrel or woodpecker -nest only during the short periods of storm, when hunting would be -useless. As might be expected, its summer and winter diets vary widely. -Both, however, have as their basic item the spruce squirrel, the -important host of the marten, and like it a hardy creature that is -abroad throughout the year. - -There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the ground -there is available an amazing number of species which are denied to the -marten during the winter, some because of protection afforded them by -the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. Among these are -pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, and many species of mice. -In summer, the marten also takes eggs and young of ground-nesting birds. -In the trees are found other nests, not excepting those of the -woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its forepaw and comes out not -only with young birds, but often the adult as well. Martens are known to -eat quantities of the larger insects and, since they are fond of fruits -and berries when raised in captivity, there is little doubt that they -indulge in these delicacies in the wild. - -Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such other -small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it would -seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its lavish -summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and healthy under -weather conditions that would seriously hamper most other predators. To -a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the untiring -perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, few -creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which to -withstand the long, cold winter. - - [Illustration: marten] - -It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is -most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its -boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm and -does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering any -hollow log or woodpecker’s nest will do as a resting place. Snow is the -least of the marten’s troubles; not only does it stay warm among the -drifts, but travels across them with ease on its “built-in” hair -snowshoes, which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a -marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is a -blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at -all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like a -weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will -serve to identify it as a marten. - -Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the -response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no -less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and -more or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that -is favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time -when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts a -reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough to -excite one’s interest. For the following information, I am indebted to -James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many of these -interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them was -relatively meager. - -Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the winter, -when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This was at -an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern Idaho. As -a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be heard -growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack would be -placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, apparently -mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap out into the -sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten was usually -wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box trap, and if -allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack was placed -within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack and carried -down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually in the house, -then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so tame that they -would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming treacherous like -their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They loved fruit and berries, and -were especially fond of chocolate candy. - -Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females were -giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that -breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but -that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be born in -April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be apparent -until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates that, like -most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one season, but -the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to develop until -conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This also insures -arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that they may -enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young varies from -three to five, usually the smaller number. - -No description of the marten would be complete without mention of its -tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially -in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another. -In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts, -seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for -martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently in -search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest, -is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run -away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put -on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white -teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might -attack its tormenter. - - - River otter - _Lutra canadensis_ (Latin: otter ... of Canada) - -Range: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New Mexico in -the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes. - -Description: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick tapered -tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail 12 to 17 -inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark brown with a -silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest are lighter than -the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to aquatic life, having -a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All four feet are webbed. -The head is long and round, with short ears. Long, stiff whiskers stand -out near the rather thick nose. The tail is thick at the base, and the -body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing the general -“torpedo” effect. - - [Illustration: river otter] - -The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely rare -in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized -habits, coupled with an inability to compete with man in the use of the -few fresh water streams and lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has -been recorded often enough in the past decade to warrant the hope that -with careful management and complete protection it might increase in -numbers. This is much to be desired because the otter is unique in -several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered member of -the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty habits of -its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful. - -Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter’s habit of building -slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement of the -way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud flats, in which -they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and small amphibians. The -remarkable thing about the slides is that they seem to be built for one -specific purpose, that of sport, an activity which ordinarily is one of -the least important to most mammals. In soft or muddy places, even in -soft snow, the otter slides along on its chest with head held high and -forelegs trailing alongside the body. Motive power is furnished by -thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear on the underparts is reduced by -many coarse, close-set overhairs which seem to have been developed for -this very purpose. The slide itself is only a narrow groove, 12 to 20 -inches wide, that is worn down a steep bank to the water’s edge. The wet -bodies of the otters make it smooth and slippery, and soon they are able -to shoot down it with only an occasional helping kick of the hind feet. -This fascinating game may go on for hours on end. The descent often is -followed by a general rough and tumble in the “swimming hole.” There the -action is almost too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can -match the otter for grace and speed in the water. - -Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this -leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide, -and usually at several other places along the waterway which is -frequented by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found -areas several feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall -grass, where the animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also -to be community news centers, because usually near such areas are found -the scent “posts,” where otters deposit scent from the glands common to -all members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete -the high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks. -Nevertheless, it is sufficiently “loud” to be identified with the otter. - -The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are usually -situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile from the -nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take over the -abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode must be by -an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is merely a nest in a -thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water. - -The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are blind, -toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development 6 -weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and before long -are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in the -neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until they -are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together -until the young are fully able to make their own way. - -Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will -prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases -they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to -catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other -supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so -evidently the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey -must be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs, -several species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be -available. - -The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide, -“rolling place,” or characteristic web-toed track are all sure -indications that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its -acquaintance if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and -should you be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his -slippery slide, I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he -does. - - - Mink - _Mustela vison_ (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful) - -Range: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the otter, -that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending southward -into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf of Mexico -in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh water -streams or ponds. - -Description: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, but is -much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males 20 to 26 -inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2¼ pounds. Females will average -almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most of the body, -shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along the tail to a -black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots on chest and -belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, round neck. -The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, and dark, -beady eyes. The legs are short and, as would be expected on an aquatic -animal, the feet are webbed, but in this case only the bases of the toes -are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick and fine, the guard hairs -coarse and conspicuously shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 young, but -the average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, which may or may -not have an underwater entrance. - -The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily -determined by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water’s edge. -The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here -the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the -outlines of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most -cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are -conspicuous. The occurrence of mink away from water can not be -considered normal, because this creature ranks second only to the otter, -among southwestern carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life. -Exceptions do occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing -mountain ranges where they might be many miles from the closest -watercourse. It is thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations -from unfavorable areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search -of a mate. - -Much of the mink’s dependence on water stems from its diet. Some of its -preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are more -adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever -circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting -to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that one of -these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the -extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are -unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive -proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such inroads. Even -with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at hunting, the mink -is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated 100 acres are -only enough to support one adult. The continual hunt for food may be the -motivation for another interesting habit of the mink which is seldom -found among other carnivores. - -Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it later -for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink’s close -relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a -considerable store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it -away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals, -such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging bank. -Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold weather -practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater. - -A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal glands -which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are best known -in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both release an odor -which, by comparison, makes the skunk’s “almost nice.” The one saving -grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, while that -released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, and regains -much of the original potency with every rain. Like the skunks, these -animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. It no doubt has -other uses too, such as identifying the individual and its territory to -other animals of the same species. - -Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that here -is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having -widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home in -trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the -badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends -much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely -in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and -defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even -affectionate. The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable. -There seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood -is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I -have seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was -attempting to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon -with; there are few animals its size that are so courageous. - - [Illustration: mink] - -As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor parents. -The females sometimes desert the young while they are still too small to -make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human criticism. Who -is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to exist under -conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable species? - - - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) - _Mustela erminea_ (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine) - -Range: From northern Greenland south to northern United States with one -extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be expected in -northern Arizona. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone and -higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone. - -Description: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total length -from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight 1½ to 3⅔ ounces. This -wide range in statistics is from comparing the smallest females with the -largest males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to one-fourth -larger than females. Summer color is dark brown with white underparts -and feet. There is a white line down the insides of the hind legs -connecting the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of the -tail is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the black -tail tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck long and -round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. The ears -are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are usually in the -ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. Average number -of young is thought to be about four. - -I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of its -fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which -would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid -creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid -which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the -close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its -tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these -characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the -longtailed weasel (_Mustela frenata_), which is also found in the -Southwest, and the least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), which inhabits part -of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed -weasel will not be mistaken for either of the other species, since the -least weasel has no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has -a tail about one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed -weasel is only about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is -considerably smaller than the long-tailed weasel. - -Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. In -fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North -American Continent. Despite its size, _Mustela erminea_ is so hardy it -ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere. -This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North -Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally -hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but -penetrates far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our -Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more -often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change of -color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north. - -The term “ermine” refers to this animal’s fur in the winter pelage. This -is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the -aristocracy. At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the -sharply contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had -symbolic significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These -are as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of -enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory and -complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern -mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature can -descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, evade -most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent are -left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. In -snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower down it -probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the animal will -retain the same brown above and white below that it wears all summer. - - [Illustration: short-tailed weasel] - -Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids are -admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits them to -enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their strength and -suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue animals several -times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able to climb, they do -not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. Small mice seem to be -preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, and woodrats also are -taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these mighty mites, and -there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed by them. Like the -mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food when hunting is -good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; it has been -estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food every 24 -hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area -where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping -these creatures under control. - -I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under varying -circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident that at -first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as an enemy, -but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will continue its -activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. However, -should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will make its -escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, and as -a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents of the -anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk’s perfume, this odorous -mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to stand -aside and watch the little predator go about its work! - -If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is being -irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being flooded out -of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more short-tailed -weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You may even find a -cache laid away during this period of good hunting. Neither pity the -voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling their destinies in -an ages-old plan. - - - Spotted skunk - _Spilogale gracilis_ (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ... - gracilis, Latin: slender) - -Range: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common -spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a “spotty” distribution over the -whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned. - -Habitat: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment from -near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. Seldom -encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in burrows in -the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under buildings or -in the walls or attics of frame houses. - -Description: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the size -of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of which -6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color pattern -would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent white spot -between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides of the face. -The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular white stripes -which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched with white. Tail -very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes dark in color, ears -small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger species of skunks. -Young number three to six, born in early summer. - -Although this little animal has a slight heaviness of the hind quarters, -reminiscent of the larger skunks, it is indeed, as both generic and -specific names suggest, much more like a weasel. This impression is -heightened by its quick movements and a bright-eyed attention to details -which its larger relatives would hardly notice. It lacks the wild and -fierce disposition of the weasels however, and becomes a charming and -confiding nocturnal visitor if properly encouraged. Remember though that -this acquaintance can be no more than an armed truce, and that should -the articles of Formal Conduct be violated it can be terminated at a -moment’s notice. - -Probably no nocturnal mammal in the Southwest is more likely to be -encountered than this little skunk. How many of my readers can recall -drifting up from an uneasy sleep to the sibilant whisper of, “there’s -something in the tent.” While eyes strain to pierce the darkness, faint -patterings on the floor and urgent scratching at the grub box indicate -that there is indeed “something in the tent.” Turning over with the -utmost care, while the joints of the cot loudly complain, the flashlight -under the pillow is finally extricated. Surely the creature has been -frightened away, but no, the rattlings continue—in the dishes now. The -brilliant white beam stabs in that direction. Red eyes stare back, -interested perhaps, but unafraid. The rounded ball of black and white -fluff waits motionless to see if any harm is intended. When none is -offered, his highness makes his way to the door and ambles away into the -enveloping darkness. In the morning tiny squirrel-like tracks in the -dust show that _Spilogale_ has paid a nocturnal call. These, and perhaps -the contents missing from the butter and bacon grease containers, -because this little animal dearly loves animal fats. These are the foods -which attract these animals to camp sites in such numbers that they -frequently become a nuisance. - -In the wild, spotted skunks live largely on insects. These are taken not -only in the adult form but also in great numbers in the larval stage, as -is shown by the well-winnowed debris under clumps of cactus and around -the bases of shrubs and trees. In these searches for insects small prey -of other kinds is captured as circumstances permit. Worms and scorpions -as well as small rodents are not refused. More rarely a ground-nesting -bird may be disturbed and the eggs or young taken. In rural communities -hen roosts are sometimes raided too but in the main the spotted skunk -should be considered beneficial, with control of grasshoppers and -beetles it’s chief function. - -Like most predators, this member of the weasel family has few natural -enemies. This is not surprising; few animals willingly take a chance on -attacking this doughty little warrior, which sometimes does a handstand -the better to spray it’s enemies. These tactics avail nothing against -the steely monsters that rush up and down our highways in the dead of -night. In the space of 50 years the automobile has developed into the -most successful enemy of the spotted skunk. Yet even in death on the -highway the skunk has it’s revenge. Few will pass the spot for many a -day without paying unwilling tribute to this malodorous legacy. - - - Striped skunk - _Mephitis mephitis_ (Latin: a pestilential exhalation) - -Range: The southern half of Canada, the whole of the United States, and -the northern half of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: All life zones up to timberline in places which have a -sufficient food supply and proper cover. - -Description: This is the “wood kitty,” approached with due respect by -all but the most naive. About the size of a house cat. Total length 22 -to 30 inches. Tail 8 to 15 inches. Weight 6 to 10 pounds. Body color is -black, with black tail except for the tip, which is commonly white. -There are usually two white stripes on the back joining in a “V” at the -back of the head and a white stripe down the front of the face. The head -is small with a rather pointed nose, small black eyes, and small ears. -Front legs are short, and the small feet are tipped with stout claws. -Hind legs are longer and appreciably more of the large hind feet touch -the ground. The tail is quite long and extremely bushy. It is carried in -a downward curve when traveling; if its owner is startled or angry, it -is held straight up with the hairs flared out. Dens of the striped skunk -are usually in an underground burrow, but dens in hollow logs have been -recorded. The usual number of young average from four to six. The family -remains together for the greater part of a year before the young leave -to make their own way. - -There are four species of skunks in the Southwest, but the observer in -the higher country will see only two. These are the striped and the -spotted. They are distinguished by two characteristics: first, the -striped skunk is easily double the size of the spotted skunk; and, -second, the spotted has a pattern of broken stripes and spots of white, -whereas the larger animal has definitely long, continuous white stripes -along sides or back. Both species have the same method of defense, but -the odor of the smaller skunk is said to be somewhat less pungent and -dissipates sooner than that of the striped. To the recipient of either -barrage this has the same consolation as if he were given a choice -between being hit by the H bomb or the A bomb. In the event of a direct -strike it makes little difference. - -Should the reader be involved in an encounter with one of these -malodorous creatures, there are many remedies prescribed but few giving -any great measure of relief. If the skin is washed with a weak solution -of acid such as lemon or tomato juice and then scrubbed thoroughly with -soap and water, much of the odor will disappear. Clothes can be given -the same treatment, but usually it is cheaper and easier to burn them -and charge the cost to experience. Grandpa said to bury scented clothes -in damp earth. Perhaps in time this will do the trick; I contend they -are better left there. - -So much misinformation exists about the skunk’s defensive mechanism and -the manner in which it is employed that brief explanation may not be -amiss. The scent is a fluid stored in two glands located near the base -of the tail. These glands are embedded in a mass of contractile muscle, -and each has a duct which connects with a tiny spray nozzle that can be -protruded from the anus. When danger threatens the tail is lifted, the -nozzles aimed at the enemy, and the contraction of the muscles around -the glands forces out a spray of fine droplets which may carry as far as -15 feet. The result is usually effective and lasting. Contrary to -popular belief, the odor is distressing to the skunk as well as to its -enemy. The tail is kept out of the way if possible, since its plumey -depths would hold the scent for a long time. - - [Illustration: striped skunk] - -Skunks of different species will use this defensive weapon against each -other. Whether individuals of the same species use it in their fights -together is not known. In situations involving humans the skunk will try -to bluff the enemy if possible. This consists of stamping the front -feet, of short runs at the intruder, and finally of hoisting the tail -and aiming the “guns.” If a skunk is approached deliberately and if -quick movements are avoided, it is surprising what liberties may be -taken before it will resort to scent. On the other hand, should it be -taken by surprise or should it be physically hurt, retaliation is swift -and certain. In all cases where skunks are encountered at close range, -remember that this little animal is one of the most independent -creatures on earth, that this nonchalance stems from a supreme -confidence in its defensive powers, and that if left alone or at least -treated with consideration it will go on its way as soon as possible. - -This independent attitude inherent in all skunks probably has much to do -with the happy-go-lucky life that the young family lives. About -midsummer when the young are able to leave the burrow, the mother often -will take them for a stroll early in the afternoon. As she walks, -oblivious to danger, the young play along behind her, sometimes a ball -of struggling little bodies with now and then a fluffy tail breaking -free and again all at odds in a mock show of ferocity with front feet -stamping and flared tails held aloft. When the patient mother finds a -tidbit on the trail, there is a concerted rush for the prize, which is -seldom won without a struggle. All of this is excellent practice against -the time when they will be on their own. It is during this early age -that the young first learn to catch insects, items of great importance -in skunk diet. Later frogs and small mammals will also be preyed upon. - -The striped skunk is generally considered a hibernating animal. This is -not strictly true for, while it may remain inactive in its den for weeks -at a time, the body processes do not slow down to the extent common in -true hibernation. The skunk does lay on a considerable amount of fat -each fall in preparation for this period of winter when food is scarce. -Actual retirement to a den for even a few days is rare in the Southwest, -however. The mild climate makes this unnecessary, except in the highest -part of their habitat. - - - Black bear - _Euarctos americanus_ (Latin: a bear ... of America) - -Range: At present the range of the black bear in the United States is -confined to a narrow strip adjacent to both the Atlantic and Pacific -coasts, a few of the southeastern States, a narrow band in the Great -Lakes area, and the Rocky Mountain chain. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest, the higher mountains mostly in the Transition -Life Zone and above. - -Description: The black bear needs little description because through -pictures and reputation it has become well known to almost everyone. It -averages 5 to 6 feet in total length with a tail so short as to be -inconsequential. Height at shoulders is 2 to 3 feet. Weight 200 to 400 -pounds. Color varies in the Southwest from deep, shining black through -brown to light cinnamon. In all color phases the nose is brown almost -back to the eyes and there is usually a white “blaze” on the chest. The -legs are short and muscular. The feet are plantigrade, that is, the bear -steps on the whole foot, not just the toes. There are stout claws on all -four feet. The head proper is rather round, the muzzle long and pointed. -Ears are relatively small, as are the dark eyes. The young number from -one to four, with twins being very common. They are born while the -mother is still in winter quarters. When the weather moderates to a -point where she can leave, the cubs are large enough to follow her. - -Bears are probably the most popular of our wild creatures to those who -visit the National Park Service areas. Why this should be is hard to -say. Perhaps it dates back to the nursery tale of the three bears, -familiar to all of us from the time we were able to walk. Perhaps too it -stems from the easy familiarity with which these roadside bandits hail -the tourist in hopes of a handout. At any rate, these seemingly friendly -clowns have become endeared to the hearts of the American public. This -is regrettable because actually in the Park Service areas these big -carnivores are the most dangerous of all animals. Native intelligence -indicates to the bears that food may be had merely by standing up -alongside the road when a car stops. More complicated routines are soon -learned to wheedle bigger and better handouts. At this professional -level, a substantial reward is expected when Bruin has “sung for his -supper,” and should none be forthcoming, trouble is apt to ensue. This -is but a minor annoyance to a bear, however, when compared with some of -the indignities dealt out to these big creatures by a thoughtless -public. It must be said in all fairness that anyone who teases a bear -deserves whatever is handed out in return. It is unfortunate that -retribution may be in the form of serious injury or even death. Though -this applies mainly to the half-tame bears which roam along the highways -in our National Parks, it is only common sense to avoid incidents with -any bear wherever encountered. This is especially true of an old female -with cubs, a combination well nigh irresistible to the average -vacationer with camera. - -In more remote areas where bears have not had contact with man, they are -wary to the point of timidity. Gifted with a keen sense of hearing and -smell which makes up for their poor eyesight, they are difficult to -approach. Like most animals, they instinctively know that by “freezing” -they can in most cases escape being seen. The sunburned coat of the -brown phase of the black bear is especially hard to spot in the -underbrush. However, with patience and the aid of binoculars, it should -not be too difficult to get a glimpse into the private life of these -engaging creatures. - - [Illustration: black bear] - -Though bears, because of their dentition, are classed as carnivores, -they might more accurately be termed omnivores. It is a matter of record -that the black bear will eat almost anything, either animal or -vegetable. Nevertheless, its appetite is prodigious and demands little -variety, if but a few kind of foods are available. Its status as a -predator is somewhat confused. Technically speaking, since the black -bear preys on ground squirrels, mice and other small rodents it should -be classed as a predator. It will also take young deer and elk whenever -it can, but these opportunities come rarely. Actually this bear has -little direct influence on its mammal neighbors. As a scavenger it has -considerable value in cleaning up the remains of kills made by other -predators. - -Some of the small animals eaten are in almost amusing contrast with the -huge size of their enemy. For instance, ants are eagerly lapped up by -most bears, and they will literally tear old logs apart to get at these -toothsome morsels. Grubs are another small item which may be found -around fallen logs and under stones. Bears are extremely fond of honey -and will go to great lengths to get at this delicacy, which they eat -comb, bees, and all. Another food item which seems unusual is fish. At -spawning time a bear will wade out into a stream and either snag a -passing fish on its long claws or flip it out on the bank where it is -more easily subdued. Finally, their natural animal diet is greatly -augmented in most Park Service areas by the scraps and bones which they -pick up on the garbage heaps. They can become a great nuisance in the -camping areas where, under cover of darkness, their ingenuity and great -strength enable them to steal many a ham and side of bacon. - -Wide as this variety of animal food seems, it cannot equal the -cosmopolitan tastes of these bears in a vegetable diet. Roots and bulbs -of many species are dug up. Grass and browse are eaten during several -seasons of the year; even pine needles are recorded as having been -eaten. The liking of bears for berries of all kinds is well known. -_Arctostaphylos_, the generic name of the manzanitas, translated from -the Greek means “bear grape.” Pinyon nuts, acorns, chokecherries, and -other stone fruits all are gathered in season. These heavy animals often -damage trees severely in their search for fruit. On the garbage heaps, -watermelon rinds and seeds, peelings of all kinds, leafy vegetables, and -corn cobs add to the fare. All tin cans are licked clean, and in many -cases greasy paper and cellophane wrappings are eaten. - -The yearly cycle of a bear’s life is a study in contrasts. Much of the -warm part of the year is spent in search for food with which to build up -a store of fat so that the winter may be spent in inactivity. Bears -hibernate or, more properly, retire for several months of the winter. -They do not fall into the deep sleep indulged by some of the rodents. -Theirs is an uneasy sleep broken by periods of lethargy when they are -awake but avoid any activity. By these means they conserve enough of -their thick layer of fat to live out the cold weather and emerge in -early spring with a considerable reserve. - -Hibernation takes place in late autumn, usually after the first light -snows. Evidently the animals have a den already located, for when they -feel the urge to retire they strike out across country to it. The same -winter quarters often will be used by one individual for several -seasons. Dens are chosen in a variety of locations. They may be in old -hollow logs or in the bases of fire-gutted trees. Some are in crevices -among huge boulders, others in caves. The main concern seems to be to -find a place sheltered from the wind and snow. If the floor happens to -be covered with chips or leaves, so much the better. It usually is, -either from air currents which bring in falling leaves or through the -labors of woodrats which deposit much litter in such places. The bears -curl up on the floor, and after the first heavy snow there is nothing to -mark the spot. In the case of a small den, such as a cavity in the base -of a tree, an airhole may form in the drift from the warmth of the -animal’s respiration. - -The cubs are born in late winter. From one to four in number, they are -incredibly small at birth. They develop rather slowly and at the time -the family emerges from the den are approximately 18 inches long. The -cubs may all be one color or some may be brown and some black. The male -bear has no part in raising the family; indeed, he is driven from the -scene by the irate mother, should he approach too closely. She has all -the responsibility for raising the family, and a busy time is assured -with such mischievous, carefree youngsters. - -One of the first lessons learned by young cubs is that of obedience. The -mother insists on compliance with her every command, and enforces her -authority with a heavy paw. It is fortunate the cubs are sturdily built, -for some of the slaps they receive in the course of an average day’s -instruction would kill a less durable animal. The first haven of refuge -when danger threatens is in the trees. A special command note and a slap -or two sends them hustling. Now the cubs are out of the way and the -decks cleared for action, so to speak. The cubs will remain in the trees -until the mother lets them know they may come down. This is not a time -of boredom for the youngsters, however. Expert climbers, they carry on -the same games and rough play indulged on the ground, with never a fall. -Their confidence in the trees is amazing. It is not unusual to see a cub -sound asleep on the end of a 20-foot branch that is bending down with -its weight and swaying in the wind. As the months go on the cubs begin -to lose their juvenile ways. By autumn, they have put on enough fat to -last the winter. They usually hibernate with the mother, since they -remain with her for well over a year. During the following summer they -are well able to take care of themselves, and the mother deserts them. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -It is normal, rather than unusual, among black bears to breed only every -other year. The youngsters usually do not breed until about three years -old. - -No account of this bear would be complete without mention of the -so-called “bear trees.” These are trees situated at the crossroads, that -is, near the intersections of bear trails or otherwise prominently -located. When a bear encounters one, it stands up and scratches at the -bark with its front claws as high as it can reach. Sometimes it will -also bite at the bark. Bears have been observed rubbing the sides of -their jaws against the bark. Whether this is a way of leaving their -scent is not known. It is thought this may be a way of communication -with others of the species, but this has not been definitely proven. -Many of the trees chosen for this purpose in mountains of the Southwest -have been aspens. The heavy black furrows left in the white bark will -persist until the death of the tree. Often they are the only evidence -that bears have ever been in the locality. - -Another custom which will be observed very early in one’s experience -with bears is the scratching that goes on. It may be due in part to the -presence of ectoparasites, but the bear takes such an obvious -satisfaction in scratching that, one feels, this must be only -incidental. Trees, posts, rocks, and claws are all employed for this -purpose. Some of the smaller trees often suffer severe damage from the -treatment accorded them. - -My cautious attitude toward bears is a result of early experiences with -them, ranging from humorous to tragic, and probably best typified by an -incident which took place near Yellowstone Park in the late 1920s. I was -on my first trip into the Rockies at the time and hired out on a -construction job at an isolated dude ranch. Horses were being used, and -their supplies, including a considerable store of oats, were kept in a -large tent adjacent to that in which some of the employees slept. On the -previous night a bear had gained access to the supply tent, torn open a -number of oat sacks, and wasted more of the grain than it had eaten. The -foreman, an old-time packer in the Park, vowed vengeance on the bear. -That night when he went to bed he leaned a small, double-bitted axe -against the entrance to the tent. During the night I awoke as the -foreman went out the entrance in his underwear. A partial moon shed a -weak light over the scene and revealed the foreman entering the other -tent with the axe in his hand. A short silence was followed by a heavy -splat, a tremendous grunt, and some frenzied shouts. The supply tent -heaved violently, went down, and split open as the bear hurtled out and -through the woods toward the creek. When order had been restored it -transpired that the foreman had stolen up to the bear, which had its -back to him, and had struck it across the rump as hard as he could with -the flat of the axe. The element of surprise apparently was all in his -favor because the startled bear charged directly away from him into the -far end of the tent. Although in this instance no injuries were -suffered, it has always seemed that this was an extremely foolhardy -thing to do. Although one of the most laughable happenings I have ever -seen, it also had all the elements of a possible tragedy. - - - Grizzly bear - _Ursus horribilis_ (Latin: a bear ... horrible) - -Range: Alaska, western Canada, and in the United States confined to the -high mountains of the Continental Divide as far south as northern New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Except in National Park areas, grizzlies are seldom seen, since -they frequent only the most isolated places in the mountains; Transition -Life Zone and higher. - -Description: The largest carnivore in the Southwest. Easily -distinguished from the black bear by the prominent hump on the -shoulders. Total length 6 to 7 feet. Tail so short as to be -unnoticeable. Height at shoulders 3 to 3½ feet. Weight 325 to 850 -pounds. Color of the southwestern grizzlies is variable, ranging from -yellowish brown to nearly black, but has a characteristic grizzled -effect caused by the white-tipped hairs scattered through the fur. This -is especially noticeable along the back. The grizzly, though massively -built, gives an impression of leanness. The shoulders are higher than -the posterior, giving the animal a streamlined appearance. The head is -large and round with a square, uptilted muzzle. The legs are extremely -powerful, the feet large and with formidable claws, those of the front -feet being up to 4 inches long. The young will number from one to three, -with two being most common. Grizzlies breed every 2 or 3 years. - -Probably no mammal in the United States is more certain soon to become -extinct than these great bears. Many factors contribute toward this end, -chief among them being the low reproduction rate and the rapid decrease -of its range because of an increase in stock raising and agriculture. -Ousted from its former haunts, the species is now found chiefly in only -the few areas where it is rigidly protected. It seems extremely unlikely -that it can long survive this reduction of its once unlimited range. -This is the culmination of a program of destruction wrought on the -grizzly since penetration of the white man into the West. It but follows -the disappearance of other, less well known bears which lived in the -Southwest at that time. - -When the Mountain Men came into the West in the period from 1800 to 1850 -they found a huge, light-colored bear roaming the foothills of the -desert country. For want of a better name they called it the “gray -bear.” From the accounts of that time it is now assumed that it was a -grizzly; at any rate, it was said to have been extremely ferocious, a -trait which led to its downfall. In the space of about 70 years this -animal was discovered, hunted and exterminated, all without a specimen -of any kind being preserved. Today not a trace of this big predator -remains. Its fate illustrates the usual result of contact between a -dangerous, highly specialized animal and man. The question which arises -is, should any group of men ever be allowed such control over a -wilderness that they are able to exterminate the fauna and flora to the -detriment of succeeding generations? The answer seems obvious if we -consider that “we but hold these things in trust.” - - [Illustration: grizzly bear] - -Many species of the grizzly are recognized by taxonomists, but few are -alive today. In the United States only New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, -Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho still have some of these big animals. In -some other western States they have but recently become extinct. -California is thought to have lost its last grizzly in 1925. The few -survivors are probably all of the species _horribilis_. Since grizzly -country is also black bear country, the layman may become confused in -identifying the two species. A few important differences make -identification easy. - -The first and most conspicuous field mark is the prominent shoulder hump -of the grizzly. The male black bear will sometimes with age develop a -shoulder hump, but it cannot compare with that of the grizzly. Second, -the grizzly has what has been described as a “dish” face; that is, a -concavity in the general shape of the front of the face, whereas the -black bear develops a definite “Roman” nose. Third, the claws of the -grizzly are twice as long as those of the black bear; this is most -noticeable in the tracks. If one is close enough to see this -characteristic in the field, he probably is too close for safety! -Lastly, the attitude of the two species toward each other when they meet -on common ground is characteristic. As a rule, the approach of a grizzly -to a garbage dump is enough to put all black bears to flight. There is -no intermingling of the two species; the grizzly is the master and the -black bear will not challenge his authority. - -In most of its habits the grizzly resembles the black bear. It is -omnivorous to the same degree, but somewhat more predatory. It also goes -into hibernation for the winter, and the cubs are born during this -inactive period. They receive the same rigorous training as that -accorded their black cousins, and like them, are able to climb into the -trees and out of harm’s way. As they grow older, this ability leaves -them with the growing of the long claws, and adult grizzlies are -supposed to be unable to climb. In one respect the grizzly differs from -not only the black bear but from most other native mammals. It has never -learned to fear man to the same degree that other creatures have. - -Whether the grizzly’s belligerent attitude stems from fear or contempt -is a moot question. The important point to remember is that a grizzly -should be avoided at all times. Injuries suffered by humans in their -contacts with black bears are usually accidental rather than the result -of deliberate assault by the animal. Grizzlies have been known to charge -without other provocation than trespass on what they consider their -territory. Surely the public can afford to humor this irascible giant. A -little consideration for its irritable nature is not too great a price -to pay for its continued existence in our rapidly dwindling numbers of -large carnivores. - - - Vagrant shrew - _Sorex vagrans_ (Latin: a shrew ... wandering) - -Range: Confined to mountains of western United States and Canada, and -northern and southern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Moist places in forests of the Transition Life Zones and -higher. - -Description: A tiny creature with a long nose. Total length 4 to 5 -inches. Tail 1½ to 2 inches. Color reddish brown to black above with -sides drab and lightening to gray below. Tail indistinctly bi-color -except for the last half which is dark all the way around. Head round -and narrowing to a long, pointed, somewhat flexible nose. Long whiskers -are found along the sides of the upper jaw. Eyes and ears so small as to -be difficult to see. Little is known of breeding habits of the shrews. -The vagrant shrew is said to breed at any time of year and to have from -5 to 11 young in a litter. - -Shrews are the smallest American mammals. Their size and secretive -habits combine to make them among the least known of native animals. -They are classed as insectivores, although they eat other small mammals -as well as insects. They may be distinguished from mice by their -bicuspid incisors and modified canine teeth. Another difference is that -shrews have five toes, in contrast to the four-toed feet of mice. - - [Illustration: vagrant shrew] - -As far as is known at present, certain species of shrews are the only -poisonous mammals. The big short-tailed shrew (eastern United States) -has a toxic substance in its saliva which helps subdue some of the -animals it captures. It is thought that some western species also have -this peculiarity. Though shrews are among the tiniest animals known, -they are not unduly persecuted by larger predators. This is thought to -be partly because of certain glands on the shrew’s body which give it an -offensive odor. - -An outstanding characteristic of shrews is their need for a constant -supply of food. Because all small animals lose heat quickly, they must -eat almost constantly to replace this loss. Some species will eat their -own weight in food as often as every 3 hours. An outstanding exception -is the water shrew, which can do without food for as long as 2 days -without starving to death. Since most shrews live in or near the water, -they find ample food in the insects, spiders, minnows, and small mammals -which live in moist locations. The group is as ferocious as it is -voracious. Most shrews do not hesitate to attack animals outweighing -them several times. It has been said that if shrews were as big as -squirrels they probably would even attack man. - -In the mountains of Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico the northern -water shrew (_Sorex palustris_) may be encountered. It is somewhat -larger than the vagrant shrew and will not be seen away from water. Gray -below and black above, it is wonderfully camouflaged, whether in water -or on land. It, like other shrews, has long whiskers known as vibrissae. -Land shrews use these whiskers as tactile organs to help them follow the -dark maze of their runways. Water shrews are thought to use them as -sense organs in place of eyes to pursue the minnows, tadpoles, and water -bugs they eat. Actually, the water shrew resembles a large water bug as -it darts about below the surface surrounded by the silvery bubbles of -air imprisoned in its fine fur. - - - Bats - Order _Chiroptera_ (Latin: chir, hand, and optera, wing) - -The special treatment accorded bats in this book is not given them by -choice. It results from an inability to so clearly describe any one or -two species chosen that the layman might be able to distinguish these -from their numerous and equally interesting relatives. When one -considers that numerically bats are thought to compare favorably with -birds, that there are a great number of species divided into many -genera, and that the four-State area with which we are concerned is -invaded, so to speak, by eastern, northern, western and Mexican species -besides having several of its own, it soon becomes apparent that this -group can be described here only in the most general way. If some of the -popular superstitions about bats are contradicted here, it is to be -hoped the reader will find the facts no less interesting. - -The adaptation for which bats are best known is their ability to fly. -This specialized talent is shared by no other type of mammal. It is made -possible by considerable modification of several structures of the body, -that of the forelimbs being the most extreme. The bones of both the -upper and lower forelegs are considerably lengthened, but cannot compare -with the extreme elongation of the digits. The clawlike protuberance -from the front of the wing corresponds to the thumb. The wing membrane -stretched across the “fingers” is attached to the side of the body and -to the hindlegs as far as the ankle. Most bats have another wing -membrane, called the interfemoral membrane, which joins both hind legs, -and in many species it also embraces the tail. The wing membranes look -and feel somewhat like thin leather. Running through them is an -intricate system of blood vessels. These not only supply nourishment to -the membrane but also act as a radiator in cooling the blood stream -during the strenuous physical labor involved in flight. The principles -of flight are similar to those used by birds; that is, the wings are -partially folded on the upstroke and fully extended during the down -beat. This maneuver produces a rustling sound that is clearly audible in -the quiet of a cave. In fact, if thousands of bats are disturbed at the -same time it becomes a low roar. - -The fact that bats are nocturnal, and at the same time lead an aerial -life which necessitates flying through labyrinths plunged in total -darkness, has been the cause of much research as to the means by which -they can do this. It is now definitely known that they depend on a sonar -system where, by emitting shrill cries, they are guided by the echoes -rebounding from nearby objects. These “squeaks” range within a frequency -of from 25,000 to 75,000 vibrations per second, which is too high for -the human ear to register. The sounds are uttered at rates from about 10 -per second when the bat is at rest to as many as 60 per second when it -is in flight and surrounded by the many obstacles to be found in a cave. -Fantastic as this performance seems, it is matched by a theory that tiny -muscles close the bat’s ears to each squeak and open them again to hear -only the echo. - -The response of their vocal and hearing structure to this specialized -use is truly amazing. There are no more unique faces in the mammal -kingdom than those of the bats. Most bats have enormous ears with ridged -and channeled interiors that probably have much to do with amplifying -faint sounds. Set in front of the ear is a narrow, upright protuberance -known as the tragus. Farther down the face, in the region of the nose, -are other strangely shaped skin structures including the “nose leaf.” As -yet the functions of these appendages are not entirely known, but it is -suspected that at least part of their purpose is to beam the squeaks -along a definite line and thus help orient the bat with its -surroundings. With such an efficient system to guide it, the bat has -small need for eyes. The expression “blind as a bat” is misleading, -however, because most bats, in spite of their relatively small eyes, can -see rather well. - -Since most southwestern bats are insectivorous, with the exception of a -very few species along the Mexican border which are considered fruit -eaters, the question arises as to how they exist during the winter -months when insects are not to be found. There are two common methods by -which animals avoid such a lean period: by migration and by hibernation. -Bats employ both. Some species are thought to fly as far south as -Central America. Others group together in caves and hang in a deep -torpor all winter. In this state of inactivity their body temperatures -may fall to within one degree of their surroundings, and their rate of -metabolism sometimes falls to one-eighteenth of that during active -periods. As a rule, bats prefer a cool place for hibernation, because -the cooler the temperature the slower the rate of metabolism. Body -temperatures as low as 33.5° F. have been recorded in hibernating bats. -The temperature must not fall below freezing, or the animals will -perish. During this period of inactivity bats have been known to lose up -to one-third of their weight. - -Because of their secretive habits and nocturnal periods of activity, -bats have few enemies other than man that are capable of making any -serious inroads on their numbers. Consequently the birth rate is quite -low in most species. Many have no more than one young each year; and the -red bat, which bears up to four young, seems to be the most prolific in -the United States. There is great variety in the methods by which -different species care for the young. Some mothers leave the babies -hanging to the roof of the cave while they go on their nightly search -for food; others carry the young clinging tightly to their fur. The -young mature quickly. They are usually able to fly within a month after -they are born. - -Despite much recent scientific study, bats are still among our least -known creatures. Their insectivorous diet surely makes them of great -importance to man. Beyond this, their immense numbers indicate that -ecologically they must have tremendous influence on any area in which -they live. - - - - - REFERENCES - - -Bailey, Vernon - 1931. _Mammals of New Mexico._ North American Fauna, No. 53, - Washington, D. C., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of - Biological Survey. - -Barnes, Claude T. - 1927. _Utah Mammals._ Salt Lake City, The University of Utah. - -Burt, William Henry and Grossenheider, Richard Philip - 1952. _A Field Guide to the Mammals._ Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., - The Riverside Press, Cambridge. - -Hall, Raymond E. - 1946. _Mammals of Nevada._ Berkeley. University of California Press. - -Ingles, Lloyd Glenn - 1954. _Mammals of California and its Coastal Waters._ Stanford - University Press. Stanford, California. - -Jaeger, Edmund C. - 1950. _Our Desert Neighbors._ Stanford University Press. Stanford, - California. - -Mearns, Edgar Alexander - 1907. _Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States._ Part - 1. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office. - -Miller, Gerrit S. and Kellogg, Remington - 1955. _List of North American Recent Mammals._ Washington: United - States National Museum, Bulletin 205. - -Nelson, E. W. - 1918. _Wild Animals of North America._ National Geographic Society. - -Warren, Edward Royal - 1910. _The Mammals of Colorado._ New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. - -Cockrum, E. Lendell - 1960. _The Recent Mammals of Arizona._ Tucson: University of Arizona - Press. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - Abert’s squirrel. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Alpine Life Zone, xiv - Antelope. _See_ Pronghorn. - _Antilocapra americana_, 4 - Arizona gray squirrel, 36 - Artiodactyla, 1 - - - B - Bats, 121 - Bear, black, 112 - grizzly, 117 - Beaver, 67 - Bighorn, 2 - Bison, 8 - _Bison bison_, 8 - Black bear, 112 - Black-tailed deer, 11 - Bobcat, 85 - Buffalo. _See_ Bison. - Bushy-tailed woodrat, 60 - - - C - Canadian Life Zone, xiii - _Canis latrans_, 92 - _lupus_, 89 - Carnivores, 79 - _Castor canadensis_, 67 - Catamount. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Cervus canadensis_, 16 - Chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Chipmunks, western, 44 - cliff, 45 - Colorado, 44 - gray-necked, 44 - least, 45 - Uinta, 44 - Chiroptera, 79, 121 - _Citellus lateralis_, 48 - Classification of animals, xv - Cliff chipmunk, 45 - Colorado chipmunk, 44 - Cottontail, mountain, 26 - Cougar. _See_ Mountain lion. - Coyote, 92 - _Cynomys gunnisoni_, 51 - _leucurus_, 51 - _parvidens_, 51 - - - D - Deer - black-tailed, 11 - mule, 10 - fantail, Sonora, 11, 14 - white-tailed, 13 - Deermouse, 57 - Douglas squirrel. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - - - E - Elk, 16 - _Erethizon dorsatum_, 72 - Ermine. _See_ Short-tailed weasel. - _Euarctos americanus_, 112 - _Eutamias cinereicollis_, 44 - _dorsalis_, 45 - _minimus_, 45 - _quadrivittatus_, 44 - - - F - _Felis concolor_, 80 - Field mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - Fox, red, 87 - - - G - _Glaucomys sabrinus_, 42 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 48 - Gopher, northern pocket, 75 - Gray-necked chipmunk, 44 - Gray wolf, 89 - Grizzly bear, 117 - Ground squirrel, golden-mantled, 48 - _Gulo luscus_, 95 - - - H - Hare, snowshoe, 22 - Hoofed animals, 1 - - - I - Insectivores, 79 - - - J - Jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - - - K - Kaibab squirrel, 34 - - - L - Lagomorphs, 21 - hare, snowshoe, 22 - jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - cottontail, mountain, 26 - pika, 28 - Least chipmunk, 45 - _Lepus americanus_, 22 - _townsendi_, 24 - Life zones, xiii - Alpine, xiv - Canadian, xiii - Lower Sonoran, xiii - Transition, xiii - Upper Sonoran, xiii - Lion, mountain, 80 - Long-tailed weasel, 106 - Lower Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Lutra canadensis_, 101 - Lynx, 85 - _Lynx canadensis_, 86 - _rufus_, 85 - - - M - Marmot, yellow-bellied, 53 - _Marmota flaviventris_, 53 - Marten, 97 - _Martes americana_, 97 - Meadow mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - _Mephitis mephitis_, 110 - _Microtus montanus_, 58 - Mink, 103 - Mountain cottontail, 26 - Mountain sheep. _See_ Bighorn. - Mountain lion, 80 - Mountain vole, 58 - Mouse, western jumping, 59 - white-footed. _See_ Deermouse. - Field. _See_ Mountain vole. - Meadow. _See_ Mountain vole. - Mule deer, 10 - Muskrat, 64 - _Mustela erminea_, 105 - _frenata_, 106 - _rixosa_, 106 - _vison_, 103 - - - N - _Neotoma cinerea_, 60 - Northern flying squirrel, 42 - Northern pocket gopher, 75 - - - O - _Ochotona princeps_, 28 - _Odocoileus couesi_, 14 - _hemionus_, 10 - _virginianus_, 13 - _Ondatra zibethicus_, 64 - Otter, river, 101 - _Ovis canadensis_, 2 - - - P - Pack rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Painter. _See_ Mountain lion. - Panther. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Peromyscus maniculatus_, 57 - Pika, 28 - Pine squirrel, 39 - Porcupine, 72 - Prairie dog, white-tailed, 51 - Pronghorn, 4 - Puma. _See_ Mountain lion. - - - R - Red fox, 87 - Red squirrels. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - River otter, 101 - Rodents, 21 - _Sciurus aberti_, 31 - _arizonensis_, 36 - _kaibabensis_, 34 - - - S - Short-tailed weasel, 105 - Shrew, vagrant, 119 - Skunk, spotted, 108 - striped, 110 - Snowshoe hare, 22 - Sonora fantail deer, 11, 14 - _Sorex vagrans_, 119 - _Spilogale gracilis_, 108 - Spruce squirrel, 39 - Squirrel, Abert’s. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Arizona gray, 36 - chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Douglas. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - golden-mantled ground, 48 - Kaibab, 34 - flying, northern, 42 - pine, 39 - red. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - spruce, 39 - tassel-eared, 31 - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_, 26 - - - T - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, 39 - Tassel-eared squirrel, 31 - _Thomomys talpoides_, 75 - Trade rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Transition Life Zone, xiii - - - U - Uinta chipmunk, 44 - Upper Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Ursus horribilis_, 117 - - - V - Vagrant shrew, 119 - Vole, mountain, 58 - _Vulpes fulva_, 87 - - - W - Wapiti. _See_ Elk. - Weasel, least, 106 - long-tailed, 106 - short-tailed, 105 - Western jumping mouse, 59 - White-footed mouse, 57 - White-tailed deer, 13 - White-tailed jackrabbit, 24 - White-tailed prairie dog, 51 - Wolf, gray, 89 - Wolverine, 95 - Woodchuck. _See_ Yellow-bellied marmot. - Woodrat, bushy-tailed, 60 - - - Y - Yellow-bellied marmot, 53 - - - Z - _Zapus princeps_, 59 - - [Illustration: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association logo] - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected several palpable typographical errors. - -—Retained publication information from the original source. - -—In the text versions, included italicized text in _underscores_. - 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas - -Author: George Joyce Olin - -Illustrator: Edward Bierly - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50822] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS MESAS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MAMMALS - of the southwest - MOUNTAINS - and - MESAS - - - by - GEORGE OLIN - illustrations by - EDWARD BIERLY - - [Illustration: Uncaptioned] - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - Box 1562, Globe, Arizona 85501 - - Copyright 1961 by the Southwestern Monuments Association. All rights - reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without - permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may - quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine or - newspaper. - - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-11291 - SBN 0-911408-32-0 - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - (formerly Southwestern Monuments Association) - - First printing, 1961. - Second printing, 1971. - Third printing, 1975. - - Popular series no. 9. - - Printed in the United States of America - Arizona Lithographers Tucson, Arizona - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -With this booklet, as with _Mammals of the Southwest Deserts_, we are -indebted to Dr. E. L. Cockrum, Assistant Professor of Zoology at the -University of Arizona who has checked the manuscript for accuracy. We -are also grateful to him for offering suggestions and criticisms which -have added materially to its interest. - -The writer would also like to voice his appreciation to Ed Bierly whose -magnificent illustrations adorn these pages. His is a talent with which -it is a privilege to be associated. - -Finally our thanks to the editor and his staff. It is not an easy task -to combine text with illustrations, nor to match space with type, yet it -has been done with feeling and precision. - -Together, we hope that you will approve of our efforts. If through this -booklet you gain a better understanding of the mammals that share the -great outdoors with us, or if through it you should become aware of the -urgent necessity of preserving some of our wild creatures, (and wild -places), now before it is too late; we shall indeed be well repaid. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Hoofed Animals 1 - Bighorn (mountain sheep) 2 - Pronghorn (antelope) 4 - Bison (buffalo) 8 - Mule deer 10 - White-tailed deer 13 - Elk 16 - Rodents (Including Lagomorphs) 21 - Snowshoe hare 22 - White-tailed jackrabbit 24 - Mountain cottontail 26 - Pika 28 - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert's squirrel) 31 - Kaibab squirrel 34 - Arizona gray squirrel 36 - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel (Douglas squirrel, chickaree) 39 - Northern flying squirrel 42 - Western chipmunks 44 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel 48 - White-tailed prairie dog 51 - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) 53 - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) 57 - Mountain vole 58 - Western jumping mouse 59 - Bushy-tailed woodrat (pack rat) 60 - Muskrat 64 - Beaver 67 - Porcupine 72 - Northern pocket gopher 75 - Carnivores (Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans) 79 - Mountain lion 80 - Bobcat 85 - Red fox 87 - Gray wolf 89 - Coyote 92 - Wolverine 95 - Marten 97 - River otter 101 - Mink 103 - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) 105 - Spotted skunk 108 - Striped skunk 110 - Black bear 112 - Grizzly bear 117 - Vagrant shrew 119 - Bats 121 - References 123 - Index 125 - - [Illustration: Life Zones] - - ELEVATION PRECIPITATION - FEET DRY MOIST WET - 14,000 ARCTIC-ALPINE _above - ZONE[1] timber-line; - small, mat-like - plants._ - 13,000 _pika_ - 12,000 _mountain sheep_ - 11,000 HUDSONIAN ZONE _spruce_ _red squirrel_ - 10,000 _fir_ _marten_ - 9,000 CANADIAN ZONE _quaking aspen_ _beaver_ - _Douglas fir_, - _mule deer_ - 8,000 TRANSITION ZONE _tassel-eared - squirrel_ - 7,000 _ponderosa pine_, - _mountain lion_ - 6,000 UPPER SONORAN - ZONE[2] - _pinyon pine_ _deer mouse_ - 5,000 _juniper_ _bobcat_ - _sagebrush_ _pronghorn_ - 4,000 LOWER SONORAN - ZONE[3] - 3,000 _mesquite_, - _kangaroo rat_ - 2,000 _giant cactus_ - 1,000 _kit fox_ - HOT WARM COLD - TEMPERATURE - - - Notes - - - [1]THIS BOOKLET DESCRIBES MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST WHICH LIVE IN THE - LIFE ZONES ABOVE THE LOW DESERT. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS FOR PLANTS OF THESE ZONES. - [2]SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MESAS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - [3]SEE MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR MAMMALS OF THESE ZONES. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - - _Geographic Limitations_ - -The only point in the United States at which four states adjoin is where -Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico come together. With adjacent -portions of California, Nevada, and Texas, they contain all of our -Southwestern Desert. Arizona and New Mexico especially, are known as -desert States and for the most part deserve that appellation. Scattered -over this desert country as though carelessly strewn by some giant hand -are some of the highest and most beautiful mountains in our Nation. They -may occur as isolated peaks magnificent in their loneliness, or as short -ranges that continue but a little way before sinking to the level of the -desert. On the other hand it is in Colorado that the Rocky Mountains -reach their greatest height before merging with the high country in New -Mexico, and all of the States mentioned have at least one range of major -size. - -Two great highways cross this area from East to West. U.S. 66, -"Mainstreet of America," goes by way of Albuquerque and Flagstaff to Los -Angeles; farther north U.S. 50 winds through the mountains from Pueblo -to Salt Lake City and terminates at San Francisco. Significantly, they -meet at St. Louis on their eastward course, and here for the moment we -digress from geography to history. - - - _Westward Ho_ - -St. Louis in 1800 was a brawling frontier town. Strategically located at -the point where the Missouri River meets the Mississippi, it was the -jumping off place for those hardy souls adventurous enough to forsake -the comforts of civilization for the unknown perils of the West. Already -St. Louis was one of the fur centers of the world. Fashions of the day -decreed that top hats be worn by men. The finest hats were made of -beaver fur and no self-respecting dandy could be content with less. -Trapping parties ascended the Missouri River as far as the mountains of -Montana in search of pelts with which to supply the demand. When the -animals became scarce in more accessible areas, trappers turned their -attention to the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. Hardships of the -overland route, coupled with danger of attack by hostile Indians, -discouraged all but the most hardy of a rugged breed. These "Mountain -Men" as they became known, traveled in small parties with all the -stealth and cunning of the Indians themselves. Gaunt from weeks of -travel across the plains, they could rest in the Spanish settlement of -Santa Fe for a few days before vanishing into the mountains. On the -return trip they might again visit the Spanish pueblo or, eager for the -night life of St. Louis, strike directly eastward across the prairies. -Today's highways, while not following their trails directly, certainly -parallel them to a great degree. - -Little is known today of these early adventurers. A few written accounts -have been printed, meager records of their catches have been noted, and -here and there crude initials and dates carved on isolated canyon walls -attest their passing. Their conquest of the West has faded into oblivion -but it must be regarded as the opening wedge of American progress into -the Southwest. - - - _Mountains as Wildlife Reservoirs_ - -Today's traveler spans in hours distances across these same routes that -took weary weeks of heartbreaking toil a century ago. As he rides in -cushioned ease he seldom pauses to reflect on the changes that have -taken place since those early days. The great herds of bison with their -attendant packs of wolves have vanished and in their place white-faced -cattle graze on the level prairies. In the foothills the pronghorns have -taken their last stand. Cities have sprung up on the camping sites of -nomadic tribes that roamed the whole area between the Mississippi River -and the Rocky Mountains. Only the mountains seem the same. - -In winter these massive ranges form a barrier against the storms that -sweep in from the northwest. More important--these great storehouses of -our natural resources that in early days meant only gold and furs, and -perhaps sudden death to the pioneers, have now been unlocked by their -descendants. The glitter of gold and the glamour of furs pales when -contrasted with the untold values that have since been taken out in the -baser metals and lumber. This phase too is now coming to an end. It is -becoming evident that in the face of our ever increasing population -these natural playgrounds are destined to become a buffer against the -tensions that we, as one of the most highly civilized peoples of the -world, undergo in our daily life. Within another century they will -represent one of the few remaining opportunities for many millions of -Americans to get close to nature. As such the proper development and -preservation of mountainous areas and their values is of vital -importance to our Nation. - -Mountains of the Southwestern States have been formed by three major -agencies. These are, in order of importance, shrinkage of the earth's -interior to form wrinkles on the surface; faulting, with subsequent -erosion of exposed surfaces; and volcanic action. The first method is -responsible for most of the large ranges, such as the coastal mountains -of California and the Rocky Mountains. Faulting is responsible for many -of the high plateau areas where one side may be a high rim or cliff and -the other a gently sloping incline. The Mogollon Rim, extending across a -part of Arizona and into New Mexico, is a classic example in this -category. Volcanic action may result in great masses of igneous rock -being extruded through cracks in the earth's surface or it may take the -form of violent outbursts in one comparatively small area. Several -mountain regions in Arizona and New Mexico are covered with huge fields -of extruded lava. Capulin Mountain in New Mexico is an example of a -recent volcano which built up an almost perfect cone of cinders and -lava. Less noticeable than the mountains, but important nevertheless, -are the tablelands of the Southwest. These mesas, too high to be typical -of the desert, and in most cases too low to be considered as mountains, -partake of the characteristics of both. - - - _Desert "Islands"_ - -The mountains of the Southwest have been compared to islands rising -above the surface of a sea of desert. This is an apt comparison for not -only do they differ materially from the hot, low desert in climate, but -also in flora and fauna. Few species of either plants or animals living -at these higher altitudes could survive conditions on the desert floor -with any more success than land animals could take to the open sea. -Their death from heat and aridity would only be more prolonged than that -by drowning. Thus certain species isolated on mountain peaks are often -as restricted in range as though they actually were surrounded by water. -At times this results in such striking adaptation to local conditions -that some common species become hardly recognizable. This is the -exception to the rule however; most of the animals in this book are -either of the same species as those in the Northern States or so closely -allied that to the casual observer they will seem the same. Conditions -that enable these species ordinarily associated with the snowy plains of -the Midwest and the conifer forests of the North to live in the hot -Southwest are brought about either directly or indirectly by altitude. - - - _Life Zones_ - -There are in this nucleus of four States a total of six life zones, (See -map on page x.) The two lowest, the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones, -range from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 7000 feet. These -two have been covered in the book "Mammals of the Southwest Deserts." -The remaining four--Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life -Zones--will furnish the material for this book. The names of these zones -are self explanatory, because they are descriptive of those regions -whose climates they approximate. Unlike the two life zones of the -desert, which merge almost imperceptibly together, these upper zones are -more sharply defined. They may often be identified at a great distance -by their distinctive plant growth. It should be noted that plant species -are even more susceptible to environmental factors than animals and are -restricted to well defined areas within the extremes of temperature and -moisture best suited to their individual needs. Thus each life zone has -its typical plant species, and since animals in turn are dependent on -certain plants for food or cover, one can often predict many of the -species to be found in an individual area. - -The Transition Life Zone in the Southwest usually lies at an altitude of -between 7000 and 8000 feet. It encompasses the change from low trees and -shrubs of the open desert to dense forest of the higher elevations. It -is characterized by open forests of ponderosa pine usually intermingled -with scattered thickets of Gambel oak. These trees are of a brighter -green than the desert growth but do not compare with the deeper color of -the firs that grow at a higher elevation. - -The Canadian Life Zone begins at an altitude of about 8000 feet and -extends to approximately 9500 feet. The Douglas-fir must be considered -the outstanding species in this zone although the brilliant autumn color -of quaking aspens provides more spectacular identification of this area -during the fall. Through the winter months when this tree has shed its -leaves, the groves show up as gray patches among the dark green firs. At -this elevation there is considerable snow during winter and -correspondingly heavy rainfall in summer months. Under these favorable -conditions there is usually a colorful display of wildflowers late in -the spring. - -The Hudsonian Life Zone is marked by a noticeable decrease in numbers of -plant species. At this altitude, (9500 to 11,500 feet), the winters are -severe and summers of short duration. This is the zone of white fir -which grows tall and slim so to better shed its seasonal burden of snow -and sleet. In the more sheltered places spruce finds a habitat suited to -its needs. Near the upper edge of the Hudsonian Life Zone the trees -become stunted and misshapen and finally disappear entirely. This is -timberline; the beginning of the Alpine Life Zone, or as it often -called, the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone. - -Here is a world of barren rock and biting cold. At 12,000 feet and above -the eternal snows lie deep on the peaks. Yet, even though at first -glance there seems to be little evidence of life of any kind, a close -scrutiny will reveal low mat-like plants growing among the exposed rocks -and tiny paths leading to burrows in the rock slides. Among the larger -mammals there are few other than the mountain sheep that can endure the -rigors of this inhospitable region. - -These are the zones of the Southwest uplands. Altitudes given are -approximate and apply to such mountain ranges as the San Francisco Peaks -of Arizona and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in New Mexico. As one -travels farther north the zones descend ever lower until in the Far -North the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone is found at sea level. Since climate -more than any other factor, determines the types of plants and animals -that can live in a given area it is only natural that on these mountain -islands many species entirely foreign to the surrounding deserts are -found at home. Though it would seem that because of the relative -abundance of water at higher elevations the upland species would have -the better environment, this is not entirely true. Balanced against this -advantage are the severe winters which, in addition to freezing -temperatures, usher in a period of deep snows and famine. Even though -many species show a high degree of adaptation to these conditions, an -especially long or cold winter season will result in the death of weaker -individuals. - - - _Man and Wilderness_ - -The effects of man's presence on the upland species is perhaps not as -serious as on those of the desert. Though he has been instrumental in -upsetting the balance of nature everywhere, it has been chiefly through -agriculture and grazing. Because of the rough broken character of much -high country in the Southwest the first is impossible in many cases and -the second only partially successful. There are other factors however -which menace the future of the upland species. Among these are: hunting -pressures, predator control, and lumbering. Even fire control, admirable -as it may be for human purposes, disrupts the long cycles which are a -normal part of plant and animal succession in forested areas. These are -only a few of the means by which man deliberately or unconsciously -decimates the animal population. They are set down as a reminder that -unless conservation and science cooperate in management problems, it is -conceivable that many of our common species could well become extinct -within the next 100 years. Our natural resources are our heritage; let -us not waste the substance of our trust. - -As our wilderness areas shrink it seems that our people are gradually -becoming more interested, not only in the welfare of our native species -but in their ways as well. This type of curiosity augurs well for the -future of our remaining wild creatures. In times past an interest in -mammals was limited mainly to sportsmen who often knew a great deal -about where to find game animals and how to pursue them. Their interest -usually ended with the shot that brought the quarry down. Today many -people have discovered that a study of the habits of any animal in its -native habitat is a fascinating out-of-doors hobby in a virtually -untouched field. With patience and attention to details the layman will -occasionally discover facts about the daily life of some common species -that have escaped the attention of our foremost naturalists. This is no -criticism of the scientific approach. It is recommended that for his own -benefit the nature enthusiast learn a few of the fundamentals of -zoology, particularly of classification and taxonomy, which mean the -grouping and naming of species. - - - _Classification of Animals_ - -Classification of animals is easy to understand. Briefly, they are -divided into large groups called _orders_. These are further divided -into _genera_, and the genera in turn contain one or more _species_. - -Scientific names of animals are always given in Latin. Written in this -universal language they are intelligible to all scientists, regardless -of nationality. It is a mistake to shy away from them because they are -cumbersome and unfamiliar to the eye. They usually reveal some important -characteristic of the animal they stand for. This is their true -function; it seems to this writer that it is a mistake to name an animal -after a geographical location or a person, although it is frequently -done. The literal translations of specific names in this book will -illustrate this point. See how much more interesting and how much more -easily remembered those names are which describe habits or physical -attributes of the creature. - -Described herein are but a part of the species native to the -Southwestern uplands. Those chosen were selected because they are either -common, rare, or unusually interesting. Collectively they make up a -representative cross section of the mammals that live above the deserts -of the Southwest. - -For further information on these and other mammals of the region see the -list of references on page 123. - - - - - HOOFED ANIMALS - _Artiodactyla_ - (_even-toed hoofed animals_) - - -This order includes all of the hoofed animals native to the United -States. These are the mammals which are ordinarily spoken of as the -"cloven-hoofed animals." An odd-toed group (_Perissodactyla_), which -includes the so-called wild horses and burros, cannot properly be -included as natives since these animals date back only to the time of -the Spanish conquest of our Southwest. In earlier geologic ages horses -ranged this continent, but in more primitive forms than those now found -in other parts of the world. - -Through a study of fossil forms it has been determined that our present -hoofed animals evolved from creatures which lived on the edges of the -great tropical swamps that once covered large areas of our present land -masses. They were long-legged and splay-footed, well adapted to an -environment of deep mud and lush vegetation. As the waters gradually -disappeared and the animals were forced to take to dry land, their -strange feet underwent a slow transformation. Because they had become -accustomed to walking on the tips of their toes to stay up out of the -mud, the first toe did not touch solid ground at all in this new -environment. Since it was of no use it soon vanished entirely or became -vestigial. Some species developed a divided foot in which the second and -third toes and the fourth and fifth toes combined respectively to bear -the animal's weight. Eventually the third and fourth toes assumed this -responsibility alone, and the second and fifth toes became dew claws. -These are the cloven-hoofed animals of today. In other species the third -toe was developed to bear the weight, and this resulted in a single-toed -group of which the horse is an example. In all cases an enormous -modification of the nails or claws with which most animals are equipped -has resulted in that protective covering called the hoof. The under -surface of the foot is somewhat softer and corresponds to the heavy pad -that protects the bottom of a dog's toe. This brief explanation refers -only in the broadest sense to the order as represented in the United -States. The feet of the various species have become so specialized to -their separate ways of life that an individual can usually be easily -identified by its tracks alone. It is quite possible that many species -are still undergoing subtle changes in this respect. - -With but one exception the cloven-hoofed animals of our southwestern -mountains bear either horns or antlers. The exception is the collared -peccary, "javelina," (_pecari tajacu_) which, during the heat of the -summer, sometimes ascends to the Transition Life Zone in southern -Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Essentially an animal of the low -desert, it will not be included in this book. The species which have -hollow, permanent horns are the bighorn and pronghorn. The pronghorn is -distinctive in shedding the sheaths of its horns each year, but the -hollow, bony core remains intact. In this group both sexes bear horns. -Animals bearing antlers are the elk and the deer. The antlers are -deciduous, being shed each year at about the same time as the winter -coat. Only the males of these species have antlers, any female with -antlers can be considered abnormal. - -The Southwest is fortunate in still having a number of the species of -this order native to the United States. The bison can hardly be -considered a wild species, since it exists now only through the efforts -of a few conservationists who brought it back from virtual extinction. -Mountain goats, caribou, and moose are the only other species not known -to inhabit the Southwest. - -In Nature's balance the order _Artiodactyla_ seems to have been meant as -food for the large predators. Their protection against the flesh eaters -consists mainly in fleetness of foot, keen hearing, and a wide range of -vision, as evidenced by the large eyes set in the sides of the head. -They are but poorly equipped to actively resist attack by the larger -carnivores. Their best defense is flight. - - - Bighorn (mountain sheep) - _Ovis canadensis_ (Latin: a sheep from Canada) - -Range: This species, with its several varieties, inhabits most of the -mountainous region of the western United States. In Mexico it occurs in -the northern Sierra Madres and over almost the whole length of Baja -California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Among or in the vicinity of more precipitous places in the -mountains. - -Description: A blocky animal, rather large, with heavy, curving