diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/50822-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/50822-8.txt | 6320 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 6320 deletions
diff --git a/old/50822-8.txt b/old/50822-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f612665..0000000 --- a/old/50822-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6320 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas, by -George Joyce Olin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and Mesas - -Author: George Joyce Olin - -Illustrator: Edward Bierly - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50822] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS MESAS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MAMMALS - of the southwest - MOUNTAINS - and - MESAS - - - by - GEORGE OLIN - illustrations by - EDWARD BIERLY - - [Illustration: Uncaptioned] - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - Box 1562, Globe, Arizona 85501 - - Copyright 1961 by the Southwestern Monuments Association. All rights - reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without - permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may - quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine or - newspaper. - - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-11291 - SBN 0-911408-32-0 - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - (formerly Southwestern Monuments Association) - - First printing, 1961. - Second printing, 1971. - Third printing, 1975. - - Popular series no. 9. - - Printed in the United States of America - Arizona Lithographers · Tucson, Arizona - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -With this booklet, as with _Mammals of the Southwest Deserts_, we are -indebted to Dr. E. L. Cockrum, Assistant Professor of Zoology at the -University of Arizona who has checked the manuscript for accuracy. We -are also grateful to him for offering suggestions and criticisms which -have added materially to its interest. - -The writer would also like to voice his appreciation to Ed Bierly whose -magnificent illustrations adorn these pages. His is a talent with which -it is a privilege to be associated. - -Finally our thanks to the editor and his staff. It is not an easy task -to combine text with illustrations, nor to match space with type, yet it -has been done with feeling and precision. - -Together, we hope that you will approve of our efforts. If through this -booklet you gain a better understanding of the mammals that share the -great outdoors with us, or if through it you should become aware of the -urgent necessity of preserving some of our wild creatures, (and wild -places), now before it is too late; we shall indeed be well repaid. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Hoofed Animals 1 - Bighorn (mountain sheep) 2 - Pronghorn (antelope) 4 - Bison (buffalo) 8 - Mule deer 10 - White-tailed deer 13 - Elk 16 - Rodents (Including Lagomorphs) 21 - Snowshoe hare 22 - White-tailed jackrabbit 24 - Mountain cottontail 26 - Pika 28 - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert's squirrel) 31 - Kaibab squirrel 34 - Arizona gray squirrel 36 - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel (Douglas squirrel, chickaree) 39 - Northern flying squirrel 42 - Western chipmunks 44 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel 48 - White-tailed prairie dog 51 - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) 53 - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) 57 - Mountain vole 58 - Western jumping mouse 59 - Bushy-tailed woodrat (pack rat) 60 - Muskrat 64 - Beaver 67 - Porcupine 72 - Northern pocket gopher 75 - Carnivores (Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans) 79 - Mountain lion 80 - Bobcat 85 - Red fox 87 - Gray wolf 89 - Coyote 92 - Wolverine 95 - Marten 97 - River otter 101 - Mink 103 - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) 105 - Spotted skunk 108 - Striped skunk 110 - Black bear 112 - Grizzly bear 117 - Vagrant shrew 119 - Bats 121 - References 123 - Index 125 - - [Illustration: Life Zones] - - ELEVATION PRECIPITATION - FEET DRY MOIST WET - 14,000 ARCTIC-ALPINE _above - ZONE[1] timber-line; - small, mat-like - plants._ - 13,000 _pika_ - 12,000 _mountain sheep_ - 11,000 HUDSONIAN ZONE _spruce_ _red squirrel_ - 10,000 _fir_ _marten_ - 9,000 CANADIAN ZONE _quaking aspen_ _beaver_ - _Douglas fir_, - _mule deer_ - 8,000 TRANSITION ZONE _tassel-eared - squirrel_ - 7,000 _ponderosa pine_, - _mountain lion_ - 6,000 UPPER SONORAN - ZONE[2] - _pinyon pine_ _deer mouse_ - 5,000 _juniper_ _bobcat_ - _sagebrush_ _pronghorn_ - 4,000 LOWER SONORAN - ZONE[3] - 3,000 _mesquite_, - _kangaroo rat_ - 2,000 _giant cactus_ - 1,000 _kit fox_ - HOT WARM COLD - TEMPERATURE - - - Notes - - - [1]THIS BOOKLET DESCRIBES MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST WHICH LIVE IN THE - LIFE ZONES ABOVE THE LOW DESERT. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS FOR PLANTS OF THESE ZONES. - [2]SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MESAS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - [3]SEE MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR MAMMALS OF THESE ZONES. - SEE FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS FOR PLANTS OF THIS ZONE. - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - - _Geographic Limitations_ - -The only point in the United States at which four states adjoin is where -Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico come together. With adjacent -portions of California, Nevada, and Texas, they contain all of our -Southwestern Desert. Arizona and New Mexico especially, are known as -desert States and for the most part deserve that appellation. Scattered -over this desert country as though carelessly strewn by some giant hand -are some of the highest and most beautiful mountains in our Nation. They -may occur as isolated peaks magnificent in their loneliness, or as short -ranges that continue but a little way before sinking to the level of the -desert. On the other hand it is in Colorado that the Rocky Mountains -reach their greatest height before merging with the high country in New -Mexico, and all of the States mentioned have at least one range of major -size. - -Two great highways cross this area from East to West. U.S. 66, -"Mainstreet of America," goes by way of Albuquerque and Flagstaff to Los -Angeles; farther north U.S. 50 winds through the mountains from Pueblo -to Salt Lake City and terminates at San Francisco. Significantly, they -meet at St. Louis on their eastward course, and here for the moment we -digress from geography to history. - - - _Westward Ho_ - -St. Louis in 1800 was a brawling frontier town. Strategically located at -the point where the Missouri River meets the Mississippi, it was the -jumping off place for those hardy souls adventurous enough to forsake -the comforts of civilization for the unknown perils of the West. Already -St. Louis was one of the fur centers of the world. Fashions of the day -decreed that top hats be worn by men. The finest hats were made of -beaver fur and no self-respecting dandy could be content with less. -Trapping parties ascended the Missouri River as far as the mountains of -Montana in search of pelts with which to supply the demand. When the -animals became scarce in more accessible areas, trappers turned their -attention to the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. Hardships of the -overland route, coupled with danger of attack by hostile Indians, -discouraged all but the most hardy of a rugged breed. These "Mountain -Men" as they became known, traveled in small parties with all the -stealth and cunning of the Indians themselves. Gaunt from weeks of -travel across the plains, they could rest in the Spanish settlement of -Santa Fe for a few days before vanishing into the mountains. On the -return trip they might again visit the Spanish pueblo or, eager for the -night life of St. Louis, strike directly eastward across the prairies. -Today's highways, while not following their trails directly, certainly -parallel them to a great degree. - -Little is known today of these early adventurers. A few written accounts -have been printed, meager records of their catches have been noted, and -here and there crude initials and dates carved on isolated canyon walls -attest their passing. Their conquest of the West has faded into oblivion -but it must be regarded as the opening wedge of American progress into -the Southwest. - - - _Mountains as Wildlife Reservoirs_ - -Today's traveler spans in hours distances across these same routes that -took weary weeks of heartbreaking toil a century ago. As he rides in -cushioned ease he seldom pauses to reflect on the changes that have -taken place since those early days. The great herds of bison with their -attendant packs of wolves have vanished and in their place white-faced -cattle graze on the level prairies. In the foothills the pronghorns have -taken their last stand. Cities have sprung up on the camping sites of -nomadic tribes that roamed the whole area between the Mississippi River -and the Rocky Mountains. Only the mountains seem the same. - -In winter these massive ranges form a barrier against the storms that -sweep in from the northwest. More important--these great storehouses of -our natural resources that in early days meant only gold and furs, and -perhaps sudden death to the pioneers, have now been unlocked by their -descendants. The glitter of gold and the glamour of furs pales when -contrasted with the untold values that have since been taken out in the -baser metals and lumber. This phase too is now coming to an end. It is -becoming evident that in the face of our ever increasing population -these natural playgrounds are destined to become a buffer against the -tensions that we, as one of the most highly civilized peoples of the -world, undergo in our daily life. Within another century they will -represent one of the few remaining opportunities for many millions of -Americans to get close to nature. As such the proper development and -preservation of mountainous areas and their values is of vital -importance to our Nation. - -Mountains of the Southwestern States have been formed by three major -agencies. These are, in order of importance, shrinkage of the earth's -interior to form wrinkles on the surface; faulting, with subsequent -erosion of exposed surfaces; and volcanic action. The first method is -responsible for most of the large ranges, such as the coastal mountains -of California and the Rocky Mountains. Faulting is responsible for many -of the high plateau areas where one side may be a high rim or cliff and -the other a gently sloping incline. The Mogollon Rim, extending across a -part of Arizona and into New Mexico, is a classic example in this -category. Volcanic action may result in great masses of igneous rock -being extruded through cracks in the earth's surface or it may take the -form of violent outbursts in one comparatively small area. Several -mountain regions in Arizona and New Mexico are covered with huge fields -of extruded lava. Capulin Mountain in New Mexico is an example of a -recent volcano which built up an almost perfect cone of cinders and -lava. Less noticeable than the mountains, but important nevertheless, -are the tablelands of the Southwest. These mesas, too high to be typical -of the desert, and in most cases too low to be considered as mountains, -partake of the characteristics of both. - - - _Desert "Islands"_ - -The mountains of the Southwest have been compared to islands rising -above the surface of a sea of desert. This is an apt comparison for not -only do they differ materially from the hot, low desert in climate, but -also in flora and fauna. Few species of either plants or animals living -at these higher altitudes could survive conditions on the desert floor -with any more success than land animals could take to the open sea. -Their death from heat and aridity would only be more prolonged than that -by drowning. Thus certain species isolated on mountain peaks are often -as restricted in range as though they actually were surrounded by water. -At times this results in such striking adaptation to local conditions -that some common species become hardly recognizable. This is the -exception to the rule however; most of the animals in this book are -either of the same species as those in the Northern States or so closely -allied that to the casual observer they will seem the same. Conditions -that enable these species ordinarily associated with the snowy plains of -the Midwest and the conifer forests of the North to live in the hot -Southwest are brought about either directly or indirectly by altitude. - - - _Life Zones_ - -There are in this nucleus of four States a total of six life zones, (See -map on page x.) The two lowest, the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones, -range from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 7000 feet. These -two have been covered in the book "Mammals of the Southwest Deserts." -The remaining four--Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life -Zones--will furnish the material for this book. The names of these zones -are self explanatory, because they are descriptive of those regions -whose climates they approximate. Unlike the two life zones of the -desert, which merge almost imperceptibly together, these upper zones are -more sharply defined. They may often be identified at a great distance -by their distinctive plant growth. It should be noted that plant species -are even more susceptible to environmental factors than animals and are -restricted to well defined areas within the extremes of temperature and -moisture best suited to their individual needs. Thus each life zone has -its typical plant species, and since animals in turn are dependent on -certain plants for food or cover, one can often predict many of the -species to be found in an individual area. - -The Transition Life Zone in the Southwest usually lies at an altitude of -between 7000 and 8000 feet. It encompasses the change from low trees and -shrubs of the open desert to dense forest of the higher elevations. It -is characterized by open forests of ponderosa pine usually intermingled -with scattered thickets of Gambel oak. These trees are of a brighter -green than the desert growth but do not compare with the deeper color of -the firs that grow at a higher elevation. - -The Canadian Life Zone begins at an altitude of about 8000 feet and -extends to approximately 9500 feet. The Douglas-fir must be considered -the outstanding species in this zone although the brilliant autumn color -of quaking aspens provides more spectacular identification of this area -during the fall. Through the winter months when this tree has shed its -leaves, the groves show up as gray patches among the dark green firs. At -this elevation there is considerable snow during winter and -correspondingly heavy rainfall in summer months. Under these favorable -conditions there is usually a colorful display of wildflowers late in -the spring. - -The Hudsonian Life Zone is marked by a noticeable decrease in numbers of -plant species. At this altitude, (9500 to 11,500 feet), the winters are -severe and summers of short duration. This is the zone of white fir -which grows tall and slim so to better shed its seasonal burden of snow -and sleet. In the more sheltered places spruce finds a habitat suited to -its needs. Near the upper edge of the Hudsonian Life Zone the trees -become stunted and misshapen and finally disappear entirely. This is -timberline; the beginning of the Alpine Life Zone, or as it often -called, the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone. - -Here is a world of barren rock and biting cold. At 12,000 feet and above -the eternal snows lie deep on the peaks. Yet, even though at first -glance there seems to be little evidence of life of any kind, a close -scrutiny will reveal low mat-like plants growing among the exposed rocks -and tiny paths leading to burrows in the rock slides. Among the larger -mammals there are few other than the mountain sheep that can endure the -rigors of this inhospitable region. - -These are the zones of the Southwest uplands. Altitudes given are -approximate and apply to such mountain ranges as the San Francisco Peaks -of Arizona and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in New Mexico. As one -travels farther north the zones descend ever lower until in the Far -North the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone is found at sea level. Since climate -more than any other factor, determines the types of plants and animals -that can live in a given area it is only natural that on these mountain -islands many species entirely foreign to the surrounding deserts are -found at home. Though it would seem that because of the relative -abundance of water at higher elevations the upland species would have -the better environment, this is not entirely true. Balanced against this -advantage are the severe winters which, in addition to freezing -temperatures, usher in a period of deep snows and famine. Even though -many species show a high degree of adaptation to these conditions, an -especially long or cold winter season will result in the death of weaker -individuals. - - - _Man and Wilderness_ - -The effects of man's presence on the upland species is perhaps not as -serious as on those of the desert. Though he has been instrumental in -upsetting the balance of nature everywhere, it has been chiefly through -agriculture and grazing. Because of the rough broken character of much -high country in the Southwest the first is impossible in many cases and -the second only partially successful. There are other factors however -which menace the future of the upland species. Among these are: hunting -pressures, predator control, and lumbering. Even fire control, admirable -as it may be for human purposes, disrupts the long cycles which are a -normal part of plant and animal succession in forested areas. These are -only a few of the means by which man deliberately or unconsciously -decimates the animal population. They are set down as a reminder that -unless conservation and science cooperate in management problems, it is -conceivable that many of our common species could well become extinct -within the next 100 years. Our natural resources are our heritage; let -us not waste the substance of our trust. - -As our wilderness areas shrink it seems that our people are gradually -becoming more interested, not only in the welfare of our native species -but in their ways as well. This type of curiosity augurs well for the -future of our remaining wild creatures. In times past an interest in -mammals was limited mainly to sportsmen who often knew a great deal -about where to find game animals and how to pursue them. Their interest -usually ended with the shot that brought the quarry down. Today many -people have discovered that a study of the habits of any animal in its -native habitat is a fascinating out-of-doors hobby in a virtually -untouched field. With patience and attention to details the layman will -occasionally discover facts about the daily life of some common species -that have escaped the attention of our foremost naturalists. This is no -criticism of the scientific approach. It is recommended that for his own -benefit the nature enthusiast learn a few of the fundamentals of -zoology, particularly of classification and taxonomy, which mean the -grouping and naming of species. - - - _Classification of Animals_ - -Classification of animals is easy to understand. Briefly, they are -divided into large groups called _orders_. These are further divided -into _genera_, and the genera in turn contain one or more _species_. - -Scientific names of animals are always given in Latin. Written in this -universal language they are intelligible to all scientists, regardless -of nationality. It is a mistake to shy away from them because they are -cumbersome and unfamiliar to the eye. They usually reveal some important -characteristic of the animal they stand for. This is their true -function; it seems to this writer that it is a mistake to name an animal -after a geographical location or a person, although it is frequently -done. The literal translations of specific names in this book will -illustrate this point. See how much more interesting and how much more -easily remembered those names are which describe habits or physical -attributes of the creature. - -Described herein are but a part of the species native to the -Southwestern