horns. -Total length of adult male 5 feet. Tail about 5 inches. Weight up to 275 -pounds. General color a dark gray to brown with lighter areas underneath -belly and inside of legs. The rump patch is much lighter than any other -part of the body; in most cases it can be described as white. Females -are similar in appearance to the males except that they are smaller and -the horns are much shorter and slimmer. Young, one or two, twins being -common. - -Interesting as the desert varieties of this species may be in their -adaptation to an environment that seems foreign to their nature, they -cannot compare with the high mountain animal. Seen against the backdrop -of a great gray cliff or silhouetted against the skyline of a snowy -crest the bighorn has a magnificence that is thrilling. In flight it is -even more spectacular as it bounds from one narrow shelf to another in -an incredible show of surefootedness. Yet this airy grace is exhibited -by a chunky animal that often weighs well over 200 pounds. The secret -lies in the specially adapted hooves with bottoms that cling to smooth -surfaces like crepe rubber and edges that cut into snow and ice or gain -a purchase on the smallest projections of the rocks. The legs and body, -though heavy, are well proportioned and so extremely well muscled that -no matter what demands are placed on them this sheep seems to have a -comfortable reserve of power. No doubt the display of complete -coordination adds to the illusion of ease with which it ascends to the -most inaccessible places. Descents often are even more spectacular, the -animal seldom hesitating at vertical leaps of 15 feet or more down from -one narrow ledge to another. - - [Illustration: bighorn] - -In the high mountains where this sheep prefers to make its home it -usually ranges near or above timberline. During winter storms it may -sometimes be forced down into the shelter of the forests, but as soon as -conditions warrant it will go back to its world of barren rocks and -snow. Here, with an unobstructed view, its keen eyes can pick out the -stealthy movements of the mountain lion, the only mammal predator -capable of making any serious inroads on its numbers. It has few other -natural enemies. A golden eagle occasionally may strike a lamb and knock -it from a ledge, or a high ranging bobcat or lynx may be lucky enough to -snatch a very young one away from its mother, but these are rare -occurrences. - -Bighorns depend mainly on browse for food. This is only natural since in -the high altitudes they frequent little grass can be found. Usually -there is some abundance of low shrubs growing in crevices on the rocks, -however, and many of the tiny annuals are also searched out during the -short summer season. At times a sheltered cove on the south exposure of -a mountain will become filled with such shrubs as the snowberry, and the -sheep take full advantage of such situations. As a rule they keep well -fed for, scanty though it seems, there are few competitors for the food -supply above timberline. - -I have observed these sheep many times in the Rockies. Perhaps my most -memorable experience with this species was on Mount Cochran in southern -Montana. It was a gray, blustery day in September with occasional snow -flurries sweeping about the summits. On the eastern exposure of the -mountain a steep slope of slide rock extended for perhaps 1,000 feet -from one of the upper ridges to timberline. Not expecting to see any -game at that elevation, I made my way up this slope with no effort to -keep quiet. In my progress several rocks were dislodged and went -rattling down across the mass of talus. At the summit of the ridge a low -escarpment made a convenient windbreak against the gale that was tearing -the clouds to shreds as they came drifting up the opposite slope, and I -sat down to catch my breath before entering its full force. As I sat -there surveying the scene spread out below, my attention was attracted -by a low cough close by. Looking to the left about 40 feet away and 15 -feet above me, I saw two magnificent rams standing on a projecting point -looking down at me. They seemed to have no fear; rather they evinced a -deep curiosity as to what strange animal this was that had wandered into -their domain. For the better part of a half hour I hardly dared breathe -for fear of frightening them. At first they gazed at me fixedly, -occasionally giving a low snorting cough and stamping their feet. Then -as I did not move, they would wheel about and change positions, -sometimes taking a long look over the mountains before bringing their -attention back. Finally when the cold had penetrated to my very bones, I -stood up. They were away in a flash, reappearing from behind their -vantage point with two ewes and an almost full-grown lamb following -them. While I watched they dashed at a sheer cliff that reared up to the -summit, and with hardly slackening speed bounded up its face until they -were lost in the clouds. - -Although this happened in 1928 the experience is as vivid in my mind as -though it happened yesterday. Perhaps the most striking feature of -bighorns seen at this close range is the eyes. They might be described -as a clear, golden amber with a long oval, velvety black pupil. Credited -with telescopic vision, they must be some of the most useful as well as -beautiful eyes to be found in the animal kingdom. - - - Pronghorn (antelope) - _Antilocapra americana_ (Latin: antelope and goat, American) - -Range: West Texas, eastern Colorado and central Wyoming to southern -California and western Nevada, and from southern Saskatchewan south into -northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grasslands of mesas and prairies, mostly in the Upper Sonoran -Zone. - -Description: A white and tan colored animal, considerably smaller than a -deer; horns with a single flat prong curving forward. Total length about -4 feet. Tail about 6 inches. Average weight 100 to 125 pounds. Color, -tan or black shading to white under belly and insides of legs. Two -conspicuous white bands under the neck, and the large white rump patch -of erectile hairs are unlike the markings of any other native animal. A -short, stiff mane of dark hairs follows the back of the neck from ears -to shoulders. Hooves black, horns also black except for the light tips -on those of older males. Both sexes horned. Young, usually two, born in -May. - - [Illustration: pronghorn] - -Pronghorns are unique among cloven-hoofed animals of the Southwest. -There is only one species, with several subspecies; a variety -_mexicana_, once common along the Mexican border, is considered extinct -in this country. The pronghorn has no "dew claws" like most other -animals with divided hooves. It has permanent bony cores in its horns -but sheds the outer sheaths each year. When these drop off the -succeeding sheaths are already well developed. Although at first these -new sheaths are soft and covered with a scanty growth of short stiff -hairs, corresponding to the velvet in antlered animals, it does not take -long for them to harden and become dangerous weapons. They reach full -development at about the time of the rut; bucks have been known to fight -to the death in the savage encounters that break out at this time. - -Were it not for its unusual horns the pronghorn probably would be known -by a common name such as the white-tailed antelope, for the beautiful -white rump patch is undoubtedly its next most conspicuous feature. -However, at least two other animals have been named "antelope" because -their posteriors have some similarity. They are the white-tailed ground -squirrel and the antelope jackrabbit of the Sonoran Life Zone. The -ground squirrel (_Citellus leucurus_) has merely a white ventral surface -on its tail which may or may not act as a flashing signal when flipped -about, but the antelope jackrabbit (_Lepus alleni_) has a rump patch -that bears a striking likeness to the pronghorn's both in appearance and -manner of use. In both cases the rump patches are composed of long, -erectile white hairs which are raised when the animal is alarmed. In -flight they are thought to act as warning signals; at any rate they are -very effective in catching the eye, and on the open plains the -pronghorn's can be seen at a distance where the rest of the animal is -indistinguishable. It may well be, on the other hand, that this flashy -ornament is meant to attract the attention of an enemy and lead it in -pursuit of an adult individual rather than allowing it to discover the -helpless young. Neither animal can be matched in speed on level ground -by any native four-footed predator. - -In times past the pronghorn usually lived in the valley and prairie -country. In the Southwest it roamed over much of both the Upper and -Lower Sonoran Life Zones, wherever suitable grass and herbage could be -found. On the prairies of the Midwest bands of pronghorns grazed in -close proximity to herds of buffalo. During the middle of the last -century it was the only animal whose numbers even approached those of -the latter. More adaptable than the buffalo, it has retreated before the -advance of civilization and taken up new ranges in rough and broken -country which is unsuited to agriculture. As a rule this is much higher -than its former range. Pronghorns are no longer found in the Lower -Sonoran Life Zone, except as small bands that have been introduced from -farther north. The greatest population now ranges in the upper portions -of the Upper Sonoran and along the lower fringe of the Transition Life -Zone. The animal has always been considered migratory to some extent -because it moved from mesa summer ranges to the protection of warmer -valleys during winter months. This habit is even more pronounced in -later years at the higher levels it now inhabits. These slim, -long-legged creatures are virtually helpless in deep snow and avoid it -whenever possible. They have even been known to mingle with cattle and -join with them at the feed racks during severe winters, an indication of -the extreme need to which shy pronghorns are sometimes reduced. - -They are essentially grazing animals. In the past they ate prairie -grasses during the summer; in winter these same grasses made excellent -hay that lost little in nourishment from having dried on the roots. In -addition, they ate low herbage and nibbled leaves, buds, and fruits from -shrubs that grew along the watercourses. Their food today is much the -same except that in the many areas where they receive competition from -range cattle they undoubtedly resort to more browse than formerly. - -Natural enemies of the pronghorn are legion, their success indifferent. -Every large carnivore will snap at the chance to take one, and even the -golden eagle has been known to kill them. The most serious depredations -are carried out on those young too small to follow the mother. However, -these attacks are fraught with danger, for the females are very -courageous in the defense of their young and at times several will join -in routing an enemy. In addition to this protection accorded them by -adult members of the band, the young have an almost perfect camouflage -in their plain coats that blend so closely with the color of the grass -in which they usually lie concealed. Because of their fleetness, few -adults fall prey to predators. Many attempts have been made to clock the -speed of the pronghorn in full flight but the estimates vary greatly. -Although a fast horse can keep up with one on smooth, level ground, it -is soon outdistanced on stony soil or in rough country. - - [Illustration: baby pronghorn] - - - Bison (buffalo) - _Bison bison_ (Teutonic name given to this animal) - -Range: At present bison exist only in widely scattered sanctuaries. In -Colonial times they ranged from southern Alaska to the Texas plains, -from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, and as far south as Georgia. -They are known in historic times in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mainly grasslands; a comparatively small number known locally -as "wood" bison lived in the fringes of the forests. - -Description: Although bison are familiar to almost everyone, some -figures on weights and dimensions may be surprising. Bulls weigh up to -1800 lbs., reach 6 feet height at the shoulders and up to 11 feet in -length, of which about 2 feet is the short tail. Cows average much -smaller from 800 to 1000 pounds, and rarely over 7 feet long. Both sexes -have heavy, black, sharply curving horns, tapering quickly to a point, -and a heavy growth of woolly hair covering most of the head and -forequarters. A large hump lies over the latter and descends sharply to -the neck. The head is massive, horns widely spaced, and small eyes set -far apart. A heavy "goatee" swings from the lower jaw. All these -features combine to give the animal a most ponderous appearance. -Nevertheless, bison are surprisingly agile and are not creatures with -which to trifle, especially in the breeding season, when bulls will -charge with little provocation. Like most wild cattle, bison normally -bear but one calf per year. Twins are uncommon. - -The history of the bison is unique in the annals of American mammalogy. -It hinges on simple economics, reflecting transfer of the western -prairies from Indian control to white. It is a pitifully short history -in its final stages, requiring only 50 years to drive a massive species, -numbering in the millions, from a well balanced existence to near -extinction. Yet considering the nature of civilization and progress -there could have been no other end, so perhaps it is well that it was -quickly over. - -For countless centuries the bison had roamed the prairies, their -seasonal migrations making eddies in the great herds that darkened the -plains. They were host to the Indian, and to the gray wolf, yet so well -were they adapted to their life that these depredations were merely -normal inroads on their numbers. They drifted with the seasons and the -weather cycles, grazing on the nutritious grasses of the prairie. -Weather and food supply; these were the main factors which controlled -the "buffalo" population until the coming of the white man. - -The first white man to see an American bison is thought to have been -Cortez, who in 1521 wrote of such an animal in Montezuma's collection of -animals. This menagerie was kept in the Aztec capitol on the site of -what is now Mexico City. There the bison was an exotic, hundreds of -miles south of its range. In 1540 Coronado found the Zuni Indians in -northern New Mexico using bison hides, and a short distance northeast of -that point encountered the species on the great plains. The eastern edge -of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico seems to have been the western -limit of bison in the Southwest. Unfavorable climate, plus the -comparatively heavy Indian population of the valley probably combined to -halt farther penetration in that direction. - -From 1540 until 1840 the white man limited his activities on the western -plains to exploring. American colonization had reached the Mississippi -River, but remained there while gathering its forces for the expansion -which later settled the West. Under Mexican rule, the Southwest -progressed very slowly. Then in the span of 50 years a chain of events -occurred which determined the destiny of the West and sealed the fate of -the bison herd. - - [Illustration: bison] - -Outstanding among these events were: the War with Mexico, 1844; the 1849 -Gold Rush to California; the Gadsden Purchase in 1854; and completion of -the transcontinental railroad in 1868. The first three added new and -important territory to the United States. This made construction of -transportation and communication facilities a vital necessity, hence the -railroad. Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 divided the -bison population into southern and northern herds and made market -hunting profitable. Three factors contributed to extermination: profit -in the traffic of hides, meat, and bones; control of troublesome Indian -tribes through elimination of one of their major sources of food; and -finally, removal of any competition on the grassy plains of Texas and -Kansas against the great herds of Longhorn cattle which were beginning -to make Western range history. In 1874, only 6 years after completion of -the Union Pacific, the slaughter of the southern herd was complete. It -is of interest to note that not one piece of legislation was passed to -protect the southern herd. - -The northern herd did slightly better. Closed seasons were established -in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, Montana in 1872, Nebraska in 1875, -Colorado in 1877, New Mexico in 1880, North and South Dakota in 1883. -Nevertheless, the herd dwindled, and by 1890 was nearly extinct. Since -that time, through careful management, a few small herds have been -established in Parks and refuges, but today the bison must be considered -more a domesticated animal than a wild one. - -Although the animal was not as important economically to the -southwestern as to the plains Indians, it was a religious symbol of some -value. Archeological finds far west of the historic range, and dances -still used in ceremonies, reveal that several southwestern tribes sent -hunting parties eastward into bison country. This must have been very -dangerous, for plains Indians would have considered them invaders. Bison -were food, shelter, and clothing to them. Imagine their consternation -when white men began to slaughter the source of their living. - -There are today but few reminders of the great herds of the west. -Perhaps one well versed in the ways of these wild cattle could still -find traces of the deeply cut trails which led to the watering places, -or shallow depressions where the clumsy beasts once wallowed in the mud. -Many of the Indian dances recall the importance of this animal to -primitive man. Perhaps our most constant reminder is the coin which -commemorates this symbol of the wild west, showing the Indian on one -side and the bison on the other. - - - Mule deer - _Odocoileus hemionus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Greek: - hemionus, mule) - -Range: Western half of North America from Central Canada to central -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Forests and brushy areas from near sea level to lower edge of -the Alpine Life Zone. - -Description: A large-eared deer with a tail that is either all black -above or black tipped. Total length of an average adult about 6 feet. -Tail about 8 inches. The coat is reddish in summer and blue-gray in -winter. Under parts and insides of legs lighter in color. Some forms of -this species have a white rump patch, others none. The tail may be -black-tipped, or black over the whole dorsal surface, but is more -sparsely haired than that of other native deer and is naked over at -least part of the under surface. Only the bucks have antlers. These are -typical in forking equally from the main beam. They are shed every year. - - [Illustration: mule deer] - -The mule deer is typical of the western mountains. Even in early days it -was never found east of the Mississippi and now is seldom seen east of -the Rockies. Only one species is recognized in the United States, -although over its vast range are many subspecific forms. All are notable -for the size of their ears, from which derives the common name "mule." -The black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, long considered a distinct -species, is now rated a subspecies of the mule deer. - -In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into two -groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. East -of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group; -westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop -abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a -whitetail subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found -along the Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory -also occupied by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule -deer of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of -North Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and -well within the western range of the plains white-tailed. - -Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished -from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the animal is -seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most prominent -field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough country, -bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward on the level -but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. The -white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing -gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually -straining every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the -rough, broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes -considerable commotion. - -I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped on a steep -mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, crackling of -hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight created the -impression of a landslide. - -Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed deer -is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the great -white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no way to be -used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side as is -that of the white-tailed. - -Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game -species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule -and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often -look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is -not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk, -especially at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that -forks equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five -points, these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam -near the head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of -the beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of -numbering those of one antler only; the method often used in the East -counts all of the points of both. The number of points does not -necessarily denote the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the -antlers will increase in size and points with every new pair until -maturity is attained. They will then grow to approximately the same size -for several years. In old age, the antler development will usually -dwindle with each succeeding year until, in senility, they may be as -small as those of a young deer. The condition of teeth and hooves is a -more accurate indication of age even though this method lacks prestige -of the time-honored system of points. - -It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be established -in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of extinction. -It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear before long -because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture or -lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the higher -mountains for many years to come. - - - White-tailed deer -_Odocoileus virginianus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin: - of Virginia) - - [Illustration: white-tailed deer] - -Range: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, north -into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Brushy and wooded country. - -Description: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged from -side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the Southwest, -two geographic variants occur, the subspecies _virginianus_ and the -subspecies _couesi_; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, and -seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border. -_Odocoileus virginianus_ of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually -weighs between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to 300. The average -adult animal will measure around 6 feet in total length. Tail about 10 -inches. Color is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the winter -coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface of tail are white. Ears -are small. Antlers have upright tines from a single beam. - -As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found in -the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because it -was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout the -prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most -abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to the -Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific -Northwest, and the subspecies _couesi_ extends westward along the -Mexican border to the Colorado River. - -The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by any of -three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are: -shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method of -running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from the -head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from -forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule deer -the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather than -remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired all -around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and "wigwagged" -from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the hams, -presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The mule -deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and does -not wave from side to side in running. The "whitetail" runs at a brisk -gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds away with a -series of ballet-like leaps. - -This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their -westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for -its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin -moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early -days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range, -although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United -States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly -settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and -hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if -predator elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the -relative overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of -browse, disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has -been a problem in some of the Northern States. "Whitetails" are -gregarious creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times, -especially during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together -and their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As -succeeding snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the "deer yards" -and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white barrier -as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the yard is too -great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve to death -before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous area occupied -by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. The herds -merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too deep. This -seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed as a -migratory animal in some localities. - -In line with this migratory tendency the "whitetail" follows a varied -but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time of shedding -the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their antlers. -With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities suffer. -They leave the group with which they have spent the winter and ascend to -the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly afflicted -individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their dignity. The -does, left behind, have problems of their own. These include driving the -yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order that the does may -give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers that arrive in -midsummer. By this time the adults have put on the short, yellowish-red -summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, but covered with pale spots, a -combination that blends well with lights and shadows in the brushy -places where the does choose to hide them. As soon as the fawns are -large enough to follow their mothers the little family groups begin a -gradual trek up the mountainside. There are several reasons for this -exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, better browse, and fewer -stinging insects. - -While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been -staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new -antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the -brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of the -does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at the -peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are soon -outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become -progenitors of the following year's fawns. The simplicity of this system -is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one -of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in -numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior -strain. In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is -not always the _number_ of animals that is the prime consideration. A -smaller group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be -desired than a larger population in average condition. - -Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the Prairie -States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked by -many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the "guinea -pig" in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost any -environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only a -little protection to become well established. The "key" deer of the -Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds, -is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the "Sonora -fantail," native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, is -greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish. - - - Elk - _Cervus canadensis_ (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada) - -Range: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Also -found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, central -California, and various small areas in those Western States where it has -been introduced. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys. - -Description: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin neck, and a -light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 inches. -Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 pounds, with -a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter in winter. Longer -hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane that is distinguishable -at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually six points on adult -males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves are black. Young -usually one, although twins not rare. - -The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the -southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known not -only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern States. -In fact, one of its common names, "wapiti," is of eastern American -Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of Canada -and the Northern States call it "wapitiu" (pale white) to distinguish it -from the darker colored moose with which it was associated in that -region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the United -States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many herds now -found in Western States have been introduced to take the place of those -thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has been the case in -Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam's elk disappeared before 1900. -This elk, now known only from scanty records and a few mounted heads and -skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only was it larger than the Wyoming -elk which now takes its place, but it had correspondingly massive -antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what could happen easily to -the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California which has been reduced -to a dangerously small herd. The elk now present in the Southwest, -chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals brought down from the -large herds of the Yellowstone Park area. In their new homeland they -maintain the same habits that characterize the species in Wyoming. - -Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the United -States. The degree to which they band together varies with the seasons -and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During summer months -the bands are small and widely scattered high in the Transition Life -Zone and even higher at times. With the advent of cold weather they work -their way down to lower country, and winter finds them gathered in -sheltered grassy valleys. This exodus to winter quarters can be one of -the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it is not uncommon for -herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals to move into one of -the more favored valleys. They have the instinct so highly developed -among most animals of knowing when a storm is imminent, and the -migration may be completed within a period of 48 hours, or even less if -foul weather is brewing. - -The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one small -area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of feed. -Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, and -many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed areas they -were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing dry grass -beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter losses that -would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively mild -winters and small population, the animals experience little difficulty -in weathering the storms without human aid. The present herds appear -well established, and with proper conservation measures should be a -valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come. - - [Illustration: elk] - -Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal range -of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed two -definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter garb is -put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown woolly -underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to almost -black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and white than -the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often called the "gray" -coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep through the mountains -and insulates the wearer against snow that is driven into the outer -surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way for a light summer -coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, and the animals are -unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The summer coat is made up -of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The pelage is glossy when -compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter coat. In color it is -tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump patch is a light tawny -color in both coats. - -With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which they -have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general -deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption of -tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in their -weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging branches. -They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins to grow. As -with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet covers the -new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the antlers -develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity before -the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers "catches -up," so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity, -attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk in -the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely -tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip -off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the hard -core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines -which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully -symmetrical that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the -largest pairs on record has a length of beam of 64-3/4 inches and a -spread of 74 inches. - -A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have definite -names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is known as the -"brow" tine; the next to it as the "bez" tine. Collectively they are -called the "lifters," formerly known as "war tines." The next point -inclines toward the vertical; this is the "trez" tine. The fourth is the -"royal" or "dagger" point, and the terminal fork of the antler forms the -final two points which are called "surroyals." - -Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals handle -them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the body is -carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. In this -posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without undue -strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; this -throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the nose -parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without catching -on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the elk creates less -disturbance than most large forest animals when in flight. Antlers as -weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom serve this -function. Males have been severely injured and even killed in fights -among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting is done by -striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually with a -chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing the hide of -the opponent. - -Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content -merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort -is a high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it -seems to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn. -The call begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds -and then rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo, -drops by swift degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is -followed by several coughing grunts that can be heard only at close -range. Bugling can be heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet -evening one of the greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this -clear challenge flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is -quickly returned from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere -whispers in the distance. - -Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts from -August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended as a -challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with their -lords' great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently, -and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal spirits. -Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence. - -The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins are not -uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and is an -awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with light -spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it remains -hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps constant -vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, but -this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that are -only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions, -wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the calf -be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with sharp -hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the smaller -predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her bristling -show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the mother, she -warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark. - -The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in other -American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths without -known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls have the -greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished and stain -a light brown. - - - - - RODENTS - _Including the Lagomorphs_ - (_hares and pikas_) - - -Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is not an -unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other mammals -throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; the largest -to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver and the -porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all others of -the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of the large -number of species represented and the varying conditions under which -they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics. -They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, by one -common characteristic--that of having long, curving incisors. As a rule -these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only exception -being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These properly -belong to the order _Lagomorpha_ but will be included here with rodents. - -The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums being -a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other mammals, -they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of the animal. -This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting edges must -undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy coat of -enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at best -covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged -surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it receives -during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform -sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar -arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average play in -this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either -behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately -the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or -otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its -opposite will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take -food and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all -rodents, and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus -left between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars -accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally -compressed face so typical of rodent features. - -Food habits of the various types of rodents differ to a great degree. -Perhaps the term omnivorous might be applied to most of them because -virtually all rodents will eat insects and meat in addition to the usual -fare of vegetable matter. A few might be classed as insectivorous or -even carnivorous. Some species store up hoards of food against lean -seasons; others eat like gluttons when food is abundant and hibernate -through times of want; still others are equipped to spend the whole year -in a busy search for something to eat. - -Habitats are equally diverse. Some species live below the earth, some on -the surface of the ground, at least two species are aquatic, and a few -are arboreal. Regardless of where they live, the great majority are home -builders. They strive to locate their homes in the most protected places -and usually line their nests with soft materials. Outstanding exceptions -are the jackrabbit and the porcupine, both of which lead nomadic lives. - -In spite of their secretive habits, rodents suffer a tremendous -mortality. Practically all carnivorous animals, most predatory birds, -and many snakes prey on rodents, and for many of them these persecuted -animals form the chief food. This situation is not as harsh as it might -seem, for most rodents are prolific to a high degree. Elliott Coues -summed up their place in Nature's balance very aptly: "Yet they have one -obvious part to play,... that of turning grass into flesh, in order that -carnivorous Goths and Vandals may subsist also, and in their turn -proclaim, 'All flesh is grass.'" - - - Snowshoe hare - _Lepus americanus_ (Latin: hare ... of America) - -Range: Found throughout the greater part of Canada and Alaska with -extensive penetrations into the Southwest in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, -and western Nevada. Its occurrence in northern California is rather -rare, and is confined to only a few higher mountain ranges. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the vicinity of streams or in conifer forests in the -Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones. - -Description: A small, chunky hare with medium long ears and large hairy -hind feet. An average individual will have a total length of about 18 -inches with a tail less than 2 inches. Hind foot about 6 inches in -length. Summer pelage brown, except feet and belly white, and tail -brownish black above. Winter coat white except for the tips of the ears -which are black. Young, three to six, born in May or June. - -The snowshoe hare, found sparingly in mountains of the Southwest, is the -same as that which lives in the muskeg not far from the Arctic Circle. -The climate of the mountain zones is surprisingly like that of the north -country even though the terrain is different. The closest equivalent is -to be found in the brushy borders of mountain streams, and here the -"snowshoes" are most often found. During summer they feed on grasses, -herbs, and leaves of many different shrubs and the tender tips of young -branches. Winter, a period of famine for many animals, is just the -opposite for these large-footed hares. Able to run about on the surface -of snowdrifts, each new snowfall lifts them closer to the tender twigs -that earlier in the year were far above their reach. Clean diagonal cuts -much like those made with a knife mark their depredations and, since -they are hearty eaters, the whole tops of many favorite food shrubs may -be pruned out in one season. - -In common with several other hunted creatures and a comparatively few -that hunt, the "snowshoe" undergoes a complete change of color between -its summer and winter coat. The transformation begins when the first -snows are due, and usually the white coat is complete when the snows lie -deep on the mountains. It is not, as was once supposed, a case of the -brown guard hairs turning white, but a molt. The summer guard hairs are -shed and white ones taken their place. The under fur changes color to a -less marked degree. Close to the skin the animal is still brown. -Outwardly it is pure white except for black ear tips. Marvelous as this -protective coloration is, it is not absolute proof against enemies. -There are many, and chief among them are lynxes, bobcats, wolves, -weasels, and great horned owls. In many places in the far north the -snowshoe hare is the chief host of the lynx, their numbers fluctuating -in unison. - - [Illustration: snowshoe hare] - -Like most other hares the "snowshoe" spends a great share of its leisure -time in a "form." This is usually nothing more than a well concealed -hollow. The semi-darkness under low hanging evergreens is much favored -by these nocturnal animals for this purpose. They do not, at any time, -frequent burrows, the closest approach to this kind of home being in -winter when they are sometimes completely snowed under. They suffer but -little during severe storms, because their long, fluffy fur is -protection against the cold. Their greatest danger lies in the -possibility of being buried alive in the event of a freezing rain -following the snow. - -The young are born in late spring or early summer. They come into the -world amid plushy surroundings indeed. The mother has lined the surface -nest with soft hair pulled from her own coat, and a softer, more -comfortable nursery could hardly be imagined. The little hares are born -fully furred, with eyes open, and usually with the incisor teeth already -through the gums. Their development is rapid, and long before cold -weather arrives they are out on their own. - - - White-tailed jackrabbit - _Lepus townsendi_ (Latin: hare ... for J. K. Townsend) - -Range: North of the Canadian border to the southern portion of Colorado -and Utah, and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Mississippi River. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Plains and open country, in the foothills, and even in the high -mountains. Found in both Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - -Description: A large hare with a white tail and a lanky build, found -usually only in open country. Total length (average) 18 to 24 inches. -Tail up to 4 inches. Ears up to 6 inches in length. Weight 5 to 8 -pounds. Color varies with the seasons. The summer coat is buffy gray, -the winter coat is white. The tail, long for a hare, is white throughout -the year. The tips of the ears are black both summer and winter. Young, -three to six in a litter, born in May. There may be a second litter -during late summer. As with all the hare family, the young are well -furred and have their eyes open at birth. - -The white-tailed jackrabbit is the largest hare native to the United -States. Its great size is further emphasized by its rangy build and long -legs and ears. Such physical characteristics are usually marks of an -animal that is fiercely pursued by its enemies. This denizen of the open -country is no exception. It is preyed upon by innumerable predators, -including man, the most relentless and cunning of all. Yet its place in -the modern world is still secure, for though it is almost totally -lacking in offensive weapons, Nature has given it defensive advantages -far beyond most other creatures. Perhaps the most important is the -deceptive speed with which it floats across the prairie. Fastest of its -tribe and exceeded in this respect by only one native animal, the -pronghorn, this lanky jackrabbit simply runs away from most pursuit. -Effective though this tactic is, the animal uses it usually as a last -resort, preferring to employ the exact opposite, that of crouching -motionless in an effort to avoid detection. Absolute immobility is -itself an admirable defense, but when augmented by camouflage such as -this creature possesses it is even more effective. - -Like most members of the hare family, the white-tailed jackrabbit is -more active at night than during the day. It spends most of the daylight -hours resting in a form that it hollows out under shelter of a low shrub -or large tuft of grass. In summer the tawny coat blends well with the -color of the surroundings, and the winter coat is possibly even more -effective. Then the crouched body resembles nothing more than a mound of -snow; the black tips of the ears suggest black weed stems sticking up -through the white surface. - - [Illustration: white-tailed jackrabbit] - - - Mountain cottontail - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ (Latin: sylva, wood and Greek: lagos, hare. For - Nuttal) - -Range: Western United States but east of the coastal range of mountains. -The northern limits are along the Canadian border; the southern limits -in central Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mountains of the west through the Transition and Canadian Life -Zones. Seldom found below the pines. - -Description: The "powder puff" tail is the best field characteristic by -which to recognize this rabbit, usually the only cottontail in its range -at the elevations given above. It is one of the largest of its kind, -averaging 12 to 14 inches in total length with the tail less than 2 -inches long. Average weights run from 1-1/2 to 3 pounds. Ears are -relatively short and wide for a cottontail. Color varies somewhat with -relation to habitat, but in general it is gray with a faint yellowish -tinge. Darkest areas are about the back and upper sides; under parts are -light to almost white. The winter coat is heavier than the summer, but -much the same color. The underside of the tail is the cottony white so -well known to city and country dwellers alike. From the scanty records -available on the number of young it would seem that three to four -constitute the average litter. Perhaps the higher elevations at which -they live keep them free from many of the predators to which their -lowland cousins succumb, and thus they are able to maintain their -numbers with smaller families. - -Though often found in the depths of the forest, these shy rabbits prefer -to live in the brushy thickets that border high mountain meadows and -line the streams. There, in true cottontail fashion, they venture into -the open to feed, always ready at the first sign of danger to scurry -back to safety under tangled branches. Once fairly entered into the maze -of paths that they alone know, there is little danger of capture. There -they can count themselves safe from further pursuit by the larger -predators and have a distinct advantage over those their own size or -smaller. Although so clever at turning and doubling back in their chosen -refuges, they seldom use much evasive action when surprised in the open. -Their first thought seems to be to reach cover in the straightest -possible line, and as a consequence many are snapped up by predators who -not only rely on this behavior but often gain the advantage of a -surprise attack as well. - -Food habits are much the same as those of other cottontails, modified to -some extent by the different plant associations with which they are -found. In summer, tender grasses and herbs are the favorite fare, but in -winter when deep snow isolates them from even the taller herbs, these -adaptable animals turn to bark and such small twigs as meet their taste. -At this time even the tips of conifer twigs are often eaten. Access to -this food, which during the summer is usually out of reach, is -facilitated by the growth of long hair on the bottom of the feet, -especially on the hind feet. Though these seasonal "snowshoes" do not -approach those of the Arctic hare in size, they serve very well to -support the lighter cottontails as they move over the soft surface. They -are especially useful when the animal stands on its hind feet to reach -some inviting bit that would be out of reach in the normal crouching -position. During this operation it reaches for food with the mouth -alone; the forepaws cannot be used to gather food, but hang loosely in -front of the body as an aid to balance. - - [Illustration: mountain cottontail] - -This inability to grasp or handle objects with the front feet is -characteristic of all those animals which in the United States we call -"rabbits." Though here included with the rodents, the jackrabbits, -snowshoe hares, and cottontails all lack the dexterity with the forepaws -with which the rest of the group is endowed. The structure of the bones -is much like that of the ungulates in that the feet cannot be turned -sideways. Thus front legs are used mainly for running, digging, and -washing the face and ears, a procedure much like that employed by -domestic cats, except that it is carried out with the sides of the paws -rather than the insides of the wrists as Tabby does. - -Though it lives in a different habitat than other closely related -species, the mountain cottontail shares many of their habits. It is a -nocturnal animal, seldom seen at large except at dusk or in early -morning hours. During the greater part of the day it seeks refuge under -some brush pile or deep in the recesses of the slide rock. On occasion -it will make itself a form in long grass or under a shrub, but usually -prefers more substantial protection. In areas which are being logged, -cottontails are quick to take advantage of the shelter offered by huge -piles of limbs and debris left by loggers. Later in the season, when the -piles are burned, it is not unusual to see as many as three or four -cottontails scurry from one pile. - -Nests for rearing the young are not of such great concern to these -rabbits. Perhaps they instinctively choose places where an enemy would -never expect to find them. Many are mere hollows in tall grass or -shallow burrows in an accumulation of pine needles. They are lined with -soft grasses or needles and hair which the mother pulls from her own -body. More hair and grass fibers are cleverly matted together to form a -loosely woven blanket which she pulls over the nest when she leaves. It -is arranged with such cunning and blends so well with the surrounding -that unless one sees the rabbit leave it is only by accident a nest is -discovered. The three to five young are born blind and naked, but thrive -so well in the warm nest that in about a month they are fully furred and -able to leave. At this age they are extremely playful little creatures, -often indulging in a game much like tag, although to a human observer it -is never quite clear just who is "It." - -In this connection it is interesting to note than among the "hunted" -mammals the play spirit is usually manifested by running games in which -there is little if any physical contact. By contrast, the young of -predators indulge in wrestling games featuring use of teeth and claws, -often beyond the point where fun ceases and anger begins. - - - Pika - _Ochotona princeps_ (Mongol name of pika ... Latin: chief) - -Range: Mountainous areas of the western United States, western Canada, -and southern Alaska. Found in the southwestern United States in Utah, -Colorado and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Talus slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine Life Zones. - -Description: A small animal bearing some resemblance to a guinea pig; -found only among or in the vicinity of rock slides. Total length from -6-1/2 to 8-1/2 inches. No visible tail. Color, gray to brown. Eyes -small, ears large and set well back on head. The front legs are short -and are exceeded but little by the hind legs. They are all quite -concealed by the long hair of the sides. This gives the animal much the -appearance of a mechanical toy as it glides smoothly over the rocks. The -soles of the feet are covered with hair, the only bare spots on the feet -being the pads of the toes. The call is distinctive, the most common -being an "eeh" repeated several times. This sound is shrill, but has a -falsetto quality as though it were being produced during an inhalation. -Young thought to number from three to six. - - [Illustration: pika] - -Far up on the mountainside, above timberline but below the eternal -snows, a great field of talus rests uneasily on the massive slopes of -bedrock. From a distance it seems merely a smooth gray scar that softens -the otherwise abrupt lift of the summit. A closer inspection reveals it -as a tumbled mass of variously shaped slabs of stone varying from tiny -fragments to huge blocks weighing many tons. Its entire bulk is shot -through with chinks and crevices of every conceivable shape and form. - -Here and there a wisp of grass or an occasional stunted shrub has found -a precarious foothold among the slabs. Other low matlike plants occur in -considerable numbers. The only sounds are faint whisperings of wind -among the rocks and a distant sighing from the forest below. Suddenly a -sharp "eeh-eeh" breaks the silence, then all is quiet again. The shrill -sounds are repeated, this time from a different quarter. You look toward -the sound but see nothing. Finally, if you are lucky, your eyes focus on -a little face somewhat resembling that of a tiny cottontail rabbit, -peering at you from the safety of a home among the rocks. It is the pika -you see and this rock slide is his castle. - -The pika bears a superficial facial resemblance to the rabbit, to which -it is most nearly related. This is occasioned no doubt by the long silky -whiskers and deeply cleft upper lip, for the eyes are small and the -ears, while large, are shaped much differently from those of its larger -relative. Its other physical characteristics are entirely unlike those -of the rabbit. The chunky body, short legs, and almost total lack of a -tail are more like those of the guinea pig to which it is more distantly -allied. Several species are known. All are inhabitants of the Northern -Hemisphere and all, whether Asiatic, European, or American, are found -living in rock slides at or above timberline. In the western United -States the pika is known by a variety of other common names of which -"coney," "little chief hare," and "rock rabbit" are perhaps the best -known. - -Living as it does in only one type of habitat, the pika has developed -highly specialized habits. The most remarkable is its practice of -cutting hay for winter food. At timberline the growing season is short, -but the herbs and grasses which this animal eats spring up and mature in -a matter of weeks. During this time the pika lives high on the succulent -leaves and stems, but during the latter part of the season it carefully -harvests enough food to last through the coming winter. None of this -hoard is carried directly into the burrow. Instead, it is painstakingly -transported to suitable areas which are exposed to the hot sun, and -there piled in miniature haycocks and left to cure. No human harvester -ever worked harder to gather his crop or laid it up with more care than -this tiny husbandman. Fortunately its tastes are not critical; thus, -although the individual plants are scattered, the pika is able to select -a sufficient store from the considerable number of species represented -at this altitude. - -In Utah and Colorado the "haying" time arrives with the height of the -summer blooming season. At timberline this usually occurs during August. -As though realizing that a hard frost would ruin its delightfully -fragrant crop, the pika sets furiously to work. After cutting down as -much herbage as it can handle at one time, it gathers the mass into an -unwieldy bundle and carries it by mouth to one of the sites it has -selected as a curing place. Usually these areas have been used the -previous season for the same purpose, and a mass of the least edible -stems remain to mark their location. Depositing the load on this base, -the pika scurries away for another bundle. Long familiarity with routes -across the uneven rocks enables it to make its way with never a misstep, -even though the load carried may be of such size that vision to the -front is completely obscured. Working early and late the pika -distributes its harvest among the various piles. As a result, the hay -dries out evenly and when cold weather calls a halt to the work each -little stack is perfectly cured without a trace of mildew. The truly -monumental work to which this little creature goes is shown by as many -as a half dozen haycocks, each of which may contain up to a bushel or -more of feed. - -Comparatively little is known of the pika's life history. What has been -recorded has been noted during those periods when it was seen on the -surfaces of rock slides. What goes on deep in the labyrinths of its -habitat can only be conjectured. It seems reasonable to suppose that in -some subterranean cavity the pika has constructed a comfortable nest -lined with soft grasses. Certainly it remains active all winter, -although buried under many feet of snow, for in the spring its stacks of -hay have been largely consumed. - -The number of young is thought to range from three to six. They probably -are born in early summer, as when they appear on the surface, usually in -late July or early August, they are about half grown. Though family ties -are closely knit until the young mature, pikas cannot be considered -gregarious animals. The scarcity of food alone would be sufficient -reason to prohibit large groups in one small area. Each adult takes up -squatter's rights on a territory large enough to support it, and -thereafter holds it with but little interference from others of its -kind. - -Few natural enemies prey on the pikas. The very openness of their -habitat prevents the larger predators from stealing up unseen. Hawks and -eagles account for some, and weasels are able to penetrate their -underground maze at will, but the natural fecundity of the species seems -to balance these losses very well. To the nature student the pika offers -a tempting challenge. It is far from being a rare animal, yet at the -same time it is one about which almost nothing is known. As -qualifications for learning its secrets, one must be somewhat of a miner -and considerable of an arctic explorer. - - - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert's) - _Sciurus aberti_ (Latin: shade-tail ... for Col. J. J. Abert) - -Range: Northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, extreme southeastern -Utah, and south central Colorado in the United States; also found in the -Sierra Madre Mountains of northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: The only squirrels in the United States that have -conspicuous pencils of hair on the tips of the ears. _Sciurus aberti_ is -a large squirrel with a total length of about 20 inches. Tail about 9 -inches. The summer pelage is brown on the back, with gray sides and pure -white underparts. The beautiful bushy tail is silvery below and gray -above. During summer the long ears have no tassels on the tips. -Beautiful as is the summer coat, it is far surpassed by the winter one. -Then the heavier fur becomes richer brown on the back, and the contrast -between the gray and white areas is further emphasized by appearance of -a narrow black band between them. The ears too become more spectacular -with the addition of the penciled tufts which give this animal its -common name. Breeding habits of this squirrel are variable and evidently -depend to a great extent on the food supply. There may be as many as two -litters in a fruitful year and none at all in a lean year. The usual -number is three or four young to a litter. These are born sometimes in a -hollow tree, but more often in a bulky nest of leaves built in a tree -top. - -No mammal of the United States has a more appropriate generic name than -the large tree squirrel. _Sciurus_ literally translated means -"shade-tail" and refers of course to the beautiful and useful appendage -sported by all of our arboreal types of squirrels. It is doubtful if any -can equal the striking plume carried by _aberti_; certainly none can -surpass it. Its distinctiveness is not occasioned by its size, for -several species have tails that are longer. Rather, its elegance is -derived from the width, the striking coloration, and the easy grace with -which the animal displays its beauty. Whether in full flight across a -grassy clearing or in repose on some lofty limb, the first field mark of -this unusual squirrel will be the tail; the second, the tasseled ears. - -As the map shows, _Sciurus aberti_ and its many forms are confined in -the United States mainly to the high country along parts of the Colorado -River, and also to that great escarpment known as the Mogollon Rim, -whose length is divided about equally between New Mexico and Arizona. In -this range is found what is often referred to as the "greatest unbroken -stand of ponderosa pine to be found in this country." Of the many -species of plants and animals found as associates of this forest, -perhaps none is more dependent on ponderosa pine than the tassel-eared -squirrel. This rough-barked tree furnishes a major source of food and -shelter. In return, for Nature always demands that restitution be made, -the squirrels plant a part of the seeds that insure continuation of the -ponderosas. - -It is a common belief that squirrel's diet consists of nuts and little -else. This is true only to a degree. A squirrel is fond of nuts and will -eat and hoard them during the short season when they are available. For -the greater part of the year, when its stores have been depleted, it -turns to many other types of food among which are fruit, herbage, leaf -buds, and flowers. Favorite food of the tassel-eared squirrel is, of -course, the large single-winged seeds found under scales of ponderosa -pine cones. Next favored are acorns from the oak that mingles with pine -at the lower edge of the Transition Life Zone. If the season is good, -great quantities of cones and acorns are buried for future use. These -are hidden singly, not in caches, as is the habit of some squirrels. In -the event the squirrel does not return for its hidden stores, some of -the seeds will sprout eventually and take their part in the slow cycle -of growth and decay that is continually going on in the forest. - -During months when these favorite foods are scarce, squirrels find the -cambium layer of young pine twigs very acceptable. This is the tender -layer that lies between the wood and the bark. In the growing season it -is especially sweet and nutritious. This was as well known to the -Indians as the squirrels, and they too took advantage of the supply -during times of famine. The squirrel obtains this food by cutting off -the terminal clusters of needles, then severing a denuded portion of the -branch, of a size that may be conveniently carried to a favorite eating -place. Here the outer bark is deftly removed, the edible portions -consumed, and the base wood cast to the ground. Although large numbers -of the terminal twigs are taken, the trees seem to suffer no serious -damage from this seasonal pruning. - - [Illustration: tassel-eared squirrel] - -In selecting a nesting site the tassel-eared squirrel turns again to its -favorite tree, the ponderosa pine. Because few of these healthy giants -have knotholes or cavities of a size to accommodate this large species, -the nests are usually built in the thick upper growth of branches. -Material for their construction consists of small twigs of deciduous -trees, cut with the leaves on them. These are cleverly woven together so -that as the leaves wither and dry they tend to hold the bulky mass -together. Aspen branches frequently are used when available, the large, -almost round leaves combining to form a warm wall and at the same time a -thatch impervious to all but the most driving rains. Several exits are -provided in case an enemy should enter the nest, and the interior is -lined with soft fibers. Usually more than one nest is built by each -squirrel, so that in an area where they are common the bulky homes are -conspicuous not only for their size but by reason of their numbers. With -several ports in a storm, so to speak, the squirrels weather the winter -very well. During the coldest days they remain snugly curled up in their -nests, but on bright, still days they will be seen searching out their -hoarded supplies, even though they may have to dig through several -inches of snow to get to them. At such time their gruff bark, deep in -timbre, may be heard for a considerable distance. - -Breeding takes place in early spring, often before the snow is off. The -squirrels are fully polygamous, which is one of the reasons this species -can almost disappear and then restores its numbers within a season or -two. There may be two litters each year, the first arriving as early as -May and the second in August or September. As mentioned before, this -species is variable and the young may differ in coloration from their -parents and from each other. Melanistic individuals are frequent; these -should not be confused with the Kaibab squirrel which they resemble -superficially. Several subspecific forms are recognized but are not -easily identified by the layman. - -One's first introduction to this beautiful species is an experience long -to be remembered. It was no less interesting to the early naturalists -who first penetrated the wild regions where it lived. Their accounts -abound with adjectives such as, "handsome," "graceful," etc. Dr. S. W. -Woodhouse, who accompanied the Sitgreaves expedition on the exploration -of the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, noticed it at once and formally -described it as a species in 1852. Since that time it has been -introduced into many of the "sky island," mountains that lie south of -its original range. It adapts very well to new conditions, seeming to -need only a favorable climate and a ponderosa pine forest in which to -live. What effect its presence will have on these new surroundings is -not yet known. There is always danger that the native plants and animals -will suffer from such new competition in an established association. -Such introductions should never be made without a study of all the -factors involved. - - - Kaibab squirrel - _Sciurus kaibabensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... from the Kaibab, a forest - in northern Arizona) - -Range: An area approximately 30 x 70 miles in size in northern Arizona. -The southern limit is bounded by the north rim of the Grand Canyon of -the Colorado, and much of the range is included within the boundaries of -Grand Canyon National Park. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests in Canadian and upper Transition Life -Zones. - -Description: A tassel-eared squirrel with an _all white_ tail. In size -this species is the same as _Sciurus_ _aberti_ but the coloration is -different. The Kaibab squirrel has the same rich, chestnut brown area -along the back and upper part of the head, but the sides are deep gray -and underparts gray to black. The tail is either all silvery white or it -may have barely discernible light gray edging on the upper surface. -Nesting and breeding habits are the same as with _aberti_. - - [Illustration: Kaibab squirrel] - -This beautiful squirrel has a distinctive appearance and an uncertain -specific rank. It is included here because of all the mammals discussed -in this booklet it best exemplifies the effects of isolationism. There -is little doubt that the ancestors of both _aberti_ and _kaibabensis_ -were of one common stock. How the progenitors of the Kaibab squirrel -came to be marooned on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is of little -moment. Perhaps they were already there when the Colorado plateau was -young and the river was just beginning its mighty task. Possibly they -emigrated later when the gorge was not as deep as it is now. At any -rate, it can be assumed that they have lived on the North Rim for -thousands of years, isolated from their cousins on the South Rim by only -20 miles of thin air horizontally, but a trip on foot that involves a -descent of a mile through two life zones (Upper Sonoran and Lower -Sonoran), a crossing of a wide and turbulent river, and an ascent to the -South Rim through the same two desert zones. Surely this is an -undertaking for a squirrel of the cool forests that would be too -hazardous to be successful, even if attempted. - -The factors that have changed this squirrel's coloration are not -definitely known, but climatic conditions are probably at least -partially responsible. The North Rim is approximately a thousand feet -higher than the South Rim and is considerably colder. At this higher -elevation much of the Kaibab squirrel's habitat falls within the -Canadian Life Zone. This in turn makes certain vegetable food available -which is rare or unknown on the South Rim. Thus diet also may have -something to do with its unusual appearance. - -At various times the Kaibab squirrel has been known as a distinct -species, _Sciurus kaibabensis_; at others, it has been considered merely -a subspecies of _Sciurus aberti_. The latter is its standing at this -time. Regardless of specific rank, it is a form that should be -stringently protected. The population is small and goes through the same -fluctuations as _Sciurus aberti_. During the summer of 1946 only one -individual was known in the area around Grand Canyon Lodge, where they -usually were found in some numbers. At such times the heedless -destruction of only a few squirrels could conceivably result in the -extermination of this rare and beautiful animal. - - - Arizona gray squirrel - _Sciurus arizonensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... of Arizona) - -Range: Central to southeastern Arizona and adjacent parts of western New -Mexico in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with the native black walnuts of canyons, or often -found among the pines on canyon rims. - -Description: The common gray tree squirrel to be found in the range -given above. The Arizona gray is a large animal. Total length is from 20 -to 24 inches with a large tail accounting for from 10 to 12 inches of -this measurement. In the typical form the color is dark gray above with -underparts and feet pure white. The tail also is dark gray with a -silvery white margin. The finest examples of this species may be found -along the edge of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico. Farther -south the pelage often has a yellowish or brownish tinge. In the -mountains along the border the Arizona gray squirrel should not be -confused with the Mexican fox squirrel (Apache squirrel) which here -barely invades the United States. The Mexican cousin, about the same -size as _Sciurus arizonensis_, is definitely yellowish brown and has -lighter underparts of the same color. Like other large tree squirrels of -the west, the Arizona gray builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs, -usually in the upper branches of a deciduous tree. Young, four or five -to a litter; under exceptionally favorable conditions two litters may be -reared in one season. - -When compared with the royal tribe of Abert's squirrels, this common -gray animal of the Southwest seems but a peasant. When it is seen alone -comparisons are forgotten. Deliberate in its movements, whether crossing -the forest floor or traveling the leafy aisles of the tree tops, it -seems always to have calculated its next maneuver. The result is a -careless grace that presents the sturdy body and beautiful tail to the -best advantage. Calm in temperament and with but little of the -suspicious nature that is characteristic of the smaller squirrels, the -Arizona gray may easily be tamed in outdoor surroundings and becomes one -of the most satisfactory of wild friends. It is not recommended, -however, that they be fed from the hand or handled at any time. -"Familiarity breeds contempt" is a saying that does not apply to humans -alone. A squirrel's bite can be serious as well as painful. - -Both Mearns and Bailey, who wrote of this species many years ago, -mention it as occurring mostly among the walnut trees of the Upper -Sonoran Life Zone. Perhaps during the intervening years the press of -civilization has driven them from their chosen habitat into a higher -elevation. At any rate, although they still frequent the more isolated -valleys, they are now found also in considerable numbers among the pines -of the Transition Life Zone. The rough broken country along the Mogollon -Rim seems best suited to their requirements, and they are now quite -abundant there. - - [Illustration: Arizona gray squirrel] - -Along the border of the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones this -adaptable animal finds a wide variety of food. Although the squirrels -generally are known as gatherers and storers of nuts, there are many -other types of vegetable food that they will take when conditions -warrant. The cambium layer of bark and leaf buds of various species of -trees are eaten in spring when nut stores have been depleted. Berries, -fruit, and even flowers form a considerable part of the diet during the -summer. In the fall the ripening crop of pine nuts and walnuts provides -not only food for immediate use but stores for the long winter season -when, unless enough has been laid by, the unfortunate may starve to -death. The gathering period is a time of unremitting labor. From dawn to -dusk the squirrels work feverishly carrying nuts to the hiding places -they have selected. Sometimes these are in a hollow tree or a nest, but -usually the harvest is buried in the humus and debris that collect about -the bases of trees. - -There are two phases to the work. In the first the squirrel works in the -tree cutting off the cones or nuts and letting them fall to the ground. -When a considerable number have been thrown down, it descends and -carries them away, one at a time. The latter operation is the most -dangerous since enemies have an undue advantage over this aerialist when -it is on the ground. During the harvest the squirrels plainly show the -effects of their work. In gathering pine cones the fur of their forelegs -and undersides becomes matted with pitch. The juice of walnut fruits -(related to the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_, which the early -pioneers used as a source of dye for coloring their hand-loomed cloth) -stains their underparts a dirty brown. These marks of their labor remain -with them until the summer coat is shed to make way for the heavy winter -pelage. - -When the generic name _Sciurus_ (meaning shade-tail) is mentioned, I am -reminded of an Arizona gray squirrel I observed several years ago. -During late fall my wife and I were camped near the headwaters of the -Hassayampa River in a mixed forest of hardwoods and conifers. Our -arrival had interrupted the work of a squirrel which was gathering -walnuts in the immediate vicinity, but he soon became accustomed to our -presence and renewed activities. Every sunny hour he was busy storing -the nuts, many of them at the base of an old pine tree near camp. -Shortly thereafter a fall storm set in and lasted for several days. It -developed into a pattern of misty drizzle followed by periods of -clearing weather when the sun might appear for a few minutes. During -sunny intervals the squirrel would appear, but as soon as it became -overcast again he would as quickly disappear. Finally we discovered his -retreat. When it would threaten more rain he would run up the trunk of -the pine to the first branch. Here he would turn his rump to the hole -and hunch up into a small furry ball with his long bushy tail laid -forward over his back and head and extending down in front of his nose, -forming an admirable protection against the few drops that spattered -down through the thick foliage overhead. - -Squirrels are not the only animals who use their bushy tails for -protection against the elements. Many mammals curl up and wrap the tail -around themselves for warmth, but only the squirrel tribe has a tail -long, wide, and flat enough to be used as a roof. Though the origin of -the term _Sciurus_ has been lost, it is not too far fetched to suppose -that it was suggested by a squirrel's use of its tail as a parasol. - - - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel - (DOUGLAS SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE) - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti_ (Greek: tamia, steward and Latin: - sciurus, shade-tail ... of the Hudson, named after Fremont) - - [Illustration: spruce squirrel] - -Range: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico in the Hudsonian and -Canadian Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Conifer forests, preferably spruce, in the higher mountains. - -Description: A small gray squirrel, usually the only squirrel to be -found at the elevation at which it lives. Total length 13 to 14 inches. -Tail 5 to 6 inches. Two distinct colors of pelage are seasonal. The -winter coat is olive gray to rufous gray above with lighter underparts; -the summer coat is brownish gray to yellowish gray with almost white -belly and feet. A black stripe along the sides is prominent at all -seasons. The tail is narrow and noticeably shorter than the body. It is -gray beneath, rufous gray above, with black border and a black tip. -Little is known of the breeding habits. The four young are born in early -summer and by August are usually out foraging with the mother. - -Spruce squirrels (distribution shown in accompanying map) include -several of the more than two dozen varieties of red squirrels in the -United States belonging to the species _hudsonicus_. Combined with -several subspecies of the Douglas squirrels, (species _douglasi_, the -"chickaree" of the far western mountains), they make up the genus -_Tamiasciurus_. This term, a combining form of _Tamias_ (the genus of -chipmunks) and _Sciurus_ (that of squirrels) clearly indicates -relationship of the red squirrels to both groups. It is equally apparent -in the field where the short narrow tail, the black stripe along the -side, and the nervous disposition remind one of the chipmunks, while the -arboreal habits, comparatively large size, and coughing bark are -distinctively squirrel-like. - -The spruce squirrel is seldom, if ever, found below an elevation of 6500 -feet, and then only in the shady canyons on the northern exposure of -mountains. From this low it will be found up to timberline, or rather -just below that point at which the trees are too stunted to offer the -required protection. It prefers the dense shade of heavily forested -areas, so is rare near the southern limit of its range, and increasingly -common in the northern portion. - -In common with the rest of its group, this bright-eyed little animal -keeps well informed on everything that goes on in the territory it has -chosen as its own. Any intruder is thoroughly investigated, then as -thoroughly castigated, and driven out if possible. Since these squirrels -seem to recognize each other's domain, a trespasser of its own kind -usually leaves at the first sign of trouble. With larger animals and -humans the attack consists of psychological rather than physical -warfare. From a limb at a safe distance above the ground, the doughty -warrior chatters and scolds with increasing vehemence as long as a -passive interest is displayed by the imagined adversary. At the first -threatening movement it disappears in a flash around the opposite side -of the tree. Scratching noises and falling flakes of bark, together with -noises of peevish defiance, indicates that it is working its way up the -trunk. Suddenly it reappears on another limb some distance above the -first and the real show begins. Paroxysms of rage, stamping of feet, -waving of tail, and streams of invective all are meant to show that one -step closer spells trouble. A few squeaks from your pursed lips and this -tremendous bluff gives up to curiosity. In a few minutes the erstwhile -challenger is back on the first limb trying to make out what this -strange creature is about. This amusing procedure can be carried out -over and over again, and usually is, just to observe the stuttering -rages of which this tiny creature is capable. With more considerate -treatment they soon become quite tame, although even then a quick -movement will send them helter skelter to the closest tree. - -It is well that this squirrel is a quick and tireless worker. The seeds -it extracts from the spruce cones are so tiny it takes an enormous -number of them to provide that energy. With such a quantity to handle, -it is not so careful in storing the crop as some larger squirrels. A -comparatively few cones are buried in the soft loam beneath the trees; -the rest are stuffed into holes beneath the spreading roots or simply -piled in heaps near the base of the trunk. In a year when cones are -plentiful there may be a bushel or more in one of these piles. With -several such piles within easy reach of the warm nest fastened in the -branches of a nearby conifer, the small harvester has prospects of an -easy winter ahead. Only in the most inclement weather are these active -animals confined to their nests. They keep tunnels open to their -supplies, and each snowfall adds to the security of the caches. All -winter long the stockpiles diminish while the snow beneath some favorite -perch becomes littered with the scales and discarded centers of the -cones. By spring, which comes late at this elevation, the cones are gone -and the squirrel returns to its summer diet of leaf buds, seeds, -berries, mushrooms, and herbs. - -The spruce squirrel is the last of what might be called the true -squirrels in this book and, because the group has much in common as -regards food, enemies, and relations to mankind, a short summary might -be in order. - -As has been mentioned, the principal diet of these animals is vegetable. -However, all of them, if opportunity offers, will take birds' eggs and -young birds. This is not intended in any way as a condemnation of the -squirrel tribe. Their inroads on the bird population are what might be -termed "natural losses." Nature long ago established a norm in bird -reproduction which takes such losses into account. - -The enemies of squirrels are legion. From the air, the larger hawks and -owls, and even eagles, are ever alert to swoop in on them. On the ground -lynx, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes take their toll. In northern Utah and -Colorado the marten is one of the most important local controls on the -squirrel population. Fast and powerful, the marten is equally at home on -the ground or in the trees, and it is a fortunate squirrel that can -escape one. The toll taken by all of these predators is high, yet the -natural fecundity of the squirrel is so great that the population -sometimes gets out of hand and disease has to eliminate the surplus. - -In their relationship to man the squirrels are among the most remarkable -of our native mammals. It is not ordinarily the purpose of this book to -point out the economic importance of our mammals, but the beneficial -work carried on the squirrels is too important to pass by. One of the -most valuable natural resources that America has is forests. To the arid -Southwest the mantles of living green that cover the mountains are -invaluable. These are sweeping statements, but they are sober facts. - -Squirrels play a considerable part in perpetuating this national -heritage. The fact that they do this more or less accidentally merely -serves to call attention to the subtle patterns in which all living -things move to serve one another. Take their simple mechanics of storing -a pine cone, for instance. A hole is dug to a depth of several inches in -the soft duff under a shady conifer. The cone is pushed firmly into the -bottom of the hole and tamped into place with several vigorous shoves of -the nose. Then the hole is carefully filled and smoothed over so that no -marauder will discover it. This procedure may be repeated hundreds of -times by one individual. If the animal never returns (and the rate of -mortality among squirrels is high), the cone can be considered planted. -Not only is it planted at the correct depth and in the most suitable -material for successful germination and growth, but it is full of plump -fertile seeds. Through some instinct the squirrel knows which nuts and -cones are healthy and fully developed. If you doubt this, examine some -of those they have left on the tree. Invariably they will be infested by -insects or "inferior" in some other respect. One of the favorite sources -of pine nuts for reforestation projects in the Northern States is the -stockpiles of the red squirrel. The scales of the cones are tightly -closed when they are taken, but as they open on the drying floor the -healthy, fertile nuts prove the unerring judgment of the harvester. - - - Northern flying squirrel - _Glaucomys sabrinus_ (Greek: glauco, silvery and Greek: mys, mouse) - -Range: Widely distributed throughout most of our Northern States and -Canada. In the section covered by this book, found only in northeastern -and south central Utah, with possible occurrence in northwestern -Colorado. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with conifer forests of Transition to Alpine Life -Zones. - -Description: Our only airborne mammal with a long bushy tail. Total -length 9-3/4 to 11-1/2 inches. Tail 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 inches. -Characteristic of this species is the fold of skin along each side from -the fore to the hind leg. There is considerable color variation in the -numerous subspecies of this squirrel. In general the upper parts vary -from dark brown to cinnamon brown. Sides of face gray; underparts white -to pinkish cinnamon beneath. Hind feet are brown, fore feet gray. The -flying membrane is brownish black above, white to cinnamon beneath. The -eyes are large and dark brown. Young, two to six in a litter, born in -spring; a second litter is sometimes produced in early autumn. - -Because flying squirrels are almost entirely nocturnal, they are seldom -seen. This is unfortunate, for they are among the most interesting -forest creatures. Probably more people have seen flying squirrels -through the predations of a house cat than in any other way. Gentle and -unafraid, the squirrels fall easy prey to this night prowler, which -sometimes brings them home to show its owners. Strangely enough, the -victims often are not injured seriously, and if taken from the cat and -allowed to recover from their initial fright they will glide about the -room with much of the grace they display in the wild. - -Properly speaking, these squirrels do not fly; that is to say, they are -incapable of sustaining level or ascending flight. Rather they climb to -some height in a tree then launch out and glide to a lower point, -usually the trunk of another tree. As the angle is usually quite sharp -they attain considerable speed. They check this momentum by inclining -upwards just before reaching their objective. This results in a -four-point landing against the tree trunk, sometimes with an impact that -can be heard for some little distance on a quiet night. During these -flights, which may extend 50 yards or more, they are able to change -direction or maneuver against wind currents. This is done by -manipulating the flying membrane and using the tail as a rudder. After a -flight they usually ascend to the safety of the foliage above. They -cannot be considered awkward on the ground, but it is not their chosen -habitat. Flying squirrels are more arboreal than any of our mammals, -excepting a few species of bats. - - [Illustration: northern flying squirrel] - -Little is known of the habits of this unusual squirrel, but they differ -considerably from those of its relatives who are active during the sunny -hours. Instead of living in a bulky nest hung in tree branches, this -nocturnal aerialist chooses a hollow tree or an abandoned woodpecker's -hole where the sun's rays never penetrate. Nests have been found also -under slabs of bark hanging to old lightning-blasted snags. Lined with -soft fibers and shredded bark, they often shelter whole families of -flying squirrels for, unlike the other squirrels, these gentle creatures -get along together. In fact, they might almost be considered gregarious. -Contrary to ordinary squirrel behavior, they never bark or scold. Their -only utterance is a fine whistling squeak, and this is heard usually -only in the nest. - -Though delicate in appearance the flying squirrel is extremely hardy. It -is abroad throughout the winter, being confined to its nest only during -stormy weather. It stores food for the winter, but its caches are -usually above ground in hollow trees and crevices rather than buried in -the loam. Their food consists mostly of pine nuts, seeds, and acorns, -but they are also fond of meat. Many a flying squirrel has met its death -trying to take the bait from a trap set for larger game. This taste is -unexplained; it is not known to prey on other animals. - - - Western chipmunks - Genus _Eutamias_ (Greek: eu, well or good and tamias, steward) - -There are at least four species of chipmunks native to the area covered -by this book. Ordinarily but one, or perhaps two, species of a genus -have been chosen for discussion. In this case, however, the chipmunks -are such provocative little creatures and their presence causes so much -interest that all four species will be included, although briefly. Since -the ranges and life zones of some of them overlap in many areas, -positive identification of a species will be difficult in those places, -but in others one species will be dominant or alone. Here the more -subtle characteristics and behavior of that type can be fixed in mind, -and in time it will be less difficult to separate one from the other. -Remember that most of these species have several subspecies. These -generally occur along the upper or lower edges of the life zone -frequented by the type. In the field they are usually indistinguishable -from the type to any but the most practiced observer. - - 1. Colorado chipmunk (_Eutamias quadrivittatus_) - - [Illustration: Colorado chipmunk] - -Range: Northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, most of Utah, and all but -the most northern portion of Colorado. This chipmunk lives largely in -the Transition Life Zone. The closely related species _umbrinus_, -commonly called "Uinta chipmunk" inhabits the Canadian and Hudsonian -Life Zones in the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains of northeastern Utah. - - [Illustration: _Colorado_] - - [Illustration: Uinta chipmunk] - - [Illustration: _Uinta_] - - 2. Gray-necked chipmunk (_Eutamias cinereicollis_) - - [Illustration: gray-necked chipmunk] - -Range: Central Arizona eastward into southwestern and south central New -Mexico. Total length 7-1/2 to 10 inches. Tail 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. -Transition Life Zone and above. _Neck and shoulders gray._ - - [Illustration: _Gray-necked, Cliff_] - - 3. Least chipmunk (_Eutamias minimus_) - - [Illustration: least chipmunk] - -Range: Western Colorado, western Utah, northern and eastern Arizona, -northern and central New Mexico. Inhabits all zones from Upper Sonoran -to Alpine. Total length 6-2/3 to 9 inches. Tail 3 to 4-1/2 inches. _The -smallest chipmunk with proportionally the longest tail. Tail carried -straight up when running._ - - [Illustration: _Least_] - - 4. Cliff chipmunk (_Eutamias dorsalis_) - - [Illustration: cliff chipmunk] - -Range: North and western Utah extending through southeastern Arizona and -western New Mexico. Found mainly in the Upper Sonoran Zone. Total length -8-4/5 to 9-1/2 inches. Tail 3-4/5 to 4-1/2 inches. _The most -indistinctly striped of any of these chipmunks._ - -Generally speaking, chipmunks are the link between ground squirrels and -tree squirrels. Physically they have characteristics of both groups, a -combination that is pleasing indeed. A field mark that is a positive -identification of the chipmunk group is the striped face. In addition to -facial stripes, chipmunks also are striped along the back. The pattern -consists of a dark to black median line bordered by two more similar -lines of varying intensity along each side. These fine lines are -separated by broader bands of contrasting color ranging from chestnut to -white. The latter characteristic is shared by several of the ground -squirrels, which often are confused with chipmunks. Predominant colors -of southwestern chipmunks run to rufous, chestnut, and grayish white -with the dark to black lines mentioned above. Underparts are always -considerably lighter than the back. Chipmunks' tails are usually shorter -than their bodies, flattened horizontally, and short haired when -compared with tree squirrels. All species have cheek pouches of -considerable capacity. - -As will be seen from ranges given above, habitat of the chipmunks -encompasses the whole area from sagebrush-covered foothills to -timberline. Their densest population, however, is to be found in thick -forest about midway between these two extremes. Here their bright colors -and sprightly actions do much to enliven somber surroundings. Despite -their wonderful climbing ability, they are most often seen at ground -level or just a little higher. They are fond of areas containing fallen -trees. The prostrate trunks serve admirably as highways for their forays -in search of food, and under the litter which accumulates around them -are many havens into which a hard pressed chipmunk may pop when pursued -by an enemy. The territory appropriated by each of these little -creatures is explored with the most minute care, and all places of -refuge are noted for future emergencies. Any attempt to chase them will -reveal their uncanny memory for these temporary hiding places and that -they are seldom at any great distance from one. - -Their permanent homes usually are underground, excavated beneath the -roots of trees or in rocky terrain. At the end of a narrow tunnel a room -of considerable size is worked out. The dirt is often carried out by a -side tunnel, which is permanently plugged with soil when the excavation -is completed. The underground chamber is lined with soft grasses and -fibers as insulation against the cold. At the higher elevations the -ground may freeze to a depth of several feet during the long winters. -Permanent nests are sometimes built in hollow logs, but almost never in -holes in upright trees. Chipmunks have little taste for upstairs -apartments. In addition to the large cavity which contains the nest, -several storage chambers are constructed to hold the winter's food. -These may be connected to the main apartment by tunnels or may be -entirely independent of living quarters and some distance away. As a -special feature, many of the more elaborate homes have a separate -chamber reserved for sanitary purposes. Like most of our native rodents, -chipmunks are fastidiously clean in their habits. - -It is difficult to discuss the habits of a group as large and of such -wide distribution as our southwestern chipmunks in any but a most -superficial manner. In general they are much more terrestrial than -squirrels and prefer brushy, rock terrain to the more open forests -frequented by their larger relatives. Nevertheless, they are adept -climbers and do not hesitate to take to the trees in search of food or -to escape their enemies. These arboreal excursions are usually limited -to one tree; they do not ordinarily attempt the daring leaps from one to -another that are characteristic of the squirrels. They progress quietly -while on the ground, threading their way through the undergrowth so -expertly that their presence is often undetected. - -Normally chipmunks are shy creatures at first acquaintance, but if their -friendship is encouraged they often become bold to the point of being -unwelcome. Woe to the camper whose grub box is invaded during his -absence. These tiny opportunists can carry away a surprising amount of -food in a very short while. Their natural diet differs widely according -to habitat. Chipmunks of the foothills eat a great variety of grass -seeds, berries, and cactus fruits. These are possibly the favorite foods -of the whole group, but as the elevation increases this supply becomes -limited and is supplemented by juniper berries, acorns, and pine nuts. -Considerable quantities of these less perishable foods are laid away for -future needs. During the summer months herbage, fungi, small tubers, and -some insects add variety to an otherwise dry menu. - -It is doubtful if any southwestern chipmunks enter true hibernation -during the winter. Those of lower elevations are active throughout the -colder months, except when a period of exceptionally inclement weather -will force them to remain underground for a few days. At higher -elevations they will disappear, perhaps for weeks at a time, but it is -assumed they remain active in their underground quarters. The fact that -during the fall they do not lay on a coat of fat, like many species -which are known to hibernate, substantiates this theory. - -Breeding habits of chipmunks are not too well known. The number of young -averages from four to six. Those species living at low elevation -sometimes bear two litters each year; those at higher elevations are -limited to one. Like the ground squirrels, the young are able to leave -the burrow when but little more than half grown. At this early age they -present a rather ludicrous appearance with their large heads and -sparsely-haired tails. This is a time of great danger, for the -youngsters are easily caught by predators which would be eluded with -little difficulty by a mature individual. Principal predators of the -chipmunks are bobcats, hawks, foxes, and coyotes. The last two often dig -out the burrows. The marten is possibly their worst enemy, but -fortunately for the chipmunk tribe is a rare animal throughout its -range. - -Chipmunks are quite common in several of our southwestern National Parks -and Monuments. Despite signs to the contrary, the public cannot resist -feeding these little beggars, and many are the situations that develop -from this practice. I recall camping at Bryce Canyon National Park where -the least chipmunk is a common resident. Upon our return from Rainbow -Point one day we spied a chipmunk with bulging cheek pouches leaving our -tent for its den somewhere on the edge of the canyon rim. We found that -our visitor had entered the grub box and gnawed a neat hole in the top -of a carton of rice. Although we had been gone but a short time, more -than half the contents had already been carried away. This was a state -of affairs that needed mending so we decided to teach the marauder a -lesson. On his return trip we waited until he had entered the carton and -then clapped a dishtowel over the hole. The cellophane window in the -side of the carton gave us an excellent view of our prisoner. -Interrupted in his pilfering, he at first tried to get out of the carton -but, finding no exit, returned to stuffing his cheek pouches with more -rice. When they were filled to capacity he calmly sat back and returned -stare for stare. In the end we let him go and gave him the rest of the -rice, exacting such payment as we could by taking pictures of his -labors. - - - Golden-mantled ground squirrel - _Citellus lateralis_ (Latin: citellus, swift, and lateralis, belonging - to the side, referring to the stripe along the side) - -Range: Western United States and Canada. In the area covered by this -book to be found in western Colorado, from northeastern Utah south -through central Utah to central Arizona thence east into western New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Higher mountains of this area. Usually found in evergreen -forests of the Transition, Hudsonian, and Canadian Life Zones. It -sometimes occurs near the upper limits of the Upper Sonoran Zone. - -Description: A chipmunk-like ground squirrel lacking the stripes along -the sides of the face characteristic of the chipmunks. Total length -8-1/2 to 12-1/2 inches. Tail 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. There is much color -variation in this species. Head coppery to chestnut, upper surfaces of -body brownish gray to buffy. A light to white stripe bordered with black -is present on each side of the back. Under surface of tail gray to -yellow. Tail short but fully haired. Under surfaces of body lighter, -gray to buffy gray. Legs short, body chunky in comparison with -chipmunks. Young, four to eight, with but one litter each year. - -The golden-mantled ground squirrel has been chosen from the rather large -group of southwestern ground squirrels because it is most typically a -mountain dwelling species. As such it does not have the advantages of a -long summer season like its lowland relatives. This results in two -definite periods each year. One is feverish activity during summer, a -time of breeding, rearing the young, storing food, and laying on fat for -the cold months ahead. The other in winter is the exact opposite--a long -interval of hibernation when, buried deep under the snow in a snug -burrow, the squirrels sleep away the winter. - -Though hampered by the short summers of higher elevations, the -golden-mantled ground squirrels manage to lengthen the season slightly -by a very simple expedient. Instinct prompts them to dig their burrows -on a southern exposure, often under the base of a log or in a rock -slide. Here the snow melts away first and they often have a bare spot of -ground in front of the burrow several weeks in advance of the season. -The squirrels emerge from their long sleep weak and emaciated, and their -first days above ground are spent soaking up the warm sunshine and -waking up, so to speak. During this period they live on stores laid away -the previous summer, and by the time the snow has melted they are fully -active and ready for mating. - - [Illustration: golden-mantled ground squirrel] - -As with the ground squirrels of lower areas, the summer diet consists -largely of whatever starts to grow first. During late spring, grass, -buds, young leaves, and flowers are eaten. Later, seeds of the annuals -are gathered, berries are taken whenever possible, and insects often -form a considerable part of the diet. As fall comes on, acorns, pine -nuts, and a great number of smaller seeds and fruits become available. -At this time the ground squirrels must not only lay on enough fat to -maintain themselves through hibernation, but must also store away enough -food to tide them over between the time of their emergence and the -appearance of new growth. Evidently this is an adaptation forced upon -them by the exceptionally long winter season. Most rodents which lay on -coats of fat preparatory to hibernation depend almost entirely on it to -carry them through. With a hibernating period of from 5 to 7 months, -however, it is not difficult to realize the problems this ground -squirrel must face. - -Though the golden-mantled ground squirrel resembles the chipmunks in -appearance, its temperament is quite different. Chipmunks are bright, -nervous little sprites, always pursuing their activities with explosive -energy. The ground squirrels move more sedately, as though they had -planned every move and there was no hurry. They love to lie in the sun -in some exposed place and watch the rest of the world go by. In habitat, -too, the species differ materially. Chipmunks choose thick undergrowth -where they can go about their business unobserved. Ground squirrels -prefer more exposed locations where they take their chances in the open, -but with one eye always cocked aloft as insurance against attack by hawk -or eagle. Creatures of the earth, they are always reluctant to climb. -Rarely do they ascend more than a few feet, and then only to reach some -especially toothsome delicacy that their keen noses have detected in a -low shrub or small tree. - -With its wide distribution, visitors to the southwestern mountains can -hardly fail to notice this golden-headed member of the ground squirrel -family. It is easily tamed; too easily in fact for, like the chipmunk, -it can quickly wear out its welcome. In many of the National Parks and -Monuments they compete with chipmunks for the crumbs around camp sites -and picnic tables. Visitors find their cunning way irresistible and feed -them despite warnings to the contrary. Because they do tame so easily -there is always danger that some well-meaning person will attempt to -pick them up. This can lead to unpleasant results. Their long sharp -incisors can inflict a serious wound. - -One of the most fascinating places to observe both chipmunks and these -ground squirrels is from the windows of the long tunnel leading -northward out of Zion National Park. On the talus slopes beneath the -windows a great number of these rodents take up summer quarters, -depending for food on the largesse distributed by visitors as they eat -their picnic lunches on the broad ledges of the windows. Their constant -movements as they run among the rocks seeking stray crumbs result in -many a collision and often an angry dispute as well. This proves a -dangerous game, as rocks sometimes will be loosened by their movements -and roll down the steep incline. I recall seeing a ground squirrel -crushed by one of these miniature rock slides in 1946. - - - White-tailed prairie dog - _Cynomys gunnisoni_ (Greek: kun, a dog and mys, mouse ... for Captain - Gunnison whose expedition took the type) - - [Illustration: white-tailed prairie dog] - -Range: Western Colorado and eastern Utah to central Arizona and New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grassy meadows and mountain parks mainly in the Transition Life -Zone although they are often found both above and below this area. - -Description: A ground-dwelling rodent somewhat resembling a ground -squirrel but several times larger than the biggest species of that -genus. Total length 12-1/2 to 15 inches. Tail 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 inches. -Weight 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 pounds. Color buff to cinnamon buff, the short -fully-haired tail tipped with white. Sides of face darker with a dark -area over the eyes. Legs, feet, and underparts pale cinnamon buff. -Young, usually five in number, born in early summer. - -_Cynomys gunnisoni_ is the representative species of the western group -of prairie dogs. The two remaining of the group, _Cynomys leucurus_ and -_Cynomys parvidens_, both white-tailed species, are very similar and -possibly will be classified with _Cynomys gunnisoni_ in the future. -_Cynomys leucurus_ is found in northwestern Colorado and northeastern -Utah, while _Cynomys parvidens_ is native to mountainous valleys in -central Utah. - -The common name "white-tailed prairie dog" is usually applied to -_Cynomys gunnisoni_, the most widely distributed member of the race. The -range of this species borders on but seldom overlaps that of the -black-tailed prairie dog which lives farther east and at lower -elevation. Climatic and geographic barriers separating these two races -are largely responsible for pronounced differences in their habits. -Prairie dogs are gregarious creatures, perhaps more so than any other -rodent. Formerly the black-tail species inhabited countless thousands of -acres in the Great Plains region. A single colony might occupy an area -several miles in diameter and number many thousands. On this relatively -flat land, every home site was equally advantageous and the grass and -herbage all ideally suited to the prairie dog's use. Periodic flooding -of their burrows on these level prairies was avoided by building conical -mounds with a rim of earth around the entrance. This ingenious practice, -simple though it seems, represents a long step in the adaptation of -these animals to their environment. - -White-tailed prairie dogs, on the other hand, are limited to the narrow -valleys and infrequent open meadows of the mountains. Here there is -neither room nor food to maintain the huge colonies characteristic of -the black-tailed. Under these conditions the number of individuals in a -town will vary from a few to 200, seldom more. If the town becomes -crowded, many of the inhabitants may migrate to some more favorable -location. This sometimes entails a trip of several miles, a hazardous -undertaking for a small animal whose only escape from large predators is -in an underground burrow. - -Food of this mountain prairie dog is varied. The standard diet of grass -and roots is augmented with browse, bark, and tubers. Bulbs of mariposas -are taken wherever available. Coarse-leaved annuals such as sunflowers -are not passed by. In addition to this vegetable diet, worms, beetles, -and larvae as well as mature forms of most insects are eaten whenever -possible. - -Burrows of white-tailed prairie dogs, though comfortable, are not made -with the painstaking care found in those of the lowland species. There -is no need for a conical mound or built-up rim because there is -virtually no drainage problem on the sloping terrain of the mountains. -Naturally the burrows will not be excavated in the path of flood waters, -but on higher ground. Earth brought out from the underground workings is -piled to one side or in front of the entrance. The mound thus formed is -used as a place to sun bathe or, even more important, as a look-out post -from which to see all that goes on. Because these small colonies do not -have the advantage of numbers, each individual must be especially alert -to approaching danger. Burrows often have more than one entrance, each -with its well-packed sentry post at hand, the underground plan is -simple. It consists of a more or less vertical shaft from which one or -more tunnels extend horizontally. It is common supposition that the -prairie dog digs deeply enough to strike water. This is not so; many -burrows do not go deeper than 6 feet. In any event, they penetrate just -far enough to insure a comfortable average temperature in both summer -and winter. Water requirements of prairie dogs are met largely by the -succulent nature of their food. It is also presumed that during late -summer months when the diet consists to some extent of seeds, a chemical -process within the system transforms some of the starches to water. - -The nest is usually situated in an underground room dug at the end of a -tunnel, less often somewhere along its length. It is a bulky structure, -built of shredded bark or coarse grasses and lined with the softest -fibers obtainable. In these modern days prairie dogs do not object to -paper, rags, and wool. - -The life of the prairie dog is simple. Early in the spring it emerges -from hibernation, a bit groggy but still well padded with fat. This -nourishment sustains it until the first green shoots of grass appear. -From then on food is obtainable in an ever increasing supply, limited -only by the distance to which these indifferent runners dare venture -from their burrows. Summer is a time of eating, of dozing on the mounds -in the warm sun, and of conversing with neighbors in the shrill barking -whistles characteristic of this group. It is also a time of constant -vigilance against predators, of dust bathing to rid themselves of mites -and fleas, and of rearing the young. The four to six young are born in -late spring and first appear at the burrow entrance when about the size -of an average adult ground squirrel. Within a few days they are foraging -for themselves, and about 3 weeks later are able to make their own way. -At this time the mother frequently deserts them and builds herself a new -burrow, leaving her offspring to divide the old homestead as best they -can. As fall draws near, a thick coat of fat is put on, and by the -middle of October most of the town's inhabitants have retired for the -long winter's sleep. - - - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) - _Marmota flaviventris_ (Marmota, Dutch name of European species of - woodchuck. Latin: flavus, yellow, and venter, belly) - -Range: Northwestern United States. Common in northern to south central -Utah, northern and southeastern Colorado, and extreme north central New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life Zones in rock slides, -rocky hillsides, under rock piles, and around outcroppings in mountain -meadows. Seldom found below the Canadian Zone but often occurring in the -Alpine Zone to the very summits of the mountains. - -Description: A large, dark, brown marmot with a comparatively long bushy -tail. Total length 19 to 28 inches. Tail 4-1/2 to 9 inches. Body color, -yellowish brown to dark brown above; under parts yellow. The body fur -has a grizzled appearance. Sides of neck buffy, and sides of face dark -brown to black. Light brown to white between the eyes. The feet are buff -to dark brown. Tail dark brown above, lighter below. Young, five to -eight, born in early summer. - -This large western marmot is not too far removed from the ground -squirrels in either relationship or habits. It is the largest -ground-dwelling rodent native to the Southwest. As mentioned above, -marmots occupy a tremendous altitudinal range, reaching from above -timberline down into the Transition Life Zone. This distribution from -arctic to almost desert conditions is responsible for many variations in -their habits. Most important is the practice of estivation by those -individuals which live at the lower elevations. This summer sleep is -used as a defense against that period of drought between rainy seasons. -It usually starts early in June and ends about the latter part of July. -In the higher life zones there is no lack of green food throughout the -summer, consequently marmots there remain active. - -Because of large size and ability to make good use of its sharp teeth -and claws, the marmot's life is not so restricted as that of many -smaller ground-dwelling rodents. It has enemies, to be sure. Bears, -mountain lions, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and eagles all are alert for -a possible catch. Yet it is so well on guard and has so many burrows -that it is next to impossible to catch one above ground. Should the -marmot be surprised away from a burrow, its bold show of defense often -gains enough time to work its way to a place of safety. When cornered -its appearance alone is enough to make the average predator pause and -consider. With hair standing on end and long claws at the ready, the -marmot clatters its sharp teeth and hisses loudly at the enemy. This -pose is not all bluff. These big rodents are courageous and able -adversaries against any animal up to several times their size. As far as -man is concerned, they are timid and secretive. On many an occasion -their loud, full-toned whistles will be heard, but the whistler will be -nowhere in sight. If cornered, however, they will put up the same -courageous defense they display against other enemies, and certainly are -not animals with which to trifle. - -Burrows are usually in open places where a good view of the surroundings -is obtained. Too, they are almost always in clefts of rocks, under -boulders, or in coarse rocky soil. This lessens the probability of their -being dug out by some large predator. Each marmot usually will have -several burrows, some being "escape" means and one a permanent home. -Well-worn trails lead from one to another, for these are active animals -which travel extensively within the limits of their territories. Escape -burrows may be deep or shallow, as circumstances dictate, but the home -burrow generally is a labyrinth of long passages that terminate in a -nest chamber up to 2 feet across. Several auxiliary tunnels are usually -reserved for sanitary purposes. None is used for food storage; records -indicate that this creature does not lay up stores for later use. The -nest is the usual bulky affair, built of coarse materials and lined with -the softest grasses and fibers obtainable. - -Late to bed and early to rise is characteristic of the marmots. Classed -as a diurnal animal, they nevertheless travel about a good deal at dusk. -During the breeding season they may even make an extended trip at night -to find a mate. Sunrise signals the beginning of the marmot's day. The -slanting rays have no more than touched the boulder above its burrow -before the inmate will climb up to take advantage of their warmth. It -may stay atop its vantage point for an hour or more. There are many -things a marmot can attend to while taking the early morning sunbath. A -leisurely toilette, whistled comments to neighbors, a long scrutiny of -the terrain for possible danger--all these are matters requiring -thorough attention. - - [Illustration: yellow-bellied marmot] - -Should this procedure be interrupted by a prowling enemy, excitement -runs high. If the intruder is still some distance away, the marmot often -will stand up on its hind legs, picket pin fashion. Each explosive -whistle will be accompanied by several flicks of the tail. When it is -judged time to retire it will dash for its burrow, making sharp chirps -as it goes. Once inside the burrow it may chance another look outside, -and if the caller looks menacing enough the burrow entrance will be -plugged with earth from inside, the chirps becoming fainter as the -barricade is forced into place. Emergence from the burrow after a fright -of this kind is governed to some extent by the time of year. If it is -autumn and the marmot is about ready to hibernate, it may go to sleep in -its cozy nest and not reappear until the next day. Even in spring and -summer it will remain underground for a considerable time before -venturing out again. - -The marmot is by nature a stocky animal. Short-legged and barrel-bodied, -it can lay on a surprising amount of fat for the period of hibernation. -Length of this winter sleep depends on the elevation at which the animal -lives. On the higher mountain tops it begins about October 1. At lower -elevations it may be considerably later. Older individuals usually go -into hibernation first, presumably because they are able to lay on the -necessary fat sooner than younger ones. As a rule they retire by stages, -disappearing for several days at a time; their movements are lethargic -and they act as if already half asleep. The young of the year have spent -the greater part of the summer growing up, and it is rather a grim race -with time to determine whether they will be able to put on enough fat to -carry them through the long winter with a reserve supply, or whether -they can survive the cold weather that greets them. Especially at the -higher elevations, they do not retire until forced to do so by cold -weather. - -Hibernation is as profound with these big rodents as with many of the -ground squirrels. They will curl up into furry balls in their cozy -nests, noses covered with fluffy tails, and sink into a deep sleep that -approaches suspended animation. Bodily functions slow to a fraction of -the normal rate, and the system draws on its store of fat to survive. -The drain on this nourishment is slow, as it necessarily must be, for -this single source of food must last for a period of perhaps 5 months. - -The date of emergence varies. Although February 2nd is recognized as -groundhog day on our calendar, this date would be chilly indeed on the -peaks of our Southwest mountains. Nevertheless, the marmots do appear -before the snow is entirely gone, and once their sleep has ended they -rarely resume it, whether or not they see their shadows. - -Breeding takes place shortly after emergence. The young are born in -April or May. They are born blind; the eyes do not open until about a -month after birth. The youngsters develop rapidly, and by the time they -are half grown a daily session of sunbathing and playful tussles outside -the entrance of the den is part of their routine. By September they are -fully grown, and at this time they usually strike out for themselves, -although cases have been recorded in which the family remained together -through the first winter's hibernation. - -Marmots have always been favorites of this writer. Their clear-toned -whistle is as much a symbol of the rugged peaks and lovely fir-rimmed -mountain meadows as the coyote's barks are of the desert. Several -writers characterize marmots as "stupid." Surely this is an unfortunate -choice of word. Stupid by what standards? Can one species be compared -with another when all must live under the different conditions to which -they have adapted themselves? The mere fact that a balance of Nature has -been attained indicates that each has the adaptations, the habits, and -the degree of intelligence necessary for that species to live in harmony -with the whole. - - - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) - The genus _Peromyscus_ (Greek: pera, pouch, and muscus, diminutive of - mys, mouse) - - [Illustration: deermouse] - -Range: All life zones throughout North America. - -Habitat: Some species of deermouse can be found in almost any -association imaginable. - -Description: A large-eared mouse with white feet. Since there are many -species in this genus and most of them are quite similar, -characteristics common to the greatest number will be given. Bear in -mind that these may not hold true with every species of the genus. - -Deermice are rather small, averaging 7 to 8 inches long. Tail 3 to 4 -inches. Most species are a buffy gray above shading to brighter buff on -the sides and light buff to white beneath. Feet are always white. The -ears are large for a mouse, usually sparsely covered with short, fine -hairs, but in some species almost naked. Eyes appear black but have a -brownish shade when viewed closely in a good light. Tail long, up to the -length of head and body, as a rule sparsely haired; bicolor in some -species. Young, four to six, born almost any time of the year, with -several litters except at higher elevations where only one litter may be -born, and this during late spring. - -In the Southwest the mild climate and plentiful food supply of the lower -life zones combine to attract a great number of small rodents. By far -the greater number of species is found in the Upper and Lower Sonoran -Zones. This does not mean that mice are rare in the high mountains. They -live there in great numbers, but of fewer species. One is the -long-tailed deermouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), probably the most -outstanding member of the genus, and the most widely distributed mouse -in the United States. As might be expected, it is quite variable in -appearance, having at least three distinct color phases. These vary from -golden tan to a dark gray. All phases have a sharper bicolor tail, white -beneath and like the rest of the upper body on top. - -The deermouse is well known to those who are fortunate enough to own -summer cabins in the mountains. This is the little rodent which moves -into the cabin as soon as the vacationer departs. Fortunately it is not -so destructive as the common house mouse (which, by the way, is an -introduced species) and limits its destructiveness for the most part to -building a large and comfortable nest in which to live during the winter -months. Deermice do not hibernate, so they must prepare against the -bitter cold. However, it is not their habit to store food either, and -doubtless many of them starve to death over a hard winter. - - - Mountain vole - _Microtus montanus_ (Latin: small ear ... of the mountains) - - [Illustration: mountain vole] - -Range: The mountainous regions of northwestern United States extending -eastward to central Colorado and southward below the northern borders of -Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Valleys and grassy meadows seldom lower than the Transition -Zone. - -Description: A small sturdy rodent with short tail, total length 5-1/2 -to 7-1/2 inches. Tail 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 inches. This is a very short tail -for a rodent of this size, amounting to only about a fourth of the total -length. Color, grayish brown to black above; underparts lighter to a -silvery gray. This is but one of many species found in southwestern -mountains. The Mexican vole and the long-tailed vole are two which share -its range. They are quite similar in appearance and their life histories -also are much the same. - -In several ways this heavy-set rodent resembles the pocket gopher. The -small ears and eyes as well as the short tail are all reminiscent of -that animal. Like many other rodents, voles are quite prolific. From -four to eight young are born in a litter. The number of litters each -year depends to a great extent on the altitude. They have been recorded -in the Canadian Zone, where the summers are too short to permit the -rearing of more than one litter. In the Transition Life Zone they -commonly bear two litters and sometimes more each year. - -These are the small rodents which most people call "field" or "meadow" -mice. In the prairie states this genus is well known for its habit of -congregating under shocks of small grain and corn. Here they build their -nests and temporarily live in peace and plenty. When the shocks are -taken from the field, they are rudely evicted from their snug shelters -to fall prey to the farmer's dog or to face the prospect of building a -new home before winter descends upon them. In the West, too, this "field -mouse" makes itself at home in agricultural areas, but its native haunts -are the natural meadows in mountain valleys. Here they build tunnels in -the tangled growth of grass, and excavate shallow burrows in the soft -earth. Marshy places are particularly to their liking, because they are -quite at home in water. Too, the thick cover in these areas gives them -considerable protection from their many enemies. A normally high -reproduction rate (several litters per year with up to eight young in -each litter) coupled with a secretive way of life insures their -perpetuation. In cases where a natural balance has been upset, their -population can soar to fantastic heights. In one agricultural district -in Nevada a survey revealed an estimated 8,000 to 12,000 "field mice" -per acre. - -Voles do not hibernate. They are active night and day, summer and -winter. During winter storms they may remain in their snug nests for a -few days at a time, but with the return of clear weather, openings to -their tunnels will soon appear in freshly fallen snow. - - - Western jumping mouse -_Zapus princeps_ (Greek: za, intensive and pous, foot. Latin: princeps, - chief) - -Range: Western United States from central Arizona and New Mexico to -Alaska. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: High mountains in dry places with abundant low ground cover. - -Description: A small rodent, two-toned in color, that leaps through the -grass much like a kangaroo rat. Total length 8 to 10 inches. Tail 4-1/2 -to 6 inches. Color buffy along sides, shading to almost black on the -back and white on the underparts and feet. Tail bi-color, dark above and -light gray beneath. Ears relatively long, dark in color with light buffy -marginal lines. Eyes beady, set in long face with sharp nose. Front legs -short but hind legs and feet large and muscular. Young, four to six in a -litter, with no more than one litter a year in the higher elevations. - -The jumping mice are among the most specialized small rodents in the -United States. The genus is typically North American, only one species -being found outside this continent. At some time in the distant past -this little creature adapted itself to a mode of flight much like that -of the kangaroo and jerboa. In this respect it exceeds the kangaroo rats -and pocket mice of the United States, species to which it is distantly -related. Its general build is distinctly like that of the kangaroo, with -the same delicately formed front quarters and heavier hind quarters. The -tail, though not club-shaped like the kangaroo's, is long enough to -serve the same purpose--that of a rudder to guide the direction of -flight. The hindlegs are muscular enough to propel the body on -proportionally longer jumps than even the kangaroo. Here the resemblance -ceases, however, for the jumping mouse is not related, even distantly, -to this marsupial. The only pouches the jumping mice have are internal -cheek pouches used exclusively for transportation of food. - -Jumping mice have one more peculiarity that set them apart from most -other North American mice; they hibernate. The period of hibernation is -not a short one at the elevations at which these mice live. It may last -for as long as 6 months. Preparation for this extensive period of -inactivity consists mainly in gathering and eating grass seeds until a -thick layer of fat is stored under the skin. With the first cold weather -the jumping mice retire to previously prepared underground burrows and -sleep the winter away. - -Since they are almost exclusively seed eaters, they may have a difficult -time on emerging in the spring. Apparently there is no food cache stored -away for this period, so the hapless rodents must search for what can be -found until the grasses head out again. The method of harvesting grass -seed is unique, and once seen will not be easily mistaken. Living as -they do in a jungle of tall grass, they are not able to reach the heads -nor to climb the slender stems. Instead, they cut off the stem as high -as they can reach, pull the upper part down to the ground and cut it -again. This goes on until the head is brought within reach. Small piles -of grass stems, all cut to an average length, indicate that this is the -species which has been at work. - -Jumping mice seldom will be seen except when in flight. Then their -jack-in-the-box tactics make it almost impossible to determine what they -are really like. They are timid, inoffensive little creatures which, if -caught, will seldom offer to bite. - - - Bushy-tailed woodrat - _Neotoma cinerea_ (Greek: neos, new and temnien, to cut ... Latin: - cinereus, ashy) - -Range: Mountainous portions of western North America from Alaska south -to central California, northern Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Found usually in association with the pines of the Transition -and Canadian Life Zones; crevices in cliffs and among rock slides are -favorite nesting sites. - -Description: This woodrat will be recognized at once by its bushy, -squirrel-like tail. The several other species in the same range have the -usual scanty growth on the tail, so thin as to be almost unnoticeable. -This species is large for a woodrat; total length ranges from 12-1/2 to -18 inches. Tail 5-1/2 to 8 inches. The soft, thick fur shows wide -variation in color, as might be expected from the great range occupied -by this species with its many subspecies. In general it varies from ashy -to cinnamon above, to pure white on the underparts. Although the head -has the same general shape as that of other woodrats, its appearance is -altered somewhat by long, silky whiskers up to 4 inches in length, and -extremely large ears. The dark, beady eyes, however, are typical of the -genus. The young, from two to six, are born in early summer. This -average of four or possibly less, when the breeding habits of all the -subspecies are taken into consideration, seems low when compared with -other small rodents. The low death rate indicated probably is due not -only to this species' secretive habits but to a high order of native -intelligence as well. - - [Illustration: bushy-tailed woodrat] - -Many are the names applied to this interesting little animal. "Mountain -rat," "pack rat," "trade rat," and woodrat are some of the most common. -Several stem from the supposition that when the animal takes an article -that suits its fancy, it always replaces it with something which it -supposes to be of equal value. Observation of the creature's habits will -indicate that these "trades" are entirely by chance. These animals are -continually carrying small objects about and often drop one in favor of -another more to their liking. The fact is that the most attractive items -usually are carried to the vicinity of the nest, and so the scientific -name of one of the subspecies is perhaps one of the most appropriate for -this industrious collector. This subspecific title is _orolestes_, which -translated from the Greek means _oros_, mountain, and _lestes_, robber. - -The penchant for carrying away another's property leads to many -incidents both comic and tragic. The rats are not at all averse to -sharing a prospector's cabin, and during hours when the rightful owner -is away at work raise havoc with his possessions. During long winter -nights they are no less industrious, and the mysterious sounds of their -activities will keep even a sound sleeper awake for hours. Eventually -this becomes so exasperating that drastic action is called for. One old -prospector told me of a woodrat that had been bothering him for a long -time. Traps proved of no avail and finally one night he placed his -forty-five on a box beside his bed, together with a candle and matches. -During the night he was again awakened and quietly sat up and lighted -the candle. There on one of his cupboard shelves was the dim form of the -rat. Taking careful aim in the flickering candlelight, he pulled the -trigger and hit the animal "dead center." The heavy slug literally blew -it apart. Unfortunately it happened to be sitting directly in front of a -5-pound can of coffee. One may assume that without either woodrat or -coffee he slept soundly thereafter. - -My own experiences with this species have been no less exasperating. -When but a youth, my brother and I were quartered in an old bunkhouse -one winter. We chose the smaller of the two rooms as being easier to -keep warm, and after a thorough clean-up moved in. No rank novices, we -wired our watches to a nail driven into the wall and hung our other -valuables from a wire stretched across the room. In the morning our -socks were missing! Thereafter matters were uneventful for a week. The -woodrat would come up through a hole in the corner of the room as soon -as the lights were out. All night long it would make trips through the -connecting door into the adjoining room and carry away loads of cotton -from an old mattress on the unused bed. - -Came the week-end and the Saturday barn dance about 3 miles up the -canyon. Fresh shirts and trousers donned, coats and vests were taken -from the chair backs upon which they had been carefully hung. Behold! -One vest front was completely chewed out and carried away, presumably -for nesting material. This was the last straw; the creature must be done -away with. - -On the following night plans were laid with care. Two 5-gallon oil cans -were placed in the doorway. This left a narrow passageway just wide -enough to accommodate a small jump trap. A piece of newspaper was placed -over the trap and the end of the chain wired to the head of the steel -bedstead. A short time after the lights were put out, a scratching noise -indicated that the animal had come in through the hole. All was quiet -until its nose came into contact with one of the empty cans. Then snap! -A series of squeaks and the rattle of the chain gave warning that the -creature was climbing into bed. As it came in over the head, the wildly -excited occupants left by the foot. When the light was struck the rat -was sitting in the middle of the bed. A heavy boot soon dispatched it -and a semblance of order again returned to the bunkhouse. Strange to -say, no more woodrats came in for the remainder of the season. - -Although such experiences are the rule when this rat has moved into a -dwelling, it is a delightful creature in its native haunts. It is a rim -rock dweller; that is, it likes best to build its nest far back in some -deep crevice of a cliff. If such a location is not available it may find -a protected site in a talus slope or even among the roots of a tree. -Usually these natural fortresses are further reinforced by the addition -of a pile of sticks and miscellaneous materials piled helter skelter -over the nest. The nest itself is quite large, usually a foot or more in -diameter, built of the softest and warmest materials at hand. Somewhere -adjacent to the nest will be found one or more caches of food against -the time when the snows are deep and famine stalks the land. As has been -mentioned, the woodrat is usually associated with the pines of the -Transition Life Zone and above, and pine nuts are one of its most -popular items of food. Acorns, seeds, berries, stone fruits, and some -vegetation round out its vegetable diet. It will also eat meat whenever -available although, except for insects, shows little inclination to kill -its own. With such a varied menu, it seems entirely proper to call this -rodent omnivorous. - -One of the most characteristic marks of the woodrat's home is a strong, -musky odor. This is not an indication of uncleanliness. The animal is -most fastidious in its toilette but has this body odor in large measure. -A study skin will retain a strong trace of it for many years. Whether it -functions for an identification to others of the species is not known, -but it could well serve this purpose. - -Although classed as a nocturnal animal, the bushy-tailed woodrat is -often active throughout the daylight hours. They are not gregarious -creatures; yet, since suitable nesting sites may not be found in some -areas, other more favored localities often will harbor considerable -numbers of the animals. Overhanging ledges may shelter the piles of -litter denoting a nest every few feet. In such cases, a well-worn trail -will lead from one to the other. This is not an indication that a colony -lives there in peace and harmony. These rats are truculent creatures -among themselves, and if a stranger should venture into a nest mound, he -is evicted with many indignant squeaks and a fearsome snapping of teeth. -The interloper seems to know he is out of order and usually leaves the -nest at once without more than a token show of resistance. In neutral -territory such as a cabin, however, several woodrats may share the area -quite peacefully, but to the great annoyance of the human occupant. - -The variety of sounds produced by such a group is quite amazing. Added -to the usual high-pitched squeaks and patter of running feet are the -mysterious rustlings of paper and other objects being dragged about. A -peculiar thumping sound indicates a gait which I have never seen but -often heard at night. It must be somewhat like the leaping flight of a -kangaroo rat, at least it indicates a swift succession of leaps across a -flat surface such as a floor or roof. Perhaps the broad surface -presented by the flat of the bushy tail is of assistance in this -maneuver. Then, like most rodents, the woodrat will thump with its hind -legs as an alarm signal. This is perhaps the most noticeable sound of -all, for it marks the instant cessation of all activity for every member -of its kind within hearing distance. The "ear-splitting silence" that -follows this signal literally presses in on one in the darkness. - - - Muskrat - _Ondatra zibethicus_ (French Canadian word from the Iroquois and Huron - Indian word for muskrat. Latin: the odorous substance of the civet - alluding to the musk secreted by the muskrat) - -Range: Virtually all of North America north of the Mexican border. -Muskrats are found from near sea level to as high as 10,000 feet above -it. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This large rodent can exist only near a permanent water supply -which is deep enough to shelter it from its enemies. This may be a lake, -a marsh, or a running stream. - -Description: A large aquatic rodent whose long, flat tail undulates from -side to side when it swims. Total length 18 to 25 inches. Tail 8 to 11 -inches. Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The thick, dark brown fur of the upper -body is overlaid with brown to black guard hairs. The legs are short but -powerful. The front feet are small, but the hind feet are relatively -large and partially webbed, with stiff hairs on the edges of the webs -and along the sides of the toes. The long, black tail is flattened -vertically. It is so scantily haired that it may be said to be naked, -but is covered with small scales up to 2 millimeters in diameter. The -head is quite similar to that of a vole. The ears are so short as to -barely protrude through the fur, and the eyes are small. Average number -of young thought to be six per litter. Several litters may be born each -year. - -The presence of muskrats in a shallow lake or marsh is not difficult to -detect. This is their chosen habitat, and here in water about 1-1/2 feet -deep, they build their characteristic mounds of rushes and cat-tails. -Here they may also be seen on quiet days swimming about and carrying on -their normal activities. In much of the Southwest, however, such -favorite habitats are few and far between and the muskrats must take -their choice, if there be one, between the few permanent streams and -irrigation canals. In these altered circumstances they react quite -differently; they may often be present in considerable numbers without -anyone being the wiser. The change in habits required by this different -environment illustrates the great adaptability exhibited by many of our -most common mammal species. - -The most important requirement of a muskrat is a permanent body of water -of a depth sufficient for it to dive into and escape from its enemies. -Given this, it will at once set about constructing a home. In a lake or -marsh, there is little or no current. In sheltered bays, where wave -action is slight, the bottom often will be muddy. In the shallow water -along the shore, water plants such as tules and cattails will become -established. This is indeed muskrat heaven, for these and other aquatic -plants are both their food and building materials. The most edible -portions of the plants are the roots and the stem portions which are -below the surface of the mud. When one of these choice tidbits has been -cut free by the muskrat's sharp teeth, it is carried to some favorite -place to be eaten. This may be a mud bar well sheltered by overhanging -vegetation from prying eyes, the end of a log projecting above the -surface of the water, or perhaps the roof of the "house." The discarded -portion of the stem is buoyant and usually lodges among the remaining -plants until needed for building purposes. - - [Illustration: muskrat] - -When the muskrat house is being built, a great quantity of this flotsam -is piled up until the resultant mound may project as much as 3 feet -above the water and be 5 or 6 feet in diameter. The nest is built above -the waterline in this half-submerged "haystack." Entrance to the living -quarters is by a tunnel which usually starts through the mud a short -distance from the base of the house, goes under the edge of the -structure, then inclines upward to the nest. Only one entrance is -necessary for even if some enemy should tear through the tangle of -rushes deep enough to reach the nest, it would take so long that every -inmate could easily escape by this submarine route. The house serves one -more important purpose in the far north. When the ice lies thick over -the marsh and seals this water world away from air, the muskrats can -still take short forays under the ice for food and return again to free -air, without which no mammal can exist. - -Had the muskrat learned to build dams such as beavers construct, the -species might very well be near extinction in the Southwest, since such -structures would seriously interfere with irrigation. However, since -they have accepted conditions as they are, the muskrats do very well for -themselves in the shallow streams and irrigation ditches. In fact, their -population under the adverse conditions of today is probably far above -that of the days before the white man arrived on the scene. Do not -assume from this statement that a whole new way of life has been opened -up for the muskrat. There has always been a "bank" muskrat that lived in -burrows in the stream banks. This fast-water addict has now taken full -advantage of the artificial streams that are the forerunners of -agriculture almost everywhere in the Southwest. The burrows built into -the canal banks seem to be identical with those constructed under -natural conditions. - -The "bank" muskrat builds three types of shelters, each with a definite -and necessary function. These might be called the feeding burrow, the -shelter burrow, and the breeding burrow, respectively. The first two are -simple in design and have few variations, but the breeding burrow may be -extremely complex. If a choice is available, all burrows will be in a -bank along the swiftest flow of water, as on the outside of a curve in -the canal, for instance. This prevents the entrances from silting shut -as they would in the more quiet reaches. - -There are two types of feeding burrows. The first and more common -consists of a cut made just above water level in the side of a vertical -bank. If possible, it is behind a portiere of hanging grass or weeds, so -as to be completely screened from view. This is merely a safe place to -which the muskrat can take its food and eat without being bothered by -enemies. The second type of feeding burrow is more elaborate, consisting -of several such chambers along the bank connected by short tunnels. -These seem to be community shelters since they are used by several -individuals at the same time. The added safety provided by the -connecting tunnels seems to be the advantage in this type of dining -room. - -The shelter burrow not only affords escape from enemies, but may be a -sleeping burrow as well. It consists of two tunnels which start at -different levels under water and join just before they reach the main -chamber, which of course, is above water level. The two tunnels assure -an escape route if one or the other is invaded by an enemy. Each muskrat -may have several of these shelter burrows. The one used as a sleeping -burrow will be furnished with a soft nest of shredded leaves. Cattail -leaves are a favorite material for this purpose. Wet, green cattail -leaves in a damp underground cavern make a poor bed by most standards, -but no doubt, it seems a dry, cozy retreat to the muskrat as it emerges -dripping from its underwater tunnel. - -The breeding burrows are large and elaborate in design. There is reason -to believe they are not always the work of one individual. They may even -represent combined efforts of several generations of muskrats. Often -they are a labyrinth of tunnels connecting many nesting chambers, each -with a nest of different age. This can be determined by the yellowing of -the shredded leaves. As might be expected, there are usually a number of -tunnels leading from this maze into the water. A half dozen of these -underwater entrance tunnels is not unusual. All this room gives the -young a place to exercise before they are able to take to the water. - -Young muskrats are surprisingly precocious. They are able to leave the -nest when very small, and at 4 weeks of age are weaned and capable of -taking care of themselves, although only about one-fourth grown. At this -stage, they are peculiar looking little individuals. The fur is still in -the woolly stage, dark and bluish in color. The guard hairs have not yet -appeared, and altogether they have an unkempt appearance. This rapidly -disappears, however, when they leave the burrow. Their progress is so -rapid that young born early in the spring are believed to breed during -the following fall. - -Though ordinarily confined to the immediate vicinity of water, muskrats -sometimes are found in amazing places. The urge to travel sometimes -influences them to go across country for many miles to some other body -of water. They may also become overcrowded in an area so that food -becomes scarce and some may leave on that account. It is not uncommon in -the Middle West for them to burrow into a farmer's root cellar in early -fall and spend months in this haven of warmth and good food before they -are discovered. Floods may carry them many miles away from established -haunts and leave them stranded on high ground when the waters recede. A -muskrat found in this predicament is not an animal with which to trifle. -If it cannot escape by water, it will probably elect to make a stand. -The long, sharp incisors are formidable weapons indeed, and any enemy, -including man, had best allow judgment to become the better part of -valor. - -The tracks of muskrats are so characteristic that they cannot be -mistaken for those of any other animal. Strangely enough they resemble -to a striking degree those of certain types of extinct reptiles called -dinosaurs. The tracks of the two small front feet are close together and -overlapped somewhat by those of the larger hind feet. Between the tracks -is the sinuous trail left by the sharp-edged tail. - - - Beaver - _Castor canadensis_ (Latin: a beaver ... from Canada) - -Range: The beaver, like the muskrat, can be found almost everywhere in -North America north of the Mexican border. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near any water supply of enough volume, with or without -damming, to provide security for a beaver family. - -Description: The largest North American rodent; further distinguished by -having a broad flat tail. Total length 34 to 40 inches. Tail 9 to 10 -inches. Weight from 30 to 60 pounds. In color the beaver varies from a -deep, rich brown in the northern states to a much paler shade in desert -regions of the Southwest. The soft, rich underfur is partially concealed -by coarse, rather stiff guard hairs. The brown color of the upper parts -shades to a chestnut under the belly and on the inner sides of the legs. -The forefeet are small with well developed claws. They appear naked but -have a scanty cover of coarse hairs. The hind feet are large and webbed, -and are similarly covered with a few coarse hairs. - -The body of the beaver has somewhat the appearance of a kangaroo in that -the rear portion is heavy and appear overdeveloped in comparison with -the more stream-lined head and forequarters. Much of this impression is -gained from the heavy, flat tail which is thick and muscular at the -point where it joins the body. One of the most useful appendages -possessed by any creature, the tail is paddled-shaped horizontally and -about an inch thick in the middle, tapering to thin edges and tip. It -appears naked, but is covered with scales. - -The young, averaging four in number, are born in the late spring and, -although they are soon able to take care of themselves, the family -remains together for most of the year. - -Indications of beavers in an area are their dams or the distinctive -stumps left by their tree felling. Beaver tracks are seldom found. -Although this aquatic animal often leaves the water, and may go a -considerable distance overland, its tracks usually are obliterated by -the passage of the heavy rump and the dragging tail. - -The beaver, perhaps as much as any other factor, was instrumental in -opening up western America to civilization. Even before the Thirteen -Original Colonies had become firmly established along the eastern -seaboard, venturesome men were working westward in search of more beaver -to supply the ever-increasing demand for this soft-rich fur. Industrial -empires were founded on this traffic in skins which came from as far -west as the Mississippi River. By the early 1800's, the trappers had -penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, and in 1806, upon the return of the -Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Pacific Northwest, they swarmed to -the headwaters of the Missouri River system. Prior to this, the -Southwest had been given little attention by the fur industry. It was -considered an inhospitable region, inhabited by hostile Indians, and -with a few settlements of Spanish colonists who, up to that time, had -actively resisted the intrusions of the more aggressive Americans. -However, by the year 1820, relations had improved to such a degree that -a few of these hardy individuals were trapping on the headwaters of the -desert rivers. Later, their activities spread to include the entire -length of these remarkable watercourses. - -These were the Mountain Men, a hard-as-nails breed of frontiersmen in a -class by themselves. In the period from 1820-1854, when a large part of -the Southwest became part of the United States through the Gadsden -Purchase, they roamed the plains and mountains of the American Desert. -Their roster includes such legendary figures as Bill Williams, Pauline -Weaver, Kit Carson, and James Pattie. Their argosy was a quest for the -rich, brown beaver pelts which were a golden fleece indeed when -presented to the fur traders in far-off St. Louis. In time, their -moccasined feet beat a broad path across the western plains--a path then -known as the Santa Fe Trail, but identified today as U.S. 66, the "Main -Street of America." - -Today, many of the streams which supported beaver colonies in the desert -places have vanished entirely, and others have been so effectively -harnessed for irrigation and power that there is no place for beavers in -them. In the higher mountains, however, there are many streams remote -from civilization where clear ponds still sparkle in the sunlight, and -the splash and dripping of busy beavers can be heard on quiet, summer -evenings. Because beavers quickly become established under any -conditions which are at all favorable, they have been reintroduced into -numerous places where they had been extinct for many years. Usually this -is good conservation practice, but under some conditions, it may prove a -mistake. Ecologically speaking, beavers probably are the most important -creatures in any animal community of which they are members. This is -because these busy engineers not only impose a tremendous drain on the -surrounding area for material, very often they also radically alter the -character of the terrain to fit their own needs. - - [Illustration: beaver] - -The life history of the beaver is one of the most interesting of all -mammals. It has been studied for centuries by naturalists in both the -New and Old Worlds, for the beaver, with but few differences, is native -to both. All this study and observation notwithstanding, the habits are -still only partially known. This is because the beaver is mainly a -nocturnal creature which spends most of its daylight hours in the -concealment of a lodge or burrow. Then, too, in the northern latitudes -where the ponds are covered with ice throughout the long winters there -is little opportunity to observe this phase of its existence. There is -but one species of beaver in North America but about two dozen -subspecies. The northern types and those which live in the mountains of -the Southwest seem to be dam builders who live in beaver "lodges." Those -which inhabited rivers of the lower desert were mostly "bank" beavers -which lived in burrows in the banks of streams. This latter type is rare -today. - -Perhaps the best way to understand the ecological importance of the -beaver is through watching the rise and decline of a typical colony. -Picture if you will a small, shallow stream flowing gently down a narrow -valley in the mountains. Bordering the low banks is a thicket of alders. -Back of them a thick growth of aspens extends to the edge of the valley -and mingles with the spruce trees on the slope. Down this slope comes a -young male beaver at a clumsy gallop, his broad tail striking the ground -with an audible thump at every lope. This emigrant has struck out for -himself because the colony to which he belongs has become crowded. He -finds the stream and, since the water is too shallow to conceal him, -crouches under an overhanging bank until darkness falls. - -As soon as it becomes completely dark, he hunts for a suitable place to -build a dam and soon finds a site to his liking. On one side of the -stream a thick clump of alders projects from the bank, and on the other -a water-soaked log is half buried in the bottom of the creek. From these -anchor points, he begins his dam, building toward the middle from each -side. The work calls for a great deal of the alder brush to be cut and -sunk in the bed of the stream. There it is weighted down with rocks and -mud until secure. Additional brush is brought and interwoven with the -first; gradually the structure grows until in a few days it converts the -stream into a quiet pool deep enough to hide the beaver, should an enemy -appear. As the water rises it covers the bases of the alders, which -begin to die in the pond. - -The beaver next turns his attention to building a lodge. Selecting a -point to one side of the current entering the pond, he begins as he did -with the dam by sinking brush to the bottom and weighting it down with -rocks. As he builds, he cleverly fashions several underwater entrances -to the house that will be. When he has finished, the house projects -several feet above the water, and the materials are so thoroughly -interlaced and plastered that even the most determined enemy would -despair of gaining entry to the living room. Debris from the -construction has floated downstream to become lodged in and on the dam, -making it more secure and watertight that it was when first built. - -With the dam and the lodge both completed, the next task is to collect a -food supply for the following winter. This is carried on intermittently -during the autumn. It consists of cutting down aspens, whose bark the -beaver dearly loves, sectioning the branches and small trunks into -pieces which may be handled conveniently, and dragging them to the pond. -Once in the water, they are weighted down and will remain in good -condition for a long time. The beaver is joined in this task by a female -which has also migrated from an overcrowded colony. Two need more food -than one, consequently their trails begin to head a little farther into -the aspen forest as they work through the crisp autumn nights. These -trails converge as they leave the forest and approach the pond, and end -in a few well-developed mud slides that enter the water. Constant -traffic of the wet beavers leaving the water keeps the slides moist and -slippery. - -As winter settles in on the mountains, a thin skim of ice begins to form -on the edges of the quiet water on cold nights. Then one night it -freezes completely over. This causes the beavers no inconvenience at all -because if on one of their underwater excursions they should wish to -surface for air, they have but to swim to a shallow place with firm -bottom, and with one quick lift of their powerful muscles break a hole -through the ice with their backs. They can break surprisingly thick ice -in this way. The beavers live in comfort and plenty throughout the -winter. The living room of the lodge has been furnished with comfortable -beds of the cattails that have already become established along the edge -of the pond. The lodge, although tightly built, still admits enough air -for the beavers and food is stored in plenty on the bottom of the pond. -As the bark is gnawed from the aspen branches, the bare poles are added -to the bulk of the house or used in further construction of the dam. -Before long, the mild southwestern winter merges into spring. - -In late spring the beaver family is considerably increased by the -arrival of four miniature beavers. They weigh but 1 pound each at birth -and are fully furred. At this time, the father is ostracized and the -mother and her young live together in the lodge. When the young are -about 3 weeks old, they take to the water for the first time. They -quickly learn the beaver method of swimming; this is to kick with the -hind feet and let the forelegs trail loosely alongside the breast, using -the flat tail both as elevator and rudder. The young beavers are called -kits, and indeed are as playful as true kittens can be. It is most -amazing to watch them cavorting about in the water with as much ease as -youngsters of other mammals do on dry land. As autumn nears, this play -is exchanged for the sterner duties of existence, and the young take -their places as adults of the family. - -Fifty years pass. As the colony increases the dam must be made larger, -new lodges must be built; and when the trails to the aspen forest become -too long, canals are dug part way out to lessen the hazards which may -befall the beaver on dry land. The pond gradually silts up to higher and -higher levels until at last it is full of black, fertile soil. All of -the aspens within reach are finally cut down and the hungry beavers turn -to the resinous bark of the spruces. Finally the struggle is given up. -The beavers migrate to a new location, and the following spring a -freshet tears out the center of the dam. Now the pond is gone. With it -are gone the trout that played in its depths, and the teal that rested -there on their way south. In its place is a beaver meadow, a grassy park -in the center of the spruce forest with spring flowers spangling its -green surface. Aspens are already beginning to crowd in about its edges, -and the creek is cutting deeper into its soft soil with every spring. -Before long heavy erosion will begin to take its toll, and some day in -the future a male beaver will again come galloping awkwardly down the -slope. - -The changing conditions which such a cycle bring about are almost -impossible to evaluate. At least three climax types of environment are -represented: those of the alder thicket, the beaver pond, and the beaver -meadow. In a graphic fashion this cycle illustrates what is going on in -Nature continually, more slowly perhaps, but just as surely. - - - Porcupine - _Erethizon dorsatum_ (Greek: to irritate in allusion to the quills and - Latin: pertaining to the back) - -Range: Most of North America north of the Mexican border. Notable by -their exception are the south central and southeastern United States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually associated with conifer forest, yet may sometimes be -found miles from any forest. An inhabitant of all life zones up to -timberline (Arctic-Alpine). - -Description: A black to grizzled black and yellow creature covered with -quills. Total length 18 to 22 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight 10 to -28 pounds. Body short and wide; supported by short bowed legs. Tail -heavy and muscular, armed with short slender quills. Head small with -dull eyes and long black whiskers, but with short ears. The incisors are -extremely large and are of a bright, rich yellow color. The quills are -shortest on the face and reach their greatest length near the middle of -the back. Often they are nearly hidden in the coarse, seal brown to -black underfur. The long guard hairs are also seal brown close to the -body, but change to a rather sere yellow at the tips. Only one young is -brought forth each year in a den among the rocks, or sometimes in a -hollow log. The young are among the most precocious of any mammal. - -The porcupine in North America is considered as belonging to but the one -species _dorsatum_, although there are seven subspecies. The most common -subspecies found in the Southwest is _epixanthum_ (Greek _epi_, upon, -and _xanthus_, yellow), sometimes called "yellow-haired" porcupine. The -porcupine is unique among North American mammals in bearing the sharp -quills which are perhaps its most interesting feature. Certainly they -are responsible in large part for the unusual life history of this -misunderstood animal. - -Quills are no more than greatly modified hairs, and in sorting through -the various types of pelage on a porcupine's back, a few examples will -be found which are intermediate between the hair and the quills. This -does not mean that coarser hairs gradually turn to quills. Each follicle -produces hair or quill, as the case may be, for the life of the animal. -A quill consists of three well-defined parts: a solid sharp tip usually -black in color; a hollow shaft, which is white; and a root similar to -that of a hair. - - [Illustration: porcupine] - -The sharp tip is smooth for a fraction of an inch, but from this point -on, it is covered with a great number of closely appressed barbs. These -can be felt by rubbing the quill the "wrong" way between thumb and -forefinger. It has been found that these barbs flare away from the -surface, when the quill is immersed in warm water. It seems natural that -they would do the same when embedded in warm, moist flesh. At any rate, -quills are always difficult to extract, and if left in the victim they -penetrate ever more deeply until they may pierce some vital organ and -cause death. In other cases, they have been known to work entirely -through body or limb and emerge on the opposite side. This is due to -muscular action of the victim, some movements tending to force the point -farther, the barbs at the same time effectively preventing any retreat. - -Below the barbs the tip of the quill flares to join the shaft. Pure -white and opaque, this portion is used by Indians to form decorative -bands of quill work on the fronts of buckskin vests and jackets. This -part is also hollow, and before removal of a quill from the flesh is -attempted, a little of the end should be cut off. This collapses the -shaft and makes extraction somewhat more easy, but very little less -painful. Actually there is little excuse for a human to become involved -with one of these mild-tempered creatures, but sometimes dogs are badly -hurt in encounters with them. - -The root is the portion by which the quill is attached to the body. -Although it is a common belief that the porcupine can "throw" its -quills, the truth is that the root portion is extremely weak and the -quills are easily withdrawn from the body when the barbed tip is driven -into an enemy. In fact, any violent movement of the animal may dislodge -quills, even though nothing has touched them. There are several -well-authenticated accounts of quills having been flipped for several -feet in this way, but in each case, it was entirely accidental and -through no conscious effort of the porcupine. In other words, the -armament of this slow, awkward creature should be considered strictly -defensive in every respect. - -Like the skunk, which can also defend itself most effectively, the -porcupine has little apparent fear of its enemies. When threatened with -violence it simply brings its head down between the forelegs and turns -its rump toward the attacker. With hair and quills erect it resembles a -soft furry ball. Appearances are seldom more deceiving! The guard hairs -half conceal a spot on the back where a whorl of long quills radiates -out in a large "cowlick." Should any enemy touch these long guard hairs, -the muscular tail is thrashed vigorously about in an effort to drive the -somewhat shorter but equally keen-pointed tail quills into the attacker. -With every attempt at attack from another angle, the porcupine turns so -as to present its rump to the enemy. There is one Achilles heel, -however, in this otherwise almost perfect defense. It is the unprotected -underparts, which at times of danger are always kept pressed against the -ground or against a tree trunk. A few carnivores, among them the -mountain lion and the fisher, are known to kill the porcupine by -flipping it over on its back and tearing it open. Even these large -predators seldom escape unscathed, however, and both lions and fishers -are known to have died from the effects of quills accidentally taken -into the digestive tract. - -To those who have heard that porcupines live only on bark and always -girdle the host trees, it may come as a surprise to find that this is -only partly true. Although "bark" is eaten to some extent throughout the -year, it is seldom the main diet. When a great deal is taken from one -tree, it is gnawed off in an aimless pattern which may or may not girdle -the tree. During the spring and summer, a porcupine becomes a browser on -tender leaves and twigs in the undergrowth. In autumn and winter, it -feeds more on mistletoe and pine needles than on bark. With its low -reproduction rate, there is little danger of it eating up our forests, -unless its natural enemies are removed. - - - Northern pocket gopher - _Thomomys talpoides_ (Greek: thomos, a heap and mys, mouse. Latin: - talpa, a mole) - -Range: From northwestern United States and southwestern Canada to as far -south as northern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Soft loam in the open places in the high mountains. Seldom -found below 8,000 feet, but up to elevations of over 13,000 feet in New -Mexico. - -Description: The characteristic mounds of earth built up by this group -of burrowing rodents are usually the best indication of their presence. -The northern pocket gopher is of medium size. Total length 6-1/2 to -9-1/2 inches. Tail 1-3/4 to 3 inches. It is usually gray in color with -darker patches behind the rounded ears. Eyes and ears are small. The -short tail has a bare, blunt tip. Front claws are long and curved. The -entire body is well muscled and gives an impression of power. Average -number of young thought to be about four. At the high elevations at -which this species lives, the young are not seen until rather late in -summer. - - [Illustration: northern pocket gopher] - -The northern pocket gopher is one of the hardiest rodents on the North -American Continent. Even so, it would not be able to survive the climate -of the inhospitable regions it sometimes inhabits were it not for the -fact that is spends almost all its life underground. This creature does -not hibernate, but continues busily at the task of searching out food -when most other subterranean dwellers are curled up fast asleep in their -cozy nests. Why the gopher should continue working, while its ground -squirrel cousins sleep, is hard to say. It would seem that it has the -same opportunities to lay on fat for a winter's rest. The chief reason -seems to be that the bulbs and roots upon which it feeds are always -available so long as the gopher keeps extending its underground -workings. On the other hand, the ground squirrels, which gather their -food aboveground, are cut off from this supply as soon as cold weather -drives them to shelter. - -The pocket gophers are much alike. There are three genera and a -considerable number of species represented in the Southwest but, except -for variations due to climate and terrain, their habits are similar. -Burrows usually are constructed in deep loam or alluvial soils. These -tunnels seem to follow an aimless pattern. Their course is marked by -mounds of earth thrown out of the workings at irregular intervals. When -the gopher is engaged in throwing out this excavated earth, the entrance -to the tunnel is left open until the job is completed, then tightly -plugged to prevent enemies from entering. The tunnels themselves are -rather small in diameter, considering the size of the gopher, for if it -wishes to retrace its steps and there is no gallery near at hand in -which to turn around, it can run backward almost as easily as forward. -There are usually numerous rooms excavated along the course of the -tunnels. In one is a warm nest constructed of grass and fibers. Others -are utilized for storage rooms and at least one is reserved as a toilet, -thereby keeping the rest of the workings sanitary. When the ground is -covered with snow the northern pocket gopher especially is quite likely -to extend its activities aboveground. Here it builds its tunnels through -the snow and often packs them tightly with earth brought up from below. -This remains as earth casts, when the snow melts and forms a -characteristic mark of its presence. - -Chief foods of pocket gophers are the bulbs, tubers, and fibrous roots -encountered in the course of their diggings. Whenever an especially -abundant supply is found, the surplus is stored away as insurance -against the time when future excavation produces nothing. Gophers also -eat leaves and stems whenever available. Some plants are pulled down -through the roof of the tunnel by the roots, and some are gathered near -its mouth, although these trips "outside" are fraught with danger. -Coyotes, foxes, and bobcats all are willing to chance an encounter with -this doughty little scrapper for the sake of the tasty meal he will -furnish. - -Little is known of gopher family life. For the most part, they are -solitary individuals, avoiding others of their kind. At breeding time, -however, they may travel some distance across country to find a mate. -These trips usually are carried out under cover of darkness. The young -average four in number. They are born late in the spring and do not -leave to make their own homes until early autumn. - -Physically the gopher exhibits a striking adaptation to its way of life. -The fur is thick and warm. It keeps soil particles from working into the -skin at the same time it protects the wearer from the chill of his -underground workings. The heavy, curved front claws are admirable -digging tools. In especially hard soil, the large strong incisors are -also pressed into service for this purpose. To remove the dirt from the -tunnel, the gopher becomes an animal bulldozer. The front legs are -employed as a blade pushing the soil, while the powerful hind legs push -the body and load towards the nearest tunnel opening. The pockets from -which this creature gets its common name are never used for hauling -earth. They are hair-lined pouches located in each cheek and utilized -for carrying food to the storerooms. There they are emptied by placing -the forefeet behind them and pushing forward. Last, by virtue of its -location, but certainly not least in usefulness, is the short, almost -hairless tail. It is used as a tactile organ to feel out the way when -the gopher runs backwards through the tunnels. In some respects, it is -of more use than the eyes although the gopher uses these too, as can be -attested by the quickness with which it detects any movement near the -mouth of its tunnel. - -The gopher's place in Nature seems to be akin to that of the earthworm. -By turning over the soil, the gopher enables it to more readily absorb -water and air. At the same time, fertility is increased by the addition -of buried plants and animal matter. This is indeed a fair exchange for -the plants it destroys in its quest for food. - - - - - CARNIVORES - _Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans_ - - -This group is distinguished from other animals by having canine teeth in -both jaws. The function of these teeth is to catch and hold other -animals, for carnivores are the predators. This is the most highly -developed branch of the animal world and reaches a peak of -specialization in man who, while lacking some of the physical -qualifications of the other predators, has developed a brain which has -enabled him to gain and keep ascendancy over all other animals. -Considered with the group in this book are two other orders, the -Insectivora and the Chiroptera. These orders embrace the mammals in -North America that live principally on worms or insects rather than on -other mammals. They are the shrews and bats, respectively. - -Since carnivores are the hunters rather than the hunted, they enjoy far -greater mobility than, for instance, the rodents. It is not necessary -that they have a burrow in which to escape the attacks of other animals, -for it is unusual for them to prey upon each other. Most of the -predators remain in one area only from choice or, in the case of adult -females, in order to rear the young. Few of them hibernate; bears and -skunks do spend a considerable time during the cold weather in a torpor, -but it is an uneasy sleep at best, as anyone who has disturbed these -animals at this time can attest. As far as the Chiroptera are concerned, -some species of bats hibernate and others migrate to a warmer climate to -spend the winter. Since most of the predators are active all winter, -while many of the rodents are in hibernation, this can be a period of -famine for carnivores. At the same time, it is a season of increased -danger for those species which are still active and upon which these -predators prey. - -Because these hunters are continually stalking other animals, their -habitats are as varied as those of their quarries. Thus, the mountain -lion is a creature of the rimrock, where he can most conveniently find -deer browsing on mountain-mahogany; while his smaller cousin, the -bobcat, stalks smaller animals in the slope chaparral. The wild dogs -hunt plains and brushy country for ground squirrels and rabbits. In the -weasel family we find the marten in the treetops pursuing squirrels, the -weasel hunting mice in the meadow, and mink and otter pursuing prey near -to or in the water, Some species, such as the bears, are omnivorous and -may be encountered almost anywhere that a plentiful supply of food of -any kind can be found. Practically all of the species, excepting bats -and skunks, can be considered diurnal as well as nocturnal, but the -majority are most active during the hours between dusk and sunrise. - -Since the carnivores' purpose in Nature's scheme is to control the -vegetable eaters, it follows that each predator must be somewhat -superior, either physically or mentally, or both, to the species upon -which it preys. The associations between pursuer and pursued may be -casual with species such as the coyote, which preys on a great number of -smaller species, or they may be sharply defined as with the lynx, which -in certain localities depends almost entirely upon the snowshoe hare for -food. The apparent ferocity with which some predators will kill, not -only enough for a meal, but much more than they need, cannot as yet be -explained. This habit is most pronounced in the weasel family. It may be -that more than ordinary control is called for in the case of their host -species, rodents in most cases. Whatever the reason, this wanton killing -has not upset the balance which these species maintain. Man, the most -ruthless and intelligent predator of all, is the only species which has -been successful in exterminating others. - -The predators hold a favored place in the esteem of most naturalists. At -first, sympathy for the weak and indignation against the strong are -perfectly natural human feelings. As the necessity for control and the -wonderful way in which Nature attains a balance becomes apparent, the -role of the predator becomes more and more appreciated by the student. - - - Mountain lion -_Felis concolor_ (Latin: a cat of the same color; referring no doubt to - the smooth blending of the body coloration) - -Range: At present, mostly confined to the western United States and -Canada, and all of Mexico south to the southern tip of South America. -There are a number of mountain lions in Florida, and persistent reports -indicate that they may be making a comeback in a number of other Eastern -States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: As the range indicates, habitats vary widely. Mountain lions in -the Southwest show a preference for rimrock country in the Transition -Life Zone or higher, but they are often seen in all the life zones. - -Description: A huge, tawny cat with long, heavy tail. The long tail is a -field mark identifying the young, which, having a spotted coat, -otherwise resemble young bobcats to some degree. Total length 72 to 90 -inches. Tail 30 to 36 inches. Weight 80 to 200 pounds. Color may vary -from tawny gray to brownish red over most of the body, the underparts -being lighter. The head and ears appear small in proportion to the lean -muscular body. The teeth are large, the canines being especially -massive. Like most members of the cat family, the mountain lion has -large feet with long, sharp claws. The tracks show the imprint of four -toes together with a large pad in the center of the foot. The young may -be born at any time of the year. Only one litter is born every 2 to 3 -years, and the average number of young is three. - -Probably no species of mammal in the New World equals the mountain lion -in farflung distribution. From the Yukon to Patagonia, this elusive -carnivore can still be found in considerable numbers in spite of -aggressive campaigns against it. In the United States, it is the chief -representative of the wild cats, a group noted for fierce and predacious -habits. Fortunate indeed is the person who sees one of these great -felines in the wild. This may not be as difficult as one might imagine -because mountain lions often travel through comparatively well settled -areas. It is especially possible in the Southwest, for the four-State -area covered by this book contains the heaviest population of mountain -lions in the United States. However, the comparative abundance of this -carnivore has not resulted in a better understanding of it. The mountain -lion is still one of the least known and most maligned creatures of our -times. - - [Illustration: mountain lion] - -The Mexicans know this cosmopolite as "leon." In Brazil it is called -"onca." Perhaps the most distinguished name, and rating as the first in -New World history, is "puma," given it by the Incas. Early American -settlers of the east coast called it "panther," "painter," and -"catamount." In the northwestern United States, it is known as "cougar" -and in the Southwest, as mountain lion. Although there is but the one -species _concolor_, there are a number of subspecies. About 15 are now -recognized, most of them geographical races and not markedly different -from the species. Four of these subspecies are found in the four States -with which we are concerned. One of the most interesting is -_hippolestes_ which inhabits the State of Colorado. Translated from the -Greek this is "horse thief," an appropriate epithet indeed for this -ghostly marauder. As might be expected from their vast distribution, the -several subspecies have a tremendous vertical range. In the Southwest -they are found from near sea level in southwestern Arizona to the tops -of the highest peaks in Colorado. - -In the more than four centuries that have elapsed since the white man -first set foot on soil of the New World, a great mass of folklore -concerning the mountain lion has accumulated. Half fact, half fiction, -these tales have been repeated from one generation to another and few -details have been lost in the telling; indeed, in most cases, several -have been added. Most common are those which describe its fierceness and -its attacks on man. In the main, these tales are lurid and convincing, -but they do not stand up under scientific scrutiny. It is true that such -attacks have occurred; one of the most recent and best verified was that -on a 13-year old boy in Okanogan County, Washington, in 1924. It -resulted in the death and partial devouring of the unfortunate -youngster. Yet sensational as this incident was, it resulted in -publicity far out of proportion to its importance. In fact, articles -concerning this case are still appearing at intervals. The truth of the -matter is that very few authentic cases of mountain lion attacks upon -humans have ever occurred in the United States, and that most of these -_could_ have been caused by the mountain lion's being rabid. Certainly -such attacks are not typical behavior of the normal animal. As far as -man is concerned, the lion will take flight whenever possible, and even -when cornered it is not nearly so pugnacious as its little cousin, the -bobcat. - -Other stories about the mountain lion often emphasize the bloodcurdling -screams with which it preludes its stalk of some unfortunate person deep -in the forest. The facts are that there is no reason to believe that -lions cannot or do not scream, but most authorities agree that such -vocal expressions are most likely to be made by an old male courting his -lady love or warning away a rival. The cats are creatures of stealth and -cunning that creep upon their prey as noiselessly as possible. Lions -would hardly announce their presence with the sort of screams with which -they are credited. It seems safe to say that at least 90 percent of -these alleged screams can be traced to owls or amorous bobcats. -Oftentimes these sounds have been linked to large tracks found in the -vicinity as proof that a mountain lion was in the area. This has led one -author to remark that "the witness usually is unable to distinguish the -track of a large dog from that of a mountain lion." In addition, the -infrequent screams made by captive mountain lions indicate that such -sounds in Nature would be far from spectacular. They consist of a sound -that is more like a whistle than the demoniacal wail so often ascribed -to the wild animal. - -Many stories are told of a person, usually a pioneer ancestor, who has -been followed by a mountain lion. In most cases this person has returned -to the area suitably armed and with witnesses who found tracks of the -beast together with those of their friend. Strange to say, such -incidents are not at all uncommon. They have been recorded and verified -a number of times. In these cases the animal often has made no effort at -concealment but has followed the person quite openly. Despite this -boldness it seems there is no sinister motive, merely a naive and -surprising curiosity on the part of the big cat as to what kind of -creature man is. It is most unfortunate that so little data have been -recorded in these instances, yet this is quite understandable under the -circumstances. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Finally, in most stories there is only one size of mountain lion--big! -As the story makes its rounds the lion never gets smaller; it invariably -grows larger. Somehow the records have missed all these really big -lions. Any lion which measures more than 8 feet in length and 200 pounds -in weight will be an extremely large, old male in the record class. The -average will be much smaller. Statistics show most lions to be 5 to 7 -feet in length and 80 to 130 pounds in weight for adult females, and 6 -to 8 feet in length with weights of 120 to 200 pounds for adult males. -Errors in estimating the size of these big cats are easily accounted -for. In the first place the lion is a long, low, sleek creature that -gives an impression of being longer than it is. Too, its size is -unconsciously exaggerated by many people who are impressed with its -tremendous power and agility. Many of its feats of strength seem -impossible for an animal so small. Lastly, its tanned hide may be -available for measurement. Actually this proves nothing; hides often are -stretched 2 feet or more at the time the animal is skinned, and tanning -does not shrink them appreciably. - -None of the above is meant to detract in any way from the reputation of -the mountain lion or its place in American folklore. It is the third -largest predator in the Southwest, being exceeded only by the jaguar and -the bear in size, and surpassing them both in agility. In the past, it -has been feared and hated by those whose herds and flocks have suffered -from its depredations. Their efforts to exterminate it have resulted in -grave biological problems at times, but in the light of more advanced -study it seems probable this big carnivore will be spared in the future -to keep its rightful place in our wilder areas. - -The mountain lion "goes with the deer"; that is to say, its function is -to keep deer in check so that they will not eat up their range and -starve to death. Though at first glance such a possibility seems out of -the question, this has become a serious problem in recent years. It will -be further intensified as suitable deer range becomes more restricted -with the advance of civilization. Another function of the mountain -lion-deer relationship is to weed out the diseased and inferior -individuals so that the deer herd will remain healthy and up to good -physical standards. It may be argued that the same end is reached by -hunting, and so it is, with one major exception. The nimrod, intent on a -fine trophy head, takes the buck in the prime of life, a time when he -should be sireing the herd of the future. The cougar does not -consciously select its victims; it takes the most easily caught, thus -leaving the wisest and healthiest survivors as breeding stock. - -Though deer are the lion's preferred food, many other species of mammals -are preyed upon when deer are scarce. These range in size from the -smallest rodents to animals as large as elk. Among the more unlikely -species recorded are skunk and bobcat. The lion also has the dubious -distinction of being one of the chief predators of the porcupine. Dining -on this last species is fraught with danger, however, because no matter -how expertly the carcass is removed from its spiney covering, a few -quills will penetrate the flesh of the diner. Little prey other than -mammals is ever taken. Birds are not easily caught by such a large -animal and, although it does not shun water, it is poorly equipped to -take any form of aquatic life. The mountain lion will not eat carrion -except under the most dire circumstances and prefers food that it has -killed itself. - -There are two principal methods by which the mountain lion catches its -prey. The stalk and pounce technique of the common house cat is most -effective in brushy country where the low crouch of the lion places its -bulk behind the close ground cover. With tip of tail twitching, it -creeps forward until a short run and spring, or the spring alone, will -carry it to the front flank of the unsuspecting victim. If the neck of -the hunted is not broken by the impact of the heavy body, the sharp -claws or massive canine teeth are brought into play to rip the jugular -vein and end the struggle. In the other method of hunting, the lion -chooses a ledge above a game trail and simply waits there until some -animal to its liking passes below. The weight of its body usually is -sufficient to bear the victim to the ground and it is soon dispatched. -Mountain lion studies in California have determined that in hunting deer -the animal will catch one in every three attempts. It has been estimated -that in an area of heavy deer population each mountain lion will kill -one each week. It is of interest to note that in many places in the -Southwest deer are on the increase, indicating the need for more -predators to keep down their number. - -Since the mountain lion has few enemies, its reproduction rate is low. -Two to four kittens are born in each litter, but usually at 2- to 3-year -intervals. Dens are sometimes located deep among the rocks; others may -be no more than a grass nest in the brush on a rocky ridge. Like -domestic kittens the young are born blind. They have an interesting -color pattern at birth, a strongly spotted coat and a faintly ringed -tail. This completely disappears when they are about half grown, leaving -them with the tawny reddish coat which blends so well with their -surroundings. They mature at about 2 years of age; beautifully evolved -killers which must be admired by everyone who has come to understand the -methods by which Nature regulates the animal world. - - - Bobcat - _Lynx rufus_ (Latin: name of animal, and rufus, reddish) - -Range: Common throughout much of the United States and Mexico. Found -throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This common species is found in all zones wherever there is -sufficient cover to hide it. - -Description: A bobcat distinguished from the lynx by having small ear -tufts, a more rufous color, and a black band which crosses only the -upper surface of the tail tip. Total length 30 to 35 inches. Tail 5 -inches. Weight 15 to 30 pounds. This is a chunky animal with long, -muscular legs and large feet. The sides of the face are heavily streaked -with black, backs of ears dark, coat generally tawny to rufous above, -underparts lighter. Dark spots rather prominent throughout coat, insides -of front legs often barred with darker color. Young from two to six, -usually born in early spring; only one litter per year. - -These are the most common wild members of the cat family in the -Southwest. Their distribution over the United States takes a strange -pattern, inasmuch as they are not found in several of the midwestern and -southeastern States, and in a large area in central Mexico. In all there -are a dozen subspecies of _Lynx rufus_ in North America. They are tough -little predators, among the last to retreat before the advance of -civilization. In fact, they may often be found on the very fringes of -our larger cities, existing on the rats that infest the city dump. - -In the wilder areas, which are the bobcat's appropriate home, its tracks -are distinguishable from those of the larger _Felidae_ only by their -smaller size. Like the larger members of the cat family, it is equipped -with a set of strong retractile and extremely sharp claws. Although -there are five toes on each front foot and only four on the hind feet, -the tracks of both feet are similar. This is because the fifth toe, -corresponding to our thumb, is so high on the inside of the foreleg that -normally it does not touch the ground. During normal travel the claws -are always in the retracted position and never show in the tracks. All -native cats have a tendency to place the hind feet in the tracks left by -the front feet, so that in effect each track is a double print. This may -be one of the reasons a cat's approach is so silent! - - [Illustration: bobcat] - -Bobcats have numerous traits in common with their relative, _Lynx -canadensis_ (not treated in this book because of its extreme rarity in -the Southwest), but are more versatile in their dietary tastes. While -the lynx is sufficiently dependent on the snowshoe hare that its -population corresponds closely in fluctuation with that of its "host," -the bobcat has a much less discriminating appetite. It also loves -snowshoe hares and rabbits, but takes various other mammals as -opportunity offers, and ground-living birds. Bobcats will even eat -carrion, but prefer fresh meat. They are reliably reported to eat -porcupines, young pronghorns, deer, and sheep, both bighorn and -domestic; and they sometimes kill adult deer, although this is a -difficult and dangerous proceeding. Usually a kill is at least partially -covered with debris, and the cat will return at least once to feed again -on it. - -Though bobcats are the least spectacular of our native cats they are the -most numerous and evenly distributed. Thus collectively they may be of -more importance in Nature's master plan than we realize. Their role may -even increase in importance as time goes on, because of the increasing -scarcity of the larger cat species. - - - Red fox - _Vulpes fulva_ (Latin: a fox ... fulva, meaning deep yellow or tawny) - -Range: Found throughout most of North America north of the Mexican -border. Exceptions in the United States are areas in the southeastern -and central States and desert portions of the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest these foxes are restricted to wooded areas of -mountains. They usually are found in the Transition Life Zone or higher. - -Description: About the size of a small dog, having a bushy tail with -white tip. Total length 36 to 40 inches. Tail 14 to 16 inches. Weight 10 -to 15 pounds. Besides the type, this fox has at least two well-defined -color phases with many intermediate forms. These will be considered -separately. A typical western form of red fox will be more yellow than -red. The brightest red will be a rufous median line running down the -back. This fades to an ochre yellow along the edges and grades to the -lighter yellow of the sides. The tail is usually dark yellow with black -guard hairs and always a white tip. The underparts are light yellow to -white. Fronts of feet and lower legs and backs of ears are always very -dark to black. The underfur is lead-colored. The head is small with -large ears, yellowish eyes having elliptical pupils, narrow nose and -jaws. The young, four to six in a litter, are born early in the summer -and but one litter is produced each year. - -The western form of red fox might more aptly be named the "yellow" fox, -since it is definitely more yellow than red. To add to the confusion, -the gray fox, _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_, of the West usually has more -good red in its coat than the red fox. However, the gray fox is a -denizen of the desert and will not often be found at elevations -preferred by the red fox. In addition, its tail is tipped with black; -this definitely separates the two species at a glance. The differences -of color phases within the red fox group are more pronounced and have -led many people to consider them separate species. The two most distinct -types of these varieties are known as the "cross" fox and the "black" or -"silver" fox. - -The term "cross" fox refers neither to the disposition of the animal nor -to its being a hybrid variety, although it often is cross or mean and is -not a hybrid. It alludes to the dark cross on its back. This is formed -by a dark to black median line crossing at right angles to a dark band -that traverses the shoulders. Its effect is increased by considerable -amounts of gray and black mixed with the normal yellow color of the -sides. The long hairs of the tail are yellowish gray to black, the -general effect being dark but, as with the type, the tip is pure white. -As might be expected, there are many gradations between this color phase -and the type, some of them being among the most striking and beautiful -foxes in the world. - -The "black" or "silver" fox is a melanistic form of the red fox. In the -most striking form it is a smooth shining black, the general sombreness -of its coat being relieved by a sprinkling of silvery white guard hairs. -These are thickest in the area of the shoulders, on the posterior -portion of the back, and on the top and sides of the head. The -underparts, though black, lack the lustrous "finish" so evident on the -back and sides. The tip of the tail is pure white in this form also. -This is the "silver" fox of commerce, an animal which through selective -breeding has become standardized in the fur industry. Nevertheless, the -black color is a recessive character, as evidenced by the throw-backs -that often make their appearance in otherwise black litters. Without -constant vigilance on the part of breeders, the "silver" fox would soon -become a rarity again. The Mendelian law cannot be cancelled out by a -few generations of selective breeding. - -The foxes are the smallest canines native to the United States. Though -they look much larger because of their long fur and bushy tail, the -average red fox will not outweigh a large house cat. They make up for -this lack of size, however, by being exceedingly quick in their -movements. They are thus able to catch many of the small mammals which -outmaneuver coyotes and wolves. Rabbits are about the largest mammals -with which they can cope, but mice, woodrats, pikas, and ground -squirrels are all a common part of their diet. In addition, they take -many large insects and ground nesting birds and eggs whenever possible. -Foxes are not as omnivorous as coyotes, but they relish berries and -stone fruits and sometimes raid watermelon patches. - -The social life of foxes is most interesting. The family is a closely -knit unit which as a rule does not break up until the young are well -able to care for themselves. Foxes are monogamous; that is, they -normally choose their mates for life. Dens may be in burrows dug in the -soil or in deep crevices in the rocks. They are usually in some spot -where there is a good view of the surrounding territory. The pups are -born rather early in the spring and by early summer will be playing -around in the den entrance, although they do not venture to any distance -until much later. Should the den be approached while the young are in -it, the female often will be very bold in her attempts to lead the -intruders away from it. As soon as the young are weaned the male joins -his mate in bringing food to them. By early fall, the family is hunting -together. - -The red fox has been a symbol of sagacity and cunning since long before -Aesop. Much of this reputation is well earned, as witness their stubborn -withdrawal as civilization surrounds them. Yet sometime one wonders if -their wisdom is not overrated. I am reminded of an old female who every -year whelped her young in the mouth of a tile drain which drained a -marshy piece of ground that had since become dry. The upper end of the -tile was buried some 15 feet below the surface of the ground. My friend -would watch the area until the pups were about half grown. Then he would -block the entrance to the tile with a box trap and catch them as hunger -drove them out to the bait. This went on for several years, the old -vixen never seeming to learn from bitter experience that her family -would be taken away from her. - - [Illustration: red fox] - - - Gray wolf - _Canis lupus_ (Latin: dog ... a wolf) - -Range: Canada and Alaska north to the northern coast of Greenland. In -the United States it is found in three widely separated areas in Oregon, -Utah and Colorado, and New Mexico and Arizona. It extends south into the -tablelands of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest the wolf, like the coyote, is leaving the -plains, which are its chosen habitat, to live in the broken country of -the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. Carries -its short, bushy tail above the horizontal when traveling. The gray wolf -is almost unbelievably big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19 -inches. Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to 170 pounds. -These animals show a tremendous variation in color, but the average -individual will appear very much like a big German shepherd dog. From -this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska -to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is -distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The -straw-yellow eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much -more like a dog's than a coyote's. The feet, in keeping with the rest of -the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with -canines, the first toe or "thumb" does not touch the ground. The hind -foot has but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each -year the single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the -average is assumed to be from 6 to 8. - -The wolf's association with man is older than recorded history. When man -first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is believed to -have been the progenitor of the dog. As man's partner in the chase, it -helped him become the one superior animal capable of exterminating it. -At the present time, man has come close to doing just that. Only a few -of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the United States. Those are -concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and some of them undoubtedly have -come across the border from Mexico. Before long the species probably -will become extinct in this country, but the large numbers remaining in -Alaska and Canada should persist for many years. - -Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. Who, as a -child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little Red Riding -Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? Long before -animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children's books were well -thumbmarked at the page where the "big bad wolf huffed and puffed and -blew the house down." To "keep the wolf from the door" is an expression -as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th century when the animal -became extinct in England. The wolf has always been a symbol of taking -ruthlessly. The genus _lupinus_ (Latin: wolf), a beautiful group of -plants of the pea family, is so called because early botanists thought -it robbed the soil. The "wolf" so often encountered at house parties is -included in this class. None of these characterizations gives a good -impression, and all are indicative of man's feeling toward the wolf. It -is most unfortunate that man so often condemns anything which interferes -with his own economic progress. Nature has a place for the wolf, a -specialized task for which it is admirably adapted. - -In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains in -great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and -coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were -relatively safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These -were quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest -portions, the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white -man exterminated the bison, the wolves' host was gone and they turned to -the logical substitute, the white man's cattle. This could have but one -result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was -driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group -isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and New -Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of wolves -from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back and forth -across the border in response to local conditions. During the -extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a -considerable extent. - -Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which the -gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, the -wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts had -been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time the -wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild creatures. -Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by complete -isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. To this -end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible places in -the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, and I -consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains in -years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence of a -cold winter night. - - [Illustration: gray wolf] - - - Coyote - _Canis latrans_ (Latin: dog ... barking) - -Range: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is found -in all life zones and among many different associations. - -Description: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic -range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble a -rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good field -mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal is running -and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. Average total -length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny to reddish -gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs and feet. -There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the tail also is -somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; despite an -impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large coyote seldom -weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that of a -medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge -toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes are -moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups, -although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that -coyotes are in an area is their "singing" during the evening. They will -sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day. - -There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote in its -relationship to other animals than any other North American mammal -today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking a 10 minute -walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living things, plant or -animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing conditions -presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which survive do so -because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as well as take -from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of the coyote to -withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination indicates that -this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. Certainly -many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its -associations have never been fully explored and others have not been -discovered. - -In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent -documentary films in its favor, the coyote's place in Nature is now -becoming better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason -why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to the -fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog with what most -naturalists agree is a higher degree of native cunning and intelligence -than that of the average domestic breed. In general, this attitude seems -to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate stories circulated by -word of mouth. A few hours spent in reading the scientific literature on -the coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading -try J. Frank Dobie's _The Voice of the Coyote_ (Little, Brown & Co., -Boston 1949) or _Sierra Outpost_ (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila -Loftberg and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the -coyote for what it is--one of the more important creatures in animal -society. - - [Illustration: coyote] - -When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, the -coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes of -the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but sharing -with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray wolves. -With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads upon the -rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was also a -scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger animals -which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were practically -exterminated, the coyote "took to the hills" and now is as frequently -encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther west in the -desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization has -advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills until now -its "song" is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size and -omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with its -success in this new environment. - -About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the coyote is -large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to catch the -smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. The rest -is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are less often -encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable -portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus -fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in -considerable quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat. -Besides this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will -usually take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations -against the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost -entirely of the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain -sheep, the coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records -of such occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game. -Nature meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such -predation by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would -restore the balance before long. Nature's laws are as definite as those -of human society and far more sternly enforced. - -The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its -variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule -coyotes, like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the -other will usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early -spring, followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter -of up to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft -soil close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More -rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have -been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging -shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not allowed to -approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, he brings -his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them to the -young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, both -parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They usually -come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. If a -human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location at -once. - -When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new phase of -their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance like a -group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful new -world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself, -however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This is -the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be taken -away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every passing day. -The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young into the coyote -way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along the perimeter of -her range, bringing food to them as she makes her rounds. In either -event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by the following -spring are mature animals. - -Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler, -the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will -learn every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of -great importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in -the matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be -deep within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and -called upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts. -The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be -intercepted en route tonight. - -Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This is -especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a -combination is especially efficient in running down such animals as -jackrabbits and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in -a circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the -animal is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn -hunting is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time -their young are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to -pursue and kill coyotes. - -It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will -soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the -ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously -affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is -deplored by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that -the West should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with -its legends and history. - - - Wolverine - _Gulo luscus_ (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed; - purblind) - -Range: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, and -possibly New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near timberline in the most remote areas. - -Description: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat -resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. Tail 7 -to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with no -sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color on top -of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish bands -which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. The -underparts are lighter and usually a "blaze" or spot of white decorates -the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally powerful, -the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These register -rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat like that of -a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are not well known, -but it is assumed the den is located among rocks in talus slopes. The -average number of young is thought to be four or less. They are born -early in the year. - -This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly will never be seen -by anyone who reads these lines, so scarce has it become in the United -States. Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little -understood, and because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado -several times, and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico, -it is here included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see -this celebrated creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune. - -The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to the -white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals which -goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its -shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It -is a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall -probably never fully learn before it becomes extinct. - -When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North America they -found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce with the -wolverine. They called it "Carcajou," a term said to have been derived -from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent spirit. -I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but I well remember -that it was considered a "windigo" or evil spirit. Eskimos coveted its -fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The long guard hairs -protected the face from the bitter air without collecting frost, and the -underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs. - - [Illustration: wolverine] - -The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. _Gulo_, the Latin -term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the -animal. _Luscus_, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors -suggest, blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be -almost invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first -wolverine taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to -have lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any -rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind. - -The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example of -what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline in the high -mountains of desert country and is also found at or near sea level far -north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, with -exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily with snow. -In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the edges of the -feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small snowshoes, -and enable the animal to travel with less effort. - -Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and clumsy in -build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey to this -awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger predators -away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At such times it -eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. It will -return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, even if -they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which it can -dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes across in -its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators of the -porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams its -isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike. - -The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious -delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be -explained by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems -to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking -into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their -contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or -carried away and hidden. - - - Marten - _Martes americana_ (Latin: a marten ... America) - -Range: North America from Alaska through the greater part of Canada, -thence through northwestern, United States and south into California, -Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up to the -Alpine Zone. - -Description: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large -squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a -short, bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. -Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The -body is a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, legs and -tail. On the chest the color lightens to a pale buff or sometimes a -rather distinct orange. The underparts are lighter than the rest of the -body. The fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in being -almost entirely underfur, there being very few guard hairs. The body is -extremely graceful with relatively long legs and small feet. The head is -small with features somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears -are large for a member of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance -to the face. This alertness is further borne out by the lively movements -of this animal, which is the most active of any in that group. - -The marten, often called "pine marten," is one of the most solitary -animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps this -is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to -overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually and -not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire -group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could -not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this -clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of -normal needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is -confined to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It -is evidently one of Nature's methods of controlling the rodent -population. To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt -alone. These factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a -consequence, although there may be many in an area, the marten is -usually found alone except for a brief time during the breeding season -or in the case of a female with young. The male evidently has no part in -bringing up the family. - -The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its range, -and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to be seen -by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat is among -the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock slides, and -the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their homes there. -Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, hunting in the -talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the trees in winter -when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. It is an extremely -hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned squirrel or woodpecker -nest only during the short periods of storm, when hunting would be -useless. As might be expected, its summer and winter diets vary widely. -Both, however, have as their basic item the spruce squirrel, the -important host of the marten, and like it a hardy creature that is -abroad throughout the year. - -There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the ground -there is available an amazing number of species which are denied to the -marten during the winter, some because of protection afforded them by -the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. Among these are -pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, and many species of mice. -In summer, the marten also takes eggs and young of ground-nesting birds. -In the trees are found other nests, not excepting those of the -woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its forepaw and comes out not -only with young birds, but often the adult as well. Martens are known to -eat quantities of the larger insects and, since they are fond of fruits -and berries when raised in captivity, there is little doubt that they -indulge in these delicacies in the wild. - -Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such other -small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it would -seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its lavish -summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and healthy under -weather conditions that would seriously hamper most other predators. To -a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the untiring -perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, few -creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which to -withstand the long, cold winter. - - [Illustration: marten] - -It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is -most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its -boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm and -does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering any -hollow log or woodpecker's nest will do as a resting place. Snow is the -least of the marten's troubles; not only does it stay warm among the -drifts, but travels across them with ease on its "built-in" hair -snowshoes, which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a -marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is a -blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at -all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like a -weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will -serve to identify it as a marten. - -Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the -response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no -less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and -more or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that -is favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time -when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts a -reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough to -excite one's interest. For the following information, I am indebted to -James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many of these -interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them was -relatively meager. - -Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the winter, -when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This was at -an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern Idaho. As -a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be heard -growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack would be -placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, apparently -mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap out into the -sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten was usually -wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box trap, and if -allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack was placed -within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack and carried -down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually in the house, -then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so tame that they -would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming treacherous like -their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They loved fruit and berries, and -were especially fond of chocolate candy. - -Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females were -giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that -breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but -that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be born in -April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be apparent -until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates that, like -most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one season, but -the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to develop until -conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This also insures -arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that they may -enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young varies from -three to five, usually the smaller number. - -No description of the marten would be complete without mention of its -tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially -in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another. -In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts, -seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for -martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently in -search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest, -is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run -away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put -on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white -teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might -attack its tormenter. - - - River otter - _Lutra canadensis_ (Latin: otter ... of Canada) - -Range: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New Mexico in -the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes. - -Description: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick tapered -tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail 12 to 17 -inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark brown with a -silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest are lighter than -the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to aquatic life, having -a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All four feet are webbed. -The head is long and round, with short ears. Long, stiff whiskers stand -out near the rather thick nose. The tail is thick at the base, and the -body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing the general -"torpedo" effect. - - [Illustration: river otter] - -The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely rare -in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized -habits, coupled with an inability to compete with man in the use of the -few fresh water streams and lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has -been recorded often enough in the past decade to warrant the hope that -with careful management and complete protection it might increase in -numbers. This is much to be desired because the otter is unique in -several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered member of -the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty habits of -its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful. - -Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter's habit of building -slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement of the -way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud flats, in which -they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and small amphibians. The -remarkable thing about the slides is that they seem to be built for one -specific purpose, that of sport, an activity which ordinarily is one of -the least important to most mammals. In soft or muddy places, even in -soft snow, the otter slides along on its chest with head held high and -forelegs trailing alongside the body. Motive power is furnished by -thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear on the underparts is reduced by -many coarse, close-set overhairs which seem to have been developed for -this very purpose. The slide itself is only a narrow groove, 12 to 20 -inches wide, that is worn down a steep bank to the water's edge. The wet -bodies of the otters make it smooth and slippery, and soon they are able -to shoot down it with only an occasional helping kick of the hind feet. -This fascinating game may go on for hours on end. The descent often is -followed by a general rough and tumble in the "swimming hole." There the -action is almost too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can -match the otter for grace and speed in the water. - -Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this -leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide, -and usually at several other places along the waterway which is -frequented by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found -areas several feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall -grass, where the animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also -to be community news centers, because usually near such areas are found -the scent "posts," where otters deposit scent from the glands common to -all members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete -the high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks. -Nevertheless, it is sufficiently "loud" to be identified with the otter. - -The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are usually -situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile from the -nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take over the -abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode must be by -an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is merely a nest in a -thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water. - -The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are blind, -toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development 6 -weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and before long -are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in the -neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until they -are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together -until the young are fully able to make their own way. - -Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will -prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases -they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to -catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other -supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so -evidently the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey -must be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs, -several species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be -available. - -The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide, -"rolling place," or characteristic web-toed track are all sure -indications that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its -acquaintance if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and -should you be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his -slippery slide, I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he -does. - - - Mink - _Mustela vison_ (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful) - -Range: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the otter, -that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending southward -into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf of Mexico -in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh water -streams or ponds. - -Description: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, but is -much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males 20 to 26 -inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2-1/4 pounds. Females will -average almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most of the -body, shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along the tail -to a black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots on chest -and belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, round -neck. The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, and -dark, beady eyes. The legs are short and, as would be expected on an -aquatic animal, the feet are webbed, but in this case only the bases of -the toes are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick and fine, the -guard hairs coarse and conspicuously shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 -young, but the average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, which -may or may not have an underwater entrance. - -The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily -determined by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water's edge. -The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here -the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the -outlines of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most -cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are -conspicuous. The occurrence of mink away from water can not be -considered normal, because this creature ranks second only to the otter, -among southwestern carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life. -Exceptions do occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing -mountain ranges where they might be many miles from the closest -watercourse. It is thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations -from unfavorable areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search -of a mate. - -Much of the mink's dependence on water stems from its diet. Some of its -preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are more -adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever -circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting -to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that one of -these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the -extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are -unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive -proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such inroads. Even -with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at hunting, the mink -is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated 100 acres are -only enough to support one adult. The continual hunt for food may be the -motivation for another interesting habit of the mink which is seldom -found among other carnivores. - -Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it later -for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink's close -relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a -considerable store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it -away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals, -such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging bank. -Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold weather -practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater. - -A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal glands -which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are best known -in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both release an odor -which, by comparison, makes the skunk's "almost nice." The one saving -grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, while that -released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, and regains -much of the original potency with every rain. Like the skunks, these -animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. It no doubt has -other uses too, such as identifying the individual and its territory to -other animals of the same species. - -Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that here -is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having -widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home in -trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the -badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends -much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely -in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and -defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even -affectionate. The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable. -There seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood -is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I -have seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was -attempting to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon -with; there are few animals its size that are so courageous. - - [Illustration: mink] - -As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor parents. -The females sometimes desert the young while they are still too small to -make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human criticism. Who -is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to exist under -conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable species? - - - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) - _Mustela erminea_ (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine) - -Range: From northern Greenland south to northern United States with one -extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be expected in -northern Arizona. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone and -higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone. - -Description: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total length -from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight 1-1/2 to 3-2/3 ounces. -This wide range in statistics is from comparing the smallest females -with the largest males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to -one-fourth larger than females. Summer color is dark brown with white -underparts and feet. There is a white line down the insides of the hind -legs connecting the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of -the tail is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the -black tail tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck -long and round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. -The ears are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are -usually in the ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. -Average number of young is thought to be about four. - -I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of its -fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which -would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid -creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid -which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the -close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its -tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these -characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the -longtailed weasel (_Mustela frenata_), which is also found in the -Southwest, and the least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), which inhabits part -of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed -weasel will not be mistaken for either of the other species, since the -least weasel has no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has -a tail about one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed -weasel is only about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is -considerably smaller than the long-tailed weasel. - -Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. In -fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North -American Continent. Despite its size, _Mustela erminea_ is so hardy it -ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere. -This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North -Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally -hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but -penetrates far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our -Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more -often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change of -color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north. - -The term "ermine" refers to this animal's fur in the winter pelage. This -is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the -aristocracy. At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the -sharply contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had -symbolic significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These -are as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of -enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory and -complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern -mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature can -descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, evade -most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent are -left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. In -snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower down it -probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the animal will -retain the same brown above and white below that it wears all summer. - - [Illustration: short-tailed weasel] - -Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids are -admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits them to -enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their strength and -suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue animals several -times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able to climb, they do -not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. Small mice seem to be -preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, and woodrats also are -taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these mighty mites, and -there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed by them. Like the -mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food when hunting is -good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; it has been -estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food every 24 -hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area -where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping -these creatures under control. - -I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under varying -circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident that at -first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as an enemy, -but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will continue its -activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. However, -should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will make its -escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, and as -a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents of the -anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk's perfume, this odorous -mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to stand -aside and watch the little predator go about its work! - -If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is being -irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being flooded out -of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more short-tailed -weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You may even find a -cache laid away during this period of good hunting. Neither pity the -voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling their destinies in -an ages-old plan. - - - Spotted skunk - _Spilogale gracilis_ (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ... - gracilis, Latin: slender) - -Range: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common -spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a "spotty" distribution over the -whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned. - -Habitat: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment from -near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. Seldom -encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in burrows in -the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under buildings or -in the walls or attics of frame houses. - -Description: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the size -of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of which -6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color pattern -would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent white spot -between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides of the face. -The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular white stripes -which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched with white. Tail -very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes dark in color, ears -small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger species of skunks. -Young number three to six, born in early summer. - -Although this little animal has a slight heaviness of the hind quarters, -reminiscent of the larger skunks, it is indeed, as both generic and -specific names suggest, much more like a weasel. This impression is -heightened by its quick movements and a bright-eyed attention to details -which its larger relatives would hardly notice. It lacks the wild and -fierce disposition of the weasels however, and becomes a charming and -confiding nocturnal visitor if properly encouraged. Remember though that -this acquaintance can be no more than an armed truce, and that should -the articles of Formal Conduct be violated it can be terminated at a -moment's notice. - -Probably no nocturnal mammal in the Southwest is more likely to be -encountered than this little skunk. How many of my readers can recall -drifting up from an uneasy sleep to the sibilant whisper of, "there's -something in the tent." While eyes strain to pierce the darkness, faint -patterings on the floor and urgent scratching at the grub box indicate -that there is indeed "something in the tent." Turning over with the -utmost care, while the joints of the cot loudly complain, the flashlight -under the pillow is finally extricated. Surely the creature has been -frightened away, but no, the rattlings continue--in the dishes now. The -brilliant white beam stabs in that direction. Red eyes stare back, -interested perhaps, but unafraid. The rounded ball of black and white -fluff waits motionless to see if any harm is intended. When none is -offered, his highness makes his way to the door and ambles away into the -enveloping darkness. In the morning tiny squirrel-like tracks in the -dust show that _Spilogale_ has paid a nocturnal call. These, and perhaps -the contents missing from the butter and bacon grease containers, -because this little animal dearly loves animal fats. These are the foods -which attract these animals to camp sites in such numbers that they -frequently become a nuisance. - -In the wild, spotted skunks live largely on insects. These are taken not -only in the adult form but also in great numbers in the larval stage, as -is shown by the well-winnowed debris under clumps of cactus and around -the bases of shrubs and trees. In these searches for insects small prey -of other kinds is captured as circumstances permit. Worms and scorpions -as well as small rodents are not refused. More rarely a ground-nesting -bird may be disturbed and the eggs or young taken. In rural communities -hen roosts are sometimes raided too but in the main the spotted skunk -should be considered beneficial, with control of grasshoppers and -beetles it's chief function. - -Like most predators, this member of the weasel family has few natural -enemies. This is not surprising; few animals willingly take a chance on -attacking this doughty little warrior, which sometimes does a handstand -the better to spray it's enemies. These tactics avail nothing against -the steely monsters that rush up and down our highways in the dead of -night. In the space of 50 years the automobile has developed into the -most successful enemy of the spotted skunk. Yet even in death on the -highway the skunk has it's revenge. Few will pass the spot for many a -day without paying unwilling tribute to this malodorous legacy. - - - Striped skunk - _Mephitis mephitis_ (Latin: a pestilential exhalation) - -Range: The southern half of Canada, the whole of the United States, and -the northern half of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: All life zones up to timberline in places which have a -sufficient food supply and proper cover. - -Description: This is the "wood kitty," approached with due respect by -all but the most naive. About the size of a house cat. Total length 22 -to 30 inches. Tail 8 to 15 inches. Weight 6 to 10 pounds. Body color is -black, with black tail except for the tip, which is commonly white. -There are usually two white stripes on the back joining in a "V" at the -back of the head and a white stripe down the front of the face. The head -is small with a rather pointed nose, small black eyes, and small ears. -Front legs are short, and the small feet are tipped with stout claws. -Hind legs are longer and appreciably more of the large hind feet touch -the ground. The tail is quite long and extremely bushy. It is carried in -a downward curve when traveling; if its owner is startled or angry, it -is held straight up with the hairs flared out. Dens of the striped skunk -are usually in an underground burrow, but dens in hollow logs have been -recorded. The usual number of young average from four to six. The family -remains together for the greater part of a year before the young leave -to make their own way. - -There are four species of skunks in the Southwest, but the observer in -the higher country will see only two. These are the striped and the -spotted. They are distinguished by two characteristics: first, the -striped skunk is easily double the size of the spotted skunk; and, -second, the spotted has a pattern of broken stripes and spots of white, -whereas the larger animal has definitely long, continuous white stripes -along sides or back. Both species have the same method of defense, but -the odor of the smaller skunk is said to be somewhat less pungent and -dissipates sooner than that of the striped. To the recipient of either -barrage this has the same consolation as if he were given a choice -between being hit by the H bomb or the A bomb. In the event of a direct -strike it makes little difference. - -Should the reader be involved in an encounter with one of these -malodorous creatures, there are many remedies prescribed but few giving -any great measure of relief. If the skin is washed with a weak solution -of acid such as lemon or tomato juice and then scrubbed thoroughly with -soap and water, much of the odor will disappear. Clothes can be given -the same treatment, but usually it is cheaper and easier to burn them -and charge the cost to experience. Grandpa said to bury scented clothes -in damp earth. Perhaps in time this will do the trick; I contend they -are better left there. - -So much misinformation exists about the skunk's defensive mechanism and -the manner in which it is employed that brief explanation may not be -amiss. The scent is a fluid stored in two glands located near the base -of the tail. These glands are embedded in a mass of contractile muscle, -and each has a duct which connects with a tiny spray nozzle that can be -protruded from the anus. When danger threatens the tail is lifted, the -nozzles aimed at the enemy, and the contraction of the muscles around -the glands forces out a spray of fine droplets which may carry as far as -15 feet. The result is usually effective and lasting. Contrary to -popular belief, the odor is distressing to the skunk as well as to its -enemy. The tail is kept out of the way if possible, since its plumey -depths would hold the scent for a long time. - - [Illustration: striped skunk] - -Skunks of different species will use this defensive weapon against each -other. Whether individuals of the same species use it in their fights -together is not known. In situations involving humans the skunk will try -to bluff the enemy if possible. This consists of stamping the front -feet, of short runs at the intruder, and finally of hoisting the tail -and aiming the "guns." If a skunk is approached deliberately and if -quick movements are avoided, it is surprising what liberties may be -taken before it will resort to scent. On the other hand, should it be -taken by surprise or should it be physically hurt, retaliation is swift -and certain. In all cases where skunks are encountered at close range, -remember that this little animal is one of the most independent -creatures on earth, that this nonchalance stems from a supreme -confidence in its defensive powers, and that if left alone or at least -treated with consideration it will go on its way as soon as possible. - -This independent attitude inherent in all skunks probably has much to do -with the happy-go-lucky life that the young family lives. About -midsummer when the young are able to leave the burrow, the mother often -will take them for a stroll early in the afternoon. As she walks, -oblivious to danger, the young play along behind her, sometimes a ball -of struggling little bodies with now and then a fluffy tail breaking -free and again all at odds in a mock show of ferocity with front feet -stamping and flared tails held aloft. When the patient mother finds a -tidbit on the trail, there is a concerted rush for the prize, which is -seldom won without a struggle. All of this is excellent practice against -the time when they will be on their own. It is during this early age -that the young first learn to catch insects, items of great importance -in skunk diet. Later frogs and small mammals will also be preyed upon. - -The striped skunk is generally considered a hibernating animal. This is -not strictly true for, while it may remain inactive in its den for weeks -at a time, the body processes do not slow down to the extent common in -true hibernation. The skunk does lay on a considerable amount of fat -each fall in preparation for this period of winter when food is scarce. -Actual retirement to a den for even a few days is rare in the Southwest, -however. The mild climate makes this unnecessary, except in the highest -part of their habitat. - - - Black bear - _Euarctos americanus_ (Latin: a bear ... of America) - -Range: At present the range of the black bear in the United States is -confined to a narrow strip adjacent to both the Atlantic and Pacific -coasts, a few of the southeastern States, a narrow band in the Great -Lakes area, and the Rocky Mountain chain. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest, the higher mountains mostly in the Transition -Life Zone and above. - -Description: The black bear needs little description because through -pictures and reputation it has become well known to almost everyone. It -averages 5 to 6 feet in total length with a tail so short as to be -inconsequential. Height at shoulders is 2 to 3 feet. Weight 200 to 400 -pounds. Color varies in the Southwest from deep, shining black through -brown to light cinnamon. In all color phases the nose is brown almost -back to the eyes and there is usually a white "blaze" on the chest. The -legs are short and muscular. The feet are plantigrade, that is, the bear -steps on the whole foot, not just the toes. There are stout claws on all -four feet. The head proper is rather round, the muzzle long and pointed. -Ears are relatively small, as are the dark eyes. The young number from -one to four, with twins being very common. They are born while the -mother is still in winter quarters. When the weather moderates to a -point where she can leave, the cubs are large enough to follow her. - -Bears are probably the most popular of our wild creatures to those who -visit the National Park Service areas. Why this should be is hard to -say. Perhaps it dates back to the nursery tale of the three bears, -familiar to all of us from the time we were able to walk. Perhaps too it -stems from the easy familiarity with which these roadside bandits hail -the tourist in hopes of a handout. At any rate, these seemingly friendly -clowns have become endeared to the hearts of the American public. This -is regrettable because actually in the Park Service areas these big -carnivores are the most dangerous of all animals. Native intelligence -indicates to the bears that food may be had merely by standing up -alongside the road when a car stops. More complicated routines are soon -learned to wheedle bigger and better handouts. At this professional -level, a substantial reward is expected when Bruin has "sung for his -supper," and should none be forthcoming, trouble is apt to ensue. This -is but a minor annoyance to a bear, however, when compared with some of -the indignities dealt out to these big creatures by a thoughtless -public. It must be said in all fairness that anyone who teases a bear -deserves whatever is handed out in return. It is unfortunate that -retribution may be in the form of serious injury or even death. Though -this applies mainly to the half-tame bears which roam along the highways -in our National Parks, it is only common sense to avoid incidents with -any bear wherever encountered. This is especially true of an old female -with cubs, a combination well nigh irresistible to the average -vacationer with camera. - -In more remote areas where bears have not had contact with man, they are -wary to the point of timidity. Gifted with a keen sense of hearing and -smell which makes up for their poor eyesight, they are difficult to -approach. Like most animals, they instinctively know that by "freezing" -they can in most cases escape being seen. The sunburned coat of the -brown phase of the black bear is especially hard to spot in the -underbrush. However, with patience and the aid of binoculars, it should -not be too difficult to get a glimpse into the private life of these -engaging creatures. - - [Illustration: black bear] - -Though bears, because of their dentition, are classed as carnivores, -they might more accurately be termed omnivores. It is a matter of record -that the black bear will eat almost anything, either animal or -vegetable. Nevertheless, its appetite is prodigious and demands little -variety, if but a few kind of foods are available. Its status as a -predator is somewhat confused. Technically speaking, since the black -bear preys on ground squirrels, mice and other small rodents it should -be classed as a predator. It will also take young deer and elk whenever -it can, but these opportunities come rarely. Actually this bear has -little direct influence on its mammal neighbors. As a scavenger it has -considerable value in cleaning up the remains of kills made by other -predators. - -Some of the small animals eaten are in almost amusing contrast with the -huge size of their enemy. For instance, ants are eagerly lapped up by -most bears, and they will literally tear old logs apart to get at these -toothsome morsels. Grubs are another small item which may be found -around fallen logs and under stones. Bears are extremely fond of honey -and will go to great lengths to get at this delicacy, which they eat -comb, bees, and all. Another food item which seems unusual is fish. At -spawning time a bear will wade out into a stream and either snag a -passing fish on its long claws or flip it out on the bank where it is -more easily subdued. Finally, their natural animal diet is greatly -augmented in most Park Service areas by the scraps and bones which they -pick up on the garbage heaps. They can become a great nuisance in the -camping areas where, under cover of darkness, their ingenuity and great -strength enable them to steal many a ham and side of bacon. - -Wide as this variety of animal food seems, it cannot equal the -cosmopolitan tastes of these bears in a vegetable diet. Roots and bulbs -of many species are dug up. Grass and browse are eaten during several -seasons of the year; even pine needles are recorded as having been -eaten. The liking of bears for berries of all kinds is well known. -_Arctostaphylos_, the generic name of the manzanitas, translated from -the Greek means "bear grape." Pinyon nuts, acorns, chokecherries, and -other stone fruits all are gathered in season. These heavy animals often -damage trees severely in their search for fruit. On the garbage heaps, -watermelon rinds and seeds, peelings of all kinds, leafy vegetables, and -corn cobs add to the fare. All tin cans are licked clean, and in many -cases greasy paper and cellophane wrappings are eaten. - -The yearly cycle of a bear's life is a study in contrasts. Much of the -warm part of the year is spent in search for food with which to build up -a store of fat so that the winter may be spent in inactivity. Bears -hibernate or, more properly, retire for several months of the winter. -They do not fall into the deep sleep indulged by some of the rodents. -Theirs is an uneasy sleep broken by periods of lethargy when they are -awake but avoid any activity. By these means they conserve enough of -their thick layer of fat to live out the cold weather and emerge in -early spring with a considerable reserve. - -Hibernation takes place in late autumn, usually after the first light -snows. Evidently the animals have a den already located, for when they -feel the urge to retire they strike out across country to it. The same -winter quarters often will be used by one individual for several -seasons. Dens are chosen in a variety of locations. They may be in old -hollow logs or in the bases of fire-gutted trees. Some are in crevices -among huge boulders, others in caves. The main concern seems to be to -find a place sheltered from the wind and snow. If the floor happens to -be covered with chips or leaves, so much the better. It usually is, -either from air currents which bring in falling leaves or through the -labors of woodrats which deposit much litter in such places. The bears -curl up on the floor, and after the first heavy snow there is nothing to -mark the spot. In the case of a small den, such as a cavity in the base -of a tree, an airhole may form in the drift from the warmth of the -animal's respiration. - -The cubs are born in late winter. From one to four in number, they are -incredibly small at birth. They develop rather slowly and at the time -the family emerges from the den are approximately 18 inches long. The -cubs may all be one color or some may be brown and some black. The male -bear has no part in raising the family; indeed, he is driven from the -scene by the irate mother, should he approach too closely. She has all -the responsibility for raising the family, and a busy time is assured -with such mischievous, carefree youngsters. - -One of the first lessons learned by young cubs is that of obedience. The -mother insists on compliance with her every command, and enforces her -authority with a heavy paw. It is fortunate the cubs are sturdily built, -for some of the slaps they receive in the course of an average day's -instruction would kill a less durable animal. The first haven of refuge -when danger threatens is in the trees. A special command note and a slap -or two sends them hustling. Now the cubs are out of the way and the -decks cleared for action, so to speak. The cubs will remain in the trees -until the mother lets them know they may come down. This is not a time -of boredom for the youngsters, however. Expert climbers, they carry on -the same games and rough play indulged on the ground, with never a fall. -Their confidence in the trees is amazing. It is not unusual to see a cub -sound asleep on the end of a 20-foot branch that is bending down with -its weight and swaying in the wind. As the months go on the cubs begin -to lose their juvenile ways. By autumn, they have put on enough fat to -last the winter. They usually hibernate with the mother, since they -remain with her for well over a year. During the following summer they -are well able to take care of themselves, and the mother deserts them. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -It is normal, rather than unusual, among black bears to breed only every -other year. The youngsters usually do not breed until about three years -old. - -No account of this bear would be complete without mention of the -so-called "bear trees." These are trees situated at the crossroads, that -is, near the intersections of bear trails or otherwise prominently -located. When a bear encounters one, it stands up and scratches at the -bark with its front claws as high as it can reach. Sometimes it will -also bite at the bark. Bears have been observed rubbing the sides of -their jaws against the bark. Whether this is a way of leaving their -scent is not known. It is thought this may be a way of communication -with others of the species, but this has not been definitely proven. -Many of the trees chosen for this purpose in mountains of the Southwest -have been aspens. The heavy black furrows left in the white bark will -persist until the death of the tree. Often they are the only evidence -that bears have ever been in the locality. - -Another custom which will be observed very early in one's experience -with bears is the scratching that goes on. It may be due in part to the -presence of ectoparasites, but the bear takes such an obvious -satisfaction in scratching that, one feels, this must be only -incidental. Trees, posts, rocks, and claws are all employed for this -purpose. Some of the smaller trees often suffer severe damage from the -treatment accorded them. - -My cautious attitude toward bears is a result of early experiences with -them, ranging from humorous to tragic, and probably best typified by an -incident which took place near Yellowstone Park in the late 1920s. I was -on my first trip into the Rockies at the time and hired out on a -construction job at an isolated dude ranch. Horses were being used, and -their supplies, including a considerable store of oats, were kept in a -large tent adjacent to that in which some of the employees slept. On the -previous night a bear had gained access to the supply tent, torn open a -number of oat sacks, and wasted more of the grain than it had eaten. The -foreman, an old-time packer in the Park, vowed vengeance on the bear. -That night when he went to bed he leaned a small, double-bitted axe -against the entrance to the tent. During the night I awoke as the -foreman went out the entrance in his underwear. A partial moon shed a -weak light over the scene and revealed the foreman entering the other -tent with the axe in his hand. A short silence was followed by a heavy -splat, a tremendous grunt, and some frenzied shouts. The supply tent -heaved violently, went down, and split open as the bear hurtled out and -through the woods toward the creek. When order had been restored it -transpired that the foreman had stolen up to the bear, which had its -back to him, and had struck it across the rump as hard as he could with -the flat of the axe. The element of surprise apparently was all in his -favor because the startled bear charged directly away from him into the -far end of the tent. Although in this instance no injuries were -suffered, it has always seemed that this was an extremely foolhardy -thing to do. Although one of the most laughable happenings I have ever -seen, it also had all the elements of a possible tragedy. - - - Grizzly bear - _Ursus horribilis_ (Latin: a bear ... horrible) - -Range: Alaska, western Canada, and in the United States confined to the -high mountains of the Continental Divide as far south as northern New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Except in National Park areas, grizzlies are seldom seen, since -they frequent only the most isolated places in the mountains; Transition -Life Zone and higher. - -Description: The largest carnivore in the Southwest. Easily -distinguished from the black bear by the prominent hump on the -shoulders. Total length 6 to 7 feet. Tail so short as to be -unnoticeable. Height at shoulders 3 to 3-1/2 feet. Weight 325 to 850 -pounds. Color of the southwestern grizzlies is variable, ranging from -yellowish brown to nearly black, but has a characteristic grizzled -effect caused by the white-tipped hairs scattered through the fur. This -is especially noticeable along the back. The grizzly, though massively -built, gives an impression of leanness. The shoulders are higher than -the posterior, giving the animal a streamlined appearance. The head is -large and round with a square, uptilted muzzle. The legs are extremely -powerful, the feet large and with formidable claws, those of the front -feet being up to 4 inches long. The young will number from one to three, -with two being most common. Grizzlies breed every 2 or 3 years. - -Probably no mammal in the United States is more certain soon to become -extinct than these great bears. Many factors contribute toward this end, -chief among them being the low reproduction rate and the rapid decrease -of its range because of an increase in stock raising and agriculture. -Ousted from its former haunts, the species is now found chiefly in only -the few areas where it is rigidly protected. It seems extremely unlikely -that it can long survive this reduction of its once unlimited range. -This is the culmination of a program of destruction wrought on the -grizzly since penetration of the white man into the West. It but follows -the disappearance of other, less well known bears which lived in the -Southwest at that time. - -When the Mountain Men came into the West in the period from 1800 to 1850 -they found a huge, light-colored bear roaming the foothills of the -desert country. For want of a better name they called it the "gray -bear." From the accounts of that time it is now assumed that it was a -grizzly; at any rate, it was said to have been extremely ferocious, a -trait which led to its downfall. In the space of about 70 years this -animal was discovered, hunted and exterminated, all without a specimen -of any kind being preserved. Today not a trace of this big predator -remains. Its fate illustrates the usual result of contact between a -dangerous, highly specialized animal and man. The question which arises -is, should any group of men ever be allowed such control over a -wilderness that they are able to exterminate the fauna and flora to the -detriment of succeeding generations? The answer seems obvious if we -consider that "we but hold these things in trust." - - [Illustration: grizzly bear] - -Many species of the grizzly are recognized by taxonomists, but few are -alive today. In the United States only New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, -Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho still have some of these big animals. In -some other western States they have but recently become extinct. -California is thought to have lost its last grizzly in 1925. The few -survivors are probably all of the species _horribilis_. Since grizzly -country is also black bear country, the layman may become confused in -identifying the two species. A few important differences make -identification easy. - -The first and most conspicuous field mark is the prominent shoulder hump -of the grizzly. The male black bear will sometimes with age develop a -shoulder hump, but it cannot compare with that of the grizzly. Second, -the grizzly has what has been described as a "dish" face; that is, a -concavity in the general shape of the front of the face, whereas the -black bear develops a definite "Roman" nose. Third, the claws of the -grizzly are twice as long as those of the black bear; this is most -noticeable in the tracks. If one is close enough to see this -characteristic in the field, he probably is too close for safety! -Lastly, the attitude of the two species toward each other when they meet -on common ground is characteristic. As a rule, the approach of a grizzly -to a garbage dump is enough to put all black bears to flight. There is -no intermingling of the two species; the grizzly is the master and the -black bear will not challenge his authority. - -In most of its habits the grizzly resembles the black bear. It is -omnivorous to the same degree, but somewhat more predatory. It also goes -into hibernation for the winter, and the cubs are born during this -inactive period. They receive the same rigorous training as that -accorded their black cousins, and like them, are able to climb into the -trees and out of harm's way. As they grow older, this ability leaves -them with the growing of the long claws, and adult grizzlies are -supposed to be unable to climb. In one respect the grizzly differs from -not only the black bear but from most other native mammals. It has never -learned to fear man to the same degree that other creatures have. - -Whether the grizzly's belligerent attitude stems from fear or contempt -is a moot question. The important point to remember is that a grizzly -should be avoided at all times. Injuries suffered by humans in their -contacts with black bears are usually accidental rather than the result -of deliberate assault by the animal. Grizzlies have been known to charge -without other provocation than trespass on what they consider their -territory. Surely the public can afford to humor this irascible giant. A -little consideration for its irritable nature is not too great a price -to pay for its continued existence in our rapidly dwindling numbers of -large carnivores. - - - Vagrant shrew - _Sorex vagrans_ (Latin: a shrew ... wandering) - -Range: Confined to mountains of western United States and Canada, and -northern and southern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Moist places in forests of the Transition Life Zones and -higher. - -Description: A tiny creature with a long nose. Total length 4 to 5 -inches. Tail 1-1/2 to 2 inches. Color reddish brown to black above with -sides drab and lightening to gray below. Tail indistinctly bi-color -except for the last half which is dark all the way around. Head round -and narrowing to a long, pointed, somewhat flexible nose. Long whiskers -are found along the sides of the upper jaw. Eyes and ears so small as to -be difficult to see. Little is known of breeding habits of the shrews. -The vagrant shrew is said to breed at any time of year and to have from -5 to 11 young in a litter. - -Shrews are the smallest American mammals. Their size and secretive -habits combine to make them among the least known of native animals. -They are classed as insectivores, although they eat other small mammals -as well as insects. They may be distinguished from mice by their -bicuspid incisors and modified canine teeth. Another difference is that -shrews have five toes, in contrast to the four-toed feet of mice. - - [Illustration: vagrant shrew] - -As far as is known at present, certain species of shrews are the only -poisonous mammals. The big short-tailed shrew (eastern United States) -has a toxic substance in its saliva which helps subdue some of the -animals it captures. It is thought that some western species also have -this peculiarity. Though shrews are among the tiniest animals known, -they are not unduly persecuted by larger predators. This is thought to -be partly because of certain glands on the shrew's body which give it an -offensive odor. - -An outstanding characteristic of shrews is their need for a constant -supply of food. Because all small animals lose heat quickly, they must -eat almost constantly to replace this loss. Some species will eat their -own weight in food as often as every 3 hours. An outstanding exception -is the water shrew, which can do without food for as long as 2 days -without starving to death. Since most shrews live in or near the water, -they find ample food in the insects, spiders, minnows, and small mammals -which live in moist locations. The group is as ferocious as it is -voracious. Most shrews do not hesitate to attack animals outweighing -them several times. It has been said that if shrews were as big as -squirrels they probably would even attack man. - -In the mountains of Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico the northern -water shrew (_Sorex palustris_) may be encountered. It is somewhat -larger than the vagrant shrew and will not be seen away from water. Gray -below and black above, it is wonderfully camouflaged, whether in water -or on land. It, like other shrews, has long whiskers known as vibrissae. -Land shrews use these whiskers as tactile organs to help them follow the -dark maze of their runways. Water shrews are thought to use them as -sense organs in place of eyes to pursue the minnows, tadpoles, and water -bugs they eat. Actually, the water shrew resembles a large water bug as -it darts about below the surface surrounded by the silvery bubbles of -air imprisoned in its fine fur. - - - Bats - Order _Chiroptera_ (Latin: chir, hand, and optera, wing) - -The special treatment accorded bats in this book is not given them by -choice. It results from an inability to so clearly describe any one or -two species chosen that the layman might be able to distinguish these -from their numerous and equally interesting relatives. When one -considers that numerically bats are thought to compare favorably with -birds, that there are a great number of species divided into many -genera, and that the four-State area with which we are concerned is -invaded, so to speak, by eastern, northern, western and Mexican species -besides having several of its own, it soon becomes apparent that this -group can be described here only in the most general way. If some of the -popular superstitions about bats are contradicted here, it is to be -hoped the reader will find the facts no less interesting. - -The adaptation for which bats are best known is their ability to fly. -This specialized talent is shared by no other type of mammal. It is made -possible by considerable modification of several structures of the body, -that of the forelimbs being the most extreme. The bones of both the -upper and lower forelegs are considerably lengthened, but cannot compare -with the extreme elongation of the digits. The clawlike protuberance -from the front of the wing corresponds to the thumb. The wing membrane -stretched across the "fingers" is attached to the side of the body and -to the hindlegs as far as the ankle. Most bats have another wing -membrane, called the interfemoral membrane, which joins both hind legs, -and in many species it also embraces the tail. The wing membranes look -and feel somewhat like thin leather. Running through them is an -intricate system of blood vessels. These not only supply nourishment to -the membrane but also act as a radiator in cooling the blood stream -during the strenuous physical labor involved in flight. The principles -of flight are similar to those used by birds; that is, the wings are -partially folded on the upstroke and fully extended during the down -beat. This maneuver produces a rustling sound that is clearly audible in -the quiet of a cave. In fact, if thousands of bats are disturbed at the -same time it becomes a low roar. - -The fact that bats are nocturnal, and at the same time lead an aerial -life which necessitates flying through labyrinths plunged in total -darkness, has been the cause of much research as to the means by which -they can do this. It is now definitely known that they depend on a sonar -system where, by emitting shrill cries, they are guided by the echoes -rebounding from nearby objects. These "squeaks" range within a frequency -of from 25,000 to 75,000 vibrations per second, which is too high for -the human ear to register. The sounds are uttered at rates from about 10 -per second when the bat is at rest to as many as 60 per second when it -is in flight and surrounded by the many obstacles to be found in a cave. -Fantastic as this performance seems, it is matched by a theory that tiny -muscles close the bat's ears to each squeak and open them again to hear -only the echo. - -The response of their vocal and hearing structure to this specialized -use is truly amazing. There are no more unique faces in the mammal -kingdom than those of the bats. Most bats have enormous ears with ridged -and channeled interiors that probably have much to do with amplifying -faint sounds. Set in front of the ear is a narrow, upright protuberance -known as the tragus. Farther down the face, in the region of the nose, -are other strangely shaped skin structures including the "nose leaf." As -yet the functions of these appendages are not entirely known, but it is -suspected that at least part of their purpose is to beam the squeaks -along a definite line and thus help orient the bat with its -surroundings. With such an efficient system to guide it, the bat has -small need for eyes. The expression "blind as a bat" is misleading, -however, because most bats, in spite of their relatively small eyes, can -see rather well. - -Since most southwestern bats are insectivorous, with the exception of a -very few species along the Mexican border which are considered fruit -eaters, the question arises as to how they exist during the winter -months when insects are not to be found. There are two common methods by -which animals avoid such a lean period: by migration and by hibernation. -Bats employ both. Some species are thought to fly as far south as -Central America. Others group together in caves and hang in a deep -torpor all winter. In this state of inactivity their body temperatures -may fall to within one degree of their surroundings, and their rate of -metabolism sometimes falls to one-eighteenth of that during active -periods. As a rule, bats prefer a cool place for hibernation, because -the cooler the temperature the slower the rate of metabolism. Body -temperatures as low as 33.5 F. have been recorded in hibernating bats. -The temperature must not fall below freezing, or the animals will -perish. During this period of inactivity bats have been known to lose up -to one-third of their weight. - -Because of their secretive habits and nocturnal periods of activity, -bats have few enemies other than man that are capable of making any -serious inroads on their numbers. Consequently the birth rate is quite -low in most species. Many have no more than one young each year; and the -red bat, which bears up to four young, seems to be the most prolific in -the United States. There is great variety in the methods by which -different species care for the young. Some mothers leave the babies -hanging to the roof of the cave while they go on their nightly search -for food; others carry the young clinging tightly to their fur. The -young mature quickly. They are usually able to fly within a month after -they are born. - -Despite much recent scientific study, bats are still among our least -known creatures. Their insectivorous diet surely makes them of great -importance to man. Beyond this, their immense numbers indicate that -ecologically they must have tremendous influence on any area in which -they live. - - - - - REFERENCES - - -Bailey, Vernon - 1931. _Mammals of New Mexico._ North American Fauna, No. 53, - Washington, D. C., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of - Biological Survey. - -Barnes, Claude T. - 1927. _Utah Mammals._ Salt Lake City, The University of Utah. - -Burt, William Henry and Grossenheider, Richard Philip - 1952. _A Field Guide to the Mammals._ Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., - The Riverside Press, Cambridge. - -Hall, Raymond E. - 1946. _Mammals of Nevada._ Berkeley. University of California Press. - -Ingles, Lloyd Glenn - 1954. _Mammals of California and its Coastal Waters._ Stanford - University Press. Stanford, California. - -Jaeger, Edmund C. - 1950. _Our Desert Neighbors._ Stanford University Press. Stanford, - California. - -Mearns, Edgar Alexander - 1907. _Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States._ Part - 1. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office. - -Miller, Gerrit S. and Kellogg, Remington - 1955. _List of North American Recent Mammals._ Washington: United - States National Museum, Bulletin 205. - -Nelson, E. W. - 1918. _Wild Animals of North America._ National Geographic Society. - -Warren, Edward Royal - 1910. _The Mammals of Colorado._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. - -Cockrum, E. Lendell - 1960. _The Recent Mammals of Arizona._ Tucson: University of Arizona - Press. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - Abert's squirrel. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Alpine Life Zone, xiv - Antelope. _See_ Pronghorn. - _Antilocapra americana_, 4 - Arizona gray squirrel, 36 - Artiodactyla, 1 - - - B - Bats, 121 - Bear, black, 112 - grizzly, 117 - Beaver, 67 - Bighorn, 2 - Bison, 8 - _Bison bison_, 8 - Black bear, 112 - Black-tailed deer, 11 - Bobcat, 85 - Buffalo. _See_ Bison. - Bushy-tailed woodrat, 60 - - - C - Canadian Life Zone, xiii - _Canis latrans_, 92 - _lupus_, 89 - Carnivores, 79 - _Castor canadensis_, 67 - Catamount. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Cervus canadensis_, 16 - Chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Chipmunks, western, 44 - cliff, 45 - Colorado, 44 - gray-necked, 44 - least, 45 - Uinta, 44 - Chiroptera, 79, 121 - _Citellus lateralis_, 48 - Classification of animals, xv - Cliff chipmunk, 45 - Colorado chipmunk, 44 - Cottontail, mountain, 26 - Cougar. _See_ Mountain lion. - Coyote, 92 - _Cynomys gunnisoni_, 51 - _leucurus_, 51 - _parvidens_, 51 - - - D - Deer - black-tailed, 11 - mule, 10 - fantail, Sonora, 11, 14 - white-tailed, 13 - Deermouse, 57 - Douglas squirrel. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - - - E - Elk, 16 - _Erethizon dorsatum_, 72 - Ermine. _See_ Short-tailed weasel. - _Euarctos americanus_, 112 - _Eutamias cinereicollis_, 44 - _dorsalis_, 45 - _minimus_, 45 - _quadrivittatus_, 44 - - - F - _Felis concolor_, 80 - Field mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - Fox, red, 87 - - - G - _Glaucomys sabrinus_, 42 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 48 - Gopher, northern pocket, 75 - Gray-necked chipmunk, 44 - Gray wolf, 89 - Grizzly bear, 117 - Ground squirrel, golden-mantled, 48 - _Gulo luscus_, 95 - - - H - Hare, snowshoe, 22 - Hoofed animals, 1 - - - I - Insectivores, 79 - - - J - Jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - - - K - Kaibab squirrel, 34 - - - L - Lagomorphs, 21 - hare, snowshoe, 22 - jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - cottontail, mountain, 26 - pika, 28 - Least chipmunk, 45 - _Lepus americanus_, 22 - _townsendi_, 24 - Life zones, xiii - Alpine, xiv - Canadian, xiii - Lower Sonoran, xiii - Transition, xiii - Upper Sonoran, xiii - Lion, mountain, 80 - Long-tailed weasel, 106 - Lower Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Lutra canadensis_, 101 - Lynx, 85 - _Lynx canadensis_, 86 - _rufus_, 85 - - - M - Marmot, yellow-bellied, 53 - _Marmota flaviventris_, 53 - Marten, 97 - _Martes americana_, 97 - Meadow mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - _Mephitis mephitis_, 110 - _Microtus montanus_, 58 - Mink, 103 - Mountain cottontail, 26 - Mountain sheep. _See_ Bighorn. - Mountain lion, 80 - Mountain vole, 58 - Mouse, western jumping, 59 - white-footed. _See_ Deermouse. - Field. _See_ Mountain vole. - Meadow. _See_ Mountain vole. - Mule deer, 10 - Muskrat, 64 - _Mustela erminea_, 105 - _frenata_, 106 - _rixosa_, 106 - _vison_, 103 - - - N - _Neotoma cinerea_, 60 - Northern flying squirrel, 42 - Northern pocket gopher, 75 - - - O - _Ochotona princeps_, 28 - _Odocoileus couesi_, 14 - _hemionus_, 10 - _virginianus_, 13 - _Ondatra zibethicus_, 64 - Otter, river, 101 - _Ovis canadensis_, 2 - - - P - Pack rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Painter. _See_ Mountain lion. - Panther. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Peromyscus maniculatus_, 57 - Pika, 28 - Pine squirrel, 39 - Porcupine, 72 - Prairie dog, white-tailed, 51 - Pronghorn, 4 - Puma. _See_ Mountain lion. - - - R - Red fox, 87 - Red squirrels. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - River otter, 101 - Rodents, 21 - _Sciurus aberti_, 31 - _arizonensis_, 36 - _kaibabensis_, 34 - - - S - Short-tailed weasel, 105 - Shrew, vagrant, 119 - Skunk, spotted, 108 - striped, 110 - Snowshoe hare, 22 - Sonora fantail deer, 11, 14 - _Sorex vagrans_, 119 - _Spilogale gracilis_, 108 - Spruce squirrel, 39 - Squirrel, Abert's. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Arizona gray, 36 - chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Douglas. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - golden-mantled ground, 48 - Kaibab, 34 - flying, northern, 42 - pine, 39 - red. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - spruce, 39 - tassel-eared, 31 - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_, 26 - - - T - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, 39 - Tassel-eared squirrel, 31 - _Thomomys talpoides_, 75 - Trade rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Transition Life Zone, xiii - - - U - Uinta chipmunk, 44 - Upper Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Ursus horribilis_, 117 - - - V - Vagrant shrew, 119 - Vole, mountain, 58 - _Vulpes fulva_, 87 - - - W - Wapiti. _See_ Elk. - Weasel, least, 106 - long-tailed, 106 - short-tailed, 105 - Western jumping mouse, 59 - White-footed mouse, 57 - White-tailed deer, 13 - White-tailed jackrabbit, 24 - White-tailed prairie dog, 51 - Wolf, gray, 89 - Wolverine, 95 - Woodchuck. _See_ Yellow-bellied marmot. - Woodrat, bushy-tailed, 60 - - - Y - Yellow-bellied marmot, 53 - - - Z - _Zapus princeps_, 59 - - [Illustration: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association logo] - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - - ---Silently corrected several palpable typographical errors. - ---Retained publication information from the original source. - ---In the text versions, included italicized text in _underscores_. - 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text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:0em; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; font-weight:bold; font-size:90%; font-family:sans-serif; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -div.sidenote { max-width:50%; float:left; clear:left; - - margin-bottom:1em; font-weight:bold; font-size:90%; } - - -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas, by -George Joyce Olin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas - -Author: George Joyce Olin - -Illustrator: Edward Bierly - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50822] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS MESAS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas" width="500" height="769" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>MAMMALS -<br /><span class="smallest">of the southwest</span> -<br />MOUNTAINS -<br /><span class="smallest">and</span> -<br />MESAS</h1> -<p class="tbcenter">by -<br />GEORGE OLIN -<br />illustrations by -<br />EDWARD BIERLY</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img002.jpg" alt="Uncaptioned" width="200" height="192" /> -</div> -<p class="center">Southwest Parks and Monuments Association -<br />Box 1562, <span class="hst">Globe, Arizona<span class="hst"> 85501</span></span></p> -</div> -<blockquote> -<p class="small">Copyright 1961 by the Southwestern Monuments Association. -All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in -any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except -by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review to -be printed in a magazine or newspaper.</p> -</blockquote> -<p class="center small">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-11291 -<br />SBN 0-911408-32-0</p> -<p class="center small">Southwest Parks and Monuments Association -<br />(formerly Southwestern Monuments Association)</p> -<p class="center small">First printing, 1961. -<br />Second printing, 1971. -<br />Third printing, 1975.</p> -<p class="center small">Popular series no. 9.</p> -<p class="center small">Printed in the United States of America -<br />Arizona Lithographers · Tucson, Arizona</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_viii">viii</div> -<h2>ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h2> -<p>With this booklet, as with <i>Mammals of the Southwest Deserts</i>, we are -indebted to Dr. E. L. Cockrum, Assistant Professor of Zoology at the -University of Arizona who has checked the manuscript for accuracy. -We are also grateful to him for offering suggestions and criticisms which -have added materially to its interest.</p> -<p>The writer would also like to voice his appreciation to Ed Bierly whose -magnificent illustrations adorn these pages. His is a talent with which -it is a privilege to be associated.</p> -<p>Finally our thanks to the editor and his staff. It is not an easy task to -combine text with illustrations, nor to match space with type, yet it has -been done with feeling and precision.</p> -<p>Together, we hope that you will approve of our efforts. If through this -booklet you gain a better understanding of the mammals that share -the great outdoors with us, or if through it you should become aware -of the urgent necessity of preserving some of our wild creatures, (and -wild places), now before it is too late; we shall indeed be well repaid.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_ix">ix</div> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="sc">Hoofed Animals</span></a> 1</dt> -<dd><a href="#c2">Bighorn (mountain sheep)</a> 2</dd> -<dd><a href="#c3">Pronghorn (antelope)</a> 4</dd> -<dd><a href="#c4">Bison (buffalo)</a> 8</dd> -<dd><a href="#c5">Mule deer</a> 10</dd> -<dd><a href="#c6">White-tailed deer</a> 13</dd> -<dd><a href="#c7">Elk</a> 16</dd> -<dt><a href="#c8"><span class="sc">Rodents</span> (Including Lagomorphs)</a> 21</dt> -<dd><a href="#c9">Snowshoe hare</a> 22</dd> -<dd><a href="#c10">White-tailed jackrabbit</a> 24</dd> -<dd><a href="#c11">Mountain cottontail</a> 26</dd> -<dd><a href="#c12">Pika</a> 28</dd> -<dd><a href="#c13">Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert’s squirrel)</a> 31</dd> -<dd><a href="#c14">Kaibab squirrel</a> 34</dd> -<dd><a href="#c15">Arizona gray squirrel</a> 36</dd> -<dd><a href="#c16">Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel (Douglas squirrel, chickaree)</a> 39</dd> -<dd><a href="#c17">Northern flying squirrel</a> 42</dd> -<dd><a href="#c18">Western chipmunks</a> 44</dd> -<dd><a href="#c19">Golden-mantled ground squirrel</a> 48</dd> -<dd><a href="#c20">White-tailed prairie dog</a> 51</dd> -<dd><a href="#c21">Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck)</a> 53</dd> -<dd><a href="#c22">Deermouse (white-footed mouse)</a> 57</dd> -<dd><a href="#c23">Mountain vole</a> 58</dd> -<dd><a href="#c24">Western jumping mouse</a> 59</dd> -<dd><a href="#c25">Bushy-tailed woodrat (pack rat)</a> 60</dd> -<dd><a href="#c26">Muskrat</a> 64</dd> -<dd><a href="#c27">Beaver</a> 67</dd> -<dd><a href="#c28">Porcupine</a> 72</dd> -<dd><a href="#c29">Northern pocket gopher</a> 75</dd> -<dt><a href="#c30"><span class="sc">Carnivores</span> (Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans)</a> 79</dt> -<dd><a href="#c31">Mountain lion</a> 80</dd> -<dd><a href="#c32">Bobcat</a> 85</dd> -<dd><a href="#c33">Red fox</a> 87</dd> -<dd><a href="#c34">Gray wolf</a> 89</dd> -<dd><a href="#c35">Coyote</a> 92</dd> -<dd><a href="#c36">Wolverine</a> 95</dd> -<dd><a href="#c37">Marten</a> 97</dd> -<dd><a href="#c38">River otter</a> 101</dd> -<dd><a href="#c39">Mink</a> 103</dd> -<dd><a href="#c40">Short-tailed weasel (ermine)</a> 105</dd> -<dd><a href="#c41">Spotted skunk</a> 108</dd> -<dd><a href="#c42">Striped skunk</a> 110</dd> -<dd><a href="#c43">Black bear</a> 112</dd> -<dd><a href="#c44">Grizzly bear</a> 117</dd> -<dd><a href="#c45">Vagrant shrew</a> 119</dd> -<dd><a href="#c46">Bats</a> 121</dd> -<dt><a href="#c47"><span class="sc">References</span></a> 123</dt> -<dt><a href="#c48"><span class="sc">Index</span></a> 125</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_x">x</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img003.jpg" alt="Life Zones" width="800" height="578" /> -</div> -<table class="center"> -<tr><th>ELEVATION </th><th class="c"> </th><th class="c">PRECIPITATION</th></tr> -<tr><th>FEET </th><th class="c">DRY </th><th class="c">MOIST </th><th class="c">WET</th></tr> -<tr><td class="r">14,000 </td><td class="l">ARCTIC-ALPINE ZONE<sup>[1]</sup> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>above timber-line; small, mat-like plants.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">13,000 </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>pika</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">12,000 </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>mountain sheep</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">11,000 </td><td class="l">HUDSONIAN ZONE </td><td class="c"><i>spruce</i> </td><td class="c"><i>red squirrel</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">10,000 </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>fir</i> </td><td class="c"><i>marten</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">9,000 </td><td class="l">CANADIAN ZONE </td><td class="c"><i>quaking aspen</i> </td><td class="c"><i>beaver</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>Douglas fir</i>, <i>mule deer</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">8,000 </td><td class="l">TRANSITION ZONE </td><td class="c"><i>tassel-eared squirrel</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">7,000 </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>ponderosa pine</i>, <i>mountain lion</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l" colspan="4"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">6,000 </td><td class="l">UPPER SONORAN ZONE<sup>[2]</sup></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="c"><i>pinyon pine</i> </td><td class="c"><i>deer mouse</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">5,000 </td><td class="c"><i>juniper</i> </td><td class="c"><i>bobcat</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="c"><i>sagebrush</i> </td><td class="c"><i>pronghorn</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">4,000 </td><td class="l">LOWER SONORAN ZONE<sup>[3]</sup></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">3,000 </td><td class="c"><i>mesquite</i>, <i>kangaroo rat</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">2,000 </td><td class="c"><i>giant cactus</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1,000 </td><td class="c"><i>kit fox</i></td></tr> -<tr><th class="r"> </th><th>HOT </th><th class="c">WARM </th><th class="c">COLD</th></tr> -<tr><th class="r"> </th><th class="c"> </th><th>TEMPERATURE</th></tr> -</table> -<h3 class="jl">Notes</h3> -<dl class="undent"><dt><sup>[1]</sup>THIS BOOKLET DESCRIBES MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST WHICH LIVE IN THE LIFE ZONES ABOVE THE LOW DESERT.</dt> -<dd>SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS FOR PLANTS OF THESE ZONES.</dd> -<dt><sup>[2]</sup>SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MESAS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE.</dt> -<dt><sup>[3]</sup>SEE MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR MAMMALS OF THESE ZONES.</dt> -<dd>SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_xi">xi</div> -<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Geographic Limitations</i></h3> -<p>The only point in the United States at which four states adjoin is -where Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico come together. With -adjacent portions of California, Nevada, and Texas, they contain all -of our Southwestern Desert. Arizona and New Mexico especially, are -known as desert States and for the most part deserve that appellation. -Scattered over this desert country as though carelessly strewn by some -giant hand are some of the highest and most beautiful mountains in -our Nation. They may occur as isolated peaks magnificent in their -loneliness, or as short ranges that continue but a little way before -sinking to the level of the desert. On the other hand it is in Colorado -that the Rocky Mountains reach their greatest height before -merging with the high country in New Mexico, and all of the States -mentioned have at least one range of major size.</p> -<p>Two great highways cross this area from East to West. U.S. 66, -“Mainstreet of America,” goes by way of Albuquerque and Flagstaff -to Los Angeles; farther north U.S. 50 winds through the mountains -from Pueblo to Salt Lake City and terminates at San Francisco. Significantly, -they meet at St. Louis on their eastward course, and here -for the moment we digress from geography to history.</p> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Westward Ho</i></h3> -<p>St. Louis in 1800 was a brawling frontier town. Strategically located -at the point where the Missouri River meets the Mississippi, it -was the jumping off place for those hardy souls adventurous enough to -forsake the comforts of civilization for the unknown perils of the West. -Already St. Louis was one of the fur centers of the world. Fashions -of the day decreed that top hats be worn by men. The finest hats were -made of beaver fur and no self-respecting dandy could be content with -less. Trapping parties ascended the Missouri River as far as the mountains -of Montana in search of pelts with which to supply the demand. -When the animals became scarce in more accessible areas, trappers -turned their attention to the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. -Hardships of the overland route, coupled with danger of attack by -hostile Indians, discouraged all but the most hardy of a rugged breed. -These “Mountain Men” as they became known, traveled in small parties -with all the stealth and cunning of the Indians themselves. Gaunt from -weeks of travel across the plains, they could rest in the Spanish settlement -of Santa Fe for a few days before vanishing into the mountains. -On the return trip they might again visit the Spanish pueblo or, eager -for the night life of St. Louis, strike directly eastward across the prairies. -Today’s highways, while not following their trails directly, certainly -parallel them to a great degree.</p> -<p>Little is known today of these early adventurers. A few written -accounts have been printed, meager records of their catches have been -noted, and here and there crude initials and dates carved on isolated -<span class="pb" id="Page_xii">xii</span> -canyon walls attest their passing. Their conquest of the West has faded -into oblivion but it must be regarded as the opening wedge of American -progress into the Southwest.</p> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Mountains as Wildlife Reservoirs</i></h3> -<p>Today’s traveler spans in hours distances across these same routes -that took weary weeks of heartbreaking toil a century ago. As he rides -in cushioned ease he seldom pauses to reflect on the changes that have -taken place since those early days. The great herds of bison with their -attendant packs of wolves have vanished and in their place white-faced -cattle graze on the level prairies. In the foothills the pronghorns -have taken their last stand. Cities have sprung up on the camping sites -of nomadic tribes that roamed the whole area between the Mississippi -River and the Rocky Mountains. Only the mountains seem the same.</p> -<p>In winter these massive ranges form a barrier against the storms -that sweep in from the northwest. More important—these great storehouses -of our natural resources that in early days meant only gold and -furs, and perhaps sudden death to the pioneers, have now been unlocked -by their descendants. The glitter of gold and the glamour of furs -pales when contrasted with the untold values that have since been taken -out in the baser metals and lumber. This phase too is now coming to -an end. It is becoming evident that in the face of our ever increasing -population these natural playgrounds are destined to become a buffer -against the tensions that we, as one of the most highly civilized peoples -of the world, undergo in our daily life. Within another century they -will represent one of the few remaining opportunities for many millions -of Americans to get close to nature. As such the proper development -and preservation of mountainous areas and their values is of vital -importance to our Nation.</p> -<p>Mountains of the Southwestern States have been formed by three -major agencies. These are, in order of importance, shrinkage of the -earth’s interior to form wrinkles on the surface; faulting, with subsequent -erosion of exposed surfaces; and volcanic action. The first method -is responsible for most of the large ranges, such as the coastal mountains -of California and the Rocky Mountains. Faulting is responsible -for many of the high plateau areas where one side may be a high rim -or cliff and the other a gently sloping incline. The Mogollon Rim, -extending across a part of Arizona and into New Mexico, is a classic -example in this category. Volcanic action may result in great masses -of igneous rock being extruded through cracks in the earth’s surface or it -may take the form of violent outbursts in one comparatively small area. -Several mountain regions in Arizona and New Mexico are covered with -huge fields of extruded lava. Capulin Mountain in New Mexico is an -example of a recent volcano which built up an almost perfect cone of -cinders and lava. Less noticeable than the mountains, but important -nevertheless, are the tablelands of the Southwest. These mesas, too high -to be typical of the desert, and in most cases too low to be considered -as mountains, partake of the characteristics of both.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_xiii">xiii</div> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Desert “Islands”</i></h3> -<p>The mountains of the Southwest have been compared to islands -rising above the surface of a sea of desert. This is an apt comparison for -not only do they differ materially from the hot, low desert in climate, -but also in flora and fauna. Few species of either plants or animals -living at these higher altitudes could survive conditions on the desert -floor with any more success than land animals could take to the open -sea. Their death from heat and aridity would only be more prolonged -than that by drowning. Thus certain species isolated on mountain peaks -are often as restricted in range as though they actually were surrounded -by water. At times this results in such striking adaptation to local -conditions that some common species become hardly recognizable. -This is the exception to the rule however; most of the animals in this -book are either of the same species as those in the Northern States or -so closely allied that to the casual observer they will seem the same. -Conditions that enable these species ordinarily associated with the -snowy plains of the Midwest and the conifer forests of the North to -live in the hot Southwest are brought about either directly or indirectly -by altitude.</p> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Life Zones</i></h3> -<p>There are in this nucleus of four States a total of six life zones, -(See map on <a href="#Page_x">page x</a>.) The two lowest, the Lower and Upper Sonoran -Life Zones, range from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 7000 -feet. These two have been covered in the book “Mammals of the Southwest -Deserts.” The remaining four—Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian, -and Alpine Life Zones—will furnish the material for this book. The -names of these zones are self explanatory, because they are descriptive -of those regions whose climates they approximate. Unlike the two -life zones of the desert, which merge almost imperceptibly together, -these upper zones are more sharply defined. They may often be identified -at a great distance by their distinctive plant growth. It should -be noted that plant species are even more susceptible to environmental -factors than animals and are restricted to well defined areas within -the extremes of temperature and moisture best suited to their individual -needs. Thus each life zone has its typical plant species, and since -animals in turn are dependent on certain plants for food or cover, one -can often predict many of the species to be found in an individual area.</p> -<p>The Transition Life Zone in the Southwest usually lies at an altitude -of between 7000 and 8000 feet. It encompasses the change from -low trees and shrubs of the open desert to dense forest of the higher -elevations. It is characterized by open forests of ponderosa pine usually -intermingled with scattered thickets of Gambel oak. These trees are -of a brighter green than the desert growth but do not compare with the -deeper color of the firs that grow at a higher elevation.</p> -<p>The Canadian Life Zone begins at an altitude of about 8000 feet -and extends to approximately 9500 feet. The Douglas-fir must be considered -the outstanding species in this zone although the brilliant -<span class="pb" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span> -autumn color of quaking aspens provides more spectacular identification -of this area during the fall. Through the winter months when this -tree has shed its leaves, the groves show up as gray patches among the -dark green firs. At this elevation there is considerable snow during -winter and correspondingly heavy rainfall in summer months. Under -these favorable conditions there is usually a colorful display of wildflowers -late in the spring.</p> -<p>The Hudsonian Life Zone is marked by a noticeable decrease in -numbers of plant species. At this altitude, (9500 to 11,500 feet), the -winters are severe and summers of short duration. This is the zone of -white fir which grows tall and slim so to better shed its seasonal -burden of snow and sleet. In the more sheltered places spruce finds a -habitat suited to its needs. Near the upper edge of the Hudsonian -Life Zone the trees become stunted and misshapen and finally disappear -entirely. This is timberline; the beginning of the Alpine Life -Zone, or as it often called, the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone.</p> -<p>Here is a world of barren rock and biting cold. At 12,000 feet and -above the eternal snows lie deep on the peaks. Yet, even though at -first glance there seems to be little evidence of life of any kind, a close -scrutiny will reveal low mat-like plants growing among the exposed -rocks and tiny paths leading to burrows in the rock slides. Among the -larger mammals there are few other than the mountain sheep that can -endure the rigors of this inhospitable region.</p> -<p>These are the zones of the Southwest uplands. Altitudes given are -approximate and apply to such mountain ranges as the San Francisco -Peaks of Arizona and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in New Mexico. -As one travels farther north the zones descend ever lower until in the -Far North the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone is found at sea level. Since climate -more than any other factor, determines the types of plants and animals -that can live in a given area it is only natural that on these mountain -islands many species entirely foreign to the surrounding deserts are -found at home. Though it would seem that because of the relative -abundance of water at higher elevations the upland species would have -the better environment, this is not entirely true. Balanced against -this advantage are the severe winters which, in addition to freezing -temperatures, usher in a period of deep snows and famine. Even though -many species show a high degree of adaptation to these conditions, -an especially long or cold winter season will result in the death of -weaker individuals.</p> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Man and Wilderness</i></h3> -<p>The effects of man’s presence on the upland species is perhaps not -as serious as on those of the desert. Though he has been instrumental -in upsetting the balance of nature everywhere, it has been chiefly -through agriculture and grazing. Because of the rough broken character -of much high country in the Southwest the first is impossible in -many cases and the second only partially successful. There are other -factors however which menace the future of the upland species. Among -<span class="pb" id="Page_xv">xv</span> -these are: hunting pressures, predator control, and lumbering. Even -fire control, admirable as it may be for human purposes, disrupts the -long cycles which are a normal part of plant and animal succession in -forested areas. These are only a few of the means by which man deliberately -or unconsciously decimates the animal population. They are -set down as a reminder that unless conservation and science cooperate -in management problems, it is conceivable that many of our common -species could well become extinct within the next 100 years. Our natural -resources are our heritage; let us not waste the substance of our trust.</p> -<p>As our wilderness areas shrink it seems that our people are gradually -becoming more interested, not only in the welfare of our native -species but in their ways as well. This type of curiosity augurs well -for the future of our remaining wild creatures. In times past an interest -in mammals was limited mainly to sportsmen who often knew a -great deal about where to find game animals and how to pursue them. -Their interest usually ended with the shot that brought the quarry -down. Today many people have discovered that a study of the habits of -any animal in its native habitat is a fascinating out-of-doors hobby in -a virtually untouched field. With patience and attention to details -the layman will occasionally discover facts about the daily life of some -common species that have escaped the attention of our foremost naturalists. -This is no criticism of the scientific approach. It is recommended -that for his own benefit the nature enthusiast learn a few of the fundamentals -of zoology, particularly of classification and taxonomy, which -mean the grouping and naming of species.</p> -<h3 class="jl"><i>Classification of Animals</i></h3> -<p>Classification of animals is easy to understand. Briefly, they are -divided into large groups called <i>orders</i>. These are further divided -into <i>genera</i>, and the genera in turn contain one or more <i>species</i>.</p> -<p>Scientific names of animals are always given in Latin. Written in -this universal language they are intelligible to all scientists, regardless -of nationality. It is a mistake to shy away from them because they are -cumbersome and unfamiliar to the eye. They usually reveal some important -characteristic of the animal they stand for. This is their true -function; it seems to this writer that it is a mistake to name an animal -after a geographical location or a person, although it is frequently -done. The literal translations of specific names in this book will illustrate -this point. See how much more interesting and how much more -easily remembered those names are which describe habits or physical -attributes of the creature.</p> -<p>Described herein are but a part of the species native to the Southwestern -uplands. Those chosen were selected because they are either -common, rare, or unusually interesting. Collectively they make up a -representative cross section of the mammals that live above the deserts -of the Southwest.</p> -<p>For further information on these and other mammals of the region -see the list of references on <a href="#Page_123">page 123</a>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_xvi">xvi</div> -<h2 id="c1" class="jr"><span class="large ss">HOOFED ANIMALS</span> -<br /><i>Artiodactyla</i> -<br />(<i>even-toed hoofed animals</i>)</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<p>This order includes all of the hoofed animals native to the United -States. These are the mammals which are ordinarily spoken of as the -“cloven-hoofed animals.” An odd-toed group (<i>Perissodactyla</i>), which -includes the so-called wild horses and burros, cannot properly be included -as natives since these animals date back only to the time of the -Spanish conquest of our Southwest. In earlier geologic ages horses -ranged this continent, but in more primitive forms than those now -found in other parts of the world.</p> -<p>Through a study of fossil forms it has been determined that our -present hoofed animals evolved from creatures which lived on the edges -of the great tropical swamps that once covered large areas of our present -land masses. They were long-legged and splay-footed, well adapted to -an environment of deep mud and lush vegetation. As the waters gradually -disappeared and the animals were forced to take to dry land, their -strange feet underwent a slow transformation. Because they had become -accustomed to walking on the tips of their toes to stay up out of the -mud, the first toe did not touch solid ground at all in this new environment. -Since it was of no use it soon vanished entirely or became vestigial. -Some species developed a divided foot in which the second and third -toes and the fourth and fifth toes combined respectively to bear the -animal’s weight. Eventually the third and fourth toes assumed this -responsibility alone, and the second and fifth toes became dew claws. -These are the cloven-hoofed animals of today. In other species the -third toe was developed to bear the weight, and this resulted in a -single-toed group of which the horse is an example. In all cases an -enormous modification of the nails or claws with which most animals -are equipped has resulted in that protective covering called the hoof. -The under surface of the foot is somewhat softer and corresponds to -the heavy pad that protects the bottom of a dog’s toe. This brief explanation -refers only in the broadest sense to the order as represented -in the United States. The feet of the various species have become so -specialized to their separate ways of life that an individual can usually -be easily identified by its tracks alone. It is quite possible that many -species are still undergoing subtle changes in this respect.</p> -<p>With but one exception the cloven-hoofed animals of our southwestern -mountains bear either horns or antlers. The exception is the -collared peccary, “javelina,” (<i>pecari tajacu</i>) which, during the heat of -the summer, sometimes ascends to the Transition Life Zone in southern -Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Essentially an animal of the -low desert, it will not be included in this book. The species which have -hollow, permanent horns are the bighorn and pronghorn. The pronghorn -is distinctive in shedding the sheaths of its horns each year, but -the hollow, bony core remains intact. In this group both sexes bear -horns. Animals bearing antlers are the elk and the deer. The antlers are -deciduous, being shed each year at about the same time as the winter -coat. Only the males of these species have antlers, any female with -antlers can be considered abnormal.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<p>The Southwest is fortunate in still having a number of the species -of this order native to the United States. The bison can hardly be -considered a wild species, since it exists now only through the efforts -of a few conservationists who brought it back from virtual extinction. -Mountain goats, caribou, and moose are the only other species not -known to inhabit the Southwest.</p> -<p>In Nature’s balance the order <i>Artiodactyla</i> seems to have been -meant as food for the large predators. Their protection against the -flesh eaters consists mainly in fleetness of foot, keen hearing, and a wide -range of vision, as evidenced by the large eyes set in the sides of the -head. They are but poorly equipped to actively resist attack by the -larger carnivores. Their best defense is flight.</p> -<h3 id="c2"><span class="larger">Bighorn (mountain sheep)</span> -<br /><i>Ovis canadensis</i> (Latin: a sheep from Canada)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: This species, with its several varieties, inhabits most of -the mountainous region of the western United States. In Mexico it -occurs in the northern Sierra Madres and over almost the whole length -of Baja California.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img004.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Among or in the vicinity of more precipitous places in -the mountains.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A blocky animal, rather large, with heavy, curving -horns. Total length of adult male 5 feet. Tail about 5 inches. Weight -up to 275 pounds. General color a dark gray to brown with lighter -areas underneath belly and inside of legs. The rump patch is much -lighter than any other part of the body; in most cases it can be described -as white. Females are similar in appearance to the males except that -they are smaller and the horns are much shorter and slimmer. Young, -one or two, twins being common.</p> -<p>Interesting as the desert varieties of this species may be in their -adaptation to an environment that seems foreign to their nature, they -cannot compare with the high mountain animal. Seen against the backdrop -of a great gray cliff or silhouetted against the skyline of a snowy -crest the bighorn has a magnificence that is thrilling. In flight it is -even more spectacular as it bounds from one narrow shelf to another -in an incredible show of surefootedness. Yet this airy grace is exhibited -by a chunky animal that often weighs well over 200 pounds. The -secret lies in the specially adapted hooves with bottoms that cling to -smooth surfaces like crepe rubber and edges that cut into snow and -ice or gain a purchase on the smallest projections of the rocks. The legs -and body, though heavy, are well proportioned and -so extremely well muscled that no matter what demands -are placed on them this sheep seems to have -a comfortable reserve of power. No doubt the display -of complete coordination adds to the illusion of ease -with which it ascends to the most inaccessible places. -Descents often are even more spectacular, the animal -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -seldom hesitating at vertical leaps of 15 feet or more down from one -narrow ledge to another.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill1"> -<img id="fig1" src="images/img004a.jpg" alt="bighorn" width="600" height="489" /> -<p class="pcap">bighorn</p> -</div> -<p>In the high mountains where this sheep prefers to make its home it -usually ranges near or above timberline. During winter storms it may -sometimes be forced down into the shelter of the forests, but as soon -as conditions warrant it will go back to its world of barren rocks and -snow. Here, with an unobstructed view, its keen eyes can pick out the -stealthy movements of the mountain lion, the only mammal predator -capable of making any serious inroads on its numbers. It has few other -natural enemies. A golden eagle occasionally may strike a lamb and -knock it from a ledge, or a high ranging bobcat or lynx may be lucky -enough to snatch a very young one away from its mother, but these -are rare occurrences.</p> -<p>Bighorns depend mainly on browse for food. This is only natural -since in the high altitudes they frequent little grass can be found. -Usually there is some abundance of low shrubs growing in crevices on -the rocks, however, and many of the tiny annuals are also searched out -during the short summer season. At times a sheltered cove on the south -exposure of a mountain will become filled with such shrubs as the snowberry, -and the sheep take full advantage of such situations. As a rule -they keep well fed for, scanty though it seems, there are few competitors -for the food supply above timberline.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<p>I have observed these sheep many times in the Rockies. Perhaps my -most memorable experience with this species was on Mount Cochran -in southern Montana. It was a gray, blustery day in September with -occasional snow flurries sweeping about the summits. On the eastern -exposure of the mountain a steep slope of slide rock extended for perhaps -1,000 feet from one of the upper ridges to timberline. Not expecting -to see any game at that elevation, I made my way up this slope -with no effort to keep quiet. In my progress several rocks were dislodged -and went rattling down across the mass of talus. At the summit of the -ridge a low escarpment made a convenient windbreak against the gale -that was tearing the clouds to shreds as they came drifting up the -opposite slope, and I sat down to catch my breath before entering its -full force. As I sat there surveying the scene spread out below, my -attention was attracted by a low cough close by. Looking to the left -about 40 feet away and 15 feet above me, I saw two magnificent rams -standing on a projecting point looking down at me. They seemed to -have no fear; rather they evinced a deep curiosity as to what strange -animal this was that had wandered into their domain. For the better -part of a half hour I hardly dared breathe for fear of frightening them. -At first they gazed at me fixedly, occasionally giving a low snorting -cough and stamping their feet. Then as I did not move, they would -wheel about and change positions, sometimes taking a long look over -the mountains before bringing their attention back. Finally when the -cold had penetrated to my very bones, I stood up. They were away in -a flash, reappearing from behind their vantage point with two ewes -and an almost full-grown lamb following them. While I watched they -dashed at a sheer cliff that reared up to the summit, and with hardly -slackening speed bounded up its face until they were lost in the clouds.</p> -<p>Although this happened in 1928 the experience is as vivid in my -mind as though it happened yesterday. Perhaps the most striking feature -of bighorns seen at this close range is the eyes. They might be described -as a clear, golden amber with a long oval, velvety black pupil. Credited -with telescopic vision, they must be some of the most useful as well -as beautiful eyes to be found in the animal kingdom.</p> -<h3 id="c3"><span class="larger">Pronghorn (antelope)</span> -<br /><i>Antilocapra americana</i> (Latin: antelope and goat, American)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: West Texas, eastern Colorado and central Wyoming to -southern California and western Nevada, and from southern Saskatchewan -south into northern Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img005.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Grasslands of mesas and prairies, -mostly in the Upper Sonoran Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A white and tan colored animal, -considerably smaller than a deer; horns with a single -flat prong curving forward. Total length about 4 -feet. Tail about 6 inches. Average weight 100 to 125 -pounds. Color, tan or black shading to white under -belly and insides of legs. Two conspicuous white bands under the neck, -and the large white rump patch of erectile hairs are unlike the markings -of any other native animal. A short, stiff mane of dark hairs follows the -back of the neck from ears to shoulders. Hooves black, horns also black -except for the light tips on those of older males. Both sexes horned. -Young, usually two, born in May.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img" id="ill2"> -<img id="fig2" src="images/img005a.jpg" alt="pronghorn" width="497" height="752" /> -<p class="pcap">pronghorn</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<p>Pronghorns are unique among cloven-hoofed animals of the Southwest. -There is only one species, with several subspecies; a variety -<i>mexicana</i>, once common along the Mexican border, is considered extinct -in this country. The pronghorn has no “dew claws” like most other -animals with divided hooves. It has permanent bony cores in its horns -but sheds the outer sheaths each year. When these drop off the succeeding -sheaths are already well developed. Although at first these new -sheaths are soft and covered with a scanty growth of short stiff hairs, -corresponding to the velvet in antlered animals, it does not take long -for them to harden and become dangerous weapons. They reach full -development at about the time of the rut; bucks have been known to -fight to the death in the savage encounters that break out at this time.</p> -<p>Were it not for its unusual horns the pronghorn probably would -be known by a common name such as the white-tailed antelope, for the -beautiful white rump patch is undoubtedly its next most conspicuous -feature. However, at least two other animals have been named “antelope” -because their posteriors have some similarity. They are the -white-tailed ground squirrel and the antelope jackrabbit of the Sonoran -Life Zone. The ground squirrel (<i>Citellus leucurus</i>) has merely a white -ventral surface on its tail which may or may not act as a flashing -signal when flipped about, but the antelope jackrabbit (<i>Lepus alleni</i>) -has a rump patch that bears a striking likeness to the pronghorn’s -both in appearance and manner of use. In both cases the rump patches -are composed of long, erectile white hairs which are raised when the -animal is alarmed. In flight they are thought to act as warning signals; -at any rate they are very effective in catching the eye, and on the open -plains the pronghorn’s can be seen at a distance where the rest of the -animal is indistinguishable. It may well be, on the other hand, that -this flashy ornament is meant to attract the attention of an enemy -and lead it in pursuit of an adult individual rather than allowing it -to discover the helpless young. Neither animal can be matched in speed -on level ground by any native four-footed predator.</p> -<p>In times past the pronghorn usually lived in the valley and prairie -country. In the Southwest it roamed over much of both the Upper and -Lower Sonoran Life Zones, wherever suitable grass and herbage could -be found. On the prairies of the Midwest bands of pronghorns grazed -in close proximity to herds of buffalo. During the middle of the last -century it was the only animal whose numbers even approached those -of the latter. More adaptable than the buffalo, it has retreated before -the advance of civilization and taken up new ranges in rough and -broken country which is unsuited to agriculture. As a rule this is much -higher than its former range. Pronghorns are no longer found in the -Lower Sonoran Life Zone, except as small bands that have been introduced -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -from farther north. The greatest population now ranges in the -upper portions of the Upper Sonoran and along the lower fringe of the -Transition Life Zone. The animal has always been considered migratory -to some extent because it moved from mesa summer ranges to the protection -of warmer valleys during winter months. This habit is even more -pronounced in later years at the higher levels it now inhabits. These -slim, long-legged creatures are virtually helpless in deep snow and avoid -it whenever possible. They have even been known to mingle with cattle -and join with them at the feed racks during severe winters, an indication -of the extreme need to which shy pronghorns are sometimes reduced.</p> -<p>They are essentially grazing animals. In the past they ate prairie -grasses during the summer; in winter these same grasses made excellent -hay that lost little in nourishment from having dried on the roots. In -addition, they ate low herbage and nibbled leaves, buds, and fruits -from shrubs that grew along the watercourses. Their food today is much -the same except that in the many areas where they receive competition -from range cattle they undoubtedly resort to more browse than formerly.</p> -<p>Natural enemies of the pronghorn are legion, their success indifferent. -Every large carnivore will snap at the chance to take one, and -even the golden eagle has been known to kill them. The most serious -depredations are carried out on those young too small to follow the -mother. However, these attacks are fraught with danger, for the females -are very courageous in the defense of their young and at times several -will join in routing an enemy. In addition to this protection accorded -them by adult members of the band, the young have an almost perfect -camouflage in their plain coats that blend so closely with the color of the -grass in which they usually lie concealed. Because of their fleetness, -few adults fall prey to predators. Many attempts have been made to -clock the speed of the pronghorn in full flight but the estimates vary -greatly. Although a fast horse can keep up with one on smooth, level -ground, it is soon outdistanced on stony soil or in rough country.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill3"> -<img id="fig3" src="images/img006.jpg" alt="baby pronghorn" width="600" height="242" /> -<p class="pcap">baby pronghorn</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<h3 id="c4"><span class="larger">Bison (buffalo)</span> -<br /><i>Bison bison</i> (Teutonic name given to this animal)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: At present bison exist only in widely scattered sanctuaries. -In Colonial times they ranged from southern Alaska to the Texas -plains, from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, and as far south as -Georgia. They are known in historic times in Utah, Colorado, and New -Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img007.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Mainly grasslands; a comparatively small number known -locally as “wood” bison lived in the fringes of the forests.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: Although bison are familiar to almost everyone, some -figures on weights and dimensions may be surprising. Bulls weigh up to -1800 lbs., reach 6 feet height at the shoulders and up to 11 feet in -length, of which about 2 feet is the short tail. Cows average much smaller -from 800 to 1000 pounds, and rarely over 7 feet long. Both sexes have -heavy, black, sharply curving horns, tapering quickly to a point, and a -heavy growth of woolly hair covering most of the head and forequarters. -A large hump lies over the latter and descends sharply to the neck. The -head is massive, horns widely spaced, and small eyes set far apart. A -heavy “goatee” swings from the lower jaw. All these features combine -to give the animal a most ponderous appearance. Nevertheless, bison -are surprisingly agile and are not creatures with which to trifle, especially -in the breeding season, when bulls will charge with little provocation. -Like most wild cattle, bison normally bear but one calf per year. Twins -are uncommon.</p> -<p>The history of the bison is unique in the annals of American -mammalogy. It hinges on simple economics, reflecting transfer of the -western prairies from Indian control to white. It is a pitifully short -history in its final stages, requiring only 50 years to drive a massive -species, numbering in the millions, from a well balanced existence to -near extinction. Yet considering the nature of civilization and progress -there could have been no other end, so perhaps it is well that it was -quickly over.</p> -<p>For countless centuries the bison had roamed the prairies, their -seasonal migrations making eddies in the great herds that darkened the -plains. They were host to the Indian, and to the gray wolf, yet so well -were they adapted to their life that these depredations were merely -normal inroads on their numbers. They drifted with the seasons and -the weather cycles, grazing on the nutritious grasses of the prairie. -Weather and food supply; these were the main factors which controlled -the “buffalo” population until the coming of the white man.</p> -<p>The first white man to see an American bison is -thought to have been Cortez, who in 1521 wrote of -such an animal in Montezuma’s collection of animals. -This menagerie was kept in the Aztec capitol -on the site of what is now Mexico City. There the -bison was an exotic, hundreds of miles south of its -range. In 1540 Coronado found the Zuni Indians in -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -northern New Mexico using bison hides, and a short distance northeast -of that point encountered the species on the great plains. The -eastern edge of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico seems to have -been the western limit of bison in the Southwest. Unfavorable climate, -plus the comparatively heavy Indian population of the valley probably -combined to halt farther penetration in that direction.</p> -<p>From 1540 until 1840 the white man limited his activities on the -western plains to exploring. American colonization had reached the -Mississippi River, but remained there while gathering its forces for -the expansion which later settled the West. Under Mexican rule, the -Southwest progressed very slowly. Then in the span of 50 years a chain -of events occurred which determined the destiny of the West and sealed -the fate of the bison herd.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill4"> -<img id="fig4" src="images/img007a.jpg" alt="bison" width="600" height="421" /> -<p class="pcap">bison</p> -</div> -<p>Outstanding among these events were: the War with Mexico, 1844; -the 1849 Gold Rush to California; the Gadsden Purchase in 1854; and -completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1868. The first three -added new and important territory to the United States. This made -construction of transportation and communication facilities a vital -necessity, hence the railroad. Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad -in 1868 divided the bison population into southern and northern -herds and made market hunting profitable. Three factors contributed -to extermination: profit in the traffic of hides, meat, and bones; control -of troublesome Indian tribes through elimination of one of their -major sources of food; and finally, removal of any competition on the -grassy plains of Texas and Kansas against the great herds of Longhorn -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -cattle which were beginning to make Western range history. In 1874, -only 6 years after completion of the Union Pacific, the slaughter of the -southern herd was complete. It is of interest to note that not one piece -of legislation was passed to protect the southern herd.</p> -<p>The northern herd did slightly better. Closed seasons were established -in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, Montana in 1872, Nebraska -in 1875, Colorado in 1877, New Mexico in 1880, North and South -Dakota in 1883. Nevertheless, the herd dwindled, and by 1890 was -nearly extinct. Since that time, through careful management, a few -small herds have been established in Parks and refuges, but today the -bison must be considered more a domesticated animal than a wild one.</p> -<p>Although the animal was not as important economically to the -southwestern as to the plains Indians, it was a religious symbol of some -value. Archeological finds far west of the historic range, and dances -still used in ceremonies, reveal that several southwestern tribes sent -hunting parties eastward into bison country. This must have been very -dangerous, for plains Indians would have considered them invaders. -Bison were food, shelter, and clothing to them. Imagine their consternation -when white men began to slaughter the source of their living.</p> -<p>There are today but few reminders of the great herds of the west. -Perhaps one well versed in the ways of these wild cattle could still -find traces of the deeply cut trails which led to the watering places, -or shallow depressions where the clumsy beasts once wallowed in the -mud. Many of the Indian dances recall the importance of this animal -to primitive man. Perhaps our most constant reminder is the coin which -commemorates this symbol of the wild west, showing the Indian on -one side and the bison on the other.</p> -<h3 id="c5"><span class="larger">Mule deer</span> -<br /><i>Odocoileus hemionus</i> (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Greek: hemionus, mule)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western half of North America from Central Canada to -central Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img008.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Forests and brushy areas from near sea level to lower -edge of the Alpine Life Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large-eared deer with a tail that is either all black -above or black tipped. Total length of an average adult about 6 feet. -Tail about 8 inches. The coat is reddish in summer and blue-gray in -winter. Under parts and insides of legs lighter in color. Some forms of -this species have a white rump patch, others none. -The tail may be black-tipped, or black over the whole -dorsal surface, but is more sparsely haired than that -of other native deer and is naked over at least part -of the under surface. Only the bucks have antlers. -These are typical in forking equally from the main -beam. They are shed every year.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<div class="img" id="ill5"> -<img id="fig5" src="images/img008a.jpg" alt="mule deer" width="595" height="603" /> -<p class="pcap">mule deer</p> -</div> -<p>The mule deer is typical of the western mountains. Even in early -days it was never found east of the Mississippi and now is seldom seen -east of the Rockies. Only one species is recognized in the United States, -although over its vast range are many subspecific forms. All are notable -for the size of their ears, from which derives the common name “mule.” -The black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, long considered a distinct -species, is now rated a subspecies of the mule deer.</p> -<p>In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into -two groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. -East of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group; -westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop -abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a whitetail -subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found along the -Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory also occupied -by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule deer -of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of North -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and well -within the western range of the plains white-tailed.</p> -<p>Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished -from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the -animal is seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most -prominent field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough -country, bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward -on the level but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. -The white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing -gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually straining -every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the rough, -broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes considerable -commotion.</p> -<p>I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped -on a steep mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, -crackling of hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight -created the impression of a landslide.</p> -<p>Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed -deer is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the -great white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no -way to be used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side -as is that of the white-tailed.</p> -<p>Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game -species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule -and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often -look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is -not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk, especially -at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that forks -equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five points, -these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam near the -head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of the -beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of numbering -those of one antler only; the method often used in the East counts all -of the points of both. The number of points does not necessarily denote -the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the antlers will increase -in size and points with every new pair until maturity is attained. They -will then grow to approximately the same size for several years. In old -age, the antler development will usually dwindle with each succeeding -year until, in senility, they may be as small as those of a young deer. -The condition of teeth and hooves is a more accurate indication of age -even though this method lacks prestige of the time-honored system -of points.</p> -<p>It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be -established in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of -extinction. It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear -before long because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture -or lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the -higher mountains for many years to come.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<h3 id="c6"><span class="larger">White-tailed deer</span> -<br /><i>Odocoileus virginianus</i> (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin: of Virginia)</h3> -<div class="img" id="ill6"> -<img id="fig6" src="images/img009.jpg" alt="white-tailed deer" width="600" height="656" /> -<p class="pcap">white-tailed deer</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, -north into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img010.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="200" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Brushy and wooded country.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged -from side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the -Southwest, two geographic variants occur, the subspecies <i>virginianus</i> -and the subspecies <i>couesi</i>; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, -and seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border. -<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i> of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually weighs -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to -300. The average adult animal will measure around -6 feet in total length. Tail about 10 inches. Color -is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the -winter coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface -of tail are white. Ears are small. Antlers have upright -tines from a single beam.</p> -<p>As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found -in the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because -it was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout -the prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most -abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to -the Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific -Northwest, and the subspecies <i>couesi</i> extends westward along the -Mexican border to the Colorado River.</p> -<p>The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by -any of three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are: -shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method -of running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from -the head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from -forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule -deer the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather -than remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired -all around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and “wigwagged” -from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the -hams, presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The -mule deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and -does not wave from side to side in running. The “whitetail” runs at -a brisk gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds -away with a series of ballet-like leaps.</p> -<p>This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their -westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for -its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin -moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early -days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range, -although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United -States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly -settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and -hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if predator -elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the relative -overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of browse, -disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has been a -problem in some of the Northern States. “Whitetails” are gregarious -creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times, especially -during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together and -their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As succeeding -snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the “deer yards” -and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white -barrier as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span> -yard is too great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve -to death before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous -area occupied by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. -The herds merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too -deep. This seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed -as a migratory animal in some localities.</p> -<p>In line with this migratory tendency the “whitetail” follows a -varied but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time -of shedding the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their -antlers. With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities -suffer. They leave the group with which they have spent the winter -and ascend to the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly -afflicted individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their -dignity. The does, left behind, have problems of their own. These -include driving the yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order -that the does may give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers -that arrive in midsummer. By this time the adults have put -on the short, yellowish-red summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, -but covered with pale spots, a combination that blends well with lights -and shadows in the brushy places where the does choose to hide them. -As soon as the fawns are large enough to follow their mothers the little -family groups begin a gradual trek up the mountainside. There are -several reasons for this exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, -better browse, and fewer stinging insects.</p> -<p>While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been -staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new -antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the -brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of -the does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at -the peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are -soon outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become -progenitors of the following year’s fawns. The simplicity of this system -is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one -of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in -numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior strain. -In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is not -always the <i>number</i> of animals that is the prime consideration. A smaller -group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be desired -than a larger population in average condition.</p> -<p>Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the -Prairie States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked -by many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the -“guinea pig” in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost -any environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only -a little protection to become well established. The “key” deer of the -Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds, -is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the “Sonora -fantail,” native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, -is greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<h3 id="c7"><span class="larger">Elk</span> -<br /><i>Cervus canadensis</i> (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and -Canada. Also found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, -central California, and various small areas in those Western States -where it has been introduced.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img011.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin -neck, and a light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 -inches. Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 -pounds, with a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter -in winter. Longer hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane -that is distinguishable at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually -six points on adult males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves -are black. Young usually one, although twins not rare.</p> -<p>The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the -southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known -not only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern -States. In fact, one of its common names, “wapiti,” is of eastern American -Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of -Canada and the Northern States call it “wapitiu” (pale white) to distinguish -it from the darker colored moose with which it was associated -in that region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the -United States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many -herds now found in Western States have been introduced to take the -place of those thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has -been the case in Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam’s elk -disappeared before 1900. This elk, now known only from scanty records -and a few mounted heads and skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only -was it larger than the Wyoming elk which now takes its place, but it had -correspondingly massive antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what -could happen easily to the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California -which has been reduced to a dangerously small herd. The elk now -present in the Southwest, chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals -brought down from the large herds of the Yellowstone Park -area. In their new homeland they maintain the same habits that characterize -the species in Wyoming.</p> -<p>Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the -United States. The degree to which they band together varies with the -seasons and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During -summer months the bands are small and widely -scattered high in the Transition Life Zone and even -higher at times. With the advent of cold weather -they work their way down to lower country, and -winter finds them gathered in sheltered grassy valleys. -This exodus to winter quarters can be one of -the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -is not uncommon for herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals -to move into one of the more favored valleys. They have the -instinct so highly developed among most animals of knowing when a -storm is imminent, and the migration may be completed within a period -of 48 hours, or even less if foul weather is brewing.</p> -<p>The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one -small area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of -feed. Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, -and many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed -areas they were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing -dry grass beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter -losses that would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively -mild winters and small population, the animals experience little -difficulty in weathering the storms without human aid. The present -herds appear well established, and with proper conservation measures -should be a valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill7"> -<img id="fig7" src="images/img011a.jpg" alt="elk" width="600" height="650" /> -<p class="pcap">elk</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<p>Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal -range of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed -two definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter -garb is put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown -woolly underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to -almost black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and -white than the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often -called the “gray” coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep -through the mountains and insulates the wearer against snow that is -driven into the outer surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way -for a light summer coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, -and the animals are unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The -summer coat is made up of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The -pelage is glossy when compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter -coat. In color it is tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump -patch is a light tawny color in both coats.</p> -<p>With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which -they have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general -deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption -of tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in -their weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging -branches. They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins -to grow. As with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet -covers the new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the -antlers develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity -before the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers -“catches up,” so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity, -attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk -in the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely -tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip -off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the -hard core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines -which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully symmetrical -that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the largest -pairs on record has a length of beam of 64¾ inches and a spread of 74 -inches.</p> -<p>A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have -definite names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is -known as the “brow” tine; the next to it as the “bez” tine. Collectively -they are called the “lifters,” formerly known as “war tines.” The next -point inclines toward the vertical; this is the “trez” tine. The fourth -is the “royal” or “dagger” point, and the terminal fork of the antler -forms the final two points which are called “surroyals.”</p> -<p>Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals -handle them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the -body is carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. -In this posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without -undue strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; -this throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -nose parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without -catching on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the -elk creates less disturbance than most large forest animals when in -flight. Antlers as weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom -serve this function. Males have been severely injured and even killed -in fights among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting -is done by striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually -with a chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing -the hide of the opponent.</p> -<p>Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content -merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort is a -high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it seems -to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn. The call -begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds and then -rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo, drops by swift -degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is followed by several -coughing grunts that can be heard only at close range. Bugling can be -heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet evening one of the -greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this clear challenge -flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is quickly returned -from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere whispers in the -distance.</p> -<p>Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts -from August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended -as a challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with -their lords’ great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently, -and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal -spirits. Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence.</p> -<p>The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins -are not uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and -is an awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with -light spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it -remains hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps -constant vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, -but this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that -are only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions, -wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the -calf be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with -sharp hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the -smaller predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her -bristling show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the -mother, she warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark.</p> -<p>The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in -other American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths -without known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls -have the greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished -and stain a light brown.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<h2 id="c8" class="jr"><span class="large ss">RODENTS</span> -<br /><i>Including the Lagomorphs</i> -<br />(<i>hares and pikas</i>)</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is -not an unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other -mammals throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; -the largest to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver -and the porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all -others of the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of -the large number of species represented and the varying conditions -under which they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics. -They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, -by one common characteristic—that of having long, curving incisors. -As a rule these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only -exception being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These -properly belong to the order <i>Lagomorpha</i> but will be included here -with rodents.</p> -<p>The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums -being a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other -mammals, they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of -the animal. This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting -edges must undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy -coat of enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at -best covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged -surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it -receives during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform -sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar -arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average -play in this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either -behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately -the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or -otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its opposite -will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take food -and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all rodents, -and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus left -between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars -accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally -compressed face so typical of rodent features.</p> -<p>Food habits of the various types of rodents differ to a great degree. -Perhaps the term omnivorous might be applied to most of them because -virtually all rodents will eat insects and meat in addition to the usual -fare of vegetable matter. A few might be classed as insectivorous or -even carnivorous. Some species store up hoards of food against lean -seasons; others eat like gluttons when food is abundant and hibernate -through times of want; still others are equipped to spend the whole -year in a busy search for something to eat.</p> -<p>Habitats are equally diverse. Some species live below the earth, -some on the surface of the ground, at least two species are aquatic, -and a few are arboreal. Regardless of where they live, the great majority -are home builders. They strive to locate their homes in the most -protected places and usually line their nests with soft materials. Outstanding -<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span> -exceptions are the jackrabbit and the porcupine, both of -which lead nomadic lives.</p> -<p>In spite of their secretive habits, rodents suffer a tremendous -mortality. Practically all carnivorous animals, most predatory birds, -and many snakes prey on rodents, and for many of them these persecuted -animals form the chief food. This situation is not as harsh as -it might seem, for most rodents are prolific to a high degree. Elliott -Coues summed up their place in Nature’s balance very aptly: “Yet -they have one obvious part to play,... that of turning grass into -flesh, in order that carnivorous Goths and Vandals may subsist also, -and in their turn proclaim, ‘All flesh is grass.’”</p> -<h3 id="c9"><span class="larger">Snowshoe hare</span> -<br /><i>Lepus americanus</i> (Latin: hare ... of America)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Found throughout the greater part of Canada and Alaska -with extensive penetrations into the Southwest in Utah, Colorado, New -Mexico, and western Nevada. Its occurrence in northern California is -rather rare, and is confined to only a few higher mountain ranges.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img012.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="201" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: In the vicinity of streams or in conifer forests in the -Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small, chunky hare with medium long ears and -large hairy hind feet. An average individual will have a total length -of about 18 inches with a tail less than 2 inches. Hind foot about 6 -inches in length. Summer pelage brown, except feet and belly white, -and tail brownish black above. Winter coat white except for the tips -of the ears which are black. Young, three to six, born in May or June.