uplands. Those chosen were selected because they are either -common, rare, or unusually interesting. Collectively they make up a -representative cross section of the mammals that live above the deserts -of the Southwest. - -For further information on these and other mammals of the region see the -list of references on page 123. - - - - - HOOFED ANIMALS - _Artiodactyla_ - (_even-toed hoofed animals_) - - -This order includes all of the hoofed animals native to the United -States. These are the mammals which are ordinarily spoken of as the -"cloven-hoofed animals." An odd-toed group (_Perissodactyla_), which -includes the so-called wild horses and burros, cannot properly be -included as natives since these animals date back only to the time of -the Spanish conquest of our Southwest. In earlier geologic ages horses -ranged this continent, but in more primitive forms than those now found -in other parts of the world. - -Through a study of fossil forms it has been determined that our present -hoofed animals evolved from creatures which lived on the edges of the -great tropical swamps that once covered large areas of our present land -masses. They were long-legged and splay-footed, well adapted to an -environment of deep mud and lush vegetation. As the waters gradually -disappeared and the animals were forced to take to dry land, their -strange feet underwent a slow transformation. Because they had become -accustomed to walking on the tips of their toes to stay up out of the -mud, the first toe did not touch solid ground at all in this new -environment. Since it was of no use it soon vanished entirely or became -vestigial. Some species developed a divided foot in which the second and -third toes and the fourth and fifth toes combined respectively to bear -the animal's weight. Eventually the third and fourth toes assumed this -responsibility alone, and the second and fifth toes became dew claws. -These are the cloven-hoofed animals of today. In other species the third -toe was developed to bear the weight, and this resulted in a single-toed -group of which the horse is an example. In all cases an enormous -modification of the nails or claws with which most animals are equipped -has resulted in that protective covering called the hoof. The under -surface of the foot is somewhat softer and corresponds to the heavy pad -that protects the bottom of a dog's toe. This brief explanation refers -only in the broadest sense to the order as represented in the United -States. The feet of the various species have become so specialized to -their separate ways of life that an individual can usually be easily -identified by its tracks alone. It is quite possible that many species -are still undergoing subtle changes in this respect. - -With but one exception the cloven-hoofed animals of our southwestern -mountains bear either horns or antlers. The exception is the collared -peccary, "javelina," (_pecari tajacu_) which, during the heat of the -summer, sometimes ascends to the Transition Life Zone in southern -Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Essentially an animal of the low -desert, it will not be included in this book. The species which have -hollow, permanent horns are the bighorn and pronghorn. The pronghorn is -distinctive in shedding the sheaths of its horns each year, but the -hollow, bony core remains intact. In this group both sexes bear horns. -Animals bearing antlers are the elk and the deer. The antlers are -deciduous, being shed each year at about the same time as the winter -coat. Only the males of these species have antlers, any female with -antlers can be considered abnormal. - -The Southwest is fortunate in still having a number of the species of -this order native to the United States. The bison can hardly be -considered a wild species, since it exists now only through the efforts -of a few conservationists who brought it back from virtual extinction. -Mountain goats, caribou, and moose are the only other species not known -to inhabit the Southwest. - -In Nature's balance the order _Artiodactyla_ seems to have been meant as -food for the large predators. Their protection against the flesh eaters -consists mainly in fleetness of foot, keen hearing, and a wide range of -vision, as evidenced by the large eyes set in the sides of the head. -They are but poorly equipped to actively resist attack by the larger -carnivores. Their best defense is flight. - - - Bighorn (mountain sheep) - _Ovis canadensis_ (Latin: a sheep from Canada) - -Range: This species, with its several varieties, inhabits most of the -mountainous region of the western United States. In Mexico it occurs in -the northern Sierra Madres and over almost the whole length of Baja -California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Among or in the vicinity of more precipitous places in the -mountains. - -Description: A blocky animal, rather large, with heavy, curving horns. -Total length of adult male 5 feet. Tail about 5 inches. Weight up to 275 -pounds. General color a dark gray to brown with lighter areas underneath -belly and inside of legs. The rump patch is much lighter than any other -part of the body; in most cases it can be described as white. Females -are similar in appearance to the males except that they are smaller and -the horns are much shorter and slimmer. Young, one or two, twins being -common. - -Interesting as the desert varieties of this species may be in their -adaptation to an environment that seems foreign to their nature, they -cannot compare with the high mountain animal. Seen against the backdrop -of a great gray cliff or silhouetted against the skyline of a snowy -crest the bighorn has a magnificence that is thrilling. In flight it is -even more spectacular as it bounds from one narrow shelf to another in -an incredible show of surefootedness. Yet this airy grace is exhibited -by a chunky animal that often weighs well over 200 pounds. The secret -lies in the specially adapted hooves with bottoms that cling to smooth -surfaces like crepe rubber and edges that cut into snow and ice or gain -a purchase on the smallest projections of the rocks. The legs and body, -though heavy, are well proportioned and so extremely well muscled that -no matter what demands are placed on them this sheep seems to have a -comfortable reserve of power. No doubt the display of complete -coordination adds to the illusion of ease with which it ascends to the -most inaccessible places. Descents often are even more spectacular, the -animal seldom hesitating at vertical leaps of 15 feet or more down from -one narrow ledge to another. - - [Illustration: bighorn] - -In the high mountains where this sheep prefers to make its home it -usually ranges near or above timberline. During winter storms it may -sometimes be forced down into the shelter of the forests, but as soon as -conditions warrant it will go back to its world of barren rocks and -snow. Here, with an unobstructed view, its keen eyes can pick out the -stealthy movements of the mountain lion, the only mammal predator -capable of making any serious inroads on its numbers. It has few other -natural enemies. A golden eagle occasionally may strike a lamb and knock -it from a ledge, or a high ranging bobcat or lynx may be lucky enough to -snatch a very young one away from its mother, but these are rare -occurrences. - -Bighorns depend mainly on browse for food. This is only natural since in -the high altitudes they frequent little grass can be found. Usually -there is some abundance of low shrubs growing in crevices on the rocks, -however, and many of the tiny annuals are also searched out during the -short summer season. At times a sheltered cove on the south exposure of -a mountain will become filled with such shrubs as the snowberry, and the -sheep take full advantage of such situations. As a rule they keep well -fed for, scanty though it seems, there are few competitors for the food -supply above timberline. - -I have observed these sheep many times in the Rockies. Perhaps my most -memorable experience with this species was on Mount Cochran in southern -Montana. It was a gray, blustery day in September with occasional snow -flurries sweeping about the summits. On the eastern exposure of the -mountain a steep slope of slide rock extended for perhaps 1,000 feet -from one of the upper ridges to timberline. Not expecting to see any -game at that elevation, I made my way up this slope with no effort to -keep quiet. In my progress several rocks were dislodged and went -rattling down across the mass of talus. At the summit of the ridge a low -escarpment made a convenient windbreak against the gale that was tearing -the clouds to shreds as they came drifting up the opposite slope, and I -sat down to catch my breath before entering its full force. As I sat -there surveying the scene spread out below, my attention was attracted -by a low cough close by. Looking to the left about 40 feet away and 15 -feet above me, I saw two magnificent rams standing on a projecting point -looking down at me. They seemed to have no fear; rather they evinced a -deep curiosity as to what strange animal this was that had wandered into -their domain. For the better part of a half hour I hardly dared breathe -for fear of frightening them. At first they gazed at me fixedly, -occasionally giving a low snorting cough and stamping their feet. Then -as I did not move, they would wheel about and change positions, -sometimes taking a long look over the mountains before bringing their -attention back. Finally when the cold had penetrated to my very bones, I -stood up. They were away in a flash, reappearing from behind their -vantage point with two ewes and an almost full-grown lamb following -them. While I watched they dashed at a sheer cliff that reared up to the -summit, and with hardly slackening speed bounded up its face until they -were lost in the clouds. - -Although this happened in 1928 the experience is as vivid in my mind as -though it happened yesterday. Perhaps the most striking feature of -bighorns seen at this close range is the eyes. They might be described -as a clear, golden amber with a long oval, velvety black pupil. Credited -with telescopic vision, they must be some of the most useful as well as -beautiful eyes to be found in the animal kingdom. - - - Pronghorn (antelope) - _Antilocapra americana_ (Latin: antelope and goat, American) - -Range: West Texas, eastern Colorado and central Wyoming to southern -California and western Nevada, and from southern Saskatchewan south into -northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grasslands of mesas and prairies, mostly in the Upper Sonoran -Zone. - -Description: A white and tan colored animal, considerably smaller than a -deer; horns with a single flat prong curving forward. Total length about -4 feet. Tail about 6 inches. Average weight 100 to 125 pounds. Color, -tan or black shading to white under belly and insides of legs. Two -conspicuous white bands under the neck, and the large white rump patch -of erectile hairs are unlike the markings of any other native animal. A -short, stiff mane of dark hairs follows the back of the neck from ears -to shoulders. Hooves black, horns also black except for the light tips -on those of older males. Both sexes horned. Young, usually two, born in -May. - - [Illustration: pronghorn] - -Pronghorns are unique among cloven-hoofed animals of the Southwest. -There is only one species, with several subspecies; a variety -_mexicana_, once common along the Mexican border, is considered extinct -in this country. The pronghorn has no "dew claws" like most other -animals with divided hooves. It has permanent bony cores in its horns -but sheds the outer sheaths each year. When these drop off the -succeeding sheaths are already well developed. Although at first these -new sheaths are soft and covered with a scanty growth of short stiff -hairs, corresponding to the velvet in antlered animals, it does not take -long for them to harden and become dangerous weapons. They reach full -development at about the time of the rut; bucks have been known to fight -to the death in the savage encounters that break out at this time. - -Were it not for its unusual horns the pronghorn probably would be known -by a common name such as the white-tailed antelope, for the beautiful -white rump patch is undoubtedly its next most conspicuous feature. -However, at least two other animals have been named "antelope" because -their posteriors have some similarity. They are the white-tailed ground -squirrel and the antelope jackrabbit of the Sonoran Life Zone. The -ground squirrel (_Citellus leucurus_) has merely a white ventral surface -on its tail which may or may not act as a flashing signal when flipped -about, but the antelope jackrabbit (_Lepus alleni_) has a rump patch -that bears a striking likeness to the pronghorn's both in appearance and -manner of use. In both cases the rump patches are composed of long, -erectile white hairs which are raised when the animal is alarmed. In -flight they are thought to act as warning signals; at any rate they are -very effective in catching the eye, and on the open plains the -pronghorn's can be seen at a distance where the rest of the animal is -indistinguishable. It may well be, on the other hand, that this flashy -ornament is meant to attract the attention of an enemy and lead it in -pursuit of an adult individual rather than allowing it to discover the -helpless young. Neither animal can be matched in speed on level ground -by any native four-footed predator. - -In times past the pronghorn usually lived in the valley and prairie -country. In the Southwest it roamed over much of both the Upper and -Lower Sonoran Life Zones, wherever suitable grass and herbage could be -found. On the prairies of the Midwest bands of pronghorns grazed in -close proximity to herds of buffalo. During the middle of the last -century it was the only animal whose numbers even approached those of -the latter. More adaptable than the buffalo, it has retreated before the -advance of civilization and taken up new ranges in rough and broken -country which is unsuited to agriculture. As a rule this is much higher -than its former range. Pronghorns are no longer found in the Lower -Sonoran Life Zone, except as small bands that have been introduced from -farther north. The greatest population now ranges in the upper portions -of the Upper Sonoran and along the lower fringe of the Transition Life -Zone. The animal has always been considered migratory to some extent -because it moved from mesa summer ranges to the protection of warmer -valleys during winter months. This habit is even more pronounced in -later years at the higher levels it now inhabits. These slim, -long-legged creatures are virtually helpless in deep snow and avoid it -whenever possible. They have even been known to mingle with cattle and -join with them at the feed racks during severe winters, an indication of -the extreme need to which shy pronghorns are sometimes reduced. - -They are essentially grazing animals. In the past they ate prairie -grasses during the summer; in winter these same grasses made excellent -hay that lost little in nourishment from having dried on the roots. In -addition, they ate low herbage and nibbled leaves, buds, and fruits from -shrubs that grew along the watercourses. Their food today is much the -same except that in the many areas where they receive competition from -range cattle they undoubtedly resort to more browse than formerly. - -Natural enemies of the pronghorn are legion, their success indifferent. -Every large carnivore will snap at the chance to take one, and even the -golden eagle has been known to kill them. The most serious depredations -are carried out on those young too small to follow the mother. However, -these attacks are fraught with danger, for the females are very -courageous in the defense of their young and at times several will join -in routing an enemy. In addition to this protection accorded them by -adult members of the band, the young have an almost perfect camouflage -in their plain coats that blend so closely with the color of the grass -in which they usually lie concealed. Because of their fleetness, few -adults fall prey to predators. Many attempts have been made to clock the -speed of the pronghorn in full flight but the estimates vary greatly. -Although a fast horse can keep up with one on smooth, level ground, it -is soon outdistanced on stony soil or in rough country. - - [Illustration: baby pronghorn] - - - Bison (buffalo) - _Bison bison_ (Teutonic name given to this animal) - -Range: At present bison exist only in widely scattered sanctuaries. In -Colonial times they ranged from southern Alaska to the Texas plains, -from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, and as far south as Georgia. -They are known in historic times in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mainly grasslands; a comparatively small number known locally -as "wood" bison lived in the fringes of the forests. - -Description: Although bison are familiar to almost everyone, some -figures on weights and dimensions may be surprising. Bulls weigh up to -1800 lbs., reach 6 feet height at the shoulders and up to 11 feet in -length, of which about 2 feet is the short tail. Cows average much -smaller from 800 to 1000 pounds, and rarely over 7 feet long. Both sexes -have heavy, black, sharply curving horns, tapering quickly to a point, -and a heavy growth of woolly hair covering most of the head and -forequarters. A large hump lies over the latter and descends sharply to -the neck. The head is massive, horns widely spaced, and small eyes set -far apart. A heavy "goatee" swings from the lower jaw. All these -features combine to give the animal a most ponderous appearance. -Nevertheless, bison are surprisingly agile and are not creatures with -which to trifle, especially in the breeding season, when bulls will -charge with little provocation. Like most wild cattle, bison normally -bear but one calf per year. Twins are uncommon. - -The history of the bison is unique in the annals of American mammalogy. -It hinges on simple economics, reflecting transfer of the western -prairies from Indian control to white. It is a pitifully short history -in its final stages, requiring only 50 years to drive a massive species, -numbering in the millions, from a well balanced existence to near -extinction. Yet considering the nature of civilization and progress -there could have been no other end, so perhaps it is well that it was -quickly over. - -For countless centuries the bison had roamed the prairies, their -seasonal migrations making eddies in the great herds that darkened the -plains. They were host to the Indian, and to the gray wolf, yet so well -were they adapted to their life that these depredations were merely -normal inroads on their numbers. They drifted with the seasons and the -weather cycles, grazing on the nutritious grasses of the prairie. -Weather and food supply; these were the main factors which controlled -the "buffalo" population until the coming of the white man. - -The first white man to see an American bison is thought to have been -Cortez, who in 1521 wrote of such an animal in Montezuma's collection of -animals. This menagerie was kept in the Aztec capitol on the site of -what is now Mexico City. There the bison was an exotic, hundreds of -miles south of its range. In 1540 Coronado found the Zuni Indians in -northern New Mexico using bison hides, and a short distance northeast of -that point encountered the species on the great plains. The eastern edge -of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico seems to have been the western -limit of bison in the Southwest. Unfavorable climate, plus the -comparatively heavy Indian population of the valley probably combined to -halt farther penetration in that direction. - -From 1540 until 1840 the white man limited his activities on the western -plains to exploring. American colonization had reached the Mississippi -River, but remained there while gathering its forces for the expansion -which later settled the West. Under Mexican rule, the Southwest -progressed very slowly. Then in the span of 50 years a chain of events -occurred which determined the destiny of the West and sealed the fate of -the bison herd. - - [Illustration: bison] - -Outstanding among these events were: the War with Mexico, 1844; the 1849 -Gold Rush to California; the Gadsden Purchase in 1854; and completion of -the transcontinental railroad in 1868. The first three added new and -important territory to the United States. This made construction of -transportation and communication facilities a vital necessity, hence the -railroad. Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 divided the -bison population into southern and northern herds and made market -hunting profitable. Three factors contributed to extermination: profit -in the traffic of hides, meat, and bones; control of troublesome Indian -tribes through elimination of one of their major sources of food; and -finally, removal of any competition on the grassy plains of Texas and -Kansas against the great herds of Longhorn cattle which were beginning -to make Western range history. In 1874, only 6 years after completion of -the Union Pacific, the slaughter of the southern herd was complete. It -is of interest to note that not one piece of legislation was passed to -protect the southern herd. - -The northern herd did slightly better. Closed seasons were established -in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, Montana in 1872, Nebraska in 1875, -Colorado in 1877, New Mexico in 1880, North and South Dakota in 1883. -Nevertheless, the herd dwindled, and by 1890 was nearly extinct. Since -that time, through careful management, a few small herds have been -established in Parks and refuges, but today the bison must be considered -more a domesticated animal than a wild one. - -Although the animal was not as important economically to the -southwestern as to the plains Indians, it was a religious symbol of some -value. Archeological finds far west of the historic range, and dances -still used in ceremonies, reveal that several southwestern tribes sent -hunting parties eastward into bison country. This must have been very -dangerous, for plains Indians would have considered them invaders. Bison -were food, shelter, and clothing to them. Imagine their consternation -when white men began to slaughter the source of their living. - -There are today but few reminders of the great herds of the west. -Perhaps one well versed in the ways of these wild cattle could still -find traces of the deeply cut trails which led to the watering places, -or shallow depressions where the clumsy beasts once wallowed in the mud. -Many of the Indian dances recall the importance of this animal to -primitive man. Perhaps our most constant reminder is the coin which -commemorates this symbol of the wild west, showing the Indian on one -side and the bison on the other. - - - Mule deer - _Odocoileus hemionus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Greek: - hemionus, mule) - -Range: Western half of North America from Central Canada to central -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Forests and brushy areas from near sea level to lower edge of -the Alpine Life Zone. - -Description: A large-eared deer with a tail that is either all black -above or black tipped. Total length of an average adult about 6 feet. -Tail about 8 inches. The coat is reddish in summer and blue-gray in -winter. Under parts and insides of legs lighter in color. Some forms of -this species have a white rump patch, others none. The tail may be -black-tipped, or black over the whole dorsal surface, but is more -sparsely haired than that of other native deer and is naked over at -least part of the under surface. Only the bucks have antlers. These are -typical in forking equally from the main beam. They are shed every year. - - [Illustration: mule deer] - -The mule deer is typical of the western mountains. Even in early days it -was never found east of the Mississippi and now is seldom seen east of -the Rockies. Only one species is recognized in the United States, -although over its vast range are many subspecific forms. All are notable -for the size of their ears, from which derives the common name "mule." -The black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, long considered a distinct -species, is now rated a subspecies of the mule deer. - -In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into two -groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. East -of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group; -westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop -abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a -whitetail subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found -along the Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory -also occupied by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule -deer of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of -North Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and -well within the western range of the plains white-tailed. - -Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished -from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the animal is -seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most prominent -field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough country, -bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward on the level -but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. The -white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing -gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually -straining every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the -rough, broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes -considerable commotion. - -I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped on a steep -mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, crackling of -hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight created the -impression of a landslide. - -Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed deer -is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the great -white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no way to be -used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side as is -that of the white-tailed. - -Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game -species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule -and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often -look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is -not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk, -especially at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that -forks equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five -points, these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam -near the head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of -the beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of -numbering those of one antler only; the method often used in the East -counts all of the points of both. The number of points does not -necessarily denote the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the -antlers will increase in size and points with every new pair until -maturity is attained. They will then grow to approximately the same size -for several years. In old age, the antler development will usually -dwindle with each succeeding year until, in senility, they may be as -small as those of a young deer. The condition of teeth and hooves is a -more accurate indication of age even though this method lacks prestige -of the time-honored system of points. - -It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be established -in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of extinction. -It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear before long -because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture or -lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the higher -mountains for many years to come. - - - White-tailed deer -_Odocoileus virginianus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin: - of Virginia) - - [Illustration: white-tailed deer] - -Range: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, north -into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Brushy and wooded country. - -Description: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged from -side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the Southwest, -two geographic variants occur, the subspecies _virginianus_ and the -subspecies _couesi_; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, and -seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border. -_Odocoileus virginianus_ of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually -weighs between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to 300. The average -adult animal will measure around 6 feet in total length. Tail about 10 -inches. Color is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the winter -coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface of tail are white. Ears -are small. Antlers have upright tines from a single beam. - -As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found in -the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because it -was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout the -prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most -abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to the -Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific -Northwest, and the subspecies _couesi_ extends westward along the -Mexican border to the Colorado River. - -The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by any of -three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are: -shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method of -running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from the -head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from -forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule deer -the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather than -remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired all -around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and "wigwagged" -from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the hams, -presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The mule -deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and does -not wave from side to side in running. The "whitetail" runs at a brisk -gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds away with a -series of ballet-like leaps. - -This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their -westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for -its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin -moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early -days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range, -although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United -States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly -settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and -hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if -predator elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the -relative overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of -browse, disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has -been a problem in some of the Northern States. "Whitetails" are -gregarious creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times, -especially during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together -and their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As -succeeding snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the "deer yards" -and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white barrier -as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the yard is too -great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve to death -before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous area occupied -by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. The herds -merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too deep. This -seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed as a -migratory animal in some localities. - -In line with this migratory tendency the "whitetail" follows a varied -but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time of shedding -the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their antlers. -With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities suffer. -They leave the group with which they have spent the winter and ascend to -the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly afflicted -individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their dignity. The -does, left behind, have problems of their own. These include driving the -yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order that the does may -give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers that arrive in -midsummer. By this time the adults have put on the short, yellowish-red -summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, but covered with pale spots, a -combination that blends well with lights and shadows in the brushy -places where the does choose to hide them. As soon as the fawns are -large enough to follow their mothers the little family groups begin a -gradual trek up the mountainside. There are several reasons for this -exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, better browse, and fewer -stinging insects. - -While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been -staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new -antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the -brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of the -does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at the -peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are soon -outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become -progenitors of the following year's fawns. The simplicity of this system -is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one -of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in -numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior -strain. In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is -not always the _number_ of animals that is the prime consideration. A -smaller group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be -desired than a larger population in average condition. - -Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the Prairie -States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked by -many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the "guinea -pig" in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost any -environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only a -little protection to become well established. The "key" deer of the -Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds, -is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the "Sonora -fantail," native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, is -greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish. - - - Elk - _Cervus canadensis_ (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada) - -Range: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Also -found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, central -California, and various small areas in those Western States where it has -been introduced. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys. - -Description: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin neck, and a -light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 inches. -Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 pounds, with -a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter in winter. Longer -hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane that is distinguishable -at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually six points on adult -males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves are black. Young -usually one, although twins not rare. - -The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the -southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known not -only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern States. -In fact, one of its common names, "wapiti," is of eastern American -Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of Canada -and the Northern States call it "wapitiu" (pale white) to distinguish it -from the darker colored moose with which it was associated in that -region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the United -States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many herds now -found in Western States have been introduced to take the place of those -thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has been the case in -Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam's elk disappeared before 1900. -This elk, now known only from scanty records and a few mounted heads and -skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only was it larger than the Wyoming -elk which now takes its place, but it had correspondingly massive -antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what could happen easily to -the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California which has been reduced -to a dangerously small herd. The elk now present in the Southwest, -chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals brought down from the -large herds of the Yellowstone Park area. In their new homeland they -maintain the same habits that characterize the species in Wyoming. - -Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the United -States. The degree to which they band together varies with the seasons -and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During summer months -the bands are small and widely scattered high in the Transition Life -Zone and even higher at times. With the advent of cold weather they work -their way down to lower country, and winter finds them gathered in -sheltered grassy valleys. This exodus to winter quarters can be one of -the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it is not uncommon for -herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals to move into one of -the more favored valleys. They have the instinct so highly developed -among most animals of knowing when a storm is imminent, and the -migration may be completed within a period of 48 hours, or even less if -foul weather is brewing. - -The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one small -area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of feed. -Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, and -many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed areas they -were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing dry grass -beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter losses that -would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively mild -winters and small population, the animals experience little difficulty -in weathering the storms without human aid. The present herds appear -well established, and with proper conservation measures should be a -valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come. - - [Illustration: elk] - -Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal range -of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed two -definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter garb is -put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown woolly -underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to almost -black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and white than -the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often called the "gray" -coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep through the mountains -and insulates the wearer against snow that is driven into the outer -surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way for a light summer -coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, and the animals are -unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The summer coat is made up -of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The pelage is glossy when -compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter coat. In color it is -tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump patch is a light tawny -color in both coats. - -With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which they -have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general -deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption of -tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in their -weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging branches. -They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins to grow. As -with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet covers the -new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the antlers -develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity before -the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers "catches -up," so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity, -attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk in -the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely -tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip -off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the hard -core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines -which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully -symmetrical that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the -largest pairs on record has a length of beam of 64-3/4 inches and a -spread of 74 inches. - -A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have definite -names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is known as the -"brow" tine; the next to it as the "bez" tine. Collectively they are -called the "lifters," formerly known as "war tines." The next point -inclines toward the vertical; this is the "trez" tine. The fourth is the -"royal" or "dagger" point, and the terminal fork of the antler forms the -final two points which are called "surroyals." - -Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals handle -them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the body is -carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. In this -posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without undue -strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; this -throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the nose -parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without catching -on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the elk creates less -disturbance than most large forest animals when in flight. Antlers as -weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom serve this -function. Males have been severely injured and even killed in fights -among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting is done by -striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually with a -chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing the hide of -the opponent. - -Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content -merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort -is a high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it -seems to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn. -The call begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds -and then rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo, -drops by swift degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is -followed by several coughing grunts that can be heard only at close -range. Bugling can be heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet -evening one of the greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this -clear challenge flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is -quickly returned from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere -whispers in the distance. - -Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts from -August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended as a -challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with their -lords' great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently, -and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal spirits. -Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence. - -The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins are not -uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and is an -awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with light -spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it remains -hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps constant -vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, but -this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that are -only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions, -wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the calf -be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with sharp -hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the smaller -predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her bristling -show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the mother, she -warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark. - -The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in other -American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths without -known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls have the -greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished and stain -a light brown. - - - - - RODENTS - _Including the Lagomorphs_ - (_hares and pikas_) - - -Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is not an -unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other mammals -throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; the largest -to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver and the -porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all others of -the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of the large -number of species represented and the varying conditions under which -they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics. -They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, by one -common characteristic--that of having long, curving incisors. As a rule -these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only exception -being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These properly -belong to the order _Lagomorpha_ but will be included here with rodents. - -The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums being -a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other mammals, -they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of the animal. -This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting edges must -undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy coat of -enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at best -covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged -surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it receives -during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform -sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar -arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average play in -this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either -behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately -the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or -otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its -opposite will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take -food and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all -rodents, and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus -left between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars -accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally -compressed face so typical of rodent features. - -Food habits of the various types of rodents differ to a great degree. -Perhaps the term omnivorous might be applied to most of them because -virtually all rodents will eat insects and meat in addition to the usual -fare of vegetable matter. A few might be classed as insectivorous or -even carnivorous. Some species store up hoards of food against lean -seasons; others eat like gluttons when food is abundant and hibernate -through times of want; still others are equipped to spend the whole year -in a busy search for something to eat. - -Habitats are equally diverse. Some species live below the earth, some on -the surface of the ground, at least two species are aquatic, and a few -are arboreal. Regardless of where they live, the great majority are home -builders. They strive to locate their homes in the most protected places -and usually line their nests with soft materials. Outstanding exceptions -are the jackrabbit and the porcupine, both of which lead nomadic lives. - -In spite of their secretive habits, rodents suffer a tremendous -mortality. Practically all carnivorous animals, most predatory birds, -and many snakes prey on rodents, and for many of them these persecuted -animals form the chief food. This situation is not as harsh as it might -seem, for most rodents are prolific to a high degree. Elliott Coues -summed up their place in Nature's balance very aptly: "Yet they have one -obvious part to play,... that of turning grass into flesh, in order that -carnivorous Goths and Vandals may subsist also, and in their turn -proclaim, 'All flesh is grass.'" - - - Snowshoe hare - _Lepus americanus_ (Latin: hare ... of America) - -Range: Found throughout the greater part of Canada and Alaska with -extensive penetrations into the Southwest in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, -and western Nevada. Its occurrence in northern California is rather -rare, and is confined to only a few higher mountain ranges. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the vicinity of streams or in conifer forests in the -Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones. - -Description: A small, chunky hare with medium long ears and large hairy -hind feet. An average individual will have a total length of about 18 -inches with a tail less than 2 inches. Hind foot about 6 inches in -length. Summer pelage brown, except feet and belly white, and tail -brownish black above. Winter coat white except for the tips of the ears -which are black. Young, three to six, born in May or June. - -The snowshoe hare, found sparingly in mountains of the Southwest, is the -same as that which lives in the muskeg not far from the Arctic Circle. -The climate of the mountain zones is surprisingly like that of the north -country even though the terrain is different. The closest equivalent is -to be found in the brushy borders of mountain streams, and here the -"snowshoes" are most often found. During summer they feed on grasses, -herbs, and leaves of many different shrubs and the tender tips of young -branches. Winter, a period of famine for many animals, is just the -opposite for these large-footed hares. Able to run about on the surface -of snowdrifts, each new snowfall lifts them closer to the tender twigs -that earlier in the year were far above their reach. Clean diagonal cuts -much like those made with a knife mark their depredations and, since -they are hearty eaters, the whole tops of many favorite food shrubs may -be pruned out in one season. - -In common with several other hunted creatures and a comparatively few -that hunt, the "snowshoe" undergoes a complete change of color between -its summer and winter coat. The transformation begins when the first -snows are due, and usually the white coat is complete when the snows lie -deep on the mountains. It is not, as was once supposed, a case of the -brown guard hairs turning white, but a molt. The summer guard hairs are -shed and white ones taken their place. The under fur changes color to a -less marked degree. Close to the skin the animal is still brown. -Outwardly it is pure white except for black ear tips. Marvelous as this -protective coloration is, it is not absolute proof against enemies. -There are many, and chief among them are lynxes, bobcats, wolves, -weasels, and great horned owls. In many places in the far north the -snowshoe hare is the chief host of the lynx, their numbers fluctuating -in unison. - - [Illustration: snowshoe hare] - -Like most other hares the "snowshoe" spends a great share of its leisure -time in a "form." This is usually nothing more than a well concealed -hollow. The semi-darkness under low hanging evergreens is much favored -by these nocturnal animals for this purpose. They do not, at any time, -frequent burrows, the closest approach to this kind of home being in -winter when they are sometimes completely snowed under. They suffer but -little during severe storms, because their long, fluffy fur is -protection against the cold. Their greatest danger lies in the -possibility of being buried alive in the event of a freezing rain -following the snow. - -The young are born in late spring or early summer. They come into the -world amid plushy surroundings indeed. The mother has lined the surface -nest with soft hair pulled from her own coat, and a softer, more -comfortable nursery could hardly be imagined. The little hares are born -fully furred, with eyes open, and usually with the incisor teeth already -through the gums. Their development is rapid, and long before cold -weather arrives they are out on their own. - - - White-tailed jackrabbit - _Lepus townsendi_ (Latin: hare ... for J. K. Townsend) - -Range: North of the Canadian border to the southern portion of Colorado -and Utah, and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Mississippi River. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Plains and open country, in the foothills, and even in the high -mountains. Found in both Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - -Description: A large hare with a white tail and a lanky build, found -usually only in open country. Total length (average) 18 to 24 inches. -Tail up to 4 inches. Ears up to 6 inches in length. Weight 5 to 8 -pounds. Color varies with the seasons. The summer coat is buffy gray, -the winter coat is white. The tail, long for a hare, is white throughout -the year. The tips of the ears are black both summer and winter. Young, -three to six in a litter, born in May. There may be a second litter -during late summer. As with all the hare family, the young are well -furred and have their eyes open at birth. - -The white-tailed jackrabbit is the largest hare native to the United -States. Its great size is further emphasized by its rangy build and long -legs and ears. Such physical characteristics are usually marks of an -animal that is fiercely pursued by its enemies. This denizen of the open -country is no exception. It is preyed upon by innumerable predators, -including man, the most relentless and cunning of all. Yet its place in -the modern world is still secure, for though it is almost totally -lacking in offensive weapons, Nature has given it defensive advantages -far beyond most other creatures. Perhaps the most important is the -deceptive speed with which it floats across the prairie. Fastest of its -tribe and exceeded in this respect by only one native animal, the -pronghorn, this lanky jackrabbit simply runs away from most pursuit. -Effective though this tactic is, the animal uses it usually as a last -resort, preferring to employ the exact opposite, that of crouching -motionless in an effort to avoid detection. Absolute immobility is -itself an admirable defense, but when augmented by camouflage such as -this creature possesses it is even more effective. - -Like most members of the hare family, the white-tailed jackrabbit is -more active at night than during the day. It spends most of the daylight -hours resting in a form that it hollows out under shelter of a low shrub -or large tuft of grass. In summer the tawny coat blends well with the -color of the surroundings, and the winter coat is possibly even more -effective. Then the crouched body resembles nothing more than a mound of -snow; the black tips of the ears suggest black weed stems sticking up -through the white surface. - - [Illustration: white-tailed jackrabbit] - - - Mountain cottontail - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ (Latin: sylva, wood and Greek: lagos, hare. For - Nuttal) - -Range: Western United States but east of the coastal range of mountains. -The northern limits are along the Canadian border; the southern limits -in central Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Mountains of the west through the Transition and Canadian Life -Zones. Seldom found below the pines. - -Description: The "powder puff" tail is the best field characteristic by -which to recognize this rabbit, usually the only cottontail in its range -at the elevations given above. It is one of the largest of its kind, -averaging 12 to 14 inches in total length with the tail less than 2 -inches long. Average weights run from 1-1/2 to 3 pounds. Ears are -relatively short and wide for a cottontail. Color varies somewhat with -relation to habitat, but in general it is gray with a faint yellowish -tinge. Darkest areas are about the back and upper sides; under parts are -light to almost white. The winter coat is heavier than the summer, but -much the same color. The underside of the tail is the cottony white so -well known to city and country dwellers alike. From the scanty records -available on the number of young it would seem that three to four -constitute the average litter. Perhaps the higher elevations at which -they live keep them free from many of the predators to which their -lowland cousins succumb, and thus they are able to maintain their -numbers with smaller families. - -Though often found in the depths of the forest, these shy rabbits prefer -to live in the brushy thickets that border high mountain meadows and -line the streams. There, in true cottontail fashion, they venture into -the open to feed, always ready at the first sign of danger to scurry -back to safety under tangled branches. Once fairly entered into the maze -of paths that they alone know, there is little danger of capture. There -they can count themselves safe from further pursuit by the larger -predators and have a distinct advantage over those their own size or -smaller. Although so clever at turning and doubling back in their chosen -refuges, they seldom use much evasive action when surprised in the open. -Their first thought seems to be to reach cover in the straightest -possible line, and as a consequence many are snapped up by predators who -not only rely on this behavior but often gain the advantage of a -surprise attack as well. - -Food habits are much the same as those of other cottontails, modified to -some extent by the different plant associations with which they are -found. In summer, tender grasses and herbs are the favorite fare, but in -winter when deep snow isolates them from even the taller herbs, these -adaptable animals turn to bark and such small twigs as meet their taste. -At this time even the tips of conifer twigs are often eaten. Access to -this food, which during the summer is usually out of reach, is -facilitated by the growth of long hair on the bottom of the feet, -especially on the hind feet. Though these seasonal "snowshoes" do not -approach those of the Arctic hare in size, they serve very well to -support the lighter cottontails as they move over the soft surface. They -are especially useful when the animal stands on its hind feet to reach -some inviting bit that would be out of reach in the normal crouching -position. During this operation it reaches for food with the mouth -alone; the forepaws cannot be used to gather food, but hang loosely in -front of the body as an aid to balance. - - [Illustration: mountain cottontail] - -This inability to grasp or handle objects with the front feet is -characteristic of all those animals which in the United States we call -"rabbits." Though here included with the rodents, the jackrabbits, -snowshoe hares, and cottontails all lack the dexterity with the forepaws -with which the rest of the group is endowed. The structure of the bones -is much like that of the ungulates in that the feet cannot be turned -sideways. Thus front legs are used mainly for running, digging, and -washing the face and ears, a procedure much like that employed by -domestic cats, except that it is carried out with the sides of the paws -rather than the insides of the wrists as Tabby does. - -Though it lives in a different habitat than other closely related -species, the mountain cottontail shares many of their habits. It is a -nocturnal animal, seldom seen at large except at dusk or in early -morning hours. During the greater part of the day it seeks refuge under -some brush pile or deep in the recesses of the slide rock. On occasion -it will make itself a form in long grass or under a shrub, but usually -prefers more substantial protection. In areas which are being logged, -cottontails are quick to take advantage of the shelter offered by huge -piles of limbs and debris left by loggers. Later in the season, when the -piles are burned, it is not unusual to see as many as three or four -cottontails scurry from one pile. - -Nests for rearing the young are not of such great concern to these -rabbits. Perhaps they instinctively choose places where an enemy would -never expect to find them. Many are mere hollows in tall grass or -shallow burrows