</p> -<p>The snowshoe hare, found sparingly in mountains of the Southwest, -is the same as that which lives in the muskeg not far from the Arctic -Circle. The climate of the mountain zones is surprisingly like that -of the north country even though the terrain is different. The closest -equivalent is to be found in the brushy borders of mountain streams, -and here the “snowshoes” are most often found. During summer they -feed on grasses, herbs, and leaves of many different shrubs and the -tender tips of young branches. Winter, a period of famine for many -animals, is just the opposite for these large-footed hares. Able to run -about on the surface of snowdrifts, each new snowfall lifts them closer -to the tender twigs that earlier in the year were far above their reach. -Clean diagonal cuts much like those made with a knife mark their -depredations and, since they are hearty eaters, the -whole tops of many favorite food shrubs may be -pruned out in one season.</p> -<p>In common with several other hunted creatures -and a comparatively few that hunt, the “snowshoe” -undergoes a complete change of color between its -summer and winter coat. The transformation begins -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -when the first snows are due, and usually the white coat is complete -when the snows lie deep on the mountains. It is not, as was once supposed, -a case of the brown guard hairs turning white, but a molt. The -summer guard hairs are shed and white ones taken their place. The -under fur changes color to a less marked degree. Close to the skin the -animal is still brown. Outwardly it is pure white except for black ear -tips. Marvelous as this protective coloration is, it is not absolute proof -against enemies. There are many, and chief among them are lynxes, -bobcats, wolves, weasels, and great horned owls. In many places in the -far north the snowshoe hare is the chief host of the lynx, their numbers -fluctuating in unison.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill8"> -<img id="fig8" src="images/img012a.jpg" alt="snowshoe hare" width="600" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">snowshoe hare</p> -</div> -<p>Like most other hares the “snowshoe” spends a great share of its -leisure time in a “form.” This is usually nothing more than a well -concealed hollow. The semi-darkness under low hanging evergreens is -much favored by these nocturnal animals for this purpose. They do -not, at any time, frequent burrows, the closest approach to this kind -of home being in winter when they are sometimes completely snowed -under. They suffer but little during severe storms, because their long, -fluffy fur is protection against the cold. Their greatest danger lies -in the possibility of being buried alive in the event of a freezing rain -following the snow.</p> -<p>The young are born in late spring or early summer. They come -into the world amid plushy surroundings indeed. The mother has lined -the surface nest with soft hair pulled from her own coat, and a softer, -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -more comfortable nursery could hardly be imagined. The little hares -are born fully furred, with eyes open, and usually with the incisor teeth -already through the gums. Their development is rapid, and long before -cold weather arrives they are out on their own.</p> -<h3 id="c10"><span class="larger">White-tailed jackrabbit</span> -<br /><i>Lepus townsendi</i> (Latin: hare ... for J. K. Townsend)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: North of the Canadian border to the southern portion of -Colorado and Utah, and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Mississippi -River.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img013.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="200" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Plains and open country, in the foothills, and even in -the high mountains. Found in both Upper Sonoran and Transition -Life Zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large hare with a white tail and a lanky build, -found usually only in open country. Total length (average) 18 to 24 -inches. Tail up to 4 inches. Ears up to 6 inches in length. Weight 5 to -8 pounds. Color varies with the seasons. The summer coat is buffy gray, -the winter coat is white. The tail, long for a hare, is white throughout -the year. The tips of the ears are black both summer and winter. Young, -three to six in a litter, born in May. There may be a second litter during -late summer. As with all the hare family, the young are well furred and -have their eyes open at birth.</p> -<p>The white-tailed jackrabbit is the largest hare native to the United -States. Its great size is further emphasized by its rangy build and long -legs and ears. Such physical characteristics are usually marks of an -animal that is fiercely pursued by its enemies. This denizen of the open -country is no exception. It is preyed upon by innumerable predators, -including man, the most relentless and cunning of all. Yet its place -in the modern world is still secure, for though it is almost totally -lacking in offensive weapons, Nature has given it defensive advantages -far beyond most other creatures. Perhaps the most important is the -deceptive speed with which it floats across the prairie. Fastest of its -tribe and exceeded in this respect by only one native animal, the pronghorn, -this lanky jackrabbit simply runs away from most pursuit. Effective -though this tactic is, the animal uses it usually as a last resort, preferring -to employ the exact opposite, that of crouching motionless in -an effort to avoid detection. Absolute immobility is itself an admirable -defense, but when augmented by camouflage such as this creature -possesses it is even more effective.</p> -<p>Like most members of the hare family, the -white-tailed jackrabbit is more active at night than -during the day. It spends most of the daylight hours -resting in a form that it hollows out under shelter -of a low shrub or large tuft of grass. In summer the -tawny coat blends well with the color of the surroundings, -and the winter coat is possibly even more -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -effective. Then the crouched body resembles nothing more than a -mound of snow; the black tips of the ears suggest black weed stems -sticking up through the white surface.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill9"> -<img id="fig9" src="images/img013a.jpg" alt="white-tailed jackrabbit" width="600" height="660" /> -<p class="pcap">white-tailed jackrabbit</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h3 id="c11"><span class="larger">Mountain cottontail</span> -<br /><i>Sylvilagus nuttalli</i> (Latin: sylva, wood and Greek: lagos, hare. For Nuttal)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western United States but east of the coastal range of -mountains. The northern limits are along the Canadian border; the -southern limits in central Arizona and New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img014.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="201" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Mountains of the west through the Transition and -Canadian Life Zones. Seldom found below the pines.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The “powder puff” tail is the best field characteristic -by which to recognize this rabbit, usually the only cottontail in -its range at the elevations given above. It is one of the largest of its -kind, averaging 12 to 14 inches in total length with the tail less than -2 inches long. Average weights run from 1½ to 3 pounds. Ears are -relatively short and wide for a cottontail. Color varies somewhat with -relation to habitat, but in general it is gray with a faint yellowish tinge. -Darkest areas are about the back and upper sides; under parts are light -to almost white. The winter coat is heavier than the summer, but much -the same color. The underside of the tail is the cottony white so well -known to city and country dwellers alike. From the scanty records -available on the number of young it would seem that three to four -constitute the average litter. Perhaps the higher elevations at which -they live keep them free from many of the predators to which their -lowland cousins succumb, and thus they are able to maintain their -numbers with smaller families.</p> -<p>Though often found in the depths of the forest, these shy rabbits -prefer to live in the brushy thickets that border high mountain meadows -and line the streams. There, in true cottontail fashion, they venture -into the open to feed, always ready at the first sign of danger to scurry -back to safety under tangled branches. Once fairly entered into the -maze of paths that they alone know, there is little danger of capture. -There they can count themselves safe from further pursuit by the larger -predators and have a distinct advantage over those their own size or -smaller. Although so clever at turning and doubling back in their -chosen refuges, they seldom use much evasive action when surprised -in the open. Their first thought seems to be to reach cover in the -straightest possible line, and as a consequence many are snapped up by -predators who not only rely on this behavior but often gain the advantage -of a surprise attack as well.</p> -<p>Food habits are much the same as those of other cottontails, modified -to some extent by the different plant associations with which they -are found. In summer, tender grasses and herbs are -the favorite fare, but in winter when deep snow -isolates them from even the taller herbs, these adaptable -animals turn to bark and such small twigs as -meet their taste. At this time even the tips of conifer -twigs are often eaten. Access to this food, which -during the summer is usually out of reach, is facilitated -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -by the growth of long hair on the bottom of the feet, especially -on the hind feet. Though these seasonal “snowshoes” do not approach -those of the Arctic hare in size, they serve very well to support the -lighter cottontails as they move over the soft surface. They are especially -useful when the animal stands on its hind feet to reach some inviting -bit that would be out of reach in the normal crouching position. During -this operation it reaches for food with the mouth alone; the forepaws -cannot be used to gather food, but hang loosely in front of the body -as an aid to balance.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill10"> -<img id="fig10" src="images/img014a.jpg" alt="mountain cottontail" width="600" height="565" /> -<p class="pcap">mountain cottontail</p> -</div> -<p>This inability to grasp or handle objects with the front feet is -characteristic of all those animals which in the United States we call -“rabbits.” Though here included with the rodents, the jackrabbits, -snowshoe hares, and cottontails all lack the dexterity with the forepaws -with which the rest of the group is endowed. The structure of -the bones is much like that of the ungulates in that the feet cannot -be turned sideways. Thus front legs are used mainly for running, -digging, and washing the face and ears, a procedure much like that employed -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -by domestic cats, except that it is carried out with the sides of -the paws rather than the insides of the wrists as Tabby does.</p> -<p>Though it lives in a different habitat than other closely related -species, the mountain cottontail shares many of their habits. It is a -nocturnal animal, seldom seen at large except at dusk or in early morning -hours. During the greater part of the day it seeks refuge under -some brush pile or deep in the recesses of the slide rock. On occasion -it will make itself a form in long grass or under a shrub, but usually -prefers more substantial protection. In areas which are being logged, -cottontails are quick to take advantage of the shelter offered by huge -piles of limbs and debris left by loggers. Later in the season, when the -piles are burned, it is not unusual to see as many as three or four -cottontails scurry from one pile.</p> -<p>Nests for rearing the young are not of such great concern to these -rabbits. Perhaps they instinctively choose places where an enemy would -never expect to find them. Many are mere hollows in tall grass or -shallow burrows in an accumulation of pine needles. They are lined -with soft grasses or needles and hair which the mother pulls from her -own body. More hair and grass fibers are cleverly matted together to -form a loosely woven blanket which she pulls over the nest when she -leaves. It is arranged with such cunning and blends so well with the -surrounding that unless one sees the rabbit leave it is only by accident -a nest is discovered. The three to five young are born blind and naked, -but thrive so well in the warm nest that in about a month they are fully -furred and able to leave. At this age they are extremely playful little -creatures, often indulging in a game much like tag, although to a -human observer it is never quite clear just who is “It.”</p> -<p>In this connection it is interesting to note than among the “hunted” -mammals the play spirit is usually manifested by running games in -which there is little if any physical contact. By contrast, the young -of predators indulge in wrestling games featuring use of teeth and -claws, often beyond the point where fun ceases and anger begins.</p> -<h3 id="c12"><span class="larger">Pika</span> -<br /><i>Ochotona princeps</i> (Mongol name of pika ... Latin: chief)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Mountainous areas of the western United States, western -Canada, and southern Alaska. Found in the southwestern United States -in Utah, Colorado and New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img015a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Talus slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine Life Zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small animal bearing some resemblance to a guinea -pig; found only among or in the vicinity of rock slides. Total length -from 6½ to 8½ inches. No visible tail. Color, gray to brown. Eyes -small, ears large and set well back on head. The front legs are short -and are exceeded but little by the hind legs. They are all quite concealed -by the long hair of the sides. This gives the animal much the -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -appearance of a mechanical toy as it glides smoothly over the rocks. -The soles of the feet are covered with hair, the only bare spots on the -feet being the pads of the toes. The call is distinctive, the most common -being an “eeh” repeated several times. This sound is shrill, but has -a falsetto quality as though it were being produced during an inhalation. -Young thought to number from three to six.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill11"> -<img id="fig11" src="images/img015b.jpg" alt="pika" width="600" height="459" /> -<p class="pcap">pika</p> -</div> -<p>Far up on the mountainside, above timberline but below the -eternal snows, a great field of talus rests uneasily on the massive slopes -of bedrock. From a distance it seems merely a smooth gray scar that -softens the otherwise abrupt lift of the summit. A closer inspection -reveals it as a tumbled mass of variously shaped slabs of stone varying -from tiny fragments to huge blocks weighing many tons. Its entire bulk -is shot through with chinks and crevices of every -conceivable shape and form.</p> -<p>Here and there a wisp of grass or an occasional -stunted shrub has found a precarious foothold -among the slabs. Other low matlike plants occur in -considerable numbers. The only sounds are faint -whisperings of wind among the rocks and a distant -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -sighing from the forest below. Suddenly a sharp “eeh-eeh” breaks the -silence, then all is quiet again. The shrill sounds are repeated, this -time from a different quarter. You look toward the sound but see -nothing. Finally, if you are lucky, your eyes focus on a little face somewhat -resembling that of a tiny cottontail rabbit, peering at you from -the safety of a home among the rocks. It is the pika you see and this -rock slide is his castle.</p> -<p>The pika bears a superficial facial resemblance to the rabbit, to -which it is most nearly related. This is occasioned no doubt by the -long silky whiskers and deeply cleft upper lip, for the eyes are small -and the ears, while large, are shaped much differently from those of -its larger relative. Its other physical characteristics are entirely unlike -those of the rabbit. The chunky body, short legs, and almost total -lack of a tail are more like those of the guinea pig to which it is more -distantly allied. Several species are known. All are inhabitants of the -Northern Hemisphere and all, whether Asiatic, European, or American, -are found living in rock slides at or above timberline. In the -western United States the pika is known by a variety of other common -names of which “coney,” “little chief hare,” and “rock rabbit” are -perhaps the best known.</p> -<p>Living as it does in only one type of habitat, the pika has developed -highly specialized habits. The most remarkable is its practice -of cutting hay for winter food. At timberline the growing season is -short, but the herbs and grasses which this animal eats spring up and -mature in a matter of weeks. During this time the pika lives high on -the succulent leaves and stems, but during the latter part of the season -it carefully harvests enough food to last through the coming winter. -None of this hoard is carried directly into the burrow. Instead, it is -painstakingly transported to suitable areas which are exposed to the -hot sun, and there piled in miniature haycocks and left to cure. No -human harvester ever worked harder to gather his crop or laid it up -with more care than this tiny husbandman. Fortunately its tastes are -not critical; thus, although the individual plants are scattered, the -pika is able to select a sufficient store from the considerable number -of species represented at this altitude.</p> -<p>In Utah and Colorado the “haying” time arrives with the height of -the summer blooming season. At timberline this usually occurs during -August. As though realizing that a hard frost would ruin its delightfully -fragrant crop, the pika sets furiously to work. After cutting down -as much herbage as it can handle at one time, it gathers the mass into -an unwieldy bundle and carries it by mouth to one of the sites it has -selected as a curing place. Usually these areas have been used the previous -season for the same purpose, and a mass of the least edible stems -remain to mark their location. Depositing the load on this base, the -pika scurries away for another bundle. Long familiarity with routes -across the uneven rocks enables it to make its way with never a misstep, -even though the load carried may be of such size that vision to the -front is completely obscured. Working early and late the pika distributes -its harvest among the various piles. As a result, the hay dries out -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -evenly and when cold weather calls a halt to the work each little stack -is perfectly cured without a trace of mildew. The truly monumental -work to which this little creature goes is shown by as many as a half -dozen haycocks, each of which may contain up to a bushel or more -of feed.</p> -<p>Comparatively little is known of the pika’s life history. What has -been recorded has been noted during those periods when it was seen on -the surfaces of rock slides. What goes on deep in the labyrinths of its -habitat can only be conjectured. It seems reasonable to suppose that -in some subterranean cavity the pika has constructed a comfortable -nest lined with soft grasses. Certainly it remains active all winter, although -buried under many feet of snow, for in the spring its stacks -of hay have been largely consumed.</p> -<p>The number of young is thought to range from three to six. They -probably are born in early summer, as when they appear on the surface, -usually in late July or early August, they are about half grown. Though -family ties are closely knit until the young mature, pikas cannot be -considered gregarious animals. The scarcity of food alone would be -sufficient reason to prohibit large groups in one small area. Each adult -takes up squatter’s rights on a territory large enough to support it, and -thereafter holds it with but little interference from others of its kind.</p> -<p>Few natural enemies prey on the pikas. The very openness of their -habitat prevents the larger predators from stealing up unseen. Hawks -and eagles account for some, and weasels are able to penetrate their -underground maze at will, but the natural fecundity of the species -seems to balance these losses very well. To the nature student the pika -offers a tempting challenge. It is far from being a rare animal, yet at -the same time it is one about which almost nothing is known. As qualifications -for learning its secrets, one must be somewhat of a miner and -considerable of an arctic explorer.</p> -<h3 id="c13"><span class="larger">Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert’s)</span> -<br /><i>Sciurus aberti</i> (Latin: shade-tail ... for Col. J. J. Abert)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, extreme -southeastern Utah, and south central Colorado in the United States; -also found in the Sierra Madre Mountains of northern Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img015d.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Life Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The only squirrels in the United States that have -conspicuous pencils of hair on the tips of the ears. <i>Sciurus aberti</i> is a -large squirrel with a total length of about 20 inches. -Tail about 9 inches. The summer pelage is brown -on the back, with gray sides and pure white underparts. -The beautiful bushy tail is silvery below and -gray above. During summer the long ears have no -tassels on the tips. Beautiful as is the summer coat, -it is far surpassed by the winter one. Then the -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -heavier fur becomes richer brown on the back, and the contrast between -the gray and white areas is further emphasized by appearance of a -narrow black band between them. The ears too become more spectacular -with the addition of the penciled tufts which give this animal -its common name. Breeding habits of this squirrel are variable and -evidently depend to a great extent on the food supply. There may be -as many as two litters in a fruitful year and none at all in a lean year. -The usual number is three or four young to a litter. These are born -sometimes in a hollow tree, but more often in a bulky nest of leaves -built in a tree top.</p> -<p>No mammal of the United States has a more appropriate generic -name than the large tree squirrel. <i>Sciurus</i> literally translated means -“shade-tail” and refers of course to the beautiful and useful appendage -sported by all of our arboreal types of squirrels. It is doubtful if any -can equal the striking plume carried by <i>aberti</i>; certainly none can -surpass it. Its distinctiveness is not occasioned by its size, for several -species have tails that are longer. Rather, its elegance is derived from -the width, the striking coloration, and the easy grace with which the -animal displays its beauty. Whether in full flight across a grassy clearing -or in repose on some lofty limb, the first field mark of this unusual -squirrel will be the tail; the second, the tasseled ears.</p> -<p>As the map shows, <i>Sciurus aberti</i> and its many forms are confined -in the United States mainly to the high country along parts of the -Colorado River, and also to that great escarpment known as the Mogollon -Rim, whose length is divided about equally between New Mexico -and Arizona. In this range is found what is often referred to as the -“greatest unbroken stand of ponderosa pine to be found in this country.” -Of the many species of plants and animals found as associates of -this forest, perhaps none is more dependent on ponderosa pine than -the tassel-eared squirrel. This rough-barked tree furnishes a major -source of food and shelter. In return, for Nature always demands that -restitution be made, the squirrels plant a part of the seeds that insure -continuation of the ponderosas.</p> -<p>It is a common belief that squirrel’s diet consists of nuts and little -else. This is true only to a degree. A squirrel is fond of nuts and will -eat and hoard them during the short season when they are available. -For the greater part of the year, when its stores have been depleted, it -turns to many other types of food among which are fruit, herbage, -leaf buds, and flowers. Favorite food of the tassel-eared squirrel is, of -course, the large single-winged seeds found under scales of ponderosa -pine cones. Next favored are acorns from the oak that mingles with pine -at the lower edge of the Transition Life Zone. If the season is good, -great quantities of cones and acorns are buried for future use. These -are hidden singly, not in caches, as is the habit of some squirrels. In the -event the squirrel does not return for its hidden stores, some of the -seeds will sprout eventually and take their part in the slow cycle of -growth and decay that is continually going on in the forest.</p> -<p>During months when these favorite foods are scarce, squirrels find -the cambium layer of young pine twigs very acceptable. This is the -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -tender layer that lies between the wood and the bark. In the growing -season it is especially sweet and nutritious. This was as well known -to the Indians as the squirrels, and they too took advantage of the supply -during times of famine. The squirrel obtains this food by cutting off -the terminal clusters of needles, then severing a denuded portion of -the branch, of a size that may be conveniently carried to a favorite -eating place. Here the outer bark is deftly removed, the edible portions -consumed, and the base wood cast to the ground. Although large numbers -of the terminal twigs are taken, the trees seem to suffer no serious -damage from this seasonal pruning.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill12"> -<img id="fig12" src="images/img016.jpg" alt="tassel-eared squirrel" width="600" height="503" /> -<p class="pcap">tassel-eared squirrel</p> -</div> -<p>In selecting a nesting site the tassel-eared squirrel turns again -to its favorite tree, the ponderosa pine. Because few of these healthy -giants have knotholes or cavities of a size to accommodate this large -species, the nests are usually built in the thick upper growth of branches. -Material for their construction consists of small twigs of deciduous -trees, cut with the leaves on them. These are cleverly woven together -so that as the leaves wither and dry they tend to hold the bulky mass -together. Aspen branches frequently are used when available, the large, -almost round leaves combining to form a warm wall and at the same -time a thatch impervious to all but the most driving rains. Several -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -exits are provided in case an enemy should enter the nest, and the -interior is lined with soft fibers. Usually more than one nest is built -by each squirrel, so that in an area where they are common the bulky -homes are conspicuous not only for their size but by reason of their -numbers. With several ports in a storm, so to speak, the squirrels -weather the winter very well. During the coldest days they remain -snugly curled up in their nests, but on bright, still days they will be -seen searching out their hoarded supplies, even though they may have -to dig through several inches of snow to get to them. At such time their -gruff bark, deep in timbre, may be heard for a considerable distance.</p> -<p>Breeding takes place in early spring, often before the snow is off. -The squirrels are fully polygamous, which is one of the reasons this -species can almost disappear and then restores its numbers within a -season or two. There may be two litters each year, the first arriving -as early as May and the second in August or September. As mentioned -before, this species is variable and the young may differ in coloration -from their parents and from each other. Melanistic individuals are -frequent; these should not be confused with the Kaibab squirrel which -they resemble superficially. Several subspecific forms are recognized -but are not easily identified by the layman.</p> -<p>One’s first introduction to this beautiful species is an experience -long to be remembered. It was no less interesting to the early naturalists -who first penetrated the wild regions where it lived. Their accounts -abound with adjectives such as, “handsome,” “graceful,” etc. Dr. S. W. -Woodhouse, who accompanied the Sitgreaves expedition on the exploration -of the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, noticed it at once and formally -described it as a species in 1852. Since that time it has been introduced -into many of the “sky island,” mountains that lie south of its original -range. It adapts very well to new conditions, seeming to need only a -favorable climate and a ponderosa pine forest in which to live. What -effect its presence will have on these new surroundings is not yet -known. There is always danger that the native plants and animals will -suffer from such new competition in an established association. Such -introductions should never be made without a study of all the factors -involved.</p> -<h3 id="c14"><span class="larger">Kaibab squirrel</span> -<br /><i>Sciurus kaibabensis</i> (Latin: shade-tail ... from the Kaibab, a forest in northern Arizona)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: An area approximately 30 × 70 miles in size in northern -Arizona. The southern limit is bounded by the north rim of the Grand -Canyon of the Colorado, and much of the range is -included within the boundaries of Grand Canyon -National Park.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img017.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="199" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Ponderosa pine forests in Canadian -and upper Transition Life Zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A tassel-eared squirrel with an <i>all -white</i> tail. In size this species is the same as <i>Sciurus</i> -<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span> -<i>aberti</i> but the coloration is different. The Kaibab squirrel has the same -rich, chestnut brown area along the back and upper part of the head, -but the sides are deep gray and underparts gray to black. The tail is -either all silvery white or it may have barely discernible light gray -edging on the upper surface. Nesting and breeding habits are the same -as with <i>aberti</i>.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill13"> -<img id="fig13" src="images/img017a.jpg" alt="Kaibab squirrel" width="600" height="465" /> -<p class="pcap">Kaibab squirrel</p> -</div> -<p>This beautiful squirrel has a distinctive appearance and an uncertain -specific rank. It is included here because of all the mammals -discussed in this booklet it best exemplifies the effects of isolationism. -There is little doubt that the ancestors of both <i>aberti</i> and <i>kaibabensis</i> -were of one common stock. How the progenitors of the Kaibab squirrel -came to be marooned on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is of -little moment. Perhaps they were already there when the Colorado -plateau was young and the river was just beginning its mighty task. -Possibly they emigrated later when the gorge was not as deep as it is -now. At any rate, it can be assumed that they have lived on the North -Rim for thousands of years, isolated from their cousins on the South -Rim by only 20 miles of thin air horizontally, but a trip on foot that -involves a descent of a mile through two life zones (Upper Sonoran -and Lower Sonoran), a crossing of a wide and turbulent river, and an -ascent to the South Rim through the same two desert zones. Surely -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -this is an undertaking for a squirrel of the cool forests that would be too -hazardous to be successful, even if attempted.</p> -<p>The factors that have changed this squirrel’s coloration are not -definitely known, but climatic conditions are probably at least partially -responsible. The North Rim is approximately a thousand feet -higher than the South Rim and is considerably colder. At this higher -elevation much of the Kaibab squirrel’s habitat falls within the Canadian -Life Zone. This in turn makes certain vegetable food available -which is rare or unknown on the South Rim. Thus diet also may have -something to do with its unusual appearance.</p> -<p>At various times the Kaibab squirrel has been known as a distinct -species, <i>Sciurus kaibabensis</i>; at others, it has been considered -merely a subspecies of <i>Sciurus aberti</i>. The latter is its standing at this -time. Regardless of specific rank, it is a form that should be stringently -protected. The population is small and goes through the same fluctuations -as <i>Sciurus aberti</i>. During the summer of 1946 only one individual -was known in the area around Grand Canyon Lodge, where they -usually were found in some numbers. At such times the heedless destruction -of only a few squirrels could conceivably result in the extermination -of this rare and beautiful animal.</p> -<h3 id="c15"><span class="larger">Arizona gray squirrel</span> -<br /><i>Sciurus arizonensis</i> (Latin: shade-tail ... of Arizona)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Central to southeastern Arizona and adjacent parts of -western New Mexico in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img018.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Associated with the native black walnuts of canyons, or -often found among the pines on canyon rims.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The common gray tree squirrel to be found in the -range given above. The Arizona gray is a large animal. Total length is -from 20 to 24 inches with a large tail accounting for from 10 to 12 inches -of this measurement. In the typical form the color is dark gray above -with underparts and feet pure white. The tail also is dark gray with -a silvery white margin. The finest examples of this species may be -found along the edge of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico. -Farther south the pelage often has a yellowish or brownish tinge. In -the mountains along the border the Arizona gray squirrel should not -be confused with the Mexican fox squirrel (Apache squirrel) which -here barely invades the United States. The Mexican cousin, about the -same size as <i>Sciurus arizonensis</i>, is definitely yellowish brown and has -lighter underparts of the same color. Like other -large tree squirrels of the west, the Arizona gray -builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs, usually in -the upper branches of a deciduous tree. Young, four -or five to a litter; under exceptionally favorable conditions -two litters may be reared in one season.</p> -<p>When compared with the royal tribe of Abert’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -squirrels, this common gray animal of the Southwest seems but a peasant. -When it is seen alone comparisons are forgotten. Deliberate in its -movements, whether crossing the forest floor or traveling the leafy -aisles of the tree tops, it seems always to have calculated its next maneuver. -The result is a careless grace that presents the sturdy body and -beautiful tail to the best advantage. Calm in temperament and with -but little of the suspicious nature that is characteristic of the smaller -squirrels, the Arizona gray may easily be tamed in outdoor surroundings -and becomes one of the most satisfactory of wild friends. It is not -recommended, however, that they be fed from the hand or handled at -any time. “Familiarity breeds contempt” is a saying that does not apply -to humans alone. A squirrel’s bite can be serious as well as painful.</p> -<p>Both Mearns and Bailey, who wrote of this species many years ago, -mention it as occurring mostly among the walnut trees of the Upper -Sonoran Life Zone. Perhaps during the intervening years the press of -civilization has driven them from their chosen habitat into a higher -elevation. At any rate, although they still frequent the more isolated -valleys, they are now found also in considerable numbers among the -pines of the Transition Life Zone. The rough broken country along -the Mogollon Rim seems best suited to their requirements, and they -are now quite abundant there.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill14"> -<img id="fig14" src="images/img018a.jpg" alt="Arizona gray squirrel" width="600" height="402" /> -<p class="pcap">Arizona gray squirrel</p> -</div> -<p>Along the border of the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones -this adaptable animal finds a wide variety of food. Although the -squirrels generally are known as gatherers and storers of nuts, there -are many other types of vegetable food that they will take when conditions -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -warrant. The cambium layer of bark and leaf buds of various -species of trees are eaten in spring when nut stores have been depleted. -Berries, fruit, and even flowers form a considerable part of the diet -during the summer. In the fall the ripening crop of pine nuts and -walnuts provides not only food for immediate use but stores for the -long winter season when, unless enough has been laid by, the unfortunate -may starve to death. The gathering period is a time of unremitting -labor. From dawn to dusk the squirrels work feverishly carrying -nuts to the hiding places they have selected. Sometimes these are in a -hollow tree or a nest, but usually the harvest is buried in the humus -and debris that collect about the bases of trees.</p> -<p>There are two phases to the work. In the first the squirrel works -in the tree cutting off the cones or nuts and letting them fall to the -ground. When a considerable number have been thrown down, it -descends and carries them away, one at a time. The latter operation is -the most dangerous since enemies have an undue advantage over this -aerialist when it is on the ground. During the harvest the squirrels -plainly show the effects of their work. In gathering pine cones the -fur of their forelegs and undersides becomes matted with pitch. The -juice of walnut fruits (related to the eastern black walnut, <i>Juglans -nigra</i>, which the early pioneers used as a source of dye for coloring -their hand-loomed cloth) stains their underparts a dirty brown. These -marks of their labor remain with them until the summer coat is shed -to make way for the heavy winter pelage.</p> -<p>When the generic name <i>Sciurus</i> (meaning shade-tail) is mentioned, -I am reminded of an Arizona gray squirrel I observed several years ago. -During late fall my wife and I were camped near the headwaters of -the Hassayampa River in a mixed forest of hardwoods and conifers. -Our arrival had interrupted the work of a squirrel which was gathering -walnuts in the immediate vicinity, but he soon became accustomed to -our presence and renewed activities. Every sunny hour he was busy -storing the nuts, many of them at the base of an old pine tree near -camp. Shortly thereafter a fall storm set in and lasted for several days. -It developed into a pattern of misty drizzle followed by periods of -clearing weather when the sun might appear for a few minutes. During -sunny intervals the squirrel would appear, but as soon as it became -overcast again he would as quickly disappear. Finally we discovered -his retreat. When it would threaten more rain he would run up the -trunk of the pine to the first branch. Here he would turn his rump -to the hole and hunch up into a small furry ball with his long bushy -tail laid forward over his back and head and extending down in front -of his nose, forming an admirable protection against the few drops -that spattered down through the thick foliage overhead.</p> -<p>Squirrels are not the only animals who use their bushy tails for -protection against the elements. Many mammals curl up and wrap the -tail around themselves for warmth, but only the squirrel tribe has a tail -long, wide, and flat enough to be used as a roof. Though the origin -of the term <i>Sciurus</i> has been lost, it is not too far fetched to suppose -that it was suggested by a squirrel’s use of its tail as a parasol.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<h3 id="c16"><span class="larger">Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel</span> -<br />(DOUGLAS SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE) -<br /><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti</i> (Greek: tamia, steward and Latin: sciurus, shade-tail ... of the Hudson, named after Fremont)</h3> -<div class="img" id="ill15"> -<img id="fig15" src="images/img019.jpg" alt="spruce squirrel" width="600" height="388" /> -<p class="pcap">spruce squirrel</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico in the Hudsonian -and Canadian Life Zones.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img019a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Conifer forests, preferably spruce, in the higher mountains.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small gray squirrel, usually the only squirrel to -be found at the elevation at which it lives. Total length 13 to 14 inches. -Tail 5 to 6 inches. Two distinct colors of pelage are seasonal. The -winter coat is olive gray to rufous gray above with lighter underparts; -the summer coat is brownish gray to yellowish gray with almost white -belly and feet. A black stripe along the sides is prominent at all -seasons. The tail is narrow and noticeably shorter than the body. It is -gray beneath, rufous gray above, with black border and a black tip. -Little is known of the breeding habits. The four young are born in -early summer and by August are usually out foraging with the mother.</p> -<p>Spruce squirrels (distribution shown in accompanying -map) include several of the more than two -dozen varieties of red squirrels in the United States -belonging to the species <i>hudsonicus</i>. Combined with -several subspecies of the Douglas squirrels, (species -<i>douglasi</i>, the “chickaree” of the far western mountains), -they make up the genus <i>Tamiasciurus</i>. This -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -term, a combining form of <i>Tamias</i> (the genus of chipmunks) and -<i>Sciurus</i> (that of squirrels) clearly indicates relationship of the red -squirrels to both groups. It is equally apparent in the field where the -short narrow tail, the black stripe along the side, and the nervous disposition -remind one of the chipmunks, while the arboreal habits, comparatively -large size, and coughing bark are distinctively squirrel-like.</p> -<p>The spruce squirrel is seldom, if ever, found below an elevation of -6500 feet, and then only in the shady canyons on the northern exposure -of mountains. From this low it will be found up to timberline, -or rather just below that point at which the trees are too stunted to -offer the required protection. It prefers the dense shade of heavily -forested areas, so is rare near the southern limit of its range, and -increasingly common in the northern portion.</p> -<p>In common with the rest of its group, this bright-eyed little animal -keeps well informed on everything that goes on in the territory it has -chosen as its own. Any intruder is thoroughly investigated, then as -thoroughly castigated, and driven out if possible. Since these squirrels -seem to recognize each other’s domain, a trespasser of its own kind -usually leaves at the first sign of trouble. With larger animals and -humans the attack consists of psychological rather than physical warfare. -From a limb at a safe distance above the ground, the doughty -warrior chatters and scolds with increasing vehemence as long as a -passive interest is displayed by the imagined adversary. At the first -threatening movement it disappears in a flash around the opposite -side of the tree. Scratching noises and falling flakes of bark, together -with noises of peevish defiance, indicates that it is working its way -up the trunk. Suddenly it reappears on another limb some distance -above the first and the real show begins. Paroxysms of rage, stamping -of feet, waving of tail, and streams of invective all are meant to show -that one step closer spells trouble. A few squeaks from your pursed lips -and this tremendous bluff gives up to curiosity. In a few minutes the -erstwhile challenger is back on the first limb trying to make out what -this strange creature is about. This amusing procedure can be carried -out over and over again, and usually is, just to observe the stuttering -rages of which this tiny creature is capable. With more considerate -treatment they soon become quite tame, although even then a quick -movement will send them helter skelter to the closest tree.</p> -<p>It is well that this squirrel is a quick and tireless worker. The -seeds it extracts from the spruce cones are so tiny it takes an enormous -number of them to provide that energy. With such a quantity to handle, -it is not so careful in storing the crop as some larger squirrels. A comparatively -few cones are buried in the soft loam beneath the trees; the -rest are stuffed into holes beneath the spreading roots or simply piled -in heaps near the base of the trunk. In a year when cones are plentiful -there may be a bushel or more in one of these piles. With several such -piles within easy reach of the warm nest fastened in the branches of a -nearby conifer, the small harvester has prospects of an easy winter -ahead. Only in the most inclement weather are these active animals -confined to their nests. They keep tunnels open to their supplies, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -each snowfall adds to the security of the caches. All winter long the -stockpiles diminish while the snow beneath some favorite perch becomes -littered with the scales and discarded centers of the cones. By -spring, which comes late at this elevation, the cones are gone and the -squirrel returns to its summer diet of leaf buds, seeds, berries, mushrooms, -and herbs.</p> -<p>The spruce squirrel is the last of what might be called the true -squirrels in this book and, because the group has much in common as -regards food, enemies, and relations to mankind, a short summary -might be in order.</p> -<p>As has been mentioned, the principal diet of these animals is vegetable. -However, all of them, if opportunity offers, will take birds’ -eggs and young birds. This is not intended in any way as a condemnation -of the squirrel tribe. Their inroads on the bird population are -what might be termed “natural losses.” Nature long ago established -a norm in bird reproduction which takes such losses into account.</p> -<p>The enemies of squirrels are legion. From the air, the larger hawks -and owls, and even eagles, are ever alert to swoop in on them. On the -ground lynx, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes take their toll. In northern -Utah and Colorado the marten is one of the most important local -controls on the squirrel population. Fast and powerful, the marten -is equally at home on the ground or in the trees, and it is a fortunate -squirrel that can escape one. The toll taken by all of these predators is -high, yet the natural fecundity of the squirrel is so great that the -population sometimes gets out of hand and disease has to eliminate -the surplus.</p> -<p>In their relationship to man the squirrels are among the most -remarkable of our native mammals. It is not ordinarily the purpose of -this book to point out the economic importance of our mammals, but -the beneficial work carried on the squirrels is too important to pass by. -One of the most valuable natural resources that America has is forests. -To the arid Southwest the mantles of living green that cover the mountains -are invaluable. These are sweeping statements, but they are -sober facts.</p> -<p>Squirrels play a considerable part in perpetuating this national -heritage. The fact that they do this more or less accidentally merely -serves to call attention to the subtle patterns in which all living things -move to serve one another. Take their simple mechanics of storing a -pine cone, for instance. A hole is dug to a depth of several inches in -the soft duff under a shady conifer. The cone is pushed firmly into -the bottom of the hole and tamped into place with several vigorous -shoves of the nose. Then the hole is carefully filled and smoothed -over so that no marauder will discover it. This procedure may be repeated -hundreds of times by one individual. If the animal never returns -(and the rate of mortality among squirrels is high), the cone can be -considered planted. Not only is it planted at the correct depth and in -the most suitable material for successful germination and growth, but -it is full of plump fertile seeds. Through some instinct the squirrel -knows which nuts and cones are healthy and fully developed. If you -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span> -doubt this, examine some of those they have left on the tree. Invariably -they will be infested by insects or “inferior” in some other respect. -One of the favorite sources of pine nuts for reforestation projects in -the Northern States is the stockpiles of the red squirrel. The scales of -the cones are tightly closed when they are taken, but as they open on -the drying floor the healthy, fertile nuts prove the unerring judgment -of the harvester.</p> -<h3 id="c17"><span class="larger">Northern flying squirrel</span> -<br /><i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i> (Greek: glauco, silvery and Greek: mys, mouse)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Widely distributed throughout most of our Northern States -and Canada. In the section covered by this book, found only in northeastern -and south central Utah, with possible occurrence in northwestern -Colorado.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img020.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="201" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Associated with conifer forests of Transition to Alpine -Life Zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: Our only airborne mammal with a long bushy tail. -Total length 9¾ to 11½ inches. Tail 4½ to 5½ inches. Characteristic -of this species is the fold of skin along each side from the fore to the -hind leg. There is considerable color variation in the numerous subspecies -of this squirrel. In general the upper parts vary from dark -brown to cinnamon brown. Sides of face gray; underparts white to -pinkish cinnamon beneath. Hind feet are brown, fore feet gray. The -flying membrane is brownish black above, white to cinnamon beneath. -The eyes are large and dark brown. Young, two to six in a litter, born -in spring; a second litter is sometimes produced in early autumn.</p> -<p>Because flying squirrels are almost entirely nocturnal, they are -seldom seen. This is unfortunate, for they are among the most interesting -forest creatures. Probably more people have seen flying squirrels -through the predations of a house cat than in any other way. Gentle -and unafraid, the squirrels fall easy prey to this night prowler, which -sometimes brings them home to show its owners. Strangely enough, -the victims often are not injured seriously, and if taken from the cat -and allowed to recover from their initial fright they will glide about -the room with much of the grace they display in the wild.</p> -<p>Properly speaking, these squirrels do not fly; that is to say, they -are incapable of sustaining level or ascending flight. Rather they climb -to some height in a tree then launch out and glide to a lower point, -usually the trunk of another tree. As the angle is -usually quite sharp they attain considerable speed. -They check this momentum by inclining upwards -just before reaching their objective. This results -in a four-point landing against the tree trunk, sometimes -with an impact that can be heard for some -little distance on a quiet night. During these flights, -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -which may extend 50 yards or more, they are able to change direction -or maneuver against wind currents. This is done by manipulating the -flying membrane and using the tail as a rudder. After a flight they -usually ascend to the safety of the foliage above. They cannot be considered -awkward on the ground, but it is not their chosen habitat. -Flying squirrels are more arboreal than any of our mammals, excepting -a few species of bats.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill16"> -<img id="fig16" src="images/img020a.jpg" alt="northern flying squirrel" width="600" height="493" /> -<p class="pcap">northern flying squirrel</p> -</div> -<p>Little is known of the habits of this unusual squirrel, but they -differ considerably from those of its relatives who are active during -the sunny hours. Instead of living in a bulky nest hung in tree branches, -this nocturnal aerialist chooses a hollow tree or an abandoned woodpecker’s -hole where the sun’s rays never penetrate. Nests have been -found also under slabs of bark hanging to old lightning-blasted snags. -Lined with soft fibers and shredded bark, they often shelter whole -families of flying squirrels for, unlike the other squirrels, these gentle -creatures get along together. In fact, they might almost be considered -gregarious. Contrary to ordinary squirrel behavior, they never bark -or scold. Their only utterance is a fine whistling squeak, and this is -<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span> -heard usually only in the nest.</p> -<p>Though delicate in appearance the flying squirrel is extremely -hardy. It is abroad throughout the winter, being confined to its nest -only during stormy weather. It stores food for the winter, but its caches -are usually above ground in hollow trees and crevices rather than -buried in the loam. Their food consists mostly of pine nuts, seeds, and -acorns, but they are also fond of meat. Many a flying squirrel has met -its death trying to take the bait from a trap set for larger game. This -taste is unexplained; it is not known to prey on other animals.</p> -<h3 id="c18"><span class="larger">Western chipmunks</span> -<br />Genus <i>Eutamias</i> (Greek: eu, well or good and tamias, steward)</h3> -<p>There are at least four species of chipmunks native to the area -covered by this book. Ordinarily but one, or perhaps two, species of -a genus have been chosen for discussion. In this case, however, the -chipmunks are such provocative little creatures and their presence -causes so much interest that all four species will be included, although -briefly. Since the ranges and life zones of some of them overlap in many -areas, positive identification of a species will be difficult in those places, -but in others one species will be dominant or alone. Here the more -subtle characteristics and behavior of that type can be fixed in mind, -and in time it will be less difficult to separate one from the other. -Remember that most of these species have several subspecies. These -generally occur along the upper or lower edges of the life zone frequented -by the type. In the field they are usually indistinguishable -from the type to any but the most practiced observer.</p> -<blockquote> -<p>1. Colorado chipmunk (<i>Eutamias quadrivittatus</i>)</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="img" id="ill17"> -<img id="fig17" src="images/img020c.jpg" alt="Colorado chipmunk" width="600" height="455" /> -<p class="pcap">Colorado chipmunk</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, most of Utah, -and all but the most northern portion of Colorado. This chipmunk -lives largely in the Transition Life Zone. The closely related species -<i>umbrinus</i>, commonly called “Uinta chipmunk” inhabits the Canadian -and Hudsonian Life Zones in the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains of -northeastern Utah.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill18"> -<img id="fig18" src="images/img020d.jpg" alt="Colorado" width="199" height="200" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Colorado</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="ill19"> -<img id="fig19" src="images/img020e.jpg" alt="Uinta chipmunk" width="400" height="345" /> -<p class="pcap">Uinta chipmunk</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="ill20"> -<img id="fig20" src="images/img020f.jpg" alt="Uinta" width="195" height="200" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Uinta</i></p> -</div> -<blockquote> -<p>2. Gray-necked chipmunk (<i>Eutamias cinereicollis</i>)</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="img" id="ill21"> -<img id="fig21" src="images/img020g.jpg" alt="gray-necked chipmunk" width="350" height="471" /> -<p class="pcap">gray-necked chipmunk</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Central Arizona eastward into southwestern and south -central New Mexico. Total length 7½ to 10 inches. Tail 3½ to 4½ -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -inches. Transition Life Zone and above. <i>Neck and shoulders gray.</i></p> -<div class="img" id="ill22"> -<img id="fig22" src="images/img021a.jpg" alt="Gray-necked, Cliff" width="197" height="200" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Gray-necked, Cliff</i></p> -</div> -<blockquote> -<p>3. Least chipmunk (<i>Eutamias minimus</i>)</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="img" id="ill23"> -<img id="fig23" src="images/img021f.jpg" alt="least chipmunk" width="300" height="428" /> -<p class="pcap">least chipmunk</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western Colorado, western Utah, northern and eastern -Arizona, northern and central New Mexico. Inhabits all zones from -Upper Sonoran to Alpine. Total length 6⅔ to 9 inches. Tail 3 to 4½ -inches. <i>The smallest chipmunk with proportionally the longest tail. -Tail carried straight up when running.</i></p> -<div class="img" id="ill24"> -<img id="fig24" src="images/img021g.jpg" alt="Least" width="198" height="200" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Least</i></p> -</div> -<blockquote> -<p>4. Cliff chipmunk (<i>Eutamias dorsalis</i>)</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="img" id="ill25"> -<img id="fig25" src="images/img021z.jpg" alt="cliff chipmunk" width="500" height="283" /> -<p class="pcap">cliff chipmunk</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: North and western Utah extending through southeastern -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -Arizona and western New Mexico. Found mainly in the Upper Sonoran -Zone. Total length 8⅘ to 9½ inches. Tail 3⅘ to 4½ inches. <i>The -most indistinctly striped of any of these chipmunks.</i></p> -<p>Generally speaking, chipmunks are the link between ground squirrels -and tree squirrels. Physically they have characteristics of both -groups, a combination that is pleasing indeed. A field mark that is a -positive identification of the chipmunk group is the striped face. In -addition to facial stripes, chipmunks also are striped along the back. -The pattern consists of a dark to black median line bordered by two -more similar lines of varying intensity along each side. These fine -lines are separated by broader bands of contrasting color ranging from -chestnut to white. The latter characteristic is shared by several of the -ground squirrels, which often are confused with chipmunks. Predominant -colors of southwestern chipmunks run to rufous, chestnut, and -grayish white with the dark to black lines mentioned above. Underparts -are always considerably lighter than the back. Chipmunks’ tails are -usually shorter than their bodies, flattened horizontally, and short -haired when compared with tree squirrels. All species have cheek -pouches of considerable capacity.</p> -<p>As will be seen from ranges given above, habitat of the chipmunks -encompasses the whole area from sagebrush-covered foothills to timberline. -Their densest population, however, is to be found in thick -forest about midway between these two extremes. Here their bright -colors and sprightly actions do much to enliven somber surroundings. -Despite their wonderful climbing ability, they are most often seen at -ground level or just a little higher. They are fond of areas containing -fallen trees. The prostrate trunks serve admirably as highways for their -forays in search of food, and under the litter which accumulates around -them are many havens into which a hard pressed chipmunk may pop -when pursued by an enemy. The territory appropriated by each of -these little creatures is explored with the most minute care, and all -places of refuge are noted for future emergencies. Any attempt to chase -them will reveal their uncanny memory for these temporary hiding -places and that they are seldom at any great distance from one.</p> -<p>Their permanent homes usually are underground, excavated beneath -the roots of trees or in rocky terrain. At the end of a narrow -tunnel a room of considerable size is worked out. The dirt is often -carried out by a side tunnel, which is permanently plugged with soil -when the excavation is completed. The underground chamber is lined -with soft grasses and fibers as insulation against the cold. At the higher -elevations the ground may freeze to a depth of several feet during the -long winters. Permanent nests are sometimes built in hollow logs, but -almost never in holes in upright trees. Chipmunks have little taste -for upstairs apartments. In addition to the large cavity which contains -the nest, several storage chambers are constructed to hold the winter’s -food. These may be connected to the main apartment by tunnels or -may be entirely independent of living quarters and some distance away. -As a special feature, many of the more elaborate homes have a separate -chamber reserved for sanitary purposes. Like most of our native rodents, -<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span> -chipmunks are fastidiously clean in their habits.</p> -<p>It is difficult to discuss the habits of a group as large and of such -wide distribution as our southwestern chipmunks in any but a most -superficial manner. In general they are much more terrestrial than -squirrels and prefer brushy, rock terrain to the more open forests frequented -by their larger relatives. Nevertheless, they are adept climbers -and do not hesitate to take to the trees in search of food or to escape -their enemies. These arboreal excursions are usually limited to one -tree; they do not ordinarily attempt the daring leaps from one to -another that are characteristic of the squirrels. They progress quietly -while on the ground, threading their way through the undergrowth -so expertly that their presence is often undetected.</p> -<p>Normally chipmunks are shy creatures at first acquaintance, but if -their friendship is encouraged they often become bold to the point of -being unwelcome. Woe to the camper whose grub box is invaded during -his absence. These tiny opportunists can carry away a surprising amount -of food in a very short while. Their natural diet differs widely according -to habitat. Chipmunks of the foothills eat a great variety of grass seeds, -berries, and cactus fruits. These are possibly the favorite foods of the -whole group, but as the elevation increases this supply becomes limited -and is supplemented by juniper berries, acorns, and pine nuts. Considerable -quantities of these less perishable foods are laid away for -future needs. During the summer months herbage, fungi, small tubers, -and some insects add variety to an otherwise dry menu.</p> -<p>It is doubtful if any southwestern chipmunks enter true hibernation -during the winter. Those of lower elevations are active throughout -the colder months, except when a period of exceptionally inclement -weather will force them to remain underground for a few days. At -higher elevations they will disappear, perhaps for weeks at a time, but -it is assumed they remain active in their underground quarters. The -fact that during the fall they do not lay on a coat of fat, like many -species which are known to hibernate, substantiates this theory.</p> -<p>Breeding habits of chipmunks are not too well known. The number -of young averages from four to six. Those species living at low elevation -sometimes bear two litters each year; those at higher elevations -are limited to one. Like the ground squirrels, the young are able to -leave the burrow when but little more than half grown. At this early -age they present a rather ludicrous appearance with their large heads -and sparsely-haired tails. This is a time of great danger, for the youngsters -are easily caught by predators which would be eluded with little -difficulty by a mature individual. Principal predators of the chipmunks -are bobcats, hawks, foxes, and coyotes. The last two often dig out the -burrows. The marten is possibly their worst enemy, but fortunately -for the chipmunk tribe is a rare animal throughout its range.</p> -<p>Chipmunks are quite common in several of our southwestern National -Parks and Monuments. Despite signs to the contrary, the public -cannot resist feeding these little beggars, and many are the situations -that develop from this practice. I recall camping at Bryce Canyon National -Park where the least chipmunk is a common resident. Upon our -<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span> -return from Rainbow Point one day we spied a chipmunk with bulging -cheek pouches leaving our tent for its den somewhere on the edge of the -canyon rim. We found that our visitor had entered the grub box and -gnawed a neat hole in the top of a carton of rice. Although we had been -gone but a short time, more than half the contents had already been -carried away. This was a state of affairs that needed mending so we decided -to teach the marauder a lesson. On his return trip we waited until -he had entered the carton and then clapped a dishtowel over the hole. -The cellophane window in the side of the carton gave us an excellent -view of our prisoner. Interrupted in his pilfering, he at first tried to -get out of the carton but, finding no exit, returned to stuffing his -cheek pouches with more rice. When they were filled to capacity he -calmly sat back and returned stare for stare. In the end we let him -go and gave him the rest of the rice, exacting such payment as we -could by taking pictures of his labors.</p> -<h3 id="c19"><span class="larger">Golden-mantled ground squirrel</span> -<br /><i>Citellus lateralis</i> (Latin: citellus, swift, and lateralis, belonging to the side, referring to the stripe along the side)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western United States and Canada. In the area covered -by this book to be found in western Colorado, from northeastern Utah -south through central Utah to central Arizona thence east into western -New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img022.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="204" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Higher mountains of this area. Usually found in evergreen -forests of the Transition, Hudsonian, and Canadian Life Zones. -It sometimes occurs near the upper limits of the Upper Sonoran Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A chipmunk-like ground squirrel lacking the stripes -along the sides of the face characteristic of the chipmunks. Total length -8½ to 12½ inches. Tail 2½ to 4½ inches. There is much color variation -in this species. Head coppery to chestnut, upper surfaces of body -brownish gray to buffy. A light to white stripe bordered with black -is present on each side of the back. Under surface of tail gray to yellow. -Tail short but fully haired. Under surfaces of body lighter, gray to -buffy gray. Legs short, body chunky in comparison with chipmunks. -Young, four to eight, with but one litter each year.</p> -<p>The golden-mantled ground squirrel has been -chosen from the rather large group of southwestern -ground squirrels because it is most typically a mountain -dwelling species. As such it does not have the -advantages of a long summer season like its lowland -relatives. This results in two definite periods -<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span> -each year. One is feverish activity during summer, a time of breeding, -rearing the young, storing food, and laying on fat for the cold months -ahead. The other in winter is the exact opposite—a long interval of -hibernation when, buried deep under the snow in a snug burrow, the -squirrels sleep away the winter.</p> -<p>Though hampered by the short summers of higher elevations, the -golden-mantled ground squirrels manage to lengthen the season slightly -by a very simple expedient. Instinct prompts them to dig their burrows -on a southern exposure, often under the base of a log or in a rock -slide. Here the snow melts away first and they often have a bare spot -of ground in front of the burrow several weeks in advance of the season. -The squirrels emerge from their long sleep weak and emaciated, and -their first days above ground are spent soaking up the warm sunshine -and waking up, so to speak. During this period they live on stores laid -away the previous summer, and by the time the snow has melted they -are fully active and ready for mating.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill26"> -<img id="fig26" src="images/img022a.jpg" alt="golden-mantled ground squirrel" width="600" height="606" /> -<p class="pcap">golden-mantled ground squirrel</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div> -<p>As with the ground squirrels of lower areas, the summer diet consists -largely of whatever starts to grow first. During late spring, grass, -buds, young leaves, and flowers are eaten. Later, seeds of the annuals -are gathered, berries are taken whenever possible, and insects often -form a considerable part of the diet. As fall comes on, acorns, pine -nuts, and a great number of smaller seeds and fruits become available. -At this time the ground squirrels must not only lay on enough fat -to maintain themselves through hibernation, but must also store away -enough food to tide them over between the time of their emergence -and the appearance of new growth. Evidently this is an adaptation -forced upon them by the exceptionally long winter season. Most rodents -which lay on coats of fat preparatory to hibernation depend almost -entirely on it to carry them through. With a hibernating period of from -5 to 7 months, however, it is not difficult to realize the problems this -ground squirrel must face.</p> -<p>Though the golden-mantled ground squirrel resembles the chipmunks -in appearance, its temperament is quite different. Chipmunks -are bright, nervous little sprites, always pursuing their activities with -explosive energy. The ground squirrels move more sedately, as though -they had planned every move and there was no hurry. They love to lie -in the sun in some exposed place and watch the rest of the world go by. -In habitat, too, the species differ materially. Chipmunks choose thick -undergrowth where they can go about their business unobserved. -Ground squirrels prefer more exposed locations where they take their -chances in the open, but with one eye always cocked aloft as insurance -against attack by hawk or eagle. Creatures of the earth, they are always -reluctant to climb. Rarely do they ascend more than a few feet, and -then only to reach some especially toothsome delicacy that their keen -noses have detected in a low shrub or small tree.</p> -<p>With its wide distribution, visitors to the southwestern mountains -can hardly fail to notice this golden-headed member of the ground -squirrel family. It is easily tamed; too easily in fact for, like the chipmunk, -it can quickly wear out its welcome. In many of the National -Parks and Monuments they compete with chipmunks for the crumbs -around camp sites and picnic tables. Visitors find their cunning way -irresistible and feed them despite warnings to the contrary. Because -they do tame so easily there is always danger that some well-meaning -person will attempt to pick them up. This can lead to unpleasant results. -Their long sharp incisors can inflict a serious wound.</p> -<p>One of the most fascinating places to observe both chipmunks and -these ground squirrels is from the windows of the long tunnel leading -northward out of Zion National Park. On the talus slopes beneath the -windows a great number of these rodents take up summer quarters, -depending for food on the largesse distributed by visitors as they eat -their picnic lunches on the broad ledges of the windows. Their constant -movements as they run among the rocks seeking stray crumbs -result in many a collision and often an angry dispute as well. This -proves a dangerous game, as rocks sometimes will be loosened by their -movements and roll down the steep incline. I recall seeing a ground -squirrel crushed by one of these miniature rock slides in 1946.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div> -<h3 id="c20"><span class="larger">White-tailed prairie dog</span> -<br /><i>Cynomys gunnisoni</i> (Greek: kun, a dog and mys, mouse ... for Captain Gunnison whose expedition took the type)</h3> -<div class="img" id="ill27"> -<img id="fig27" src="images/img023.jpg" alt="white-tailed prairie dog" width="600" height="360" /> -<p class="pcap">white-tailed prairie dog</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western Colorado and eastern Utah to central Arizona and -New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img023a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Grassy meadows and mountain parks mainly in the -Transition Life Zone although they are often found both above and -below this area.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A ground-dwelling rodent somewhat resembling a -ground squirrel but several times larger than the biggest species of that -genus. Total length 12½ to 15 inches. Tail 2¼ to 2½ inches. Weight -1½ to 2½ pounds. Color buff to cinnamon buff, the short fully-haired -tail tipped with white. Sides of face darker with a dark area over the -eyes. Legs, feet, and underparts pale cinnamon buff. Young, usually -five in number, born in early summer.</p> -<p><i>Cynomys gunnisoni</i> is the representative species of the western -group of prairie dogs. The two remaining of the group, <i>Cynomys -leucurus</i> and <i>Cynomys parvidens</i>, both white-tailed species, are very -similar and possibly will be classified with <i>Cynomys gunnisoni</i> in the -future. <i>Cynomys leucurus</i> is found in northwestern Colorado and northeastern -Utah, while <i>Cynomys parvidens</i> is native to -mountainous valleys in central Utah.</p> -<p>The common name “white-tailed prairie dog” -is usually applied to <i>Cynomys gunnisoni</i>, the most -widely distributed member of the race. The range -of this species borders on but seldom overlaps that -of the black-tailed prairie dog which lives farther -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -east and at lower elevation. Climatic and geographic barriers separating -these two races are largely responsible for pronounced differences in -their habits. Prairie dogs are gregarious creatures, perhaps more so -than any other rodent. Formerly the black-tail species inhabited countless -thousands of acres in the Great Plains region. A single colony -might occupy an area several miles in diameter and number many -thousands. On this relatively flat land, every home site was equally -advantageous and the grass and herbage all ideally suited to the prairie -dog’s use. Periodic flooding of their burrows on these level prairies -was avoided by building conical mounds with a rim of earth around the -entrance. This ingenious practice, simple though it seems, represents -a long step in the adaptation of these animals to their environment.</p> -<p>White-tailed prairie dogs, on the other hand, are limited to the -narrow valleys and infrequent open meadows of the mountains. Here -there is neither room nor food to maintain the huge colonies characteristic -of the black-tailed. Under these conditions the number of -individuals in a town will vary from a few to 200, seldom more. If -the town becomes crowded, many of the inhabitants may migrate to -some more favorable location. This sometimes entails a trip of several -miles, a hazardous undertaking for a small animal whose only escape -from large predators is in an underground burrow.</p> -<p>Food of this mountain prairie dog is varied. The standard diet -of grass and roots is augmented with browse, bark, and tubers. Bulbs -of mariposas are taken wherever available. Coarse-leaved annuals such -as sunflowers are not passed by. In addition to this vegetable diet, -worms, beetles, and larvae as well as mature forms of most insects are -eaten whenever possible.</p> -<p>Burrows of white-tailed prairie dogs, though comfortable, are not -made with the painstaking care found in those of the lowland species. -There is no need for a conical mound or built-up rim because there is -virtually no drainage problem on the sloping terrain of the mountains. -Naturally the burrows will not be excavated in the path of flood waters, -but on higher ground. Earth brought out from the underground -workings is piled to one side or in front of the entrance. The mound -thus formed is used as a place to sun bathe or, even more important, -as a look-out post from which to see all that goes on. Because these -small colonies do not have the advantage of numbers, each individual -must be especially alert to approaching danger. Burrows often have -more than one entrance, each with its well-packed sentry post at hand, -the underground plan is simple. It consists of a more or less vertical -shaft from which one or more tunnels extend horizontally. It is common -supposition that the prairie dog digs deeply enough to strike water. -This is not so; many burrows do not go deeper than 6 feet. In any -event, they penetrate just far enough to insure a comfortable average -temperature in both summer and winter. Water requirements of prairie -dogs are met largely by the succulent nature of their food. It is also -presumed that during late summer months when the diet consists to -some extent of seeds, a chemical process within the system transforms -some of the starches to water.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div> -<p>The nest is usually situated in an underground room dug at the -end of a tunnel, less often somewhere along its length. It is a bulky -structure, built of shredded bark or coarse grasses and lined with the -softest fibers obtainable. In these modern days prairie dogs do not -object to paper, rags, and wool.</p> -<p>The life of the prairie dog is simple. Early in the spring it emerges -from hibernation, a bit groggy but still well padded with fat. This -nourishment sustains it until the first green shoots of grass appear. -From then on food is obtainable in an ever increasing supply, limited -only by the distance to which these indifferent runners dare venture -from their burrows. Summer is a time of eating, of dozing on the -mounds in the warm sun, and of conversing with neighbors in the -shrill barking whistles characteristic of this group. It is also a time of -constant vigilance against predators, of dust bathing to rid themselves -of mites and fleas, and of rearing the young. The four to six young are -born in late spring and first appear at the burrow entrance when about -the size of an average adult ground squirrel. Within a few days they -are foraging for themselves, and about 3 weeks later are able to make -their own way. At this time the mother frequently deserts them and -builds herself a new burrow, leaving her offspring to divide the old -homestead as best they can. As fall draws near, a thick coat of fat is put -on, and by the middle of October most of the town’s inhabitants have -retired for the long winter’s sleep.</p> -<h3 id="c21"><span class="larger">Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck)</span> -<br /><i>Marmota flaviventris</i> (Marmota, Dutch name of European species of woodchuck. Latin: flavus, yellow, and venter, belly)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Northwestern United States. Common in northern to -south central Utah, northern and southeastern Colorado, and extreme -north central New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img023b.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="206" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life Zones in rock slides, -rocky hillsides, under rock piles, and around outcroppings in -mountain meadows. Seldom found below the Canadian Zone but often -occurring in the Alpine Zone to the very summits of the mountains.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large, dark, brown marmot with a comparatively -long bushy tail. Total length 19 to 28 inches. Tail 4½ to 9 inches. Body -color, yellowish brown to dark brown above; under parts yellow. The -body fur has a grizzled appearance. Sides of neck buffy, and sides of -face dark brown to black. Light brown to white -between the eyes. The feet are buff to dark brown. -Tail dark brown above, lighter below. Young, five -to eight, born in early summer.</p> -<p>This large western marmot is not too far removed -from the ground squirrels in either relationship -or habits. It is the largest ground-dwelling -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -rodent native to the Southwest. As mentioned above, marmots occupy -a tremendous altitudinal range, reaching from above timberline down -into the Transition Life Zone. This distribution from arctic to almost -desert conditions is responsible for many variations in their habits. -Most important is the practice of estivation by those individuals which -live at the lower elevations. This summer sleep is used as a defense -against that period of drought between rainy seasons. It usually starts -early in June and ends about the latter part of July. In the higher life -zones there is no lack of green food throughout the summer, consequently -marmots there remain active.</p> -<p>Because of large size and ability to make good use of its sharp -teeth and claws, the marmot’s life is not so restricted as that of many -smaller ground-dwelling rodents. It has enemies, to be sure. Bears, -mountain lions, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and eagles all are alert for -a possible catch. Yet it is so well on guard and has so many burrows -that it is next to impossible to catch one above ground. Should the -marmot be surprised away from a burrow, its bold show of defense -often gains enough time to work its way to a place of safety. When -cornered its appearance alone is enough to make the average predator -pause and consider. With hair standing on end and long claws at the -ready, the marmot clatters its sharp teeth and hisses loudly at the -enemy. This pose is not all bluff. These big rodents are courageous and -able adversaries against any animal up to several times their size. As far -as man is concerned, they are timid and secretive. On many an occasion -their loud, full-toned whistles will be heard, but the whistler will be -nowhere in sight. If cornered, however, they will put up the same -courageous defense they display against other enemies, and certainly -are not animals with which to trifle.</p> -<p>Burrows are usually in open places where a good view of the -surroundings is obtained. Too, they are almost always in clefts of rocks, -under boulders, or in coarse rocky soil. This lessens the probability of -their being dug out by some large predator. Each marmot usually will -have several burrows, some being “escape” means and one a permanent -home. Well-worn trails lead from one to another, for these are active -animals which travel extensively within the limits of their territories. -Escape burrows may be deep or shallow, as circumstances dictate, but -the home burrow generally is a labyrinth of long passages that terminate -in a nest chamber up to 2 feet across. Several auxiliary tunnels -are usually reserved for sanitary purposes. None is used for food storage; -records indicate that this creature does not lay up stores for later use. -The nest is the usual bulky affair, built of coarse materials and lined -with the softest grasses and fibers obtainable.</p> -<p>Late to bed and early to rise is characteristic of the marmots. -Classed as a diurnal animal, they nevertheless travel about a good deal -at dusk. During the breeding season they may even make an extended -trip at night to find a mate. Sunrise signals the beginning of the marmot’s -day. The slanting rays have no more than touched the boulder -above its burrow before the inmate will climb up to take advantage of -their warmth. It may stay atop its vantage point for an hour or more. -<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span> -There are many things a marmot can attend to while taking the early -morning sunbath. A leisurely toilette, whistled comments to neighbors, -a long scrutiny of the terrain for possible danger—all these are matters -requiring thorough attention.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill28"> -<img id="fig28" src="images/img024.jpg" alt="yellow-bellied marmot" width="600" height="487" /> -<p class="pcap">yellow-bellied marmot</p> -</div> -<p>Should this procedure be interrupted by a prowling enemy, excitement -runs high. If the intruder is still some distance away, the marmot -often will stand up on its hind legs, picket pin fashion. Each explosive -whistle will be accompanied by several flicks of the tail. When it is -judged time to retire it will dash for its burrow, making sharp chirps -as it goes. Once inside the burrow it may chance another look outside, -and if the caller looks menacing enough the burrow entrance will be -plugged with earth from inside, the chirps becoming fainter as the -barricade is forced into place. Emergence from the burrow after a -fright of this kind is governed to some extent by the time of year. If it -<span class="pb" id="Page_56">56</span> -is autumn and the marmot is about ready to hibernate, it may go to -sleep in its cozy nest and not reappear until the next day. Even in -spring and summer it will remain underground for a considerable time -before venturing out again.</p> -<p>The marmot is by nature a stocky animal. Short-legged and barrel-bodied, -it can lay on a surprising amount of fat for the period of hibernation. -Length of this winter sleep depends on the elevation at which -the animal lives. On the higher mountain tops it begins about October -1. At lower elevations it may be considerably later. Older individuals -usually go into hibernation first, presumably because they are -able to lay on the necessary fat sooner than younger ones. As a rule -they retire by stages, disappearing for several days at a time; their -movements are lethargic and they act as if already half asleep. The -young of the year have spent the greater part of the summer growing -up, and it is rather a grim race with time to determine whether they -will be able to put on enough fat to carry them through the long -winter with a reserve supply, or whether they can survive the cold -weather that greets them. Especially at the higher elevations, they do -not retire until forced to do so by cold weather.</p> -<p>Hibernation is as profound with these big rodents as with many of -the ground squirrels. They will curl up into furry balls in their cozy -nests, noses covered with fluffy tails, and sink into a deep sleep that -approaches suspended animation. Bodily functions slow to a fraction -of the normal rate, and the system draws on its store of fat to survive. -The drain on this nourishment is slow, as it necessarily must be, for -this single source of food must last for a period of perhaps 5 months.</p> -<p>The date of emergence varies. Although February 2nd is recognized -as groundhog day on our calendar, this date would be chilly indeed on -the peaks of our Southwest mountains. Nevertheless, the marmots do -appear before the snow is entirely gone, and once their sleep has ended -they rarely resume it, whether or not they see their shadows.</p> -<p>Breeding takes place shortly after emergence. The young are born -in April or May. They are born blind; the eyes do not open until about -a month after birth. The youngsters develop rapidly, and by the time -they are half grown a daily session of sunbathing and playful tussles -outside the entrance of the den is part of their routine. By September -they are fully grown, and at this time they usually strike out for themselves, -although cases have been recorded in which the family remained -together through the first winter’s hibernation.</p> -<p>Marmots have always been favorites of this writer. Their clear-toned -whistle is as much a symbol of the rugged peaks and lovely fir-rimmed -mountain meadows as the coyote’s barks are of the desert. -Several writers characterize marmots as “stupid.” Surely this is an -unfortunate choice of word. Stupid by what standards? Can one species -be compared with another when all must live under the different conditions -to which they have adapted themselves? The mere fact that a -balance of Nature has been attained indicates that each has the adaptations, -the habits, and the degree of intelligence necessary for that species -to live in harmony with the whole.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div> -<h3 id="c22"><span class="larger">Deermouse (white-footed mouse)</span> -<br />The genus <i>Peromyscus</i> (Greek: pera, pouch, and muscus, diminutive of mys, mouse)</h3> -<div class="img" id="ill29"> -<img id="fig29" src="images/img025.jpg" alt="deermouse" width="600" height="609" /> -<p class="pcap">deermouse</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: All life zones throughout North America.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Some species of deermouse can be found in almost any -association imaginable.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large-eared mouse with white feet. Since there are -many species in this genus and most of them are quite similar, characteristics -common to the greatest number will be given. Bear in mind -that these may not hold true with every species of the genus.</p> -<p>Deermice are rather small, averaging 7 to 8 inches long. Tail 3 to 4 -inches. Most species are a buffy gray above shading to brighter buff on -the sides and light buff to white beneath. Feet are always white. The -ears are large for a mouse, usually sparsely covered with short, fine -hairs, but in some species almost naked. Eyes appear black but have -a brownish shade when viewed closely in a good light. Tail long, up to -the length of head and body, as a rule sparsely haired; bicolor in some -species. Young, four to six, born almost any time of the year, with -several litters except at higher elevations where only one litter may be -born, and this during late spring.</p> -<p>In the Southwest the mild climate and plentiful food supply of -the lower life zones combine to attract a great number of small rodents. -By far the greater number of species is found in the Upper and Lower -Sonoran Zones. This does not mean that mice are rare in the high -mountains. They live there in great numbers, but of fewer species. One -is the long-tailed deermouse (<i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>), probably the -most outstanding member of the genus, and the most widely distributed -mouse in the United States. As might be expected, it is quite variable -in appearance, having at least three distinct color phases. These vary -from golden tan to a dark gray. All phases have a sharper bicolor tail, -white beneath and like the rest of the upper body on top.</p> -<p>The deermouse is well known to those who are fortunate enough -to own summer cabins in the mountains. This is the little rodent which -moves into the cabin as soon as the vacationer departs. Fortunately -it is not so destructive as the common -house mouse (which, by the way, is an -introduced species) and limits its destructiveness -for the most part to building -a large and comfortable nest in which to -live during the winter months. Deermice -do not hibernate, so they must prepare -against the bitter cold. However, it is not -their habit to store food either, and -doubtless many of them starve to death -over a hard winter.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div> -<h3 id="c23"><span class="larger">Mountain vole</span> -<br /><i>Microtus montanus</i> (Latin: small ear ... of the mountains)</h3> -<div class="img" id="ill30"> -<img id="fig30" src="images/img026.jpg" alt="mountain vole" width="600" height="623" /> -<p class="pcap">mountain vole</p> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: The mountainous regions of -northwestern United States extending -eastward to central Colorado and southward -below the northern borders of Arizona -and New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img026a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Valleys and grassy meadows -seldom lower than the Transition -Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small sturdy rodent with short tail, total length -5½ to 7½ inches. Tail 1½ to 2½ inches. This is a very short tail for a -rodent of this size, amounting to only about a fourth of the total length. -Color, grayish brown to black above; underparts lighter to a silvery -gray. This is but one of many species found in southwestern mountains. -The Mexican vole and the long-tailed vole are two which share its -range. They are quite similar in appearance and their life histories -also are much the same.</p> -<p>In several ways this heavy-set rodent resembles the pocket gopher. -The small ears and eyes as well as the short tail are all reminiscent of -that animal. Like many other rodents, voles are quite prolific. From -four to eight young are born in a litter. The number of litters each year -depends to a great extent on the altitude. They have been recorded -in the Canadian Zone, where the summers are too short to permit the -rearing of more than one litter. In the Transition Life Zone they -commonly bear two litters and sometimes more each year.