in an accumulation of pine needles. They are lined with -soft grasses or needles and hair which the mother pulls from her own -body. More hair and grass fibers are cleverly matted together to form a -loosely woven blanket which she pulls over the nest when she leaves. It -is arranged with such cunning and blends so well with the surrounding -that unless one sees the rabbit leave it is only by accident a nest is -discovered. The three to five young are born blind and naked, but thrive -so well in the warm nest that in about a month they are fully furred and -able to leave. At this age they are extremely playful little creatures, -often indulging in a game much like tag, although to a human observer it -is never quite clear just who is "It." - -In this connection it is interesting to note than among the "hunted" -mammals the play spirit is usually manifested by running games in which -there is little if any physical contact. By contrast, the young of -predators indulge in wrestling games featuring use of teeth and claws, -often beyond the point where fun ceases and anger begins. - - - Pika - _Ochotona princeps_ (Mongol name of pika ... Latin: chief) - -Range: Mountainous areas of the western United States, western Canada, -and southern Alaska. Found in the southwestern United States in Utah, -Colorado and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Talus slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine Life Zones. - -Description: A small animal bearing some resemblance to a guinea pig; -found only among or in the vicinity of rock slides. Total length from -6-1/2 to 8-1/2 inches. No visible tail. Color, gray to brown. Eyes -small, ears large and set well back on head. The front legs are short -and are exceeded but little by the hind legs. They are all quite -concealed by the long hair of the sides. This gives the animal much the -appearance of a mechanical toy as it glides smoothly over the rocks. The -soles of the feet are covered with hair, the only bare spots on the feet -being the pads of the toes. The call is distinctive, the most common -being an "eeh" repeated several times. This sound is shrill, but has a -falsetto quality as though it were being produced during an inhalation. -Young thought to number from three to six. - - [Illustration: pika] - -Far up on the mountainside, above timberline but below the eternal -snows, a great field of talus rests uneasily on the massive slopes of -bedrock. From a distance it seems merely a smooth gray scar that softens -the otherwise abrupt lift of the summit. A closer inspection reveals it -as a tumbled mass of variously shaped slabs of stone varying from tiny -fragments to huge blocks weighing many tons. Its entire bulk is shot -through with chinks and crevices of every conceivable shape and form. - -Here and there a wisp of grass or an occasional stunted shrub has found -a precarious foothold among the slabs. Other low matlike plants occur in -considerable numbers. The only sounds are faint whisperings of wind -among the rocks and a distant sighing from the forest below. Suddenly a -sharp "eeh-eeh" breaks the silence, then all is quiet again. The shrill -sounds are repeated, this time from a different quarter. You look toward -the sound but see nothing. Finally, if you are lucky, your eyes focus on -a little face somewhat resembling that of a tiny cottontail rabbit, -peering at you from the safety of a home among the rocks. It is the pika -you see and this rock slide is his castle. - -The pika bears a superficial facial resemblance to the rabbit, to which -it is most nearly related. This is occasioned no doubt by the long silky -whiskers and deeply cleft upper lip, for the eyes are small and the -ears, while large, are shaped much differently from those of its larger -relative. Its other physical characteristics are entirely unlike those -of the rabbit. The chunky body, short legs, and almost total lack of a -tail are more like those of the guinea pig to which it is more distantly -allied. Several species are known. All are inhabitants of the Northern -Hemisphere and all, whether Asiatic, European, or American, are found -living in rock slides at or above timberline. In the western United -States the pika is known by a variety of other common names of which -"coney," "little chief hare," and "rock rabbit" are perhaps the best -known. - -Living as it does in only one type of habitat, the pika has developed -highly specialized habits. The most remarkable is its practice of -cutting hay for winter food. At timberline the growing season is short, -but the herbs and grasses which this animal eats spring up and mature in -a matter of weeks. During this time the pika lives high on the succulent -leaves and stems, but during the latter part of the season it carefully -harvests enough food to last through the coming winter. None of this -hoard is carried directly into the burrow. Instead, it is painstakingly -transported to suitable areas which are exposed to the hot sun, and -there piled in miniature haycocks and left to cure. No human harvester -ever worked harder to gather his crop or laid it up with more care than -this tiny husbandman. Fortunately its tastes are not critical; thus, -although the individual plants are scattered, the pika is able to select -a sufficient store from the considerable number of species represented -at this altitude. - -In Utah and Colorado the "haying" time arrives with the height of the -summer blooming season. At timberline this usually occurs during August. -As though realizing that a hard frost would ruin its delightfully -fragrant crop, the pika sets furiously to work. After cutting down as -much herbage as it can handle at one time, it gathers the mass into an -unwieldy bundle and carries it by mouth to one of the sites it has -selected as a curing place. Usually these areas have been used the -previous season for the same purpose, and a mass of the least edible -stems remain to mark their location. Depositing the load on this base, -the pika scurries away for another bundle. Long familiarity with routes -across the uneven rocks enables it to make its way with never a misstep, -even though the load carried may be of such size that vision to the -front is completely obscured. Working early and late the pika -distributes its harvest among the various piles. As a result, the hay -dries out evenly and when cold weather calls a halt to the work each -little stack is perfectly cured without a trace of mildew. The truly -monumental work to which this little creature goes is shown by as many -as a half dozen haycocks, each of which may contain up to a bushel or -more of feed. - -Comparatively little is known of the pika's life history. What has been -recorded has been noted during those periods when it was seen on the -surfaces of rock slides. What goes on deep in the labyrinths of its -habitat can only be conjectured. It seems reasonable to suppose that in -some subterranean cavity the pika has constructed a comfortable nest -lined with soft grasses. Certainly it remains active all winter, -although buried under many feet of snow, for in the spring its stacks of -hay have been largely consumed. - -The number of young is thought to range from three to six. They probably -are born in early summer, as when they appear on the surface, usually in -late July or early August, they are about half grown. Though family ties -are closely knit until the young mature, pikas cannot be considered -gregarious animals. The scarcity of food alone would be sufficient -reason to prohibit large groups in one small area. Each adult takes up -squatter's rights on a territory large enough to support it, and -thereafter holds it with but little interference from others of its -kind. - -Few natural enemies prey on the pikas. The very openness of their -habitat prevents the larger predators from stealing up unseen. Hawks and -eagles account for some, and weasels are able to penetrate their -underground maze at will, but the natural fecundity of the species seems -to balance these losses very well. To the nature student the pika offers -a tempting challenge. It is far from being a rare animal, yet at the -same time it is one about which almost nothing is known. As -qualifications for learning its secrets, one must be somewhat of a miner -and considerable of an arctic explorer. - - - Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert's) - _Sciurus aberti_ (Latin: shade-tail ... for Col. J. J. Abert) - -Range: Northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, extreme southeastern -Utah, and south central Colorado in the United States; also found in the -Sierra Madre Mountains of northern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: The only squirrels in the United States that have -conspicuous pencils of hair on the tips of the ears. _Sciurus aberti_ is -a large squirrel with a total length of about 20 inches. Tail about 9 -inches. The summer pelage is brown on the back, with gray sides and pure -white underparts. The beautiful bushy tail is silvery below and gray -above. During summer the long ears have no tassels on the tips. -Beautiful as is the summer coat, it is far surpassed by the winter one. -Then the heavier fur becomes richer brown on the back, and the contrast -between the gray and white areas is further emphasized by appearance of -a narrow black band between them. The ears too become more spectacular -with the addition of the penciled tufts which give this animal its -common name. Breeding habits of this squirrel are variable and evidently -depend to a great extent on the food supply. There may be as many as two -litters in a fruitful year and none at all in a lean year. The usual -number is three or four young to a litter. These are born sometimes in a -hollow tree, but more often in a bulky nest of leaves built in a tree -top. - -No mammal of the United States has a more appropriate generic name than -the large tree squirrel. _Sciurus_ literally translated means -"shade-tail" and refers of course to the beautiful and useful appendage -sported by all of our arboreal types of squirrels. It is doubtful if any -can equal the striking plume carried by _aberti_; certainly none can -surpass it. Its distinctiveness is not occasioned by its size, for -several species have tails that are longer. Rather, its elegance is -derived from the width, the striking coloration, and the easy grace with -which the animal displays its beauty. Whether in full flight across a -grassy clearing or in repose on some lofty limb, the first field mark of -this unusual squirrel will be the tail; the second, the tasseled ears. - -As the map shows, _Sciurus aberti_ and its many forms are confined in -the United States mainly to the high country along parts of the Colorado -River, and also to that great escarpment known as the Mogollon Rim, -whose length is divided about equally between New Mexico and Arizona. In -this range is found what is often referred to as the "greatest unbroken -stand of ponderosa pine to be found in this country." Of the many -species of plants and animals found as associates of this forest, -perhaps none is more dependent on ponderosa pine than the tassel-eared -squirrel. This rough-barked tree furnishes a major source of food and -shelter. In return, for Nature always demands that restitution be made, -the squirrels plant a part of the seeds that insure continuation of the -ponderosas. - -It is a common belief that squirrel's diet consists of nuts and little -else. This is true only to a degree. A squirrel is fond of nuts and will -eat and hoard them during the short season when they are available. For -the greater part of the year, when its stores have been depleted, it -turns to many other types of food among which are fruit, herbage, leaf -buds, and flowers. Favorite food of the tassel-eared squirrel is, of -course, the large single-winged seeds found under scales of ponderosa -pine cones. Next favored are acorns from the oak that mingles with pine -at the lower edge of the Transition Life Zone. If the season is good, -great quantities of cones and acorns are buried for future use. These -are hidden singly, not in caches, as is the habit of some squirrels. In -the event the squirrel does not return for its hidden stores, some of -the seeds will sprout eventually and take their part in the slow cycle -of growth and decay that is continually going on in the forest. - -During months when these favorite foods are scarce, squirrels find the -cambium layer of young pine twigs very acceptable. This is the tender -layer that lies between the wood and the bark. In the growing season it -is especially sweet and nutritious. This was as well known to the -Indians as the squirrels, and they too took advantage of the supply -during times of famine. The squirrel obtains this food by cutting off -the terminal clusters of needles, then severing a denuded portion of the -branch, of a size that may be conveniently carried to a favorite eating -place. Here the outer bark is deftly removed, the edible portions -consumed, and the base wood cast to the ground. Although large numbers -of the terminal twigs are taken, the trees seem to suffer no serious -damage from this seasonal pruning. - - [Illustration: tassel-eared squirrel] - -In selecting a nesting site the tassel-eared squirrel turns again to its -favorite tree, the ponderosa pine. Because few of these healthy giants -have knotholes or cavities of a size to accommodate this large species, -the nests are usually built in the thick upper growth of branches. -Material for their construction consists of small twigs of deciduous -trees, cut with the leaves on them. These are cleverly woven together so -that as the leaves wither and dry they tend to hold the bulky mass -together. Aspen branches frequently are used when available, the large, -almost round leaves combining to form a warm wall and at the same time a -thatch impervious to all but the most driving rains. Several exits are -provided in case an enemy should enter the nest, and the interior is -lined with soft fibers. Usually more than one nest is built by each -squirrel, so that in an area where they are common the bulky homes are -conspicuous not only for their size but by reason of their numbers. With -several ports in a storm, so to speak, the squirrels weather the winter -very well. During the coldest days they remain snugly curled up in their -nests, but on bright, still days they will be seen searching out their -hoarded supplies, even though they may have to dig through several -inches of snow to get to them. At such time their gruff bark, deep in -timbre, may be heard for a considerable distance. - -Breeding takes place in early spring, often before the snow is off. The -squirrels are fully polygamous, which is one of the reasons this species -can almost disappear and then restores its numbers within a season or -two. There may be two litters each year, the first arriving as early as -May and the second in August or September. As mentioned before, this -species is variable and the young may differ in coloration from their -parents and from each other. Melanistic individuals are frequent; these -should not be confused with the Kaibab squirrel which they resemble -superficially. Several subspecific forms are recognized but are not -easily identified by the layman. - -One's first introduction to this beautiful species is an experience long -to be remembered. It was no less interesting to the early naturalists -who first penetrated the wild regions where it lived. Their accounts -abound with adjectives such as, "handsome," "graceful," etc. Dr. S. W. -Woodhouse, who accompanied the Sitgreaves expedition on the exploration -of the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, noticed it at once and formally -described it as a species in 1852. Since that time it has been -introduced into many of the "sky island," mountains that lie south of -its original range. It adapts very well to new conditions, seeming to -need only a favorable climate and a ponderosa pine forest in which to -live. What effect its presence will have on these new surroundings is -not yet known. There is always danger that the native plants and animals -will suffer from such new competition in an established association. -Such introductions should never be made without a study of all the -factors involved. - - - Kaibab squirrel - _Sciurus kaibabensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... from the Kaibab, a forest - in northern Arizona) - -Range: An area approximately 30 x 70 miles in size in northern Arizona. -The southern limit is bounded by the north rim of the Grand Canyon of -the Colorado, and much of the range is included within the boundaries of -Grand Canyon National Park. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests in Canadian and upper Transition Life -Zones. - -Description: A tassel-eared squirrel with an _all white_ tail. In size -this species is the same as _Sciurus_ _aberti_ but the coloration is -different. The Kaibab squirrel has the same rich, chestnut brown area -along the back and upper part of the head, but the sides are deep gray -and underparts gray to black. The tail is either all silvery white or it -may have barely discernible light gray edging on the upper surface. -Nesting and breeding habits are the same as with _aberti_. - - [Illustration: Kaibab squirrel] - -This beautiful squirrel has a distinctive appearance and an uncertain -specific rank. It is included here because of all the mammals discussed -in this booklet it best exemplifies the effects of isolationism. There -is little doubt that the ancestors of both _aberti_ and _kaibabensis_ -were of one common stock. How the progenitors of the Kaibab squirrel -came to be marooned on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is of little -moment. Perhaps they were already there when the Colorado plateau was -young and the river was just beginning its mighty task. Possibly they -emigrated later when the gorge was not as deep as it is now. At any -rate, it can be assumed that they have lived on the North Rim for -thousands of years, isolated from their cousins on the South Rim by only -20 miles of thin air horizontally, but a trip on foot that involves a -descent of a mile through two life zones (Upper Sonoran and Lower -Sonoran), a crossing of a wide and turbulent river, and an ascent to the -South Rim through the same two desert zones. Surely this is an -undertaking for a squirrel of the cool forests that would be too -hazardous to be successful, even if attempted. - -The factors that have changed this squirrel's coloration are not -definitely known, but climatic conditions are probably at least -partially responsible. The North Rim is approximately a thousand feet -higher than the South Rim and is considerably colder. At this higher -elevation much of the Kaibab squirrel's habitat falls within the -Canadian Life Zone. This in turn makes certain vegetable food available -which is rare or unknown on the South Rim. Thus diet also may have -something to do with its unusual appearance. - -At various times the Kaibab squirrel has been known as a distinct -species, _Sciurus kaibabensis_; at others, it has been considered merely -a subspecies of _Sciurus aberti_. The latter is its standing at this -time. Regardless of specific rank, it is a form that should be -stringently protected. The population is small and goes through the same -fluctuations as _Sciurus aberti_. During the summer of 1946 only one -individual was known in the area around Grand Canyon Lodge, where they -usually were found in some numbers. At such times the heedless -destruction of only a few squirrels could conceivably result in the -extermination of this rare and beautiful animal. - - - Arizona gray squirrel - _Sciurus arizonensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... of Arizona) - -Range: Central to southeastern Arizona and adjacent parts of western New -Mexico in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with the native black walnuts of canyons, or often -found among the pines on canyon rims. - -Description: The common gray tree squirrel to be found in the range -given above. The Arizona gray is a large animal. Total length is from 20 -to 24 inches with a large tail accounting for from 10 to 12 inches of -this measurement. In the typical form the color is dark gray above with -underparts and feet pure white. The tail also is dark gray with a -silvery white margin. The finest examples of this species may be found -along the edge of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico. Farther -south the pelage often has a yellowish or brownish tinge. In the -mountains along the border the Arizona gray squirrel should not be -confused with the Mexican fox squirrel (Apache squirrel) which here -barely invades the United States. The Mexican cousin, about the same -size as _Sciurus arizonensis_, is definitely yellowish brown and has -lighter underparts of the same color. Like other large tree squirrels of -the west, the Arizona gray builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs, -usually in the upper branches of a deciduous tree. Young, four or five -to a litter; under exceptionally favorable conditions two litters may be -reared in one season. - -When compared with the royal tribe of Abert's squirrels, this common -gray animal of the Southwest seems but a peasant. When it is seen alone -comparisons are forgotten. Deliberate in its movements, whether crossing -the forest floor or traveling the leafy aisles of the tree tops, it -seems always to have calculated its next maneuver. The result is a -careless grace that presents the sturdy body and beautiful tail to the -best advantage. Calm in temperament and with but little of the -suspicious nature that is characteristic of the smaller squirrels, the -Arizona gray may easily be tamed in outdoor surroundings and becomes one -of the most satisfactory of wild friends. It is not recommended, -however, that they be fed from the hand or handled at any time. -"Familiarity breeds contempt" is a saying that does not apply to humans -alone. A squirrel's bite can be serious as well as painful. - -Both Mearns and Bailey, who wrote of this species many years ago, -mention it as occurring mostly among the walnut trees of the Upper -Sonoran Life Zone. Perhaps during the intervening years the press of -civilization has driven them from their chosen habitat into a higher -elevation. At any rate, although they still frequent the more isolated -valleys, they are now found also in considerable numbers among the pines -of the Transition Life Zone. The rough broken country along the Mogollon -Rim seems best suited to their requirements, and they are now quite -abundant there. - - [Illustration: Arizona gray squirrel] - -Along the border of the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones this -adaptable animal finds a wide variety of food. Although the squirrels -generally are known as gatherers and storers of nuts, there are many -other types of vegetable food that they will take when conditions -warrant. The cambium layer of bark and leaf buds of various species of -trees are eaten in spring when nut stores have been depleted. Berries, -fruit, and even flowers form a considerable part of the diet during the -summer. In the fall the ripening crop of pine nuts and walnuts provides -not only food for immediate use but stores for the long winter season -when, unless enough has been laid by, the unfortunate may starve to -death. The gathering period is a time of unremitting labor. From dawn to -dusk the squirrels work feverishly carrying nuts to the hiding places -they have selected. Sometimes these are in a hollow tree or a nest, but -usually the harvest is buried in the humus and debris that collect about -the bases of trees. - -There are two phases to the work. In the first the squirrel works in the -tree cutting off the cones or nuts and letting them fall to the ground. -When a considerable number have been thrown down, it descends and -carries them away, one at a time. The latter operation is the most -dangerous since enemies have an undue advantage over this aerialist when -it is on the ground. During the harvest the squirrels plainly show the -effects of their work. In gathering pine cones the fur of their forelegs -and undersides becomes matted with pitch. The juice of walnut fruits -(related to the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_, which the early -pioneers used as a source of dye for coloring their hand-loomed cloth) -stains their underparts a dirty brown. These marks of their labor remain -with them until the summer coat is shed to make way for the heavy winter -pelage. - -When the generic name _Sciurus_ (meaning shade-tail) is mentioned, I am -reminded of an Arizona gray squirrel I observed several years ago. -During late fall my wife and I were camped near the headwaters of the -Hassayampa River in a mixed forest of hardwoods and conifers. Our -arrival had interrupted the work of a squirrel which was gathering -walnuts in the immediate vicinity, but he soon became accustomed to our -presence and renewed activities. Every sunny hour he was busy storing -the nuts, many of them at the base of an old pine tree near camp. -Shortly thereafter a fall storm set in and lasted for several days. It -developed into a pattern of misty drizzle followed by periods of -clearing weather when the sun might appear for a few minutes. During -sunny intervals the squirrel would appear, but as soon as it became -overcast again he would as quickly disappear. Finally we discovered his -retreat. When it would threaten more rain he would run up the trunk of -the pine to the first branch. Here he would turn his rump to the hole -and hunch up into a small furry ball with his long bushy tail laid -forward over his back and head and extending down in front of his nose, -forming an admirable protection against the few drops that spattered -down through the thick foliage overhead. - -Squirrels are not the only animals who use their bushy tails for -protection against the elements. Many mammals curl up and wrap the tail -around themselves for warmth, but only the squirrel tribe has a tail -long, wide, and flat enough to be used as a roof. Though the origin of -the term _Sciurus_ has been lost, it is not too far fetched to suppose -that it was suggested by a squirrel's use of its tail as a parasol. - - - Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel - (DOUGLAS SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE) - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti_ (Greek: tamia, steward and Latin: - sciurus, shade-tail ... of the Hudson, named after Fremont) - - [Illustration: spruce squirrel] - -Range: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico in the Hudsonian and -Canadian Life Zones. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Conifer forests, preferably spruce, in the higher mountains. - -Description: A small gray squirrel, usually the only squirrel to be -found at the elevation at which it lives. Total length 13 to 14 inches. -Tail 5 to 6 inches. Two distinct colors of pelage are seasonal. The -winter coat is olive gray to rufous gray above with lighter underparts; -the summer coat is brownish gray to yellowish gray with almost white -belly and feet. A black stripe along the sides is prominent at all -seasons. The tail is narrow and noticeably shorter than the body. It is -gray beneath, rufous gray above, with black border and a black tip. -Little is known of the breeding habits. The four young are born in early -summer and by August are usually out foraging with the mother. - -Spruce squirrels (distribution shown in accompanying map) include -several of the more than two dozen varieties of red squirrels in the -United States belonging to the species _hudsonicus_. Combined with -several subspecies of the Douglas squirrels, (species _douglasi_, the -"chickaree" of the far western mountains), they make up the genus -_Tamiasciurus_. This term, a combining form of _Tamias_ (the genus of -chipmunks) and _Sciurus_ (that of squirrels) clearly indicates -relationship of the red squirrels to both groups. It is equally apparent -in the field where the short narrow tail, the black stripe along the -side, and the nervous disposition remind one of the chipmunks, while the -arboreal habits, comparatively large size, and coughing bark are -distinctively squirrel-like. - -The spruce squirrel is seldom, if ever, found below an elevation of 6500 -feet, and then only in the shady canyons on the northern exposure of -mountains. From this low it will be found up to timberline, or rather -just below that point at which the trees are too stunted to offer the -required protection. It prefers the dense shade of heavily forested -areas, so is rare near the southern limit of its range, and increasingly -common in the northern portion. - -In common with the rest of its group, this bright-eyed little animal -keeps well informed on everything that goes on in the territory it has -chosen as its own. Any intruder is thoroughly investigated, then as -thoroughly castigated, and driven out if possible. Since these squirrels -seem to recognize each other's domain, a trespasser of its own kind -usually leaves at the first sign of trouble. With larger animals and -humans the attack consists of psychological rather than physical -warfare. From a limb at a safe distance above the ground, the doughty -warrior chatters and scolds with increasing vehemence as long as a -passive interest is displayed by the imagined adversary. At the first -threatening movement it disappears in a flash around the opposite side -of the tree. Scratching noises and falling flakes of bark, together with -noises of peevish defiance, indicates that it is working its way up the -trunk. Suddenly it reappears on another limb some distance above the -first and the real show begins. Paroxysms of rage, stamping of feet, -waving of tail, and streams of invective all are meant to show that one -step closer spells trouble. A few squeaks from your pursed lips and this -tremendous bluff gives up to curiosity. In a few minutes the erstwhile -challenger is back on the first limb trying to make out what this -strange creature is about. This amusing procedure can be carried out -over and over again, and usually is, just to observe the stuttering -rages of which this tiny creature is capable. With more considerate -treatment they soon become quite tame, although even then a quick -movement will send them helter skelter to the closest tree. - -It is well that this squirrel is a quick and tireless worker. The seeds -it extracts from the spruce cones are so tiny it takes an enormous -number of them to provide that energy. With such a quantity to handle, -it is not so careful in storing the crop as some larger squirrels. A -comparatively few cones are buried in the soft loam beneath the trees; -the rest are stuffed into holes beneath the spreading roots or simply -piled in heaps near the base of the trunk. In a year when cones are -plentiful there may be a bushel or more in one of these piles. With -several such piles within easy reach of the warm nest fastened in the -branches of a nearby conifer, the small harvester has prospects of an -easy winter ahead. Only in the most inclement weather are these active -animals confined to their nests. They keep tunnels open to their -supplies, and each snowfall adds to the security of the caches. All -winter long the stockpiles diminish while the snow beneath some favorite -perch becomes littered with the scales and discarded centers of the -cones. By spring, which comes late at this elevation, the cones are gone -and the squirrel returns to its summer diet of leaf buds, seeds, -berries, mushrooms, and herbs. - -The spruce squirrel is the last of what might be called the true -squirrels in this book and, because the group has much in common as -regards food, enemies, and relations to mankind, a short summary might -be in order. - -As has been mentioned, the principal diet of these animals is vegetable. -However, all of them, if opportunity offers, will take birds' eggs and -young birds. This is not intended in any way as a condemnation of the -squirrel tribe. Their inroads on the bird population are what might be -termed "natural losses." Nature long ago established a norm in bird -reproduction which takes such losses into account. - -The enemies of squirrels are legion. From the air, the larger hawks and -owls, and even eagles, are ever alert to swoop in on them. On the ground -lynx, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes take their toll. In northern Utah and -Colorado the marten is one of the most important local controls on the -squirrel population. Fast and powerful, the marten is equally at home on -the ground or in the trees, and it is a fortunate squirrel that can -escape one. The toll taken by all of these predators is high, yet the -natural fecundity of the squirrel is so great that the population -sometimes gets out of hand and disease has to eliminate the surplus. - -In their relationship to man the squirrels are among the most remarkable -of our native mammals. It is not ordinarily the purpose of this book to -point out the economic importance of our mammals, but the beneficial -work carried on the squirrels is too important to pass by. One of the -most valuable natural resources that America has is forests. To the arid -Southwest the mantles of living green that cover the mountains are -invaluable. These are sweeping statements, but they are sober facts. - -Squirrels play a considerable part in perpetuating this national -heritage. The fact that they do this more or less accidentally merely -serves to call attention to the subtle patterns in which all living -things move to serve one another. Take their simple mechanics of storing -a pine cone, for instance. A hole is dug to a depth of several inches in -the soft duff under a shady conifer. The cone is pushed firmly into the -bottom of the hole and tamped into place with several vigorous shoves of -the nose. Then the hole is carefully filled and smoothed over so that no -marauder will discover it. This procedure may be repeated hundreds of -times by one individual. If the animal never returns (and the rate of -mortality among squirrels is high), the cone can be considered planted. -Not only is it planted at the correct depth and in the most suitable -material for successful germination and growth, but it is full of plump -fertile seeds. Through some instinct the squirrel knows which nuts and -cones are healthy and fully developed. If you doubt this, examine some -of those they have left on the tree. Invariably they will be infested by -insects or "inferior" in some other respect. One of the favorite sources -of pine nuts for reforestation projects in the Northern States is the -stockpiles of the red squirrel. The scales of the cones are tightly -closed when they are taken, but as they open on the drying floor the -healthy, fertile nuts prove the unerring judgment of the harvester. - - - Northern flying squirrel - _Glaucomys sabrinus_ (Greek: glauco, silvery and Greek: mys, mouse) - -Range: Widely distributed throughout most of our Northern States and -Canada. In the section covered by this book, found only in northeastern -and south central Utah, with possible occurrence in northwestern -Colorado. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Associated with conifer forests of Transition to Alpine Life -Zones. - -Description: Our only airborne mammal with a long bushy tail. Total -length 9-3/4 to 11-1/2 inches. Tail 4-1/2 to 5-1/2 inches. -Characteristic of this species is the fold of skin along each side from -the fore to the hind leg. There is considerable color variation in the -numerous subspecies of this squirrel. In general the upper parts vary -from dark brown to cinnamon brown. Sides of face gray; underparts white -to pinkish cinnamon beneath. Hind feet are brown, fore feet gray. The -flying membrane is brownish black above, white to cinnamon beneath. The -eyes are large and dark brown. Young, two to six in a litter, born in -spring; a second litter is sometimes produced in early autumn. - -Because flying squirrels are almost entirely nocturnal, they are seldom -seen. This is unfortunate, for they are among the most interesting -forest creatures. Probably more people have seen flying squirrels -through the predations of a house cat than in any other way. Gentle and -unafraid, the squirrels fall easy prey to this night prowler, which -sometimes brings them home to show its owners. Strangely enough, the -victims often are not injured seriously, and if taken from the cat and -allowed to recover from their initial fright they will glide about the -room with much of the grace they display in the wild. - -Properly speaking, these squirrels do not fly; that is to say, they are -incapable of sustaining level or ascending flight. Rather they climb to -some height in a tree then launch out and glide to a lower point, -usually the trunk of another tree. As the angle is usually quite sharp -they attain considerable speed. They check this momentum by inclining -upwards just before reaching their objective. This results in a -four-point landing against the tree trunk, sometimes with an impact that -can be heard for some little distance on a quiet night. During these -flights, which may extend 50 yards or more, they are able to change -direction or maneuver against wind currents. This is done by -manipulating the flying membrane and using the tail as a rudder. After a -flight they usually ascend to the safety of the foliage above. They -cannot be considered awkward on the ground, but it is not their chosen -habitat. Flying squirrels are more arboreal than any of our mammals, -excepting a few species of bats. - - [Illustration: northern flying squirrel] - -Little is known of the habits of this unusual squirrel, but they differ -considerably from those of its relatives who are active during the sunny -hours. Instead of living in a bulky nest hung in tree branches, this -nocturnal aerialist chooses a hollow tree or an abandoned woodpecker's -hole where the sun's rays never penetrate. Nests have been found also -under slabs of bark hanging to old lightning-blasted snags. Lined with -soft fibers and shredded bark, they often shelter whole families of -flying squirrels for, unlike the other squirrels, these gentle creatures -get along together. In fact, they might almost be considered gregarious. -Contrary to ordinary squirrel behavior, they never bark or scold. Their -only utterance is a fine whistling squeak, and this is heard usually -only in the nest. - -Though delicate in appearance the flying squirrel is extremely hardy. It -is abroad throughout the winter, being confined to its nest only during -stormy weather. It stores food for the winter, but its caches are -usually above ground in hollow trees and crevices rather than buried in -the loam. Their food consists mostly of pine nuts, seeds, and acorns, -but they are also fond of meat. Many a flying squirrel has met its death -trying to take the bait from a trap set for larger game. This taste is -unexplained; it is not known to prey on other animals. - - - Western chipmunks - Genus _Eutamias_ (Greek: eu, well or good and tamias, steward) - -There are at least four species of chipmunks native to the area covered -by this book. Ordinarily but one, or perhaps two, species of a genus -have been chosen for discussion. In this case, however, the chipmunks -are such provocative little creatures and their presence causes so much -interest that all four species will be included, although briefly. Since -the ranges and life zones of some of them overlap in many areas, -positive identification of a species will be difficult in those places, -but in others one species will be dominant or alone. Here the more -subtle characteristics and behavior of that type can be fixed in mind, -and in time it will be less difficult to separate one from the other. -Remember that most of these species have several subspecies. These -generally occur along the upper or lower edges of the life zone -frequented by the type. In the field they are usually indistinguishable -from the type to any but the most practiced observer. - - 1. Colorado chipmunk (_Eutamias quadrivittatus_) - - [Illustration: Colorado chipmunk] - -Range: Northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, most of Utah, and all but -the most northern portion of Colorado. This chipmunk lives largely in -the Transition Life Zone. The closely related species _umbrinus_, -commonly called "Uinta chipmunk" inhabits the Canadian and Hudsonian -Life Zones in the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains of northeastern Utah. - - [Illustration: _Colorado_] - - [Illustration: Uinta chipmunk] - - [Illustration: _Uinta_] - - 2. Gray-necked chipmunk (_Eutamias cinereicollis_) - - [Illustration: gray-necked chipmunk] - -Range: Central Arizona eastward into southwestern and south central New -Mexico. Total length 7-1/2 to 10 inches. Tail 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. -Transition Life Zone and above. _Neck and shoulders gray._ - - [Illustration: _Gray-necked, Cliff_] - - 3. Least chipmunk (_Eutamias minimus_) - - [Illustration: least chipmunk] - -Range: Western Colorado, western Utah, northern and eastern Arizona, -northern and central New Mexico. Inhabits all zones from Upper Sonoran -to Alpine. Total length 6-2/3 to 9 inches. Tail 3 to 4-1/2 inches. _The -smallest chipmunk with proportionally the longest tail. Tail carried -straight up when running._ - - [Illustration: _Least_] - - 4. Cliff chipmunk (_Eutamias dorsalis_) - - [Illustration: cliff chipmunk] - -Range: North and western Utah extending through southeastern Arizona and -western New Mexico. Found mainly in the Upper Sonoran Zone. Total length -8-4/5 to 9-1/2 inches. Tail 3-4/5 to 4-1/2 inches. _The most -indistinctly striped of any of these chipmunks._ - -Generally speaking, chipmunks are the link between ground squirrels and -tree squirrels. Physically they have characteristics of both groups, a -combination that is pleasing indeed. A field mark that is a positive -identification of the chipmunk group is the striped face. In addition to -facial stripes, chipmunks also are striped along the back. The pattern -consists of a dark to black median line bordered by two more similar -lines of varying intensity along each side. These fine lines are -separated by broader bands of contrasting color ranging from chestnut to -white. The latter characteristic is shared by several of the ground -squirrels, which often are confused with chipmunks. Predominant colors -of southwestern chipmunks run to rufous, chestnut, and grayish white -with the dark to black lines mentioned above. Underparts are always -considerably lighter than the back. Chipmunks' tails are usually shorter -than their bodies, flattened horizontally, and short haired when -compared with tree squirrels. All species have cheek pouches of -considerable capacity. - -As will be seen from ranges given above, habitat of the chipmunks -encompasses the whole area from sagebrush-covered foothills to -timberline. Their densest population, however, is to be found in thick -forest about midway between these two extremes. Here their bright colors -and sprightly actions do much to enliven somber surroundings. Despite -their wonderful climbing ability, they are most often seen at ground -level or just a little higher. They are fond of areas containing fallen -trees. The prostrate trunks serve admirably as highways for their forays -in search of food, and under the litter which accumulates around them -are many havens into which a hard pressed chipmunk may pop when pursued -by an enemy. The territory appropriated by each of these little -creatures is explored with the most minute care, and all places of -refuge are noted for future emergencies. Any attempt to chase them will -reveal their uncanny memory for these temporary hiding places and that -they are seldom at any great distance from one. - -Their permanent homes usually are underground, excavated beneath the -roots of trees or in rocky terrain. At the end of a narrow tunnel a room -of considerable size is worked out. The dirt is often carried out by a -side tunnel, which is permanently plugged with soil when the excavation -is completed. The underground chamber is lined with soft grasses and -fibers as insulation against the cold. At the higher elevations the -ground may freeze to a depth of several feet during the long winters. -Permanent nests are sometimes built in hollow logs, but almost never in -holes in upright trees. Chipmunks have little taste for upstairs -apartments. In addition to the large cavity which contains the nest, -several storage chambers are constructed to hold the winter's food. -These may be connected to the main apartment by tunnels or may be -entirely independent of living quarters and some distance away. As a -special feature, many of the more elaborate homes have a separate -chamber reserved for sanitary purposes. Like most of our native rodents, -chipmunks are fastidiously clean in their habits. - -It is difficult to discuss the habits of a group as large and of such -wide distribution as our southwestern chipmunks in any but a most -superficial manner. In general they are much more terrestrial than -squirrels and prefer brushy, rock terrain to the more open forests -frequented by their larger relatives. Nevertheless, they are adept -climbers and do not hesitate to take to the trees in search of food or -to escape their enemies. These arboreal excursions are usually limited -to one tree; they do not ordinarily attempt the daring leaps from one to -another that are characteristic of the squirrels. They progress quietly -while on the ground, threading their way through the undergrowth so -expertly that their presence is often undetected. - -Normally chipmunks are shy creatures at first acquaintance, but if their -friendship is encouraged they often become bold to the point of being -unwelcome. Woe to the camper whose grub box is invaded during his -absence. These tiny opportunists can carry away a surprising amount of -food in a very short while. Their natural diet differs widely according -to habitat. Chipmunks of the foothills eat a great variety of grass -seeds, berries, and cactus fruits. These are possibly the favorite foods -of the whole group, but as the elevation increases this supply becomes -limited and is supplemented by juniper berries, acorns, and pine nuts. -Considerable quantities of these less perishable foods are laid away for -future needs. During the summer months herbage, fungi, small tubers, and -some insects add variety to an otherwise dry menu. - -It is doubtful if any southwestern chipmunks enter true hibernation -during the winter. Those of lower elevations are active throughout the -colder months, except when a period of exceptionally inclement weather -will force them to remain underground for a few days. At higher -elevations they will disappear, perhaps for weeks at a time, but it is -assumed they remain active in their underground quarters. The fact that -during the fall they do not lay on a coat of fat, like many species -which are known to hibernate, substantiates this theory. - -Breeding habits of chipmunks are not too well known. The number of young -averages from four to six. Those species living at low elevation -sometimes bear two litters each year; those at higher elevations are -limited to one. Like the ground squirrels, the young are able to leave -the burrow when but little more than half grown. At this early age they -present a rather ludicrous appearance with their large heads and -sparsely-haired tails. This is a time of great danger, for the -youngsters are easily caught by predators which would be eluded with -little difficulty by a mature individual. Principal predators of the -chipmunks are bobcats, hawks, foxes, and coyotes. The last two often dig -out the burrows. The marten is possibly their worst enemy, but -fortunately for the chipmunk tribe is a rare animal throughout its -range. - -Chipmunks are quite common in several of our southwestern National Parks -and Monuments. Despite signs to the contrary, the public cannot resist -feeding these little beggars, and many are the situations that develop -from this practice. I recall camping at Bryce Canyon National Park where -the least chipmunk is a common resident. Upon our return from Rainbow -Point one day we spied a chipmunk with bulging cheek pouches leaving our -tent for its den somewhere on the edge of the canyon rim. We found that -our visitor had entered the grub box and gnawed a neat hole in the top -of a carton of rice. Although we had been gone but a short time, more -than half the contents had already been carried away. This was a state -of affairs that needed mending so we decided to teach the marauder a -lesson. On his return trip we waited until he had entered the carton and -then clapped a dishtowel over the hole. The cellophane window in the -side of the carton gave us an excellent view of our prisoner. -Interrupted in his pilfering, he at first tried to get out of the carton -but, finding no exit, returned to stuffing his cheek pouches with more -rice. When they were filled to capacity he calmly sat back and returned -stare for stare. In the end we let him go and gave him the rest of the -rice, exacting such payment as we could by taking pictures of his -labors. - - - Golden-mantled ground squirrel - _Citellus lateralis_ (Latin: citellus, swift, and lateralis, belonging - to the side, referring to the stripe along the side) - -Range: Western United States and Canada. In the area covered by this -book to be found in western Colorado, from northeastern Utah south -through central Utah to central Arizona thence east into western New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Higher mountains of this area. Usually found in evergreen -forests of the Transition, Hudsonian, and Canadian Life Zones. It -sometimes occurs near the upper limits of the Upper Sonoran Zone. - -Description: A chipmunk-like ground squirrel lacking the stripes along -the sides of the face characteristic of the chipmunks. Total length -8-1/2 to 12-1/2 inches. Tail 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. There is much color -variation in this species. Head coppery to chestnut, upper surfaces of -body brownish gray to buffy. A light to white stripe bordered with black -is present on each side of the back. Under surface of tail gray to -yellow. Tail short but fully haired. Under surfaces of body lighter, -gray to buffy gray. Legs short, body chunky in comparison with -chipmunks. Young, four to eight, with but one litter each year. - -The golden-mantled ground squirrel has been chosen from the rather large -group of southwestern ground squirrels because it is most typically a -mountain dwelling species. As such it does not have the advantages of a -long summer season like its lowland relatives. This results in two -definite periods each year. One is feverish activity during summer, a -time of breeding, rearing the young, storing food, and laying on fat for -the cold months ahead. The other in winter is the exact opposite--a long -interval of hibernation when, buried deep under the snow in a snug -burrow, the squirrels sleep away the winter. - -Though hampered by the short summers of higher elevations, the -golden-mantled ground squirrels manage to lengthen the season slightly -by a very simple expedient. Instinct prompts them to dig their burrows -on a southern exposure, often under the base of a log or in a rock -slide. Here the snow melts away first and they often have a bare spot of -ground in front of the burrow several weeks in advance of the season. -The squirrels emerge from their long sleep weak and emaciated, and their -first days above ground are spent soaking up the warm sunshine and -waking up, so to speak. During this period they live on stores laid away -the previous summer, and by the time the snow has melted they are fully -active and ready for mating. - - [Illustration: golden-mantled ground squirrel] - -As with the ground squirrels of lower areas, the summer diet consists -largely of whatever starts to grow first. During late spring, grass, -buds, young leaves, and flowers are eaten. Later, seeds of the annuals -are gathered, berries are taken whenever possible, and insects often -form a considerable part of the diet. As fall comes on, acorns, pine -nuts, and a great number of smaller seeds and fruits become available. -At this time the ground squirrels must not only lay on enough fat to -maintain themselves through hibernation, but must also store away enough -food to tide them over between the time of their emergence and the -appearance of new growth. Evidently this is an adaptation forced upon -them by the exceptionally long winter season. Most rodents which lay on -coats of fat preparatory to hibernation depend almost entirely on it to -carry them through. With a hibernating period of from 5 to 7 months, -however, it is not difficult to realize the problems this ground -squirrel must face. - -Though the golden-mantled ground squirrel resembles the chipmunks in -appearance, its temperament is quite different. Chipmunks are bright, -nervous little sprites, always pursuing their activities with explosive -energy. The ground squirrels move more sedately, as though they had -planned every move and there was no hurry. They love to lie in the sun -in some exposed place and watch the rest of the world go by. In habitat, -too, the species differ materially. Chipmunks choose thick undergrowth -where they can go about their business unobserved. Ground squirrels -prefer more exposed locations where they take their chances in the open, -but with one eye always cocked aloft as insurance against attack by hawk -or eagle. Creatures of the earth, they are always reluctant to climb. -Rarely do they ascend more than a few feet, and then only to reach some -especially toothsome delicacy that their keen noses have detected in a -low shrub or small tree. - -With its wide distribution, visitors to the southwestern mountains can -hardly fail to notice this golden-headed member of the ground squirrel -family. It is easily tamed; too easily in fact for, like the chipmunk, -it can quickly wear out its welcome. In many of the National Parks and -Monuments they compete with chipmunks for the crumbs around camp sites -and picnic tables. Visitors find their cunning way irresistible and feed -them despite warnings to the contrary. Because they do tame so easily -there is always danger that some well-meaning person will attempt to -pick them up. This can lead to unpleasant results. Their long sharp -incisors can inflict a serious wound. - -One of the most fascinating places to observe both chipmunks and these -ground squirrels is from the windows of the long tunnel leading -northward out of Zion National Park. On the talus slopes beneath the -windows a great number of these rodents take up summer quarters, -depending for food on the largesse distributed by visitors as they eat -their picnic lunches on the broad ledges of the windows. Their constant -movements as they run among the rocks seeking stray crumbs result in -many a collision and often an angry dispute as well. This proves a -dangerous game, as rocks sometimes will be loosened by their movements -and roll down the steep incline. I recall seeing a ground squirrel -crushed by one of these miniature rock slides in 1946. - - - White-tailed prairie dog - _Cynomys gunnisoni_ (Greek: kun, a dog and mys, mouse ... for Captain - Gunnison whose expedition took the type) - - [Illustration: white-tailed prairie dog] - -Range: Western Colorado and eastern Utah to central Arizona and New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Grassy meadows and mountain parks mainly in the Transition Life -Zone although they are often found both above and below this area. - -Description: A ground-dwelling rodent somewhat resembling a ground -squirrel but several times larger than the biggest species of that -genus. Total length 12-1/2 to 15 inches. Tail 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 inches. -Weight 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 pounds. Color buff to cinnamon buff, the short -fully-haired tail tipped with white. Sides of face darker with a dark -area over the eyes. Legs, feet, and underparts pale cinnamon buff. -Young, usually five in number, born in early summer. - -_Cynomys gunnisoni_ is the representative species of the western group -of prairie dogs. The two remaining of the group, _Cynomys leucurus_ and -_Cynomys parvidens_, both white-tailed species, are very similar and -possibly will be classified with _Cynomys gunnisoni_ in the future. -_Cynomys leucurus_ is found in northwestern Colorado and northeastern -Utah, while _Cynomys parvidens_ is native to mountainous valleys in -central Utah. - -The common name "white-tailed prairie dog" is usually applied to -_Cynomys gunnisoni_, the most widely distributed member of the race. The -range of this species borders on but seldom overlaps that of the -black-tailed prairie dog which lives farther east and at lower -elevation. Climatic and geographic barriers separating these two races -are largely responsible for pronounced differences in their habits. -Prairie dogs are gregarious creatures, perhaps more so than any other -rodent. Formerly the black-tail species inhabited countless thousands of -acres in the Great Plains region. A single colony might occupy an area -several miles in diameter and number many thousands. On this relatively -flat land, every home site was equally advantageous and the grass and -herbage all ideally suited to the prairie dog's use. Periodic flooding -of their burrows on these level prairies was avoided by building conical -mounds with a rim of earth around the entrance. This ingenious practice, -simple though it seems, represents a long step in the adaptation of -these animals to their environment. - -White-tailed prairie dogs, on the other hand, are limited to the narrow -valleys and infrequent open meadows of the mountains. Here there is -neither room nor food to maintain the huge colonies characteristic of -the black-tailed. Under these conditions the number of individuals in a -town will vary from a few to 200, seldom more. If the town becomes -crowded, many of the inhabitants may migrate to some more favorable -location. This sometimes entails a trip of several miles, a hazardous -undertaking for a small animal whose only escape from large predators is -in an underground burrow. - -Food of this mountain prairie dog is varied. The standard diet of grass -and roots is augmented with browse, bark, and tubers. Bulbs of mariposas -are taken wherever available. Coarse-leaved annuals such as sunflowers -are not passed by. In addition to this vegetable diet, worms, beetles, -and larvae as well as mature forms of most insects are eaten whenever -possible. - -Burrows of white-tailed prairie dogs, though comfortable, are not made -with the painstaking care found in those of the lowland species. There -is no need for a conical mound or built-up rim because there is -virtually no drainage problem on the sloping terrain of the mountains. -Naturally the burrows will not be excavated in the path of flood waters, -but on higher ground. Earth brought out from the underground workings is -piled to one side or in front of the entrance. The mound thus formed is -used as a place to sun bathe or, even more important, as a look-out post -from which to see all that goes on. Because these small colonies do not -have the advantage of numbers, each individual must be especially alert -to approaching danger. Burrows often have more than one entrance, each -with its well-packed sentry post at hand, the underground plan is -simple. It consists of a more or less vertical shaft from which one or -more tunnels extend horizontally. It is common supposition that the -prairie dog digs deeply enough to strike water. This is not so; many -burrows do not go deeper than 6 feet. In any event, they penetrate just -far enough to insure a comfortable average temperature in both summer -and winter. Water requirements of prairie dogs are met largely by the -succulent nature of their food. It is also presumed that during late -summer months when the diet consists to some extent of seeds, a chemical -process within the system transforms some of the starches to water. - -The nest is usually situated in an underground room dug at the end of a -tunnel, less often somewhere along its length. It is a bulky structure, -built of shredded bark or coarse grasses and lined with the softest -fibers obtainable. In these modern days prairie dogs do not object to -paper, rags, and wool. - -The life of the prairie dog is simple. Early in the spring it emerges -from hibernation, a bit groggy but still well padded with fat. This -nourishment sustains it until the first green shoots of grass appear. -From then on food is obtainable in an ever increasing supply, limited -only by the distance to which these indifferent runners dare venture -from their burrows. Summer is a time of eating, of dozing on the mounds -in the warm sun, and of conversing with neighbors in the shrill barking -whistles characteristic of this group. It is also a time of constant -vigilance against predators, of dust bathing to rid themselves of mites -and fleas, and of rearing the young. The four to six young are born in -late spring and first appear at the burrow entrance when about the size -of an average adult ground squirrel. Within a few days they are foraging -for themselves, and about 3 weeks later are