</p> -<p>These are the small rodents which most people call “field” or -“meadow” mice. In the prairie states this genus is well known for its -habit of congregating under shocks of small grain and corn. Here they -build their nests and temporarily live in peace and plenty. When the -shocks are taken from the field, they are rudely evicted from their -snug shelters to fall prey to the farmer’s dog or to face the prospect -of building a new home before winter descends upon them. In the -West, too, this “field mouse” makes itself at home in agricultural areas, -but its native haunts are the natural meadows in mountain valleys. -Here they build tunnels in the tangled growth of grass, and excavate -shallow burrows in the soft earth. Marshy places are particularly to -their liking, because they are quite at home in water. Too, the thick -cover in these areas gives them considerable protection -from their many enemies. A normally high -reproduction rate (several litters per year with up -to eight young in each litter) coupled with a secretive -way of life insures their perpetuation. In cases -where a natural balance has been upset, their population -can soar to fantastic heights. In one agricultural -<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span> -district in Nevada a survey revealed an estimated 8,000 to -12,000 “field mice” per acre.</p> -<p>Voles do not hibernate. They are active night and day, summer -and winter. During winter storms they may remain in their snug nests -for a few days at a time, but with the return of clear weather, openings -to their tunnels will soon appear in freshly fallen snow.</p> -<h3 id="c24"><span class="larger">Western jumping mouse</span> -<br /><i>Zapus princeps</i> (Greek: za, intensive and pous, foot. Latin: princeps, chief)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Western United States from central Arizona and New -Mexico to Alaska.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img026c.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: High mountains in dry places with abundant low ground -cover.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small rodent, two-toned in color, that leaps through -the grass much like a kangaroo rat. Total length 8 to 10 inches. Tail -4½ to 6 inches. Color buffy along sides, shading to almost black on the -back and white on the underparts and feet. Tail bi-color, dark above -and light gray beneath. Ears relatively long, dark in color with light -buffy marginal lines. Eyes beady, set in long face with sharp nose. Front -legs short but hind legs and feet large and muscular. Young, four to six -in a litter, with no more than one litter a year in the higher elevations.</p> -<p>The jumping mice are among the most specialized small rodents -in the United States. The genus is typically North American, only one -species being found outside this continent. At some time in the distant -past this little creature adapted itself to a mode of flight much like that -of the kangaroo and jerboa. In this respect it exceeds the kangaroo rats -and pocket mice of the United States, species to which it is distantly -related. Its general build is distinctly like that of the kangaroo, with -the same delicately formed front quarters and heavier hind quarters. -The tail, though not club-shaped like the kangaroo’s, is long enough to -serve the same purpose—that of a rudder to guide the direction of -flight. The hindlegs are muscular enough to propel the body on proportionally -longer jumps than even the kangaroo. Here the resemblance -ceases, however, for the jumping mouse is not related, -even distantly, to this marsupial. The only -pouches the jumping mice have are internal cheek -pouches used exclusively for transportation of food.</p> -<p>Jumping mice have one more peculiarity that -set them apart from most other North American -mice; they hibernate. The period of hibernation is -<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span> -not a short one at the elevations at which these mice live. It may last -for as long as 6 months. Preparation for this extensive period of inactivity -consists mainly in gathering and eating grass seeds until a thick -layer of fat is stored under the skin. With the first cold weather the -jumping mice retire to previously prepared underground burrows and -sleep the winter away.</p> -<p>Since they are almost exclusively seed eaters, they may have a -difficult time on emerging in the spring. Apparently there is no food -cache stored away for this period, so the hapless rodents must search -for what can be found until the grasses head out again. The method of -harvesting grass seed is unique, and once seen will not be easily mistaken. -Living as they do in a jungle of tall grass, they are not able to -reach the heads nor to climb the slender stems. Instead, they cut off -the stem as high as they can reach, pull the upper part down to the -ground and cut it again. This goes on until the head is brought within -reach. Small piles of grass stems, all cut to an average length, indicate -that this is the species which has been at work.</p> -<p>Jumping mice seldom will be seen except when in flight. Then -their jack-in-the-box tactics make it almost impossible to determine -what they are really like. They are timid, inoffensive little creatures -which, if caught, will seldom offer to bite.</p> -<h3 id="c25"><span class="larger">Bushy-tailed woodrat</span> -<br /><i>Neotoma cinerea</i> (Greek: neos, new and temnien, to cut ... Latin: cinereus, ashy)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Mountainous portions of western North America from -Alaska south to central California, northern Arizona and New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img027.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="201" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Found usually in association with the pines of the Transition -and Canadian Life Zones; crevices in cliffs and among rock slides -are favorite nesting sites.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: This woodrat will be recognized at once by its bushy, -squirrel-like tail. The several other species in the same range have the -usual scanty growth on the tail, so thin as to be almost unnoticeable. -This species is large for a woodrat; total length ranges from 12½ to -18 inches. Tail 5½ to 8 inches. The soft, thick fur shows wide variation -in color, as might be expected from the great range -occupied by this species with its many subspecies. In -general it varies from ashy to cinnamon above, to -pure white on the underparts. Although the head -has the same general shape as that of other woodrats, -its appearance is altered somewhat by long, silky -whiskers up to 4 inches in length, and extremely -<span class="pb" id="Page_61">61</span> -large ears. The dark, beady eyes, however, are typical of the genus. -The young, from two to six, are born in early summer. This average -of four or possibly less, when the breeding habits of all the subspecies -are taken into consideration, seems low when compared with other -small rodents. The low death rate indicated probably is due not only -to this species’ secretive habits but to a high order of native intelligence -as well.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill31"> -<img id="fig31" src="images/img027a.jpg" alt="bushy-tailed woodrat" width="600" height="582" /> -<p class="pcap">bushy-tailed woodrat</p> -</div> -<p>Many are the names applied to this interesting little animal. -“Mountain rat,” “pack rat,” “trade rat,” and woodrat are some of the -most common. Several stem from the supposition that when the animal -takes an article that suits its fancy, it always replaces it with something -which it supposes to be of equal value. Observation of the creature’s -habits will indicate that these “trades” are entirely by chance. These -animals are continually carrying small objects about and often drop -one in favor of another more to their liking. The fact is that the most -attractive items usually are carried to the vicinity of the nest, and so -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -the scientific name of one of the subspecies is perhaps one of the most -appropriate for this industrious collector. This subspecific title is -<i>orolestes</i>, which translated from the Greek means <i>oros</i>, mountain, and -<i>lestes</i>, robber.</p> -<p>The penchant for carrying away another’s property leads to many -incidents both comic and tragic. The rats are not at all averse to sharing -a prospector’s cabin, and during hours when the rightful owner is -away at work raise havoc with his possessions. During long winter -nights they are no less industrious, and the mysterious sounds of their -activities will keep even a sound sleeper awake for hours. Eventually -this becomes so exasperating that drastic action is called for. One old -prospector told me of a woodrat that had been bothering him for a -long time. Traps proved of no avail and finally one night he placed -his forty-five on a box beside his bed, together with a candle and -matches. During the night he was again awakened and quietly sat up -and lighted the candle. There on one of his cupboard shelves was the -dim form of the rat. Taking careful aim in the flickering candlelight, -he pulled the trigger and hit the animal “dead center.” The heavy slug -literally blew it apart. Unfortunately it happened to be sitting directly -in front of a 5-pound can of coffee. One may assume that without -either woodrat or coffee he slept soundly thereafter.</p> -<p>My own experiences with this species have been no less exasperating. -When but a youth, my brother and I were quartered in an old -bunkhouse one winter. We chose the smaller of the two rooms as being -easier to keep warm, and after a thorough clean-up moved in. No rank -novices, we wired our watches to a nail driven into the wall and hung -our other valuables from a wire stretched across the room. In the -morning our socks were missing! Thereafter matters were uneventful -for a week. The woodrat would come up through a hole in the corner -of the room as soon as the lights were out. All night long it would make -trips through the connecting door into the adjoining room and carry -away loads of cotton from an old mattress on the unused bed.</p> -<p>Came the week-end and the Saturday barn dance about 3 miles -up the canyon. Fresh shirts and trousers donned, coats and vests were -taken from the chair backs upon which they had been carefully hung. -Behold! One vest front was completely chewed out and carried away, -presumably for nesting material. This was the last straw; the creature -must be done away with.</p> -<p>On the following night plans were laid with care. Two 5-gallon -oil cans were placed in the doorway. This left a narrow passageway just -wide enough to accommodate a small jump trap. A piece of newspaper -was placed over the trap and the end of the chain wired to the head -of the steel bedstead. A short time after the lights were put out, a -scratching noise indicated that the animal had come in through the -hole. All was quiet until its nose came into contact with one of the -empty cans. Then snap! A series of squeaks and the rattle of the chain -gave warning that the creature was climbing into bed. As it came in -over the head, the wildly excited occupants left by the foot. When the -light was struck the rat was sitting in the middle of the bed. A heavy -<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span> -boot soon dispatched it and a semblance of order again returned to -the bunkhouse. Strange to say, no more woodrats came in for the remainder -of the season.</p> -<p>Although such experiences are the rule when this rat has moved -into a dwelling, it is a delightful creature in its native haunts. It is a -rim rock dweller; that is, it likes best to build its nest far back in some -deep crevice of a cliff. If such a location is not available it may find -a protected site in a talus slope or even among the roots of a tree. Usually -these natural fortresses are further reinforced by the addition of a pile -of sticks and miscellaneous materials piled helter skelter over the nest. -The nest itself is quite large, usually a foot or more in diameter, built -of the softest and warmest materials at hand. Somewhere adjacent to -the nest will be found one or more caches of food against the time when -the snows are deep and famine stalks the land. As has been mentioned, -the woodrat is usually associated with the pines of the Transition Life -Zone and above, and pine nuts are one of its most popular items of -food. Acorns, seeds, berries, stone fruits, and some vegetation round -out its vegetable diet. It will also eat meat whenever available although, -except for insects, shows little inclination to kill its own. With such -a varied menu, it seems entirely proper to call this rodent omnivorous.</p> -<p>One of the most characteristic marks of the woodrat’s home is a -strong, musky odor. This is not an indication of uncleanliness. The -animal is most fastidious in its toilette but has this body odor in large -measure. A study skin will retain a strong trace of it for many years. -Whether it functions for an identification to others of the species is not -known, but it could well serve this purpose.</p> -<p>Although classed as a nocturnal animal, the bushy-tailed woodrat -is often active throughout the daylight hours. They are not gregarious -creatures; yet, since suitable nesting sites may not be found in some -areas, other more favored localities often will harbor considerable numbers -of the animals. Overhanging ledges may shelter the piles of litter -denoting a nest every few feet. In such cases, a well-worn trail will lead -from one to the other. This is not an indication that a colony lives -there in peace and harmony. These rats are truculent creatures among -themselves, and if a stranger should venture into a nest mound, he is -evicted with many indignant squeaks and a fearsome snapping of teeth. -The interloper seems to know he is out of order and usually leaves the -nest at once without more than a token show of resistance. In neutral -territory such as a cabin, however, several woodrats may share the area -quite peacefully, but to the great annoyance of the human occupant.</p> -<p>The variety of sounds produced by such a group is quite amazing. -Added to the usual high-pitched squeaks and patter of running feet are -the mysterious rustlings of paper and other objects being dragged about. -A peculiar thumping sound indicates a gait which I have never seen but -often heard at night. It must be somewhat like the leaping flight of -a kangaroo rat, at least it indicates a swift succession of leaps across -a flat surface such as a floor or roof. Perhaps the broad surface presented -by the flat of the bushy tail is of assistance in this maneuver. -Then, like most rodents, the woodrat will thump with its hind legs as -<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span> -an alarm signal. This is perhaps the most noticeable sound of all, for -it marks the instant cessation of all activity for every member of its -kind within hearing distance. The “ear-splitting silence” that follows -this signal literally presses in on one in the darkness.</p> -<h3 id="c26"><span class="larger">Muskrat</span> -<br /><i>Ondatra zibethicus</i> (French Canadian word from the Iroquois and Huron Indian word for muskrat. Latin: the odorous substance of the civet alluding to the musk secreted by the muskrat)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Virtually all of North America north of the Mexican border. -Muskrats are found from near sea level to as high as 10,000 feet -above it.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img028.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="204" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: This large rodent can exist only near a permanent water -supply which is deep enough to shelter it from its enemies. This may -be a lake, a marsh, or a running stream.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large aquatic rodent whose long, flat tail undulates -from side to side when it swims. Total length 18 to 25 inches. Tail 8 to -11 inches. Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The thick, dark brown fur of the upper -body is overlaid with brown to black guard hairs. The legs are short -but powerful. The front feet are small, but the hind feet are relatively -large and partially webbed, with stiff hairs on the edges of the webs -and along the sides of the toes. The long, black tail is flattened -vertically. It is so scantily haired that it may be said to be naked, but -is covered with small scales up to 2 millimeters in diameter. The head -is quite similar to that of a vole. The ears are so short as to barely -protrude through the fur, and the eyes are small. Average number of -young thought to be six per litter. Several litters may be born each year.</p> -<p>The presence of muskrats in a shallow lake or marsh is not difficult -to detect. This is their chosen habitat, and here in water about 1½ feet -deep, they build their characteristic mounds of rushes and cat-tails. -Here they may also be seen on quiet days swimming about and carrying -on their normal activities. In much of the Southwest, however, such -favorite habitats are few and far between and the muskrats must take -their choice, if there be one, between the few permanent streams and -irrigation canals. In these altered circumstances they react quite differently; -they may often be present in considerable numbers without -anyone being the wiser. The change in habits required by this different -environment illustrates the great adaptability exhibited -by many of our most common mammal -species.</p> -<p>The most important requirement of a muskrat -is a permanent body of water of a depth sufficient -for it to dive into and escape from its enemies. Given -this, it will at once set about constructing a home. -<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span> -In a lake or marsh, there is little or no current. In sheltered bays, where -wave action is slight, the bottom often will be muddy. In the shallow -water along the shore, water plants such as tules and cattails will become -established. This is indeed muskrat heaven, for these and other -aquatic plants are both their food and building materials. The most -edible portions of the plants are the roots and the stem portions which -are below the surface of the mud. When one of these choice tidbits -has been cut free by the muskrat’s sharp teeth, it is carried to some -favorite place to be eaten. This may be a mud bar well sheltered by -overhanging vegetation from prying eyes, the end of a log projecting -above the surface of the water, or perhaps the roof of the “house.” -The discarded portion of the stem is buoyant and usually lodges among -the remaining plants until needed for building purposes.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill32"> -<img id="fig32" src="images/img028a.jpg" alt="muskrat" width="600" height="336" /> -<p class="pcap">muskrat</p> -</div> -<p>When the muskrat house is being built, a great quantity of this -flotsam is piled up until the resultant mound may project as much as -3 feet above the water and be 5 or 6 feet in diameter. The nest is built -above the waterline in this half-submerged “haystack.” Entrance to the -living quarters is by a tunnel which usually starts through the mud a -short distance from the base of the house, goes under the edge of the -structure, then inclines upward to the nest. Only one entrance is necessary -for even if some enemy should tear through the tangle of rushes -deep enough to reach the nest, it would take so long that every inmate -could easily escape by this submarine route. The house serves one more -important purpose in the far north. When the ice lies thick over the -marsh and seals this water world away from air, the muskrats can still -take short forays under the ice for food and return again to free air, -without which no mammal can exist.</p> -<p>Had the muskrat learned to build dams such as beavers construct, -the species might very well be near extinction in the Southwest, since -<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span> -such structures would seriously interfere with irrigation. However, since -they have accepted conditions as they are, the muskrats do very well for -themselves in the shallow streams and irrigation ditches. In fact, their -population under the adverse conditions of today is probably far above -that of the days before the white man arrived on the scene. Do not -assume from this statement that a whole new way of life has been opened -up for the muskrat. There has always been a “bank” muskrat that -lived in burrows in the stream banks. This fast-water addict has now -taken full advantage of the artificial streams that are the forerunners -of agriculture almost everywhere in the Southwest. The burrows built -into the canal banks seem to be identical with those constructed under -natural conditions.</p> -<p>The “bank” muskrat builds three types of shelters, each with a -definite and necessary function. These might be called the feeding -burrow, the shelter burrow, and the breeding burrow, respectively. The -first two are simple in design and have few variations, but the breeding -burrow may be extremely complex. If a choice is available, all burrows -will be in a bank along the swiftest flow of water, as on the outside of -a curve in the canal, for instance. This prevents the entrances from -silting shut as they would in the more quiet reaches.</p> -<p>There are two types of feeding burrows. The first and more common -consists of a cut made just above water level in the side of a vertical -bank. If possible, it is behind a portiere of hanging grass or weeds, so as -to be completely screened from view. This is merely a safe place to -which the muskrat can take its food and eat without being bothered -by enemies. The second type of feeding burrow is more elaborate, consisting -of several such chambers along the bank connected by short tunnels. These -seem to be community shelters since they are used by several -individuals at the same time. The added safety provided by the connecting -tunnels seems to be the advantage in this type of dining room.</p> -<p>The shelter burrow not only affords escape from enemies, but may -be a sleeping burrow as well. It consists of two tunnels which start at -different levels under water and join just before they reach the main -chamber, which of course, is above water level. The two tunnels assure -an escape route if one or the other is invaded by an enemy. Each muskrat -may have several of these shelter burrows. The one used as a sleeping -burrow will be furnished with a soft nest of shredded leaves. Cattail -leaves are a favorite material for this purpose. Wet, green cattail leaves -in a damp underground cavern make a poor bed by most standards, -but no doubt, it seems a dry, cozy retreat to the muskrat as it emerges -dripping from its underwater tunnel.</p> -<p>The breeding burrows are large and elaborate in design. There is -reason to believe they are not always the work of one individual. They -may even represent combined efforts of several generations of muskrats. -Often they are a labyrinth of tunnels connecting many nesting chambers, -each with a nest of different age. This can be determined by the -yellowing of the shredded leaves. As might be expected, there are usually -a number of tunnels leading from this maze into the water. A -half dozen of these underwater entrance tunnels is not unusual. All -<span class="pb" id="Page_67">67</span> -this room gives the young a place to exercise before they are able to -take to the water.</p> -<p>Young muskrats are surprisingly precocious. They are able to leave -the nest when very small, and at 4 weeks of age are weaned and capable -of taking care of themselves, although only about one-fourth grown. -At this stage, they are peculiar looking little individuals. The fur is -still in the woolly stage, dark and bluish in color. The guard hairs -have not yet appeared, and altogether they have an unkempt appearance. -This rapidly disappears, however, when they leave the burrow. -Their progress is so rapid that young born early in the spring are -believed to breed during the following fall.</p> -<p>Though ordinarily confined to the immediate vicinity of water, -muskrats sometimes are found in amazing places. The urge to travel -sometimes influences them to go across country for many miles to some -other body of water. They may also become overcrowded in an area so -that food becomes scarce and some may leave on that account. It is not -uncommon in the Middle West for them to burrow into a farmer’s root -cellar in early fall and spend months in this haven of warmth and good -food before they are discovered. Floods may carry them many miles -away from established haunts and leave them stranded on high ground -when the waters recede. A muskrat found in this predicament is not an -animal with which to trifle. If it cannot escape by water, it will probably -elect to make a stand. The long, sharp incisors are formidable weapons -indeed, and any enemy, including man, had best allow judgment to -become the better part of valor.</p> -<p>The tracks of muskrats are so characteristic that they cannot be -mistaken for those of any other animal. Strangely enough they resemble -to a striking degree those of certain types of extinct reptiles called -dinosaurs. The tracks of the two small front feet are close together -and overlapped somewhat by those of the larger hind feet. Between the -tracks is the sinuous trail left by the sharp-edged tail.</p> -<h3 id="c27"><span class="larger">Beaver</span> -<br /><i>Castor canadensis</i> (Latin: a beaver ... from Canada)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: The beaver, like the muskrat, can be found almost everywhere -in North America north of the Mexican border.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img029.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Near any water supply of enough volume, with or without -damming, to provide security for a beaver family.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The largest North American rodent; -further distinguished by having a broad flat -tail. Total length 34 to 40 inches. Tail 9 to 10 inches. -Weight from 30 to 60 pounds. In color the beaver -varies from a deep, rich brown in the northern states -to a much paler shade in desert regions of the Southwest. -The soft, rich underfur is partially concealed -<span class="pb" id="Page_68">68</span> -by coarse, rather stiff guard hairs. The brown color of the upper parts -shades to a chestnut under the belly and on the inner sides of the legs. -The forefeet are small with well developed claws. They appear naked -but have a scanty cover of coarse hairs. The hind feet are large and -webbed, and are similarly covered with a few coarse hairs.</p> -<p>The body of the beaver has somewhat the appearance of a kangaroo -in that the rear portion is heavy and appear overdeveloped in comparison -with the more stream-lined head and forequarters. Much of -this impression is gained from the heavy, flat tail which is thick and -muscular at the point where it joins the body. One of the most useful -appendages possessed by any creature, the tail is paddled-shaped horizontally -and about an inch thick in the middle, tapering to thin edges -and tip. It appears naked, but is covered with scales.</p> -<p>The young, averaging four in number, are born in the late spring -and, although they are soon able to take care of themselves, the family -remains together for most of the year.</p> -<p>Indications of beavers in an area are their dams or the distinctive -stumps left by their tree felling. Beaver tracks are seldom found. Although -this aquatic animal often leaves the water, and may go a considerable -distance overland, its tracks usually are obliterated by the -passage of the heavy rump and the dragging tail.</p> -<p>The beaver, perhaps as much as any other factor, was instrumental -in opening up western America to civilization. Even before the Thirteen -Original Colonies had become firmly established along the eastern seaboard, -venturesome men were working westward in search of more -beaver to supply the ever-increasing demand for this soft-rich fur. -Industrial empires were founded on this traffic in skins which came -from as far west as the Mississippi River. By the early 1800’s, the trappers -had penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, and in 1806, upon the return -of the Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Pacific Northwest, they -swarmed to the headwaters of the Missouri River system. Prior to this, -the Southwest had been given little attention by the fur industry. It was -considered an inhospitable region, inhabited by hostile Indians, and -with a few settlements of Spanish colonists who, up to that time, had -actively resisted the intrusions of the more aggressive Americans. However, -by the year 1820, relations had improved to such a degree that -a few of these hardy individuals were trapping on the headwaters of -the desert rivers. Later, their activities spread to include the entire -length of these remarkable watercourses.</p> -<p>These were the Mountain Men, a hard-as-nails breed of frontiersmen -in a class by themselves. In the period from 1820-1854, when a -large part of the Southwest became part of the United States through -the Gadsden Purchase, they roamed the plains and mountains of the -American Desert. Their roster includes such legendary figures as Bill -Williams, Pauline Weaver, Kit Carson, and James Pattie. Their argosy -was a quest for the rich, brown beaver pelts which were a golden fleece -indeed when presented to the fur traders in far-off St. Louis. In time, -their moccasined feet beat a broad path across the western plains—a -path then known as the Santa Fe Trail, but identified today as U.S. 66, -<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span> -the “Main Street of America.”</p> -<p>Today, many of the streams which supported beaver colonies in -the desert places have vanished entirely, and others have been so effectively -harnessed for irrigation and power that there is no place for -beavers in them. In the higher mountains, however, there are many -streams remote from civilization where clear ponds still sparkle in the -sunlight, and the splash and dripping of busy beavers can be heard on -quiet, summer evenings. Because beavers quickly become established -under any conditions which are at all favorable, they have been reintroduced -into numerous places where they had been extinct for many -years. Usually this is good conservation practice, but under some conditions, -it may prove a mistake. Ecologically speaking, beavers probably -are the most important creatures in any animal community of which -they are members. This is because these busy engineers not only impose -a tremendous drain on the surrounding area for material, very often -they also radically alter the character of the terrain to fit their own -needs.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill33"> -<img id="fig33" src="images/img030.jpg" alt="beaver" width="596" height="528" /> -<p class="pcap">beaver</p> -</div> -<p>The life history of the beaver is one of the most interesting of all -mammals. It has been studied for centuries by naturalists in both the -New and Old Worlds, for the beaver, with but few differences, is native -to both. All this study and observation notwithstanding, the habits -<span class="pb" id="Page_70">70</span> -are still only partially known. This is because the beaver is mainly -a nocturnal creature which spends most of its daylight hours in the -concealment of a lodge or burrow. Then, too, in the northern latitudes -where the ponds are covered with ice throughout the long winters there -is little opportunity to observe this phase of its existence. There is but -one species of beaver in North America but about two dozen subspecies. -The northern types and those which live in the mountains of the Southwest -seem to be dam builders who live in beaver “lodges.” Those which -inhabited rivers of the lower desert were mostly “bank” beavers which -lived in burrows in the banks of streams. This latter type is rare today.</p> -<p>Perhaps the best way to understand the ecological importance of -the beaver is through watching the rise and decline of a typical colony. -Picture if you will a small, shallow stream flowing gently down a narrow -valley in the mountains. Bordering the low banks is a thicket of -alders. Back of them a thick growth of aspens extends to the edge of -the valley and mingles with the spruce trees on the slope. Down this -slope comes a young male beaver at a clumsy gallop, his broad tail -striking the ground with an audible thump at every lope. This emigrant -has struck out for himself because the colony to which he belongs has -become crowded. He finds the stream and, since the water is too shallow -to conceal him, crouches under an overhanging bank until darkness -falls.</p> -<p>As soon as it becomes completely dark, he hunts for a suitable -place to build a dam and soon finds a site to his liking. On one side -of the stream a thick clump of alders projects from the bank, and on -the other a water-soaked log is half buried in the bottom of the creek. -From these anchor points, he begins his dam, building toward the -middle from each side. The work calls for a great deal of the alder -brush to be cut and sunk in the bed of the stream. There it is weighted -down with rocks and mud until secure. Additional brush is brought -and interwoven with the first; gradually the structure grows until in -a few days it converts the stream into a quiet pool deep enough to hide -the beaver, should an enemy appear. As the water rises it covers the -bases of the alders, which begin to die in the pond.</p> -<p>The beaver next turns his attention to building a lodge. Selecting -a point to one side of the current entering the pond, he begins as he -did with the dam by sinking brush to the bottom and weighting it down -with rocks. As he builds, he cleverly fashions several underwater entrances -to the house that will be. When he has finished, the house -projects several feet above the water, and the materials are so thoroughly -interlaced and plastered that even the most determined enemy would -despair of gaining entry to the living room. Debris from the construction -has floated downstream to become lodged in and on the dam, -making it more secure and watertight that it was when first built.</p> -<p>With the dam and the lodge both completed, the next task is to -collect a food supply for the following winter. This is carried on intermittently -during the autumn. It consists of cutting down aspens, whose -bark the beaver dearly loves, sectioning the branches and small trunks -into pieces which may be handled conveniently, and dragging them -<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span> -to the pond. Once in the water, they are weighted down and will remain -in good condition for a long time. The beaver is joined in this task -by a female which has also migrated from an overcrowded colony. Two -need more food than one, consequently their trails begin to head a -little farther into the aspen forest as they work through the crisp -autumn nights. These trails converge as they leave the forest and approach -the pond, and end in a few well-developed mud slides that enter -the water. Constant traffic of the wet beavers leaving the water keeps -the slides moist and slippery.</p> -<p>As winter settles in on the mountains, a thin skim of ice begins to -form on the edges of the quiet water on cold nights. Then one night it -freezes completely over. This causes the beavers no inconvenience at -all because if on one of their underwater excursions they should wish -to surface for air, they have but to swim to a shallow place with firm -bottom, and with one quick lift of their powerful muscles break a hole -through the ice with their backs. They can break surprisingly thick -ice in this way. The beavers live in comfort and plenty throughout the -winter. The living room of the lodge has been furnished with comfortable -beds of the cattails that have already become established along -the edge of the pond. The lodge, although tightly built, still admits -enough air for the beavers and food is stored in plenty on the bottom -of the pond. As the bark is gnawed from the aspen branches, the bare -poles are added to the bulk of the house or used in further construction -of the dam. Before long, the mild southwestern winter merges into -spring.</p> -<p>In late spring the beaver family is considerably increased by the -arrival of four miniature beavers. They weigh but 1 pound each at -birth and are fully furred. At this time, the father is ostracized and the -mother and her young live together in the lodge. When the young are -about 3 weeks old, they take to the water for the first time. They quickly -learn the beaver method of swimming; this is to kick with the hind -feet and let the forelegs trail loosely alongside the breast, using the -flat tail both as elevator and rudder. The young beavers are called -kits, and indeed are as playful as true kittens can be. It is most amazing -to watch them cavorting about in the water with as much ease as youngsters -of other mammals do on dry land. As autumn nears, this play is -exchanged for the sterner duties of existence, and the young take their -places as adults of the family.</p> -<p>Fifty years pass. As the colony increases the dam must be made -larger, new lodges must be built; and when the trails to the aspen -forest become too long, canals are dug part way out to lessen the hazards -which may befall the beaver on dry land. The pond gradually -silts up to higher and higher levels until at last it is full of black, -fertile soil. All of the aspens within reach are finally cut down and -the hungry beavers turn to the resinous bark of the spruces. Finally the -struggle is given up. The beavers migrate to a new location, and the -following spring a freshet tears out the center of the dam. Now the -pond is gone. With it are gone the trout that played in its depths, and -the teal that rested there on their way south. In its place is a beaver -<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span> -meadow, a grassy park in the center of the spruce forest with spring -flowers spangling its green surface. Aspens are already beginning to -crowd in about its edges, and the creek is cutting deeper into its soft -soil with every spring. Before long heavy erosion will begin to take -its toll, and some day in the future a male beaver will again come -galloping awkwardly down the slope.</p> -<p>The changing conditions which such a cycle bring about are almost -impossible to evaluate. At least three climax types of environment are -represented: those of the alder thicket, the beaver pond, and the beaver -meadow. In a graphic fashion this cycle illustrates what is going on -in Nature continually, more slowly perhaps, but just as surely.</p> -<h3 id="c28"><span class="larger">Porcupine</span> -<br /><i>Erethizon dorsatum</i> (Greek: to irritate in allusion to the quills and Latin: pertaining to the back)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Most of North America north of the Mexican border. -Notable by their exception are the south central and southeastern -United States.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img031.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Usually associated with conifer forest, yet may sometimes -be found miles from any forest. An inhabitant of all life zones up to -timberline (Arctic-Alpine).</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A black to grizzled black and yellow creature covered -with quills. Total length 18 to 22 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight -10 to 28 pounds. Body short and wide; supported by short bowed legs. -Tail heavy and muscular, armed with short slender quills. Head small -with dull eyes and long black whiskers, but with short ears. The incisors -are extremely large and are of a bright, rich yellow color. The quills -are shortest on the face and reach their greatest length near the middle -of the back. Often they are nearly hidden in the coarse, seal brown to -black underfur. The long guard hairs are also seal brown close to the -body, but change to a rather sere yellow at the tips. Only one young -is brought forth each year in a den among the rocks, or sometimes in a -hollow log. The young are among the most precocious of any mammal.</p> -<p>The porcupine in North America is considered as belonging to but -the one species <i>dorsatum</i>, although there are seven subspecies. The -most common subspecies found in the Southwest is <i>epixanthum</i> (Greek -<i>epi</i>, upon, and <i>xanthus</i>, yellow), sometimes called “yellow-haired” porcupine. -The porcupine is unique among North American mammals in -bearing the sharp quills which are perhaps its most -interesting feature. Certainly they are responsible -in large part for the unusual life history of this -misunderstood animal.</p> -<p>Quills are no more than greatly modified hairs, -and in sorting through the various types of pelage -on a porcupine’s back, a few examples will be found -<span class="pb" id="Page_73">73</span> -which are intermediate between the hair and the quills. This does not -mean that coarser hairs gradually turn to quills. Each follicle produces -hair or quill, as the case may be, for the life of the animal. A quill -consists of three well-defined parts: a solid sharp tip usually black in -color; a hollow shaft, which is white; and a root similar to that of a hair.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill34"> -<img id="fig34" src="images/img031a.jpg" alt="porcupine" width="600" height="510" /> -<p class="pcap">porcupine</p> -</div> -<p>The sharp tip is smooth for a fraction of an inch, but from this -point on, it is covered with a great number of closely appressed barbs. -These can be felt by rubbing the quill the “wrong” way between thumb -and forefinger. It has been found that these barbs flare away from the -surface, when the quill is immersed in warm water. It seems natural -that they would do the same when embedded in warm, moist flesh. At -any rate, quills are always difficult to extract, and if left in the victim -they penetrate ever more deeply until they may pierce some vital organ -and cause death. In other cases, they have been known to work entirely -through body or limb and emerge on the opposite side. This is due to -muscular action of the victim, some movements tending to force the -point farther, the barbs at the same time effectively preventing any -retreat.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_74">74</div> -<p>Below the barbs the tip of the quill flares to join the shaft. Pure -white and opaque, this portion is used by Indians to form decorative -bands of quill work on the fronts of buckskin vests and jackets. This -part is also hollow, and before removal of a quill from the flesh is -attempted, a little of the end should be cut off. This collapses the shaft -and makes extraction somewhat more easy, but very little less painful. -Actually there is little excuse for a human to become involved with -one of these mild-tempered creatures, but sometimes dogs are badly -hurt in encounters with them.</p> -<p>The root is the portion by which the quill is attached to the body. -Although it is a common belief that the porcupine can “throw” its -quills, the truth is that the root portion is extremely weak and the -quills are easily withdrawn from the body when the barbed tip is driven -into an enemy. In fact, any violent movement of the animal may dislodge -quills, even though nothing has touched them. There are several -well-authenticated accounts of quills having been flipped for several -feet in this way, but in each case, it was entirely accidental and through -no conscious effort of the porcupine. In other words, the armament of -this slow, awkward creature should be considered strictly defensive -in every respect.</p> -<p>Like the skunk, which can also defend itself most effectively, the -porcupine has little apparent fear of its enemies. When threatened -with violence it simply brings its head down between the forelegs and -turns its rump toward the attacker. With hair and quills erect it resembles -a soft furry ball. Appearances are seldom more deceiving! The -guard hairs half conceal a spot on the back where a whorl of long quills -radiates out in a large “cowlick.” Should any enemy touch these long -guard hairs, the muscular tail is thrashed vigorously about in an effort -to drive the somewhat shorter but equally keen-pointed tail quills into -the attacker. With every attempt at attack from another angle, the -porcupine turns so as to present its rump to the enemy. There is one -Achilles heel, however, in this otherwise almost perfect defense. It is -the unprotected underparts, which at times of danger are always kept -pressed against the ground or against a tree trunk. A few carnivores, -among them the mountain lion and the fisher, are known to kill the -porcupine by flipping it over on its back and tearing it open. Even -these large predators seldom escape unscathed, however, and both lions -and fishers are known to have died from the effects of quills accidentally -taken into the digestive tract.</p> -<p>To those who have heard that porcupines live only on bark and -always girdle the host trees, it may come as a surprise to find that this -is only partly true. Although “bark” is eaten to some extent throughout -the year, it is seldom the main diet. When a great deal is taken -from one tree, it is gnawed off in an aimless pattern which may or may -not girdle the tree. During the spring and summer, a porcupine becomes -a browser on tender leaves and twigs in the undergrowth. In autumn -and winter, it feeds more on mistletoe and pine needles than on bark. -With its low reproduction rate, there is little danger of it eating up -our forests, unless its natural enemies are removed.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_75">75</div> -<h3 id="c29"><span class="larger">Northern pocket gopher</span> -<br /><i>Thomomys talpoides</i> (Greek: thomos, a heap and mys, mouse. Latin: talpa, a mole)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: From northwestern United States and southwestern Canada -to as far south as northern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img032.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Soft loam in the open places in the high mountains. -Seldom found below 8,000 feet, but up to elevations of over 13,000 feet -in New Mexico.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The characteristic mounds of earth built up by this -group of burrowing rodents are usually the best indication of their -presence. The northern pocket gopher is of medium size. Total length -6½ to 9½ inches. Tail 1¾ to 3 inches. It is usually gray in color with -darker patches behind the rounded ears. Eyes and ears are small. The -short tail has a bare, blunt tip. Front claws are long and curved. The -entire body is well muscled and gives an impression of power. Average -number of young thought to be about four. At the high elevations at -which this species lives, the young are not seen until rather late in -summer.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill35"> -<img id="fig35" src="images/img032a.jpg" alt="northern pocket gopher" width="600" height="351" /> -<p class="pcap">northern pocket gopher</p> -</div> -<p>The northern pocket gopher is one of the hardiest rodents on the -North American Continent. Even so, it would not be able to survive the -climate of the inhospitable regions it sometimes inhabits were it not -for the fact that is spends almost all its life underground. This creature -does not hibernate, but continues busily at the task -of searching out food when most other subterranean -dwellers are curled up fast asleep in their cozy nests. -Why the gopher should continue working, while its -ground squirrel cousins sleep, is hard to say. It would -seem that it has the same opportunities to lay on fat -for a winter’s rest. The chief reason seems to be that -<span class="pb" id="Page_76">76</span> -the bulbs and roots upon which it feeds are always available so long -as the gopher keeps extending its underground workings. On the other -hand, the ground squirrels, which gather their food aboveground, are -cut off from this supply as soon as cold weather drives them to shelter.</p> -<p>The pocket gophers are much alike. There are three genera and a -considerable number of species represented in the Southwest but, except -for variations due to climate and terrain, their habits are similar. -Burrows usually are constructed in deep loam or alluvial soils. These -tunnels seem to follow an aimless pattern. Their course is marked by -mounds of earth thrown out of the workings at irregular intervals. -When the gopher is engaged in throwing out this excavated earth, the -entrance to the tunnel is left open until the job is completed, then -tightly plugged to prevent enemies from entering. The tunnels themselves -are rather small in diameter, considering the size of the gopher, -for if it wishes to retrace its steps and there is no gallery near at hand -in which to turn around, it can run backward almost as easily as forward. -There are usually numerous rooms excavated along the course -of the tunnels. In one is a warm nest constructed of grass and fibers. -Others are utilized for storage rooms and at least one is reserved as -a toilet, thereby keeping the rest of the workings sanitary. When the -ground is covered with snow the northern pocket gopher especially is -quite likely to extend its activities aboveground. Here it builds its -tunnels through the snow and often packs them tightly with earth -brought up from below. This remains as earth casts, when the snow -melts and forms a characteristic mark of its presence.</p> -<p>Chief foods of pocket gophers are the bulbs, tubers, and fibrous -roots encountered in the course of their diggings. Whenever an especially -abundant supply is found, the surplus is stored away as insurance -against the time when future excavation produces nothing. Gophers -also eat leaves and stems whenever available. Some plants are pulled -down through the roof of the tunnel by the roots, and some are gathered -near its mouth, although these trips “outside” are fraught with danger. -Coyotes, foxes, and bobcats all are willing to chance an encounter with -this doughty little scrapper for the sake of the tasty meal he will furnish.</p> -<p>Little is known of gopher family life. For the most part, they are -solitary individuals, avoiding others of their kind. At breeding time, -however, they may travel some distance across country to find a mate. -These trips usually are carried out under cover of darkness. The young -average four in number. They are born late in the spring and do not -leave to make their own homes until early autumn.</p> -<p>Physically the gopher exhibits a striking adaptation to its way of -life. The fur is thick and warm. It keeps soil particles from working -into the skin at the same time it protects the wearer from the chill of -his underground workings. The heavy, curved front claws are admirable -digging tools. In especially hard soil, the large strong incisors are also -pressed into service for this purpose. To remove the dirt from the -tunnel, the gopher becomes an animal bulldozer. The front legs are -employed as a blade pushing the soil, while the powerful hind legs -push the body and load towards the nearest tunnel opening. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_77">77</span> -pockets from which this creature gets its common name are never used -for hauling earth. They are hair-lined pouches located in each cheek -and utilized for carrying food to the storerooms. There they are emptied -by placing the forefeet behind them and pushing forward. Last, by -virtue of its location, but certainly not least in usefulness, is the short, -almost hairless tail. It is used as a tactile organ to feel out the way -when the gopher runs backwards through the tunnels. In some respects, -it is of more use than the eyes although the gopher uses these too, -as can be attested by the quickness with which it detects any movement -near the mouth of its tunnel.</p> -<p>The gopher’s place in Nature seems to be akin to that of the earthworm. -By turning over the soil, the gopher enables it to more readily -absorb water and air. At the same time, fertility is increased by the -addition of buried plants and animal matter. This is indeed a fair -exchange for the plants it destroys in its quest for food.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_78">78</div> -<h2 id="c30" class="jr"><span class="large ss">CARNIVORES</span> -<br /><i>Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans</i></h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_79">79</div> -<p>This group is distinguished from other animals by having canine -teeth in both jaws. The function of these teeth is to catch and hold -other animals, for carnivores are the predators. This is the most highly -developed branch of the animal world and reaches a peak of specialization -in man who, while lacking some of the physical qualifications of -the other predators, has developed a brain which has enabled him to -gain and keep ascendancy over all other animals. Considered with -the group in this book are two other orders, the Insectivora and the -Chiroptera. These orders embrace the mammals in North America -that live principally on worms or insects rather than on other mammals. -They are the shrews and bats, respectively.</p> -<p>Since carnivores are the hunters rather than the hunted, they enjoy -far greater mobility than, for instance, the rodents. It is not necessary -that they have a burrow in which to escape the attacks of other animals, -for it is unusual for them to prey upon each other. Most of the predators -remain in one area only from choice or, in the case of adult females, -in order to rear the young. Few of them hibernate; bears and skunks -do spend a considerable time during the cold weather in a torpor, but -it is an uneasy sleep at best, as anyone who has disturbed these animals -at this time can attest. As far as the Chiroptera are concerned, some -species of bats hibernate and others migrate to a warmer climate to -spend the winter. Since most of the predators are active all winter, -while many of the rodents are in hibernation, this can be a period of -famine for carnivores. At the same time, it is a season of increased -danger for those species which are still active and upon which these -predators prey.</p> -<p>Because these hunters are continually stalking other animals, their -habitats are as varied as those of their quarries. Thus, the mountain -lion is a creature of the rimrock, where he can most conveniently find -deer browsing on mountain-mahogany; while his smaller cousin, the -bobcat, stalks smaller animals in the slope chaparral. The wild dogs -hunt plains and brushy country for ground squirrels and rabbits. In the -weasel family we find the marten in the treetops pursuing squirrels, -the weasel hunting mice in the meadow, and mink and otter pursuing -prey near to or in the water, Some species, such as the bears, are omnivorous -and may be encountered almost anywhere that a plentiful supply -of food of any kind can be found. Practically all of the species, excepting -bats and skunks, can be considered diurnal as well as nocturnal, -but the majority are most active during the hours between dusk and -sunrise.</p> -<p>Since the carnivores’ purpose in Nature’s scheme is to control the -vegetable eaters, it follows that each predator must be somewhat superior, -either physically or mentally, or both, to the species upon which -it preys. The associations between pursuer and pursued may be casual -with species such as the coyote, which preys on a great number of smaller -species, or they may be sharply defined as with the lynx, which in certain -localities depends almost entirely upon the snowshoe hare for -food. The apparent ferocity with which some predators will kill, not -<span class="pb" id="Page_80">80</span> -only enough for a meal, but much more than they need, cannot as -yet be explained. This habit is most pronounced in the weasel family. -It may be that more than ordinary control is called for in the case of -their host species, rodents in most cases. Whatever the reason, this -wanton killing has not upset the balance which these species maintain. -Man, the most ruthless and intelligent predator of all, is the only -species which has been successful in exterminating others.</p> -<p>The predators hold a favored place in the esteem of most naturalists. -At first, sympathy for the weak and indignation against the strong -are perfectly natural human feelings. As the necessity for control and the -wonderful way in which Nature attains a balance becomes apparent, the -role of the predator becomes more and more appreciated by the student.</p> -<h3 id="c31"><span class="larger">Mountain lion</span> -<br /><i>Felis concolor</i> (Latin: a cat of the same color; referring no doubt to the smooth blending of the body coloration)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: At present, mostly confined to the western United States -and Canada, and all of Mexico south to the southern tip of South America. -There are a number of mountain lions in Florida, and persistent -reports indicate that they may be making a comeback in a number of -other Eastern States.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img033.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: As the range indicates, habitats vary widely. Mountain -lions in the Southwest show a preference for rimrock country in the -Transition Life Zone or higher, but they are often seen in all the life -zones.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A huge, tawny cat with long, heavy tail. The long -tail is a field mark identifying the young, which, having a spotted -coat, otherwise resemble young bobcats to some degree. Total length -72 to 90 inches. Tail 30 to 36 inches. Weight 80 to 200 pounds. Color -may vary from tawny gray to brownish red over most of the body, the -underparts being lighter. The head and ears appear small in proportion -to the lean muscular body. The teeth are large, the canines being -especially massive. Like most members of the cat family, the mountain -lion has large feet with long, sharp claws. The tracks show the -imprint of four toes together with a large pad in the center of the foot. -The young may be born at any time of the year. Only one litter is born -every 2 to 3 years, and the average number of young is three.</p> -<p>Probably no species of mammal in the New -World equals the mountain lion in farflung distribution. -From the Yukon to Patagonia, this elusive -carnivore can still be found in considerable numbers -in spite of aggressive campaigns against it. In -the United States, it is the chief representative of -the wild cats, a group noted for fierce and predacious -habits. Fortunate indeed is the person who sees one of these great felines -in the wild. This may not be as difficult as one might imagine because -mountain lions often travel through comparatively well settled areas. -It is especially possible in the Southwest, for the four-State area covered -by this book contains the heaviest population of mountain lions in the -United States. However, the comparative abundance of this carnivore -has not resulted in a better understanding of it. The mountain lion -is still one of the least known and most maligned creatures of our times.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_81">81</div> -<div class="img" id="ill36"> -<img id="fig36" src="images/img033a.jpg" alt="mountain lion" width="485" height="795" /> -<p class="pcap">mountain lion</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_82">82</div> -<p>The Mexicans know this cosmopolite as “leon.” In Brazil it is -called “onca.” Perhaps the most distinguished name, and rating as the -first in New World history, is “puma,” given it by the Incas. Early -American settlers of the east coast called it “panther,” “painter,” and -“catamount.” In the northwestern United States, it is known as “cougar” -and in the Southwest, as mountain lion. Although there is but the one -species <i>concolor</i>, there are a number of subspecies. About 15 are -now recognized, most of them geographical races and not markedly -different from the species. Four of these subspecies are found in the -four States with which we are concerned. One of the most interesting -is <i>hippolestes</i> which inhabits the State of Colorado. Translated from -the Greek this is “horse thief,” an appropriate epithet indeed for this -ghostly marauder. As might be expected from their vast distribution, -the several subspecies have a tremendous vertical range. In the Southwest -they are found from near sea level in southwestern Arizona to the -tops of the highest peaks in Colorado.</p> -<p>In the more than four centuries that have elapsed since the white -man first set foot on soil of the New World, a great mass of folklore -concerning the mountain lion has accumulated. Half fact, half fiction, -these tales have been repeated from one generation to another and few -details have been lost in the telling; indeed, in most cases, several have -been added. Most common are those which describe its fierceness and -its attacks on man. In the main, these tales are lurid and convincing, -but they do not stand up under scientific scrutiny. It is true that such -attacks have occurred; one of the most recent and best verified was that -on a 13-year old boy in Okanogan County, Washington, in 1924. It -resulted in the death and partial devouring of the unfortunate youngster. -Yet sensational as this incident was, it resulted in publicity far out -of proportion to its importance. In fact, articles concerning this case -are still appearing at intervals. The truth of the matter is that very -few authentic cases of mountain lion attacks upon humans have ever -occurred in the United States, and that most of these <i>could</i> have been -caused by the mountain lion’s being rabid. Certainly such attacks are -not typical behavior of the normal animal. As far as man is concerned, -the lion will take flight whenever possible, and even when cornered -it is not nearly so pugnacious as its little cousin, the bobcat.</p> -<p>Other stories about the mountain lion often emphasize the bloodcurdling -screams with which it preludes its stalk of some unfortunate -person deep in the forest. The facts are that there is no reason to believe -that lions cannot or do not scream, but most authorities agree that -such vocal expressions are most likely to be made by an old male -<span class="pb" id="Page_83">83</span> -courting his lady love or warning away a rival. The cats are creatures -of stealth and cunning that creep upon their prey as noiselessly as -possible. Lions would hardly announce their presence with the sort of -screams with which they are credited. It seems safe to say that at least -90 percent of these alleged screams can be traced to owls or amorous -bobcats. Oftentimes these sounds have been linked to large tracks found -in the vicinity as proof that a mountain lion was in the area. This has -led one author to remark that “the witness usually is unable to distinguish -the track of a large dog from that of a mountain lion.” In addition, -the infrequent screams made by captive mountain lions indicate -that such sounds in Nature would be far from spectacular. They consist -of a sound that is more like a whistle than the demoniacal wail so -often ascribed to the wild animal.</p> -<p>Many stories are told of a person, usually a pioneer ancestor, who -has been followed by a mountain lion. In most cases this person has -returned to the area suitably armed and with witnesses who found -tracks of the beast together with those of their friend. Strange to say, -such incidents are not at all uncommon. They have been recorded and -verified a number of times. In these cases the animal often has made no -effort at concealment but has followed the person quite openly. Despite -this boldness it seems there is no sinister motive, merely a naive and -surprising curiosity on the part of the big cat as to what kind of creature -man is. It is most unfortunate that so little data have been recorded -in these instances, yet this is quite understandable under the circumstances.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img034.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="595" height="232" /> -</div> -<p>Finally, in most stories there is only one size of mountain lion—big! -As the story makes its rounds the lion never gets smaller; it invariably -grows larger. Somehow the records have missed all these really -big lions. Any lion which measures more than 8 feet in length and 200 -pounds in weight will be an extremely large, old male in the record -class. The average will be much smaller. Statistics show most lions -to be 5 to 7 feet in length and 80 to 130 pounds in weight for adult -females, and 6 to 8 feet in length with weights of 120 to 200 pounds -for adult males. Errors in estimating the size of these big cats are easily -accounted for. In the first place the lion is a long, low, sleek creature -that gives an impression of being longer than it is. Too, its size is -unconsciously exaggerated by many people who are impressed with its -<span class="pb" id="Page_84">84</span> -tremendous power and agility. Many of its feats of strength seem impossible -for an animal so small. Lastly, its tanned hide may be available -for measurement. Actually this proves nothing; hides often are -stretched 2 feet or more at the time the animal is skinned, and tanning -does not shrink them appreciably.</p> -<p>None of the above is meant to detract in any way from the reputation -of the mountain lion or its place in American folklore. It is the -third largest predator in the Southwest, being exceeded only by the -jaguar and the bear in size, and surpassing them both in agility. In -the past, it has been feared and hated by those whose herds and flocks -have suffered from its depredations. Their efforts to exterminate it -have resulted in grave biological problems at times, but in the light of -more advanced study it seems probable this big carnivore will be spared -in the future to keep its rightful place in our wilder areas.</p> -<p>The mountain lion “goes with the deer”; that is to say, its function -is to keep deer in check so that they will not eat up their range and -starve to death. Though at first glance such a possibility seems out of -the question, this has become a serious problem in recent years. It will -be further intensified as suitable deer range becomes more restricted -with the advance of civilization. Another function of the mountain -lion-deer relationship is to weed out the diseased and inferior individuals -so that the deer herd will remain healthy and up to good physical -standards. It may be argued that the same end is reached by hunting, -and so it is, with one major exception. The nimrod, intent on a fine -trophy head, takes the buck in the prime of life, a time when he should -be sireing the herd of the future. The cougar does not consciously select -its victims; it takes the most easily caught, thus leaving the wisest and -healthiest survivors as breeding stock.</p> -<p>Though deer are the lion’s preferred food, many other species of -mammals are preyed upon when deer are scarce. These range in size -from the smallest rodents to animals as large as elk. Among the more -unlikely species recorded are skunk and bobcat. The lion also has the -dubious distinction of being one of the chief predators of the porcupine. -Dining on this last species is fraught with danger, however, because -no matter how expertly the carcass is removed from its spiney -covering, a few quills will penetrate the flesh of the diner. Little prey -other than mammals is ever taken. Birds are not easily caught by such a -large animal and, although it does not shun water, it is poorly equipped -to take any form of aquatic life. The mountain lion will not eat carrion -except under the most dire circumstances and prefers food that it has -killed itself.</p> -<p>There are two principal methods by which the mountain lion -catches its prey. The stalk and pounce technique of the common house -cat is most effective in brushy country where the low crouch of the -lion places its bulk behind the close ground cover. With tip of tail -twitching, it creeps forward until a short run and spring, or the spring -alone, will carry it to the front flank of the unsuspecting victim. If the -neck of the hunted is not broken by the impact of the heavy body, the -sharp claws or massive canine teeth are brought into play to rip the -<span class="pb" id="Page_85">85</span> -jugular vein and end the struggle. In the other method of hunting, the -lion chooses a ledge above a game trail and simply waits there until -some animal to its liking passes below. The weight of its body usually -is sufficient to bear the victim to the ground and it is soon dispatched. -Mountain lion studies in California have determined that in hunting -deer the animal will catch one in every three attempts. It has been -estimated that in an area of heavy deer population each mountain lion -will kill one each week. It is of interest to note that in many places in -the Southwest deer are on the increase, indicating the need for more -predators to keep down their number.</p> -<p>Since the mountain lion has few enemies, its reproduction rate is -low. Two to four kittens are born in each litter, but usually at 2- to -3-year intervals. Dens are sometimes located deep among the rocks; -others may be no more than a grass nest in the brush on a rocky ridge. -Like domestic kittens the young are born blind. They have an interesting -color pattern at birth, a strongly spotted coat and a faintly ringed -tail. This completely disappears when they are about half grown, -leaving them with the tawny reddish coat which blends so well with -their surroundings. They mature at about 2 years of age; beautifully -evolved killers which must be admired by everyone who has come to -understand the methods by which Nature regulates the animal world.</p> -<h3 id="c32"><span class="larger">Bobcat</span> -<br /><i>Lynx rufus</i> (Latin: name of animal, and rufus, reddish)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Common throughout much of the United States and -Mexico. Found throughout the Southwest.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img035.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: This common species is found in all zones wherever -there is sufficient cover to hide it.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A bobcat distinguished from the lynx by having -small ear tufts, a more rufous color, and a black band which crosses -only the upper surface of the tail tip. Total length 30 to 35 inches. Tail -5 inches. Weight 15 to 30 pounds. This is a chunky animal with long, -muscular legs and large feet. The sides of the face are heavily streaked -with black, backs of ears dark, coat generally tawny to rufous above, -underparts lighter. Dark spots rather prominent throughout coat, insides -of front legs often barred with darker color. Young from two to -six, usually born in early spring; only one litter per year.</p> -<p>These are the most common wild members of -the cat family in the Southwest. Their distribution -over the United States takes a strange pattern, inasmuch -as they are not found in several of the midwestern -and southeastern States, and in a large area -in central Mexico. In all there are a dozen subspecies -of <i>Lynx rufus</i> in North America. They are tough -<span class="pb" id="Page_86">86</span> -little predators, among the last to retreat before the advance of civilization. -In fact, they may often be found on the very fringes of our larger -cities, existing on the rats that infest the city dump.</p> -<p>In the wilder areas, which are the bobcat’s appropriate home, its -tracks are distinguishable from those of the larger <i>Felidae</i> only by their -smaller size. Like the larger members of the cat family, it is equipped -with a set of strong retractile and extremely sharp claws. Although -there are five toes on each front foot and only four on the hind feet, -the tracks of both feet are similar. This is because the fifth toe, corresponding -to our thumb, is so high on the inside of the foreleg that -normally it does not touch the ground. During normal travel the claws -are always in the retracted position and never show in the tracks. All -native cats have a tendency to place the hind feet in the tracks left by -the front feet, so that in effect each track is a double print. This may -be one of the reasons a cat’s approach is so silent!</p> -<div class="img" id="ill37"> -<img id="fig37" src="images/img036.jpg" alt="bobcat" width="585" height="485" /> -<p class="pcap">bobcat</p> -</div> -<p>Bobcats have numerous traits in common with their relative, <i>Lynx -canadensis</i> (not treated in this book because of its extreme rarity in -the Southwest), but are more versatile in their dietary tastes. While -the lynx is sufficiently dependent on the snowshoe hare that its population -corresponds closely in fluctuation with that of its “host,” the bobcat -has a much less discriminating appetite. It also loves snowshoe hares -and rabbits, but takes various other mammals as opportunity offers, -and ground-living birds. Bobcats will even eat carrion, but prefer fresh -meat. They are reliably reported to eat porcupines, young pronghorns, -deer, and sheep, both bighorn and domestic; and they sometimes kill -adult deer, although this is a difficult and dangerous proceeding. -<span class="pb" id="Page_87">87</span> -Usually a kill is at least partially covered with debris, and the cat will -return at least once to feed again on it.</p> -<p>Though bobcats are the least spectacular of our native cats they -are the most numerous and evenly distributed. Thus collectively they -may be of more importance in Nature’s master plan than we realize. -Their role may even increase in importance as time goes on, because of -the increasing scarcity of the larger cat species.</p> -<h3 id="c33"><span class="larger">Red fox</span> -<br /><i>Vulpes fulva</i> (Latin: a fox ... fulva, meaning deep yellow or tawny)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Found throughout most of North America north of the -Mexican border. Exceptions in the United States are areas in the southeastern -and central States and desert portions of the Southwest.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img036a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="204" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: In the Southwest these foxes are restricted to wooded -areas of mountains. They usually are found in the Transition Life -Zone or higher.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: About the size of a small dog, having a bushy tail -with white tip. Total length 36 to 40 inches. Tail 14 to 16 inches. -Weight 10 to 15 pounds. Besides the type, this fox has at least two well-defined -color phases with many intermediate forms. These will be -considered separately. A typical western form of red fox will be more -yellow than red. The brightest red will be a rufous median line running -down the back. This fades to an ochre yellow along the edges and -grades to the lighter yellow of the sides. The tail is usually dark yellow -with black guard hairs and always a white tip. The underparts are -light yellow to white. Fronts of feet and lower legs and backs of ears -are always very dark to black. The underfur is lead-colored. The head -is small with large ears, yellowish eyes having elliptical pupils, narrow -nose and jaws. The young, four to six in a litter, are born early in the -summer and but one litter is produced each year.</p> -<p>The western form of red fox might more aptly be named the -“yellow” fox, since it is definitely more yellow than red. To add to the -confusion, the gray fox, <i>Urocyon cinereoargenteus</i>, of the West usually -has more good red in its coat than the red fox. However, the gray fox -is a denizen of the desert and will not often be found at elevations -preferred by the red fox. In addition, its tail is tipped with black; this -definitely separates the two species at a glance. The differences of color -phases within the red fox group are more pronounced and have led -many people to consider them separate species. The -two most distinct types of these varieties are known -as the “cross” fox and the “black” or “silver” fox.</p> -<p>The term “cross” fox refers neither to the disposition -of the animal nor to its being a hybrid -variety, although it often is cross or mean and is not -a hybrid. It alludes to the dark cross on its back. -<span class="pb" id="Page_88">88</span> -This is formed by a dark to black median line crossing at right angles -to a dark band that traverses the shoulders. Its effect is increased by -considerable amounts of gray and black mixed with the normal yellow -color of the sides. The long hairs of the tail are yellowish gray to black, -the general effect being dark but, as with the type, the tip is pure white. -As might be expected, there are many gradations between this color -phase and the type, some of them being among the most striking and -beautiful foxes in the world.</p> -<p>The “black” or “silver” fox is a melanistic form of the red fox. In -the most striking form it is a smooth shining black, the general sombreness -of its coat being relieved by a sprinkling of silvery white guard -hairs. These are thickest in the area of the shoulders, on the posterior -portion of the back, and on the top and sides of the head. The underparts, -though black, lack the lustrous “finish” so evident on the back -and sides. The tip of the tail is pure white in this form also. This -is the “silver” fox of commerce, an animal which through selective -breeding has become standardized in the fur industry. Nevertheless, -the black color is a recessive character, as evidenced by the throw-backs -that often make their appearance in otherwise black litters. Without -constant vigilance on the part of breeders, the “silver” fox would soon -become a rarity again. The Mendelian law cannot be cancelled out -by a few generations of selective breeding.</p> -<p>The foxes are the smallest canines native to the United States. -Though they look much larger because of their long fur and bushy tail, -the average red fox will not outweigh a large house cat. They make up -for this lack of size, however, by being exceedingly quick in their movements. -They are thus able to catch many of the small mammals which -outmaneuver coyotes and wolves. Rabbits are about the largest mammals -with which they can cope, but mice, woodrats, pikas, and ground -squirrels are all a common part of their diet. In addition, they take -many large insects and ground nesting birds and eggs whenever possible. -Foxes are not as omnivorous as coyotes, but they relish berries and -stone fruits and sometimes raid watermelon patches.</p> -<p>The social life of foxes is most interesting. The family is a closely -knit unit which as a rule does not break up until the young are well -able to care for themselves. Foxes are monogamous; that is, they normally -choose their mates for life. Dens may be in burrows dug in the -soil or in deep crevices in the rocks. They are usually in some spot where -there is a good view of the surrounding territory. The pups are born -rather early in the spring and by early summer will be playing around -in the den entrance, although they do not venture to any distance until -much later. Should the den be approached while the young are in it, -the female often will be very bold in her attempts to lead the intruders -away from it. As soon as the young are weaned the male joins his mate -in bringing food to them. By early fall, the family is hunting together.</p> -<p>The red fox has been a symbol of sagacity and cunning since long -before Aesop. Much of this reputation is well earned, as witness their -stubborn withdrawal as civilization surrounds them. Yet sometime one -wonders if their wisdom is not overrated. I am reminded of an old -<span class="pb" id="Page_89">89</span> -female who every year whelped her young in the mouth of a tile drain -which drained a marshy piece of ground that had since become dry. The -upper end of the tile was buried some 15 feet below the surface of the -ground. My friend would watch the area until the pups were about half -grown. Then he would block the entrance to the tile with a box trap -and catch them as hunger drove them out to the bait. This went on for -several years, the old vixen never seeming to learn from bitter experience -that her family would be taken away from her.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill38"> -<img id="fig38" src="images/img037.jpg" alt="red fox" width="592" height="368" /> -<p class="pcap">red fox</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c34"><span class="larger">Gray wolf</span> -<br /><i>Canis lupus</i> (Latin: dog ... a wolf)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Canada and Alaska north to the northern coast of Greenland. -In the United States it is found in three widely separated areas -in Oregon, Utah and Colorado, and New Mexico and Arizona. It extends -south into the tablelands of Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img037a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="203" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: In the Southwest the wolf, like the coyote, is leaving the -plains, which are its chosen habitat, to live in the broken country of the -Transition Life Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. -Carries its short, bushy tail above the horizontal -when traveling. The gray wolf is almost unbelievably -big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19 inches. -Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to -170 pounds. These animals show a tremendous variation -in color, but the average individual will appear -very much like a big German shepherd dog. From -<span class="pb" id="Page_90">90</span> -this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska -to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is -distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The straw-yellow -eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much -more like a dog’s than a coyote’s. The feet, in keeping with the rest of -the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with canines, -the first toe or “thumb” does not touch the ground. The hind foot has -but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each year the -single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the average -is assumed to be from 6 to 8.</p> -<p>The wolf’s association with man is older than recorded history. -When man first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is -believed to have been the progenitor of the dog. As man’s partner in -the chase, it helped him become the one superior animal capable of -exterminating it. At the present time, man has come close to doing -just that. Only a few of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the -United States. Those are concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and -some of them undoubtedly have come across the border from Mexico. -Before long the species probably will become extinct in this country, -but the large numbers remaining in Alaska and Canada should persist -for many years.</p> -<p>Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. -Who, as a child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little -Red Riding Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? -Long before animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children’s -books were well thumbmarked at the page where the “big bad wolf -huffed and puffed and blew the house down.” To “keep the wolf from -the door” is an expression as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th -century when the animal became extinct in England. The wolf has -always been a symbol of taking ruthlessly. The genus <i>lupinus</i> (Latin: -wolf), a beautiful group of plants of the pea family, is so called because -early botanists thought it robbed the soil. The “wolf” so often encountered -at house parties is included in this class. None of these -characterizations gives a good impression, and all are indicative of man’s -feeling toward the wolf. It is most unfortunate that man so often -condemns anything which interferes with his own economic progress. -Nature has a place for the wolf, a specialized task for which it is -admirably adapted.</p> -<p>In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains -in great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and -coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were relatively -safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These were -quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest portions, -the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white man -exterminated the bison, the wolves’ host was gone and they turned to -the logical substitute, the white man’s cattle. This could have but one -result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was -driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group -isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and -<span class="pb" id="Page_91">91</span> -New Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of -wolves from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back -and forth across the border in response to local conditions. During the -extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a -considerable extent.</p> -<p>Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which -the gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, -the wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts -had been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time -the wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild -creatures. Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by -complete isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. -To this end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible -places in the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, -and I consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains -in years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence -of a cold winter night.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill39"> -<img id="fig39" src="images/img038.jpg" alt="gray wolf" width="600" height="418" /> -<p class="pcap">gray wolf</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_92">92</div> -<h3 id="c35"><span class="larger">Coyote</span> -<br /><i>Canis latrans</i> (Latin: dog ... barking)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img039.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is -found in all life zones and among many different associations.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic -range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble -a rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good -field mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal -is running and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. -Average total length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny -to reddish gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs -and feet. There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the -tail also is somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; -despite an impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large -coyote seldom weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that -of a medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge -toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes -are moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups, -although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that -coyotes are in an area is their “singing” during the evening. They will -sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day.</p> -<p>There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote -in its relationship to other animals than any other North American -mammal today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking -a 10 minute walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living -things, plant or animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing -conditions presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which -survive do so because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as -well as take from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of -the coyote to withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination -indicates that this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. -Certainly many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its -associations have never been fully explored and others have not been -discovered.</p> -<p>In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent -documentary films in its favor, the coyote’s place in Nature is now becoming -better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason -why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to -the fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog -with what most naturalists agree is a higher degree of -native cunning and intelligence than that of the -average domestic breed. In general, this attitude -seems to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate -stories circulated by word of mouth. A few -hours spent in reading the scientific literature on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_93">93</span> -coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading try -J. Frank Dobie’s <i>The Voice of the Coyote</i> (Little, Brown & Co., Boston -1949) or <i>Sierra Outpost</i> (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila Loftberg -and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the coyote -for what it is—one of the more important creatures in animal society.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill40"> -<img id="fig40" src="images/img039a.jpg" alt="coyote" width="597" height="483" /> -<p class="pcap">coyote</p> -</div> -<p>When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, -the coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes -of the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but -sharing with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray -wolves. With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads -upon the rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was -also a scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger -animals which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were -practically exterminated, the coyote “took to the hills” and now is as -frequently encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther -west in the desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization -has advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills -until now its “song” is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size -and omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with -its success in this new environment.</p> -<p>About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the -coyote is large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to -<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span> -catch the smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. -The rest is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are -less often encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable -portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus -fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in considerable -quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat. Besides -this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will usually -take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations against -the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost entirely of -the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain sheep, the -coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records of such -occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game. Nature -meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such predation -by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would restore -the balance before long. Nature’s laws are as definite as those of human -society and far more sternly enforced.</p> -<p>The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its -variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule coyotes, -like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the other will -usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early spring, -followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter of up -to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft soil -close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More -rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have -been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging -shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not -allowed to approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, -he brings his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them -to the young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, -both parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They -usually come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. -If a human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location -at once.</p> -<p>When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new -phase of their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance -like a group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful -new world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself, -however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This -is the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be -taken away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every -passing day. The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young -into the coyote way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along -the perimeter of her range, bringing food to them as she makes her -rounds. In either event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by -the following spring are mature animals.</p> -<p>Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler, -the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will learn -every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of great -importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in the -<span class="pb" id="Page_95">95</span> -matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be deep -within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and called -upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts. -The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be intercepted -en route tonight.</p> -<p>Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This -is especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a combination -is especially efficient in running down such animals as jackrabbits -and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in a -circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the animal -is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn hunting -is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time their young -are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to pursue and -kill coyotes.</p> -<p>It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will -soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the -ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously -affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is deplored -by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that the West -should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with its legends -and history.</p> -<h3 id="c36"><span class="larger">Wolverine</span> -<br /><i>Gulo luscus</i> (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed; purblind)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, -and possibly New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img039b.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="204" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Near timberline in the most remote areas.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat -resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. -Tail 7 to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with -no sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color -on top of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish -bands which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. -The underparts are lighter and usually a “blaze” or spot of white -decorates the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally -powerful, the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These -register rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat -like that of a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are -not well known, but it is assumed the den is located -among rocks in talus slopes. The average number of -young is thought to be four or less. They are born -early in the year.</p> -<p>This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly -will never be seen by anyone who reads these -lines, so scarce has it become in the United States. -<span class="pb" id="Page_96">96</span> -Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little understood, and -because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado several times, -and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico, it is here -included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see this celebrated -creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune.</p> -<p>The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to -the white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals -which goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its -shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It is -a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall probably -never fully learn before it becomes extinct.</p> -<p>When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North -America they found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce -with the wolverine. They called it “Carcajou,” a term said to have been -derived from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent -spirit. I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but -I well remember that it was considered a “windigo” or evil spirit. -Eskimos coveted its fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The -long guard hairs protected the face from the bitter air without collecting -frost, and the underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill41"> -<img id="fig41" src="images/img040.jpg" alt="wolverine" width="600" height="405" /> -<p class="pcap">wolverine</p> -</div> -<p>The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. <i>Gulo</i>, the Latin -term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the -animal. <i>Luscus</i>, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors suggest, -blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be almost -invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first wolverine -taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to have -<span class="pb" id="Page_97">97</span> -lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any -rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind.</p> -<p>The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example -of what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline -in the high mountains of desert country and is also found at or near -sea level far north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, -with exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily -with snow. In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the -edges of the feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small -snowshoes, and enable the animal to travel with less effort.</p> -<p>Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and -clumsy in build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey -to this awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger -predators away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At -such times it eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. -It will return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, -even if they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which -it can dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes -across in its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators -of the porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams -its isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike.</p> -<p>The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious -delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be explained -by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems -to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking -into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their -contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or -carried away and hidden.</p> -<h3 id="c37"><span class="larger">Marten</span> -<br /><i>Martes americana</i> (Latin: a marten ... America)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: North America from Alaska through the greater part of -Canada, thence through northwestern, United States and south into -California, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img040a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up -to the Alpine Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large -squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a short, -bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight 2 -to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The body is -a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, -legs and tail. On the chest the color lightens to a -pale buff or sometimes a rather distinct orange. The -underparts are lighter than the rest of the body. The -fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in -being almost entirely underfur, there being very few -guard hairs. The body is extremely graceful with -<span class="pb" id="Page_98">98</span> -relatively long legs and small feet. The head is small with features -somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears are large for a member -of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance to the face. This -alertness is further borne out by the lively movements of this animal, -which is the most active of any in that group.</p> -<p>The marten, often called “pine marten,” is one of the most solitary -animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps -this is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to -overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually -and not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire -group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could -not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this -clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of normal -needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is confined -to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It is evidently -one of Nature’s methods of controlling the rodent population. -To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt alone. These -factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a consequence, although -there may be many in an area, the marten is usually found alone -except for a brief time during the breeding season or in the case of a -female with young. The male evidently has no part in bringing up the -family.</p> -<p>The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its -range, and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to -be seen by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat -is among the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock -slides, and the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their -homes there. Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, -hunting in the talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the -trees in winter when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. -It is an extremely hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned -squirrel or woodpecker nest only during the short periods of storm, -when hunting would be useless. As might be expected, its summer and -winter diets vary widely. Both, however, have as their basic item the -spruce squirrel, the important host of the marten, and like it a hardy -creature that is abroad throughout the year.</p> -<p>There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the -ground there is available an amazing number of species which are -denied to the marten during the winter, some because of protection -afforded them by the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. -Among these are pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, -and many species of mice. In summer, the marten also takes eggs and -young of ground-nesting birds. In the trees are found other nests, not -excepting those of the woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its -forepaw and comes out not only with young birds, but often the adult -as well. Martens are known to eat quantities of the larger insects and, -since they are fond of fruits and berries when raised in captivity, there -is little doubt that they indulge in these delicacies in the wild.</p> -<p>Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such -<span class="pb" id="Page_99">99</span> -other small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it -would seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its -lavish summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and -healthy under weather conditions that would seriously hamper most -other predators. To a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the -untiring perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, -few creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which -to withstand the long, cold winter.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill42"> -<img id="fig42" src="images/img041.jpg" alt="marten" width="596" height="581" /> -<p class="pcap">marten</p> -</div> -<p>It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is -most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its -boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm -and does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering -any hollow log or woodpecker’s nest will do as a resting place. Snow -is the least of the marten’s troubles; not only does it stay warm among -the drifts, but travels across them with ease on its “built-in” hair snowshoes, -which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a -marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is -<span class="pb" id="Page_100">100</span> -a blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at -all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like -a weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will serve -to identify it as a marten.</p> -<p>Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the -response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no -less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and more -or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that is -favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time -when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts -a reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough -to excite one’s interest. For the following information, I am indebted -to James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many -of these interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them -was relatively meager.</p> -<p>Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the -winter, when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This -was at an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern -Idaho. As a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be -heard growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack -would be placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, -apparently mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap -out into the sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten -was usually wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box -trap, and if allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack -was placed within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack -and carried down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually -in the house, then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so -tame that they would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming -treacherous like their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They -loved fruit and berries, and were especially fond of chocolate candy.</p> -<p>Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females -were giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that -breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but -that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be -born in April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be -apparent until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates -that, like most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one -season, but the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to -develop until conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This -also insures arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that -they may enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young -varies from three to five, usually the smaller number.</p> -<p>No description of the marten would be complete without mention -of its tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially -in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another. -In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts, -seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for -martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently -<span class="pb" id="Page_101">101</span> -in search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest, -is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run -away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put -on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white -teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might attack -its tormenter.</p> -<h3 id="c38"><span class="larger">River otter</span> -<br /><i>Lutra canadensis</i> (Latin: otter ... of Canada)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New -Mexico in the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img041z.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="200" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick -tapered tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail -12 to 17 inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark -brown with a silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest -are lighter than the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to -aquatic life, having a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All -four feet are webbed. The head is long and round, with short ears. -Long, stiff whiskers stand out near the rather thick nose. The tail is -thick at the base, and the body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing -the general “torpedo” effect.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill43"> -<img id="fig43" src="images/img042.jpg" alt="river otter" width="598" height="373" /> -<p class="pcap">river otter</p> -</div> -<p>The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely -rare in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized -<span class="pb" id="Page_102">102</span> -habits, coupled with an inability to compete with -man in the use of the few fresh water streams and -lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has been recorded -often enough in the past decade to warrant -the hope that with careful management and complete -protection it might increase in numbers. This -is much to be desired because the otter is unique -in several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered -member of the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty -habits of its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful.</p> -<p>Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter’s habit of -building slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement -of the way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud -flats, in which they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and -small amphibians. The remarkable thing about the slides is that they -seem to be built for one specific purpose, that of sport, an activity -which ordinarily is one of the least important to most mammals. In -soft or muddy places, even in soft snow, the otter slides along on its -chest with head held high and forelegs trailing alongside the body. -Motive power is furnished by thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear -on the underparts is reduced by many coarse, close-set overhairs which -seem to have been developed for this very purpose. The slide itself is -only a narrow groove, 12 to 20 inches wide, that is worn down a steep -bank to the water’s edge. The wet bodies of the otters make it smooth -and slippery, and soon they are able to shoot down it with only an -occasional helping kick of the hind feet. This fascinating game may -go on for hours on end. The descent often is followed by a general -rough and tumble in the “swimming hole.” There the action is almost -too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can match the otter -for grace and speed in the water.</p> -<p>Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this -leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide, and -usually at several other places along the waterway which is frequented -by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found areas several -feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall grass, where the -animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also to be community -news centers, because usually near such areas are found the scent -“posts,” where otters deposit scent from the glands common to all -members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete the -high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks. Nevertheless, -it is sufficiently “loud” to be identified with the otter.</p> -<p>The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are -usually situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile -from the nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take -over the abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode -must be by an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is -merely a nest in a thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water.</p> -<p>The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are -blind, toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development -<span class="pb" id="Page_103">103</span> -6 weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and -before long are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in -the neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until -they are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together -until the young are fully able to make their own way.</p> -<p>Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will -prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases -they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to -catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other -supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so evidently -the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey must -be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs, several -species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be available.</p> -<p>The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide, -“rolling place,” or characteristic web-toed track are all sure indications -that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its acquaintance -if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and should you -be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his slippery slide, -I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he does.</p> -<h3 id="c39"><span class="larger">Mink</span> -<br /><i>Mustela vison</i> (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the -otter, that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending -southward into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf -of Mexico in the east.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img043a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh -water streams or ponds.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, -but is much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males -20 to 26 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2¼ pounds. Females -will average almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most -of the body, shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along -the tail to a black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots -on chest and belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, -round neck. The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, -and dark, beady eyes. The legs are short and, as -would be expected on an aquatic animal, the feet -are webbed, but in this case only the bases of the -toes are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick -and fine, the guard hairs coarse and conspicuously -shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 young, but the -average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, -<span class="pb" id="Page_104">104</span> -which may or may not have an underwater entrance.</p> -<p>The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily determined -by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water’s edge. -The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here -the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the outlines -of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most -cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are conspicuous. -The occurrence of mink away from water can not be considered normal, -because this creature ranks second only to the otter, among southwestern -carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life. Exceptions do -occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing mountain ranges -where they might be many miles from the closest watercourse. It is -thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations from unfavorable -areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search of a mate.</p> -<p>Much of the mink’s dependence on water stems from its diet. Some -of its preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are -more adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever -circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting -to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that -one of these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the -extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are -unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive -proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such -inroads. Even with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at -hunting, the mink is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated -100 acres are only enough to support one adult. The continual -hunt for food may be the motivation for another interesting habit -of the mink which is seldom found among other carnivores.</p> -<p>Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it -later for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink’s -close relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a considerable -store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it -away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals, -such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging -bank. Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold -weather practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater.</p> -<p>A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal -glands which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are -best known in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both -release an odor which, by comparison, makes the skunk’s “almost nice.” -The one saving grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, -while that released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, -and regains much of the original potency with every rain. Like the -skunks, these animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. -It no doubt has other uses too, such as identifying the individual and -its territory to other animals of the same species.</p> -<p>Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that -here is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having -widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home -<span class="pb" id="Page_105">105</span> -in trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the -badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends -much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely -in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and -defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even affectionate. -The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable. There -seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood -is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I have -seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was attempting -to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon with; there -are few animals its size that are so courageous.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill44"> -<img id="fig44" src="images/img044.jpg" alt="mink" width="600" height="368" /> -<p class="pcap">mink</p> -</div> -<p>As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor -parents. The females sometimes desert the young while they are still -too small to make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human -criticism. Who is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to -exist under conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable -species?</p> -<h3 id="c40"><span class="larger">Short-tailed weasel (ermine)</span> -<br /><i>Mustela erminea</i> (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: From northern Greenland south to northern United States -with one extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be -expected in northern Arizona.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img045.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="198" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone -and higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total -<span class="pb" id="Page_106">106</span> -length from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight -1½ to 3⅔ ounces. This wide range in statistics is -from comparing the smallest females with the largest -males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to -one-fourth larger than females. Summer color is dark -brown with white underparts and feet. There is a -white line down the insides of the hind legs connecting -the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of the tail -is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the black tail -tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck long and -round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. The -ears are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are usually in -the ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. Average -number of young is thought to be about four.</p> -<p>I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of -its fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which -would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid -creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid -which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the -close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its -tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these -characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the longtailed -weasel (<i>Mustela frenata</i>), which is also found in the Southwest, -and the least weasel (<i>Mustela rixosa</i>), which inhabits part of the northern -United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed weasel will not -be mistaken for either of the other species, since the least weasel has -no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has a tail about -one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed weasel is only -about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is considerably -smaller than the long-tailed weasel.</p> -<p>Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. -In fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North -American Continent. Despite its size, <i>Mustela erminea</i> is so hardy it -ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere. -This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North -Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally -hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but penetrates -far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our -Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more -often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change -of color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north.</p> -<p>The term “ermine” refers to this animal’s fur in the winter pelage. -This is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the aristocracy. -At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the sharply -contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had symbolic -significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These are -as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of -enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory -and complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern -<span class="pb" id="Page_107">107</span> -mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature -can descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, -evade most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent -are left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. -In snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower -down it probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the -animal will retain the same brown above and white below that it wears -all summer.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill45"> -<img id="fig45" src="images/img045a.jpg" alt="short-tailed weasel" width="600" height="438" /> -<p class="pcap">short-tailed weasel</p> -</div> -<p>Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids -are admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits -them to enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their -strength and suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue -animals several times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able -to climb, they do not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. -Small mice seem to be preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, -and woodrats also are taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these -mighty mites, and there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed -by them. Like the mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food -when hunting is good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; -it has been estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food -<span class="pb" id="Page_108">108</span> -every 24 hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area -where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping -these creatures under control.</p> -<p>I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under -varying circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident -that at first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as -an enemy, but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will -continue its activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. -However, should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will -make its escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, -and as a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents -of the anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk’s perfume, this -odorous mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to -stand aside and watch the little predator go about its work!</p> -<p>If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is -being irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being -flooded out of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more -short-tailed weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You -may even find a cache laid away during this period of good hunting. -Neither pity the voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling -their destinies in an ages-old plan.</p> -<h3 id="c41"><span class="larger">Spotted skunk</span> -<br /><i>Spilogale gracilis</i> (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ... gracilis, Latin: slender)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common -spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a “spotty” distribution over -the whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment -from near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. -Seldom encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in -burrows in the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under -buildings or in the walls or attics of frame houses.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the -size of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of -which 6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color -pattern would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent -white spot between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides -of the face. The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular -white stripes which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched -with white. Tail very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes -dark in color, ears small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger -<span class="pb" id="Page_109">109</span> -species of skunks. Young number three to six, born in early summer.</p> -<p>Although this little animal has a slight heaviness of the hind -quarters, reminiscent of the larger skunks, it is indeed, as both generic -and specific names suggest, much more like a weasel. This impression -is heightened by its quick movements and a bright-eyed attention to -details which its larger relatives would hardly notice. It lacks the wild -and fierce disposition of the weasels however, and becomes a charming -and confiding nocturnal visitor if properly encouraged. Remember -though that this acquaintance can be no more than an armed truce, -and that should the articles of Formal Conduct be violated it can be -terminated at a moment’s notice.</p> -<p>Probably no nocturnal mammal in the Southwest is more likely to -be encountered than this little skunk. How many of my readers can -recall drifting up from an uneasy sleep to the sibilant whisper of, -“there’s something in the tent.” While eyes strain to pierce the darkness, -faint patterings on the floor and urgent scratching at the grub box -indicate that there is indeed “something in the tent.” Turning over -with the utmost care, while the joints of the cot loudly complain, the -flashlight under the pillow is finally extricated. Surely the creature has -been frightened away, but no, the rattlings continue—in the dishes -now. The brilliant white beam stabs in that direction. Red eyes stare -back, interested perhaps, but unafraid. The rounded ball of black -and white fluff waits motionless to see if any harm is intended. When -none is offered, his highness makes his way to the door and ambles -away into the enveloping darkness. In the morning tiny squirrel-like -tracks in the dust show that <i>Spilogale</i> has paid a nocturnal call. These, -and perhaps the contents missing from the butter and bacon grease -containers, because this little animal dearly loves animal fats. These -are the foods which attract these animals to camp sites in such numbers -that they frequently become a nuisance.</p> -<p>In the wild, spotted skunks live largely on insects. These are taken -not only in the adult form but also in great numbers in the larval stage, -as is shown by the well-winnowed debris under clumps of cactus and -around the bases of shrubs and trees. In these searches for insects small -prey of other kinds is captured as circumstances permit. Worms and -scorpions as well as small rodents are not refused. More rarely a ground-nesting -bird may be disturbed and the eggs or young taken. In rural -communities hen roosts are sometimes raided too but in the main the -spotted skunk should be considered beneficial, with control of grasshoppers -and beetles it’s chief function.</p> -<p>Like most predators, this member of the weasel family has few -natural enemies. This is not surprising; few animals willingly take a -chance on attacking this doughty little warrior, which sometimes does -a handstand the better to spray it’s enemies. These tactics avail nothing -against the steely monsters that rush up and down our highways in the -dead of night. In the space of 50 years the automobile has developed -into the most successful enemy of the spotted skunk. Yet even in death -on the highway the skunk has it’s revenge. Few will pass the spot for -many a day without paying unwilling tribute to this malodorous legacy.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_110">110</div> -<h3 id="c42"><span class="larger">Striped skunk</span> -<br /><i>Mephitis mephitis</i> (Latin: a pestilential exhalation)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: The southern half of Canada, the whole of the United -States, and the northern half of Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img046.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: All life zones up to timberline in places which have a -sufficient food supply and proper cover.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: This is the “wood kitty,” approached with due respect -by all but the most naive. About the size of a house cat. Total length -22 to 30 inches. Tail 8 to 15 inches. Weight 6 to 10 pounds. Body color -is black, with black tail except for the tip, which is commonly white. -There are usually two white stripes on the back joining in a “V” at -the back of the head and a white stripe down the front of the face. The -head is small with a rather pointed nose, small black eyes, and small -ears. Front legs are short, and the small feet are tipped with stout claws. -Hind legs are longer and appreciably more of the large hind feet touch -the ground. The tail is quite long and extremely bushy. It is carried in -a downward curve when traveling; if its owner is startled or angry, -it is held straight up with the hairs flared out. Dens of the striped skunk -are usually in an underground burrow, but dens in hollow logs have -been recorded. The usual number of young average from four to six. -The family remains together for the greater part of a year before the -young leave to make their own way.</p> -<p>There are four species of skunks in the Southwest, but the observer -in the higher country will see only two. These are the striped and the -spotted. They are distinguished by two characteristics: first, the striped -skunk is easily double the size of the spotted skunk; and, second, the -spotted has a pattern of broken stripes and spots of white, whereas -the larger animal has definitely long, continuous white stripes along -sides or back. Both species have the same method of defense, but the -odor of the smaller skunk is said to be somewhat less pungent and -dissipates sooner than that of the striped. To the recipient of either -barrage this has the same consolation as if he were given a choice -between being hit by the H bomb or the A bomb. In the event of a -direct strike it makes little difference.</p> -<p>Should the reader be involved in an encounter with one of these -malodorous creatures, there are many remedies prescribed but few -giving any great measure of relief. If the skin is washed with a weak -solution of acid such as lemon or tomato juice and then scrubbed -thoroughly with soap and water, much of the odor will disappear. -Clothes can be given the same treatment, but usually it is cheaper and -easier to burn them and charge the cost to experience. -Grandpa said to bury scented clothes in damp -earth. Perhaps in time this will do the trick; I contend -they are better left there.</p> -<p>So much misinformation exists about the -skunk’s defensive mechanism and the manner in -which it is employed that brief explanation may not -<span class="pb" id="Page_111">111</span> -be amiss. The scent is a fluid stored in two glands located near the -base of the tail. These glands are embedded in a mass of contractile -muscle, and each has a duct which connects with a tiny spray nozzle -that can be protruded from the anus. When danger threatens the tail -is lifted, the nozzles aimed at the enemy, and the contraction of the -muscles around the glands forces out a spray of fine droplets which may -carry as far as 15 feet. The result is usually effective and lasting. Contrary -to popular belief, the odor is distressing to the skunk as well as -to its enemy. The tail is kept out of the way if possible, since its plumey -depths would hold the scent for a long time.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill46"> -<img id="fig46" src="images/img046a.jpg" alt="striped skunk" width="600" height="287" /> -<p class="pcap">striped skunk</p> -</div> -<p>Skunks of different species will use this defensive weapon against -each other. Whether individuals of the same species use it in their -fights together is not known. In situations involving humans the skunk -will try to bluff the enemy if possible. This consists of stamping the -front feet, of short runs at the intruder, and finally of hoisting the tail -and aiming the “guns.” If a skunk is approached deliberately and if -quick movements are avoided, it is surprising what liberties may be -taken before it will resort to scent. On the other hand, should it be -taken by surprise or should it be physically hurt, retaliation is swift -and certain. In all cases where skunks are encountered at close range, -remember that this little animal is one of the most independent creatures -on earth, that this nonchalance stems from a supreme confidence -in its defensive powers, and that if left alone or at least treated with -consideration it will go on its way as soon as possible.</p> -<p>This independent attitude inherent in all skunks probably has -much to do with the happy-go-lucky life that the young family lives. -About midsummer when the young are able to leave the burrow, the -mother often will take them for a stroll early in the afternoon. As she -walks, oblivious to danger, the young play along behind her, sometimes -a ball of struggling little bodies with now and then a fluffy tail -breaking free and again all at odds in a mock show of ferocity with -front feet stamping and flared tails held aloft. When the patient mother -finds a tidbit on the trail, there is a concerted rush for the prize, which -is seldom won without a struggle. All of this is excellent practice -<span class="pb" id="Page_112">112</span> -against the time when they will be on their own. It is during this early -age that the young first learn to catch insects, items of great importance -in skunk diet. Later frogs and small mammals will also be preyed upon.</p> -<p>The striped skunk is generally considered a hibernating animal. -This is not strictly true for, while it may remain inactive in its den -for weeks at a time, the body processes do not slow down to the extent -common in true hibernation. The skunk does lay on a considerable -amount of fat each fall in preparation for this period of winter when -food is scarce. Actual retirement to a den for even a few days is rare -in the Southwest, however. The mild climate makes this unnecessary, -except in the highest part of their habitat.</p> -<h3 id="c43"><span class="larger">Black bear</span> -<br /><i>Euarctos americanus</i> (Latin: a bear ... of America)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: At present the range of the black bear in the United States -is confined to a narrow strip adjacent to both the Atlantic and Pacific -coasts, a few of the southeastern States, a narrow band in the Great -Lakes area, and the Rocky Mountain chain.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img047.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="205" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: In the Southwest, the higher mountains mostly in the -Transition Life Zone and above.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The black bear needs little description because -through pictures and reputation it has become well known to almost -everyone. It averages 5 to 6 feet in total length with a tail so short as -to be inconsequential. Height at shoulders is 2 to 3 feet. Weight 200 -to 400 pounds. Color varies in the Southwest from deep, shining black -through brown to light cinnamon. In all color phases the nose is brown -almost back to the eyes and there is usually a white “blaze” on the -chest. The legs are short and muscular. The feet are plantigrade, that -is, the bear steps on the whole foot, not just the toes. There are stout -claws on all four feet. The head proper is rather round, the muzzle -long and pointed. Ears are relatively small, as are the dark eyes. The -young number from one to four, with twins being very common. They -are born while the mother is still in winter quarters. When the weather -moderates to a point where she can leave, the cubs are large enough -to follow her.</p> -<p>Bears are probably the most popular of our wild creatures to those -who visit the National Park Service areas. Why this should be is hard -to say. Perhaps it dates back to the nursery tale of the three bears, -familiar to all of us from the time we were able to walk. Perhaps too -it stems from the easy familiarity with which these roadside bandits -hail the tourist in hopes of a handout. At any rate, -these seemingly friendly clowns have become endeared -to the hearts of the American public. This -is regrettable because actually in the Park Service -areas these big carnivores are the most dangerous -of all animals. Native intelligence indicates to the -bears that food may be had merely by standing up -<span class="pb" id="Page_113">113</span> -alongside the road when a car stops. More complicated routines are -soon learned to wheedle bigger and better handouts. At this professional -level, a substantial reward is expected when Bruin has “sung for his -supper,” and should none be forthcoming, trouble is apt to ensue. This -is but a minor annoyance to a bear, however, when compared with some -of the indignities dealt out to these big creatures by a thoughtless public. -It must be said in all fairness that anyone who teases a bear deserves -whatever is handed out in return. It is unfortunate that retribution -may be in the form of serious injury or even death. Though this applies -mainly to the half-tame bears which roam along the highways in our -National Parks, it is only common sense to avoid incidents with any -bear wherever encountered. This is especially true of an old female -with cubs, a combination well nigh irresistible to the average vacationer -with camera.</p> -<p>In more remote areas where bears have not had contact with man, -they are wary to the point of timidity. Gifted with a keen sense of -hearing and smell which makes up for their poor eyesight, they are -difficult to approach. Like most animals, they instinctively know that -by “freezing” they can in most cases escape being seen. The sunburned -coat of the brown phase of the black bear is especially hard to spot -in the underbrush. However, with patience and the aid of binoculars, -it should not be too difficult to get a glimpse into the private life of -these engaging creatures.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill47"> -<img id="fig47" src="images/img047a.jpg" alt="black bear" width="600" height="513" /> -<p class="pcap">black bear</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div> -<p>Though bears, because of their dentition, are classed as carnivores, -they might more accurately be termed omnivores. It is a matter of -record that the black bear will eat almost anything, either animal or -vegetable. Nevertheless, its appetite is prodigious and demands little -variety, if but a few kind of foods are available. Its status as a predator -is somewhat confused. Technically speaking, since the black bear preys -on ground squirrels, mice and other small rodents it should be classed -as a predator. It will also take young deer and elk whenever it can, -but these opportunities come rarely. Actually this bear has little direct -influence on its mammal neighbors. As a scavenger it has considerable -value in cleaning up the remains of kills made by other predators.</p> -<p>Some of the small animals eaten are in almost amusing contrast -with the huge size of their enemy. For instance, ants are eagerly lapped -up by most bears, and they will literally tear old logs apart to get at -these toothsome morsels. Grubs are another small item which may be -found around fallen logs and under stones. Bears are extremely fond -of honey and will go to great lengths to get at this delicacy, which -they eat comb, bees, and all. Another food item which seems unusual -is fish. At spawning time a bear will wade out into a stream and either -snag a passing fish on its long claws or flip it out on the bank where -it is more easily subdued. Finally, their natural animal diet is greatly -augmented in most Park Service areas by the scraps and bones which -they pick up on the garbage heaps. They can become a great nuisance -in the camping areas where, under cover of darkness, their ingenuity -and great strength enable them to steal many a ham and side of bacon.</p> -<p>Wide as this variety of animal food seems, it cannot equal the cosmopolitan -tastes of these bears in a vegetable diet. Roots and bulbs -of many species are dug up. Grass and browse are eaten during several -seasons of the year; even pine needles are recorded as having been -eaten. The liking of bears for berries of all kinds is well known. <i>Arctostaphylos</i>, -the generic name of the manzanitas, translated from the Greek -means “bear grape.” Pinyon nuts, acorns, chokecherries, and other stone -fruits all are gathered in season. These heavy animals often damage -trees severely in their search for fruit. On the garbage heaps, watermelon -rinds and seeds, peelings of all kinds, leafy vegetables, and corn -cobs add to the fare. All tin cans are licked clean, and in many cases -greasy paper and cellophane wrappings are eaten.</p> -<p>The yearly cycle of a bear’s life is a study in contrasts. Much of -the warm part of the year is spent in search for food with which to -build up a store of fat so that the winter may be spent in inactivity. -Bears hibernate or, more properly, retire for several months of the -winter. They do not fall into the deep sleep indulged by some of the -rodents. Theirs is an uneasy sleep broken by periods of lethargy when -they are awake but avoid any activity. By these means they conserve -enough of their thick layer of fat to live out the cold weather and -emerge in early spring with a considerable reserve.</p> -<p>Hibernation takes place in late autumn, usually after the first -light snows. Evidently the animals have a den already located, for -when they feel the urge to retire they strike out across country to it. -<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span> -The same winter quarters often will be used by one individual for -several seasons. Dens are chosen in a variety of locations. They may -be in old hollow logs or in the bases of fire-gutted trees. Some are in -crevices among huge boulders, others in caves. The main concern seems -to be to find a place sheltered from the wind and snow. If the floor -happens to be covered with chips or leaves, so much the better. It -usually is, either from air currents which bring in falling leaves or -through the labors of woodrats which deposit much litter in such places. -The bears curl up on the floor, and after the first heavy snow there is -nothing to mark the spot. In the case of a small den, such as a cavity -in the base of a tree, an airhole may form in the drift from the warmth -of the animal’s respiration.</p> -<p>The cubs are born in late winter. From one to four in number, they -are incredibly small at birth. They develop rather slowly and at the -time the family emerges from the den are approximately 18 inches long. -The cubs may all be one color or some may be brown and some black. -The male bear has no part in raising the family; indeed, he is driven -from the scene by the irate mother, should he approach too closely. She -has all the responsibility for raising the family, and a busy time is -assured with such mischievous, carefree youngsters.</p> -<p>One of the first lessons learned by young cubs is that of obedience. -The mother insists on compliance with her every command, and enforces -her authority with a heavy paw. It is fortunate the cubs are -sturdily built, for some of the slaps they receive in the course of an -average day’s instruction would kill a less durable animal. The first -haven of refuge when danger threatens is in the trees. A special command -note and a slap or two sends them hustling. Now the cubs are out -of the way and the decks cleared for action, so to speak. The cubs will -remain in the trees until the mother lets them know they may come -down. This is not a time of boredom for the youngsters, however. Expert -climbers, they carry on the same games and rough play indulged on -the ground, with never a fall. Their confidence in the trees is amazing. -It is not unusual to see a cub sound asleep on the end of a 20-foot -branch that is bending down with its weight and swaying in the wind. -As the months go on the cubs begin to lose their juvenile ways. By -autumn, they have put on enough fat to last the winter. They usually -hibernate with the mother, since they remain with her for well over -a year. During the following summer they are well able to take care -of themselves, and the mother deserts them.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img048.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="600" height="158" /> -</div> -<p>It is normal, rather than unusual, among black bears to breed only -<span class="pb" id="Page_116">116</span> -every other year. The youngsters usually do not breed until about three -years old.</p> -<p>No account of this bear would be complete without mention of the -so-called “bear trees.” These are trees situated at the crossroads, that -is, near the intersections of bear trails or otherwise prominently located. -When a bear encounters one, it stands up and scratches at the bark with -its front claws as high as it can reach. Sometimes it will also bite at the -bark. Bears have been observed rubbing the sides of their jaws against -the bark. Whether this is a way of leaving their scent is not known. -It is thought this may be a way of communication with others of the -species, but this has not been definitely proven. Many of the trees -chosen for this purpose in mountains of the Southwest have been aspens. -The heavy black furrows left in the white bark will persist until the -death of the tree. Often they are the only evidence that bears have ever -been in the locality.</p> -<p>Another custom which will be observed very early in one’s experience -with bears is the scratching that goes on. It may be due in part -to the presence of ectoparasites, but the bear takes such an obvious satisfaction -in scratching that, one feels, this must be only incidental. Trees, -posts, rocks, and claws are all employed for this purpose. Some of the -smaller trees often suffer severe damage from the treatment accorded -them.</p> -<p>My cautious attitude toward bears is a result of early experiences -with them, ranging from humorous to tragic, and probably best typified -by an incident which took place near Yellowstone Park in the late 1920s. -I was on my first trip into the Rockies at the time and hired out on a -construction job at an isolated dude ranch. Horses were being used, -and their supplies, including a considerable store of oats, were kept -in a large tent adjacent to that in which some of the employees slept. -On the previous night a bear had gained access to the supply tent, -torn open a number of oat sacks, and wasted more of the grain than it -had eaten. The foreman, an old-time packer in the Park, vowed vengeance -on the bear. That night when he went to bed he leaned a small, -double-bitted axe against the entrance to the tent. During the night -I awoke as the foreman went out the entrance in his underwear. A -partial moon shed a weak light over the scene and revealed the foreman -entering the other tent with the axe in his hand. A short silence -was followed by a heavy splat, a tremendous grunt, and some frenzied -shouts. The supply tent heaved violently, went down, and split open -as the bear hurtled out and through the woods toward the creek. When -order had been restored it transpired that the foreman had stolen up -to the bear, which had its back to him, and had struck it across the -rump as hard as he could with the flat of the axe. The element of surprise -apparently was all in his favor because the startled bear charged -directly away from him into the far end of the tent. Although in this -instance no injuries were suffered, it has always seemed that this was -an extremely foolhardy thing to do. Although one of the most laughable -happenings I have ever seen, it also had all the elements of a -possible tragedy.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_117">117</div> -<h3 id="c44"><span class="larger">Grizzly bear</span> -<br /><i>Ursus horribilis</i> (Latin: a bear ... horrible)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Alaska, western Canada, and in the United States confined -to the high mountains of the Continental Divide as far south as northern -New Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img049.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="204" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Except in National Park areas, grizzlies are seldom seen, -since they frequent only the most isolated places in the mountains; -Transition Life Zone and higher.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: The largest carnivore in the Southwest. Easily distinguished -from the black bear by the prominent hump on the shoulders. -Total length 6 to 7 feet. Tail so short as to be unnoticeable. Height -at shoulders 3 to 3½ feet. Weight 325 to 850 pounds. Color of the southwestern -grizzlies is variable, ranging from yellowish brown to nearly -black, but has a characteristic grizzled effect caused by the white-tipped -hairs scattered through the fur. This is especially noticeable along the -back. The grizzly, though massively built, gives an impression of leanness. -The shoulders are higher than the posterior, giving the animal -a streamlined appearance. The head is large and round with a square, -uptilted muzzle. The legs are extremely powerful, the feet large and -with formidable claws, those of the front feet being up to 4 inches -long. The young will number from one to three, with two being most -common. Grizzlies breed every 2 or 3 years.</p> -<p>Probably no mammal in the United States is more certain soon -to become extinct than these great bears. Many factors contribute -toward this end, chief among them being the low reproduction rate and -the rapid decrease of its range because of an increase in stock raising -and agriculture. Ousted from its former haunts, the species is now found -chiefly in only the few areas where it is rigidly protected. It seems -extremely unlikely that it can long survive this reduction of its once -unlimited range. This is the culmination of a program of destruction -wrought on the grizzly since penetration of the white man into the -West. It but follows the disappearance of other, less well known bears -which lived in the Southwest at that time.</p> -<p>When the Mountain Men came into the West in the period from -1800 to 1850 they found a huge, light-colored bear roaming the foothills -of the desert country. For want of a better name they called it the “gray -bear.” From the accounts of that time it is now assumed that it was a -grizzly; at any rate, it was said to have been extremely ferocious, a trait -which led to its downfall. In the space of about 70 years this animal -was discovered, hunted and exterminated, all without -a specimen of any kind being preserved. Today -not a trace of this big predator remains. Its fate -illustrates the usual result of contact between a -dangerous, highly specialized animal and man. The -question which arises is, should any group of men -ever be allowed such control over a wilderness that -<span class="pb" id="Page_118">118</span> -they are able to exterminate the fauna and flora to the detriment of -succeeding generations? The answer seems obvious if we consider that -“we but hold these things in trust.”</p> -<div class="img" id="ill48"> -<img id="fig48" src="images/img050.jpg" alt="grizzly bear" width="599" height="533" /> -<p class="pcap">grizzly bear</p> -</div> -<p>Many species of the grizzly are recognized by taxonomists, but few -are alive today. In the United States only New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, -Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho still have some of these big animals. -In some other western States they have but recently become extinct. -California is thought to have lost its last grizzly in 1925. The few survivors -are probably all of the species <i>horribilis</i>. Since grizzly country -is also black bear country, the layman may become confused in identifying -the two species. A few important differences make identification -easy.</p> -<p>The first and most conspicuous field mark is the prominent shoulder -hump of the grizzly. The male black bear will sometimes with age -develop a shoulder hump, but it cannot compare with that of the grizzly. -Second, the grizzly has what has been described as a “dish” face; that -is, a concavity in the general shape of the front of the face, whereas -the black bear develops a definite “Roman” nose. Third, the claws of -the grizzly are twice as long as those of the black bear; this is most -noticeable in the tracks. If one is close enough to see this characteristic -<span class="pb" id="Page_119">119</span> -in the field, he probably is too close for safety! Lastly, the attitude of -the two species toward each other when they meet on common ground -is characteristic. As a rule, the approach of a grizzly to a garbage dump -is enough to put all black bears to flight. There is no intermingling -of the two species; the grizzly is the master and the black bear will not -challenge his authority.</p> -<p>In most of its habits the grizzly resembles the black bear. It is -omnivorous to the same degree, but somewhat more predatory. It also -goes into hibernation for the winter, and the cubs are born during this -inactive period. They receive the same rigorous training as that accorded -their black cousins, and like them, are able to climb into the -trees and out of harm’s way. As they grow older, this ability leaves -them with the growing of the long claws, and adult grizzlies are supposed -to be unable to climb. In one respect the grizzly differs from not -only the black bear but from most other native mammals. It has never -learned to fear man to the same degree that other creatures have.</p> -<p>Whether the grizzly’s belligerent attitude stems from fear or contempt -is a moot question. The important point to remember is that -a grizzly should be avoided at all times. Injuries suffered by humans -in their contacts with black bears are usually accidental rather than -the result of deliberate assault by the animal. Grizzlies have been -known to charge without other provocation than trespass on what they -consider their territory. Surely the public can afford to humor this -irascible giant. A little consideration for its irritable nature is not too -great a price to pay for its continued existence in our rapidly dwindling -numbers of large carnivores.</p> -<h3 id="c45"><span class="larger">Vagrant shrew</span> -<br /><i>Sorex vagrans</i> (Latin: a shrew ... wandering)</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Range</span>: Confined to mountains of western United States and -Canada, and northern and southern Mexico.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/img050a.jpg" alt="Habitat map" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p><span class="sc">Habitat</span>: Moist places in forests of the Transition Life Zones and -higher.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Description</span>: A tiny creature with a long nose. Total length 4 to -5 inches. Tail 1½ to 2 inches. Color reddish brown to black above -with sides drab and lightening to gray below. Tail indistinctly bi-color -except for the last half which is dark all the way around. Head -round and narrowing to a long, pointed, somewhat flexible nose. Long -whiskers are found along the sides of the upper jaw. Eyes and ears so -small as to be difficult to see. Little is known of breeding habits of -the shrews. The vagrant shrew is said to breed at any -time of year and to have from 5 to 11 young in a -litter.</p> -<p>Shrews are the smallest American mammals. -Their size and secretive habits combine to make -them among the least known of native animals. They -are classed as insectivores, although they eat other -<span class="pb" id="Page_120">120</span> -small mammals as well as insects. They may be distinguished from -mice by their bicuspid incisors and modified canine teeth. Another -difference is that shrews have five toes, in contrast to the four-toed feet -of mice.</p> -<div class="img" id="ill49"> -<img id="fig49" src="images/img051.jpg" alt="vagrant shrew" width="600" height="323" /> -<p class="pcap">vagrant shrew</p> -</div> -<p>As far as is known at present, certain species of shrews are the -only poisonous mammals. The big short-tailed shrew (eastern United -States) has a toxic substance in its saliva which helps subdue some of -the animals it captures. It is thought that some western species also -have this peculiarity. Though shrews are among the tiniest animals -known, they are not unduly persecuted by larger predators. This is -thought to be partly because of certain glands on the shrew’s body -which give it an offensive odor.</p> -<p>An outstanding characteristic of shrews is their need for a constant -supply of food. Because all small animals lose heat quickly, they -must eat almost constantly to replace this loss. Some species will eat -their own weight in food as often as every 3 hours. An outstanding -exception is the water shrew, which can do without food for as long -as 2 days without starving to death. Since most shrews live in or near -the water, they find ample food in the insects, spiders, minnows, and -small mammals which live in moist locations. The group is as ferocious -as it is voracious. Most shrews do not hesitate to attack animals outweighing -them several times. It has been said that if shrews were as -big as squirrels they probably would even attack man.</p> -<p>In the mountains of Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico -the northern water shrew (<i>Sorex palustris</i>) may be encountered. It is -somewhat larger than the vagrant shrew and will not be seen away -from water. Gray below and black above, it is wonderfully camouflaged, -whether in water or on land. It, like other shrews, has long whiskers -known as vibrissae. Land shrews use these whiskers as tactile organs -to help them follow the dark maze of their runways. Water shrews are -thought to use them as sense organs in place of eyes to pursue the -minnows, tadpoles, and water bugs they eat. Actually, the water shrew -resembles a large water bug as it darts about below the surface surrounded -by the silvery bubbles of air imprisoned in its fine fur.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_121">121</div> -<h3 id="c46"><span class="larger">Bats</span> -<br />Order <i>Chiroptera</i> (Latin: chir, hand, and optera, wing)</h3> -<p>The special treatment accorded bats in this book is not given them -by choice. It results from an inability to so clearly describe any one -or two species chosen that the layman might be able to distinguish -these from their numerous and equally interesting relatives. When one -considers that numerically bats are thought to compare favorably with -birds, that there are a great number of species divided into many genera, -and that the four-State area with which we are concerned is invaded, -so to speak, by eastern, northern, western and Mexican species besides -having several of its own, it soon becomes apparent that this group -can be described here only in the most general way. If some of the -popular superstitions about bats are contradicted here, it is to be -hoped the reader will find the facts no less interesting.</p> -<p>The adaptation for which bats are best known is their ability to -fly. This specialized talent is shared by no other type of mammal. It -is made possible by considerable modification of several structures of -the body, that of the forelimbs being the most extreme. The bones of -both the upper and lower forelegs are considerably lengthened, but -cannot compare with the extreme elongation of the digits. The clawlike -protuberance from the front of the wing corresponds to the thumb. The -wing membrane stretched across the “fingers” is attached to the side -of the body and to the hindlegs as far as the ankle. Most bats have -another wing membrane, called the interfemoral membrane, which -joins both hind legs, and in many species it also embraces the tail. The -wing membranes look and feel somewhat like thin leather. Running -through them is an intricate system of blood vessels. These not only -supply nourishment to the membrane but also act as a radiator in -cooling the blood stream during the strenuous physical labor involved -in flight. The principles of flight are similar to those used by birds; that -is, the wings are partially folded on the upstroke and fully extended -during the down beat. This maneuver produces a rustling sound that is -clearly audible in the quiet of a cave. In fact, if thousands of bats are -disturbed at the same time it becomes a low roar.</p> -<p>The fact that bats are nocturnal, and at the same time lead an -aerial life which necessitates flying through labyrinths plunged in total -darkness, has been the cause of much research as to the means by which -they can do this. It is now definitely known that they depend on a -sonar system where, by emitting shrill cries, they are guided by the -echoes rebounding from nearby objects. These “squeaks” range within -a frequency of from 25,000 to 75,000 vibrations per second, which is too -high for the human ear to register. The sounds are uttered at rates -from about 10 per second when the bat is at rest to as many as 60 per -second when it is in flight and surrounded by the many obstacles to be -found in a cave. Fantastic as this performance seems, it is matched by -a theory that tiny muscles close the bat’s ears to each squeak and open -them again to hear only the echo.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_122">122</div> -<p>The response of their vocal and hearing structure to this specialized -use is truly amazing. There are no more unique faces in the mammal -kingdom than those of the bats. Most bats have enormous ears with -ridged and channeled interiors that probably have much to do with -amplifying faint sounds. Set in front of the ear is a narrow, upright -protuberance known as the tragus. Farther down the face, in the region -of the nose, are other strangely shaped skin structures including the -“nose leaf.” As yet the functions of these appendages are not entirely -known, but it is suspected that at least part of their purpose is to beam -the squeaks along a definite line and thus help orient the bat with its -surroundings. With such an efficient system to guide it, the bat has -small need for eyes. The expression “blind as a bat” is misleading, -however, because most bats, in spite of their relatively small eyes, can -see rather well.</p> -<p>Since most southwestern bats are insectivorous, with the exception -of a very few species along the Mexican border which are considered -fruit eaters, the question arises as to how they exist during the winter -months when insects are not to be found. There are two common -methods by which animals avoid such a lean period: by migration and -by hibernation. Bats employ both. Some species are thought to fly as -far south as Central America. Others group together in caves and hang -in a deep torpor all winter. In this state of inactivity their body temperatures -may fall to within one degree of their surroundings, and -their rate of metabolism sometimes falls to one-eighteenth of that -during active periods. As a rule, bats prefer a cool place for hibernation, -because the cooler the temperature the slower the rate of metabolism. -Body temperatures as low as 33.5° F. have been recorded in hibernating -bats. The temperature must not fall below freezing, or the animals will -perish. During this period of inactivity bats have been known to lose -up to one-third of their weight.</p> -<p>Because of their secretive habits and nocturnal periods of activity, -bats have few enemies other than man that are capable of making any -serious inroads on their numbers. Consequently the birth rate is quite -low in most species. Many have no more than one young each year; -and the red bat, which bears up to four young, seems to be the most -prolific in the United States. There is great variety in the methods by -which different species care for the young. Some mothers leave the -babies hanging to the roof of the cave while they go on their nightly -search for food; others carry the young clinging tightly to their fur. -The young mature quickly. They are usually able to fly within a month -after they are born.</p> -<p>Despite much recent scientific study, bats are still among our least -known creatures. Their insectivorous diet surely makes them of great -importance to man. Beyond this, their immense numbers indicate that -ecologically they must have tremendous influence on any area in which -they live.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_123">123</div> -<h2 id="c47">REFERENCES</h2> -<dl class="biblio"><dt>Bailey, Vernon</dt> -<dd>1931. <i>Mammals of New Mexico.</i> North American Fauna, No. 53, Washington, D. C., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey.</dd> -<dt>Barnes, Claude T.</dt> -<dd>1927. <i>Utah Mammals.</i> Salt Lake City, The University of Utah.</dd> -<dt>Burt, William Henry and Grossenheider, Richard Philip</dt> -<dd>1952. <i>A Field Guide to the Mammals.</i> Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., The Riverside Press, Cambridge.</dd> -<dt>Hall, Raymond E.</dt> -<dd>1946. <i>Mammals of Nevada.</i> Berkeley. University of California Press.</dd> -<dt>Ingles, Lloyd Glenn</dt> -<dd>1954. <i>Mammals of California and its Coastal Waters.</i> Stanford University Press. Stanford, California.</dd> -<dt>Jaeger, Edmund C.</dt> -<dd>1950. <i>Our Desert Neighbors.</i> Stanford University Press. Stanford, California.</dd> -<dt>Mearns, Edgar Alexander</dt> -<dd>1907. <i>Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States.</i> Part 1. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office.</dd> -<dt>Miller, Gerrit S. and Kellogg, Remington</dt> -<dd>1955. <i>List of North American Recent Mammals.</i> Washington: United States National Museum, Bulletin 205.</dd> -<dt>Nelson, E. W.</dt> -<dd>1918. <i>Wild Animals of North America.</i> National Geographic Society.</dd> -<dt>Warren, Edward Royal</dt> -<dd>1910. <i>The Mammals of Colorado.</i> New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.</dd> -<dt>Cockrum, E. Lendell</dt> -<dd>1960. <i>The Recent Mammals of Arizona.</i> Tucson: University of Arizona Press.</dd> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_125">125</div> -<h2 id="c48">INDEX</h2> -<p class="center"><b><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_D">D</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_N">N</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <span class="ab">Q</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_U">U</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_V">V</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_Y">Y</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Z">Z</a></b></p> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_A"><b>A</b></dt> -<dt>Abert’s squirrel. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_TasselEaredSquirrel">Tassel-eared squirrel</a>.</dt> -<dt>Alpine Life Zone, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a></dt> -<dt>Antelope. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_Pronghorn">Pronghorn</a>.</dt> -<dt><i>Antilocapra americana</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></dt> -<dt>Arizona gray squirrel, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt> -<dt>Artiodactyla, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_B"><b>B</b></dt> -<dt>Bats, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt> -<dt>Bear, black, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -<dd>grizzly, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dd> -<dt>Beaver, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_Bighorn">Bighorn</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_Bison">Bison</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt> -<dt><i>Bison bison</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt> -<dt>Black bear, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -<dt>Black-tailed deer, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt> -<dt>Bobcat, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt> -<dt>Buffalo. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_Bison">Bison</a>.</dt> -<dt><a id="x_BushyTailedWoodrat">Bushy-tailed woodrat</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_C"><b>C</b></dt> -<dt>Canadian Life Zone, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dt> -<dt><i>Canis latrans</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dd><i>lupus</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dd> -<dt>Carnivores, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -<dt><i>Castor canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt> -<dt>Catamount. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>.</dt> -<dt><i>Cervus canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt>Chickaree. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dt> -<dt>Chipmunks, western, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dd>cliff, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dd> -<dd>Colorado, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dd> -<dd>gray-necked, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dd> -<dd>least, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dd> -<dd>Uinta, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dd> -<dt>Chiroptera, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt> -<dt><i>Citellus lateralis</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt>Classification of animals, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a></dt> -<dt>Cliff chipmunk, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt> -<dt>Colorado chipmunk, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Cottontail, mountain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt>Cougar. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>.</dt> -<dt>Coyote, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt><i>Cynomys gunnisoni</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt> -<dd><i>leucurus</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd> -<dd><i>parvidens</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_D"><b>D</b></dt> -<dt>Deer</dt> -<dd>black-tailed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dd> -<dd>mule, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dd> -<dd>fantail, Sonora, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dd> -<dd>white-tailed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dd> -<dt><a id="x_Deermouse">Deermouse</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt>Douglas squirrel. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_E"><b>E</b></dt> -<dt><a id="x_Elk">Elk</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt><i>Erethizon dorsatum</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt> -<dt>Ermine. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_ShortTailedWeasel">Short-tailed weasel</a>.</dt> -<dt><i>Euarctos americanus</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -<dt><i>Eutamias cinereicollis</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dd><i>dorsalis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dd> -<dd><i>minimus</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dd> -<dd><i>quadrivittatus</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_F"><b>F</b></dt> -<dt><i>Felis concolor</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt> -<dt>Field mouse. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainVole">Mountain vole</a>.</dt> -<dt>Fox, red, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_G"><b>G</b></dt> -<dt><i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt> -<dt>Golden-mantled ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt>Gopher, northern pocket, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -<dt>Gray-necked chipmunk, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Gray wolf, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Grizzly bear, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt> -<dt>Ground squirrel, golden-mantled, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt><i>Gulo luscus</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_H"><b>H</b></dt> -<dt>Hare, snowshoe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt> -<dt>Hoofed animals, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_I"><b>I</b></dt> -<dt>Insectivores, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_J"><b>J</b></dt> -<dt>Jackrabbit, white-tailed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_K"><b>K</b></dt> -<dt>Kaibab squirrel, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_L"><b>L</b></dt> -<dt>Lagomorphs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt> -<dd>hare, snowshoe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dd> -<dd>jackrabbit, white-tailed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dd> -<dd>cottontail, mountain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dd> -<dd>pika, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dd> -<dt>Least chipmunk, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt> -<dt><i>Lepus americanus</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt> -<dd><i>townsendi</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dd> -<dt>Life zones, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dt> -<dd>Alpine, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a></dd> -<dd>Canadian, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dd> -<dd>Lower Sonoran, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dd> -<dd>Transition, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dd> -<dd>Upper Sonoran, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dd> -<dt>Lion, mountain, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt> -<dt>Long-tailed weasel, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt> -<dt>Lower Sonoran Life Zone, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dt> -<dt><i>Lutra canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt>Lynx, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt> -<dt><i>Lynx canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dd><i>rufus</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_M"><b>M</b></dt> -<dt>Marmot, yellow-bellied, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt><i>Marmota flaviventris</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt>Marten, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_126">126</dt> -<dt><i>Martes americana</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt> -<dt>Meadow mouse. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainVole">Mountain vole</a>.</dt> -<dt><i>Mephitis mephitis</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt> -<dt><i>Microtus montanus</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Mink, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt> -<dt>Mountain cottontail, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt>Mountain sheep. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_Bighorn">Bighorn</a>.</dt> -<dt><a id="x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_MountainVole">Mountain vole</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Mouse, western jumping, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dd>white-footed. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_Deermouse">Deermouse</a>.</dd> -<dd>Field. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainVole">Mountain vole</a>.</dd> -<dd>Meadow. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainVole">Mountain vole</a>.</dd> -<dt>Mule deer, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt> -<dt>Muskrat, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt> -<dt><i>Mustela erminea</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dd><i>frenata</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dd> -<dd><i>rixosa</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dd> -<dd><i>vison</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_N"><b>N</b></dt> -<dt><i>Neotoma cinerea</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -<dt>Northern flying squirrel, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt> -<dt>Northern pocket gopher, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_O"><b>O</b></dt> -<dt><i>Ochotona princeps</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt> -<dt><i>Odocoileus couesi</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt> -<dd><i>hemionus</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dd> -<dd><i>virginianus</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dd> -<dt><i>Ondatra zibethicus</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt> -<dt>Otter, river, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt><i>Ovis canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_P"><b>P</b></dt> -<dt>Pack rat. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_BushyTailedWoodrat">Bushy-tailed woodrat</a>.</dt> -<dt>Painter. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>.</dt> -<dt>Panther. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>.</dt> -<dt><i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt>Pika, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt> -<dt>Pine squirrel, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt> -<dt>Porcupine, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt> -<dt>Prairie dog, white-tailed, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_Pronghorn">Pronghorn</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></dt> -<dt>Puma. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_MountainLion">Mountain lion</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_R"><b>R</b></dt> -<dt>Red fox, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt>Red squirrels. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dt> -<dt>River otter, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt>Rodents, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt> -<dt><i>Sciurus aberti</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -<dd><i>arizonensis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd> -<dd><i>kaibabensis</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_S"><b>S</b></dt> -<dt><a id="x_ShortTailedWeasel">Short-tailed weasel</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dt>Shrew, vagrant, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt>Skunk, spotted, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt> -<dd>striped, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd> -<dt>Snowshoe hare, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt> -<dt>Sonora fantail deer, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt> -<dt><i>Sorex vagrans</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt><i>Spilogale gracilis</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt> -<dt>Squirrel, Abert’s. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_TasselEaredSquirrel">Tassel-eared squirrel</a>.</dt> -<dd>Arizona gray, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd> -<dd>chickaree. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dd> -<dd>Douglas. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dd> -<dd>golden-mantled ground, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dd> -<dd>Kaibab, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dd> -<dd>flying, northern, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dd> -<dd>pine, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dd> -<dd>red. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_SpruceSquirrel">Spruce squirrel</a>.</dd> -<dd>spruce, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dd> -<dd>tassel-eared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dd> -<dt><i>Sylvilagus nuttalli</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_T"><b>T</b></dt> -<dt><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt> -<dt><a id="x_TasselEaredSquirrel">Tassel-eared squirrel</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -<dt><i>Thomomys talpoides</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -<dt>Trade rat. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_BushyTailedWoodrat">Bushy-tailed woodrat</a>.</dt> -<dt>Transition Life Zone, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_U"><b>U</b></dt> -<dt>Uinta chipmunk, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Upper Sonoran Life Zone, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></dt> -<dt><i>Ursus horribilis</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_V"><b>V</b></dt> -<dt>Vagrant shrew, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt>Vole, mountain, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt><i>Vulpes fulva</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_W"><b>W</b></dt> -<dt>Wapiti. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_Elk">Elk</a>.</dt> -<dt>Weasel, least, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt> -<dd>long-tailed, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dd> -<dd>short-tailed, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dd> -<dt>Western jumping mouse, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt>White-footed mouse, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt>White-tailed deer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt>White-tailed jackrabbit, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt> -<dt>White-tailed prairie dog, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt> -<dt>Wolf, gray, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Wolverine, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt>Woodchuck. <i>See</i> <a href="#x_YellowBelliedMarmot">Yellow-bellied marmot</a>.</dt> -<dt>Woodrat, bushy-tailed, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_Y"><b>Y</b></dt> -<dt><a id="x_YellowBelliedMarmot">Yellow-bellied marmot</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_Z"><b>Z</b></dt> -<dt><i>Zapus princeps</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/bcover.jpg" alt="Southwest Parks and Monuments Association logo" width="300" height="288" /> -</div> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul><li>Silently corrected several palpable typographical errors.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the original source.</li> -<li>In the text versions, included italicized text in _underscores_.</li></ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and -Mesas, by George Joyce Olin - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 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