able to make their own way. -At this time the mother frequently deserts them and builds herself a new -burrow, leaving her offspring to divide the old homestead as best they -can. As fall draws near, a thick coat of fat is put on, and by the -middle of October most of the town's inhabitants have retired for the -long winter's sleep. - - - Yellow-bellied marmot (woodchuck) - _Marmota flaviventris_ (Marmota, Dutch name of European species of - woodchuck. Latin: flavus, yellow, and venter, belly) - -Range: Northwestern United States. Common in northern to south central -Utah, northern and southeastern Colorado, and extreme north central New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life Zones in rock slides, -rocky hillsides, under rock piles, and around outcroppings in mountain -meadows. Seldom found below the Canadian Zone but often occurring in the -Alpine Zone to the very summits of the mountains. - -Description: A large, dark, brown marmot with a comparatively long bushy -tail. Total length 19 to 28 inches. Tail 4-1/2 to 9 inches. Body color, -yellowish brown to dark brown above; under parts yellow. The body fur -has a grizzled appearance. Sides of neck buffy, and sides of face dark -brown to black. Light brown to white between the eyes. The feet are buff -to dark brown. Tail dark brown above, lighter below. Young, five to -eight, born in early summer. - -This large western marmot is not too far removed from the ground -squirrels in either relationship or habits. It is the largest -ground-dwelling rodent native to the Southwest. As mentioned above, -marmots occupy a tremendous altitudinal range, reaching from above -timberline down into the Transition Life Zone. This distribution from -arctic to almost desert conditions is responsible for many variations in -their habits. Most important is the practice of estivation by those -individuals which live at the lower elevations. This summer sleep is -used as a defense against that period of drought between rainy seasons. -It usually starts early in June and ends about the latter part of July. -In the higher life zones there is no lack of green food throughout the -summer, consequently marmots there remain active. - -Because of large size and ability to make good use of its sharp teeth -and claws, the marmot's life is not so restricted as that of many -smaller ground-dwelling rodents. It has enemies, to be sure. Bears, -mountain lions, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and eagles all are alert for -a possible catch. Yet it is so well on guard and has so many burrows -that it is next to impossible to catch one above ground. Should the -marmot be surprised away from a burrow, its bold show of defense often -gains enough time to work its way to a place of safety. When cornered -its appearance alone is enough to make the average predator pause and -consider. With hair standing on end and long claws at the ready, the -marmot clatters its sharp teeth and hisses loudly at the enemy. This -pose is not all bluff. These big rodents are courageous and able -adversaries against any animal up to several times their size. As far as -man is concerned, they are timid and secretive. On many an occasion -their loud, full-toned whistles will be heard, but the whistler will be -nowhere in sight. If cornered, however, they will put up the same -courageous defense they display against other enemies, and certainly are -not animals with which to trifle. - -Burrows are usually in open places where a good view of the surroundings -is obtained. Too, they are almost always in clefts of rocks, under -boulders, or in coarse rocky soil. This lessens the probability of their -being dug out by some large predator. Each marmot usually will have -several burrows, some being "escape" means and one a permanent home. -Well-worn trails lead from one to another, for these are active animals -which travel extensively within the limits of their territories. Escape -burrows may be deep or shallow, as circumstances dictate, but the home -burrow generally is a labyrinth of long passages that terminate in a -nest chamber up to 2 feet across. Several auxiliary tunnels are usually -reserved for sanitary purposes. None is used for food storage; records -indicate that this creature does not lay up stores for later use. The -nest is the usual bulky affair, built of coarse materials and lined with -the softest grasses and fibers obtainable. - -Late to bed and early to rise is characteristic of the marmots. Classed -as a diurnal animal, they nevertheless travel about a good deal at dusk. -During the breeding season they may even make an extended trip at night -to find a mate. Sunrise signals the beginning of the marmot's day. The -slanting rays have no more than touched the boulder above its burrow -before the inmate will climb up to take advantage of their warmth. It -may stay atop its vantage point for an hour or more. There are many -things a marmot can attend to while taking the early morning sunbath. A -leisurely toilette, whistled comments to neighbors, a long scrutiny of -the terrain for possible danger--all these are matters requiring -thorough attention. - - [Illustration: yellow-bellied marmot] - -Should this procedure be interrupted by a prowling enemy, excitement -runs high. If the intruder is still some distance away, the marmot often -will stand up on its hind legs, picket pin fashion. Each explosive -whistle will be accompanied by several flicks of the tail. When it is -judged time to retire it will dash for its burrow, making sharp chirps -as it goes. Once inside the burrow it may chance another look outside, -and if the caller looks menacing enough the burrow entrance will be -plugged with earth from inside, the chirps becoming fainter as the -barricade is forced into place. Emergence from the burrow after a fright -of this kind is governed to some extent by the time of year. If it is -autumn and the marmot is about ready to hibernate, it may go to sleep in -its cozy nest and not reappear until the next day. Even in spring and -summer it will remain underground for a considerable time before -venturing out again. - -The marmot is by nature a stocky animal. Short-legged and barrel-bodied, -it can lay on a surprising amount of fat for the period of hibernation. -Length of this winter sleep depends on the elevation at which the animal -lives. On the higher mountain tops it begins about October 1. At lower -elevations it may be considerably later. Older individuals usually go -into hibernation first, presumably because they are able to lay on the -necessary fat sooner than younger ones. As a rule they retire by stages, -disappearing for several days at a time; their movements are lethargic -and they act as if already half asleep. The young of the year have spent -the greater part of the summer growing up, and it is rather a grim race -with time to determine whether they will be able to put on enough fat to -carry them through the long winter with a reserve supply, or whether -they can survive the cold weather that greets them. Especially at the -higher elevations, they do not retire until forced to do so by cold -weather. - -Hibernation is as profound with these big rodents as with many of the -ground squirrels. They will curl up into furry balls in their cozy -nests, noses covered with fluffy tails, and sink into a deep sleep that -approaches suspended animation. Bodily functions slow to a fraction of -the normal rate, and the system draws on its store of fat to survive. -The drain on this nourishment is slow, as it necessarily must be, for -this single source of food must last for a period of perhaps 5 months. - -The date of emergence varies. Although February 2nd is recognized as -groundhog day on our calendar, this date would be chilly indeed on the -peaks of our Southwest mountains. Nevertheless, the marmots do appear -before the snow is entirely gone, and once their sleep has ended they -rarely resume it, whether or not they see their shadows. - -Breeding takes place shortly after emergence. The young are born in -April or May. They are born blind; the eyes do not open until about a -month after birth. The youngsters develop rapidly, and by the time they -are half grown a daily session of sunbathing and playful tussles outside -the entrance of the den is part of their routine. By September they are -fully grown, and at this time they usually strike out for themselves, -although cases have been recorded in which the family remained together -through the first winter's hibernation. - -Marmots have always been favorites of this writer. Their clear-toned -whistle is as much a symbol of the rugged peaks and lovely fir-rimmed -mountain meadows as the coyote's barks are of the desert. Several -writers characterize marmots as "stupid." Surely this is an unfortunate -choice of word. Stupid by what standards? Can one species be compared -with another when all must live under the different conditions to which -they have adapted themselves? The mere fact that a balance of Nature has -been attained indicates that each has the adaptations, the habits, and -the degree of intelligence necessary for that species to live in harmony -with the whole. - - - Deermouse (white-footed mouse) - The genus _Peromyscus_ (Greek: pera, pouch, and muscus, diminutive of - mys, mouse) - - [Illustration: deermouse] - -Range: All life zones throughout North America. - -Habitat: Some species of deermouse can be found in almost any -association imaginable. - -Description: A large-eared mouse with white feet. Since there are many -species in this genus and most of them are quite similar, -characteristics common to the greatest number will be given. Bear in -mind that these may not hold true with every species of the genus. - -Deermice are rather small, averaging 7 to 8 inches long. Tail 3 to 4 -inches. Most species are a buffy gray above shading to brighter buff on -the sides and light buff to white beneath. Feet are always white. The -ears are large for a mouse, usually sparsely covered with short, fine -hairs, but in some species almost naked. Eyes appear black but have a -brownish shade when viewed closely in a good light. Tail long, up to the -length of head and body, as a rule sparsely haired; bicolor in some -species. Young, four to six, born almost any time of the year, with -several litters except at higher elevations where only one litter may be -born, and this during late spring. - -In the Southwest the mild climate and plentiful food supply of the lower -life zones combine to attract a great number of small rodents. By far -the greater number of species is found in the Upper and Lower Sonoran -Zones. This does not mean that mice are rare in the high mountains. They -live there in great numbers, but of fewer species. One is the -long-tailed deermouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), probably the most -outstanding member of the genus, and the most widely distributed mouse -in the United States. As might be expected, it is quite variable in -appearance, having at least three distinct color phases. These vary from -golden tan to a dark gray. All phases have a sharper bicolor tail, white -beneath and like the rest of the upper body on top. - -The deermouse is well known to those who are fortunate enough to own -summer cabins in the mountains. This is the little rodent which moves -into the cabin as soon as the vacationer departs. Fortunately it is not -so destructive as the common house mouse (which, by the way, is an -introduced species) and limits its destructiveness for the most part to -building a large and comfortable nest in which to live during the winter -months. Deermice do not hibernate, so they must prepare against the -bitter cold. However, it is not their habit to store food either, and -doubtless many of them starve to death over a hard winter. - - - Mountain vole - _Microtus montanus_ (Latin: small ear ... of the mountains) - - [Illustration: mountain vole] - -Range: The mountainous regions of northwestern United States extending -eastward to central Colorado and southward below the northern borders of -Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Valleys and grassy meadows seldom lower than the Transition -Zone. - -Description: A small sturdy rodent with short tail, total length 5-1/2 -to 7-1/2 inches. Tail 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 inches. This is a very short tail -for a rodent of this size, amounting to only about a fourth of the total -length. Color, grayish brown to black above; underparts lighter to a -silvery gray. This is but one of many species found in southwestern -mountains. The Mexican vole and the long-tailed vole are two which share -its range. They are quite similar in appearance and their life histories -also are much the same. - -In several ways this heavy-set rodent resembles the pocket gopher. The -small ears and eyes as well as the short tail are all reminiscent of -that animal. Like many other rodents, voles are quite prolific. From -four to eight young are born in a litter. The number of litters each -year depends to a great extent on the altitude. They have been recorded -in the Canadian Zone, where the summers are too short to permit the -rearing of more than one litter. In the Transition Life Zone they -commonly bear two litters and sometimes more each year. - -These are the small rodents which most people call "field" or "meadow" -mice. In the prairie states this genus is well known for its habit of -congregating under shocks of small grain and corn. Here they build their -nests and temporarily live in peace and plenty. When the shocks are -taken from the field, they are rudely evicted from their snug shelters -to fall prey to the farmer's dog or to face the prospect of building a -new home before winter descends upon them. In the West, too, this "field -mouse" makes itself at home in agricultural areas, but its native haunts -are the natural meadows in mountain valleys. Here they build tunnels in -the tangled growth of grass, and excavate shallow burrows in the soft -earth. Marshy places are particularly to their liking, because they are -quite at home in water. Too, the thick cover in these areas gives them -considerable protection from their many enemies. A normally high -reproduction rate (several litters per year with up to eight young in -each litter) coupled with a secretive way of life insures their -perpetuation. In cases where a natural balance has been upset, their -population can soar to fantastic heights. In one agricultural district -in Nevada a survey revealed an estimated 8,000 to 12,000 "field mice" -per acre. - -Voles do not hibernate. They are active night and day, summer and -winter. During winter storms they may remain in their snug nests for a -few days at a time, but with the return of clear weather, openings to -their tunnels will soon appear in freshly fallen snow. - - - Western jumping mouse -_Zapus princeps_ (Greek: za, intensive and pous, foot. Latin: princeps, - chief) - -Range: Western United States from central Arizona and New Mexico to -Alaska. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: High mountains in dry places with abundant low ground cover. - -Description: A small rodent, two-toned in color, that leaps through the -grass much like a kangaroo rat. Total length 8 to 10 inches. Tail 4-1/2 -to 6 inches. Color buffy along sides, shading to almost black on the -back and white on the underparts and feet. Tail bi-color, dark above and -light gray beneath. Ears relatively long, dark in color with light buffy -marginal lines. Eyes beady, set in long face with sharp nose. Front legs -short but hind legs and feet large and muscular. Young, four to six in a -litter, with no more than one litter a year in the higher elevations. - -The jumping mice are among the most specialized small rodents in the -United States. The genus is typically North American, only one species -being found outside this continent. At some time in the distant past -this little creature adapted itself to a mode of flight much like that -of the kangaroo and jerboa. In this respect it exceeds the kangaroo rats -and pocket mice of the United States, species to which it is distantly -related. Its general build is distinctly like that of the kangaroo, with -the same delicately formed front quarters and heavier hind quarters. The -tail, though not club-shaped like the kangaroo's, is long enough to -serve the same purpose--that of a rudder to guide the direction of -flight. The hindlegs are muscular enough to propel the body on -proportionally longer jumps than even the kangaroo. Here the resemblance -ceases, however, for the jumping mouse is not related, even distantly, -to this marsupial. The only pouches the jumping mice have are internal -cheek pouches used exclusively for transportation of food. - -Jumping mice have one more peculiarity that set them apart from most -other North American mice; they hibernate. The period of hibernation is -not a short one at the elevations at which these mice live. It may last -for as long as 6 months. Preparation for this extensive period of -inactivity consists mainly in gathering and eating grass seeds until a -thick layer of fat is stored under the skin. With the first cold weather -the jumping mice retire to previously prepared underground burrows and -sleep the winter away. - -Since they are almost exclusively seed eaters, they may have a difficult -time on emerging in the spring. Apparently there is no food cache stored -away for this period, so the hapless rodents must search for what can be -found until the grasses head out again. The method of harvesting grass -seed is unique, and once seen will not be easily mistaken. Living as -they do in a jungle of tall grass, they are not able to reach the heads -nor to climb the slender stems. Instead, they cut off the stem as high -as they can reach, pull the upper part down to the ground and cut it -again. This goes on until the head is brought within reach. Small piles -of grass stems, all cut to an average length, indicate that this is the -species which has been at work. - -Jumping mice seldom will be seen except when in flight. Then their -jack-in-the-box tactics make it almost impossible to determine what they -are really like. They are timid, inoffensive little creatures which, if -caught, will seldom offer to bite. - - - Bushy-tailed woodrat - _Neotoma cinerea_ (Greek: neos, new and temnien, to cut ... Latin: - cinereus, ashy) - -Range: Mountainous portions of western North America from Alaska south -to central California, northern Arizona and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Found usually in association with the pines of the Transition -and Canadian Life Zones; crevices in cliffs and among rock slides are -favorite nesting sites. - -Description: This woodrat will be recognized at once by its bushy, -squirrel-like tail. The several other species in the same range have the -usual scanty growth on the tail, so thin as to be almost unnoticeable. -This species is large for a woodrat; total length ranges from 12-1/2 to -18 inches. Tail 5-1/2 to 8 inches. The soft, thick fur shows wide -variation in color, as might be expected from the great range occupied -by this species with its many subspecies. In general it varies from ashy -to cinnamon above, to pure white on the underparts. Although the head -has the same general shape as that of other woodrats, its appearance is -altered somewhat by long, silky whiskers up to 4 inches in length, and -extremely large ears. The dark, beady eyes, however, are typical of the -genus. The young, from two to six, are born in early summer. This -average of four or possibly less, when the breeding habits of all the -subspecies are taken into consideration, seems low when compared with -other small rodents. The low death rate indicated probably is due not -only to this species' secretive habits but to a high order of native -intelligence as well. - - [Illustration: bushy-tailed woodrat] - -Many are the names applied to this interesting little animal. "Mountain -rat," "pack rat," "trade rat," and woodrat are some of the most common. -Several stem from the supposition that when the animal takes an article -that suits its fancy, it always replaces it with something which it -supposes to be of equal value. Observation of the creature's habits will -indicate that these "trades" are entirely by chance. These animals are -continually carrying small objects about and often drop one in favor of -another more to their liking. The fact is that the most attractive items -usually are carried to the vicinity of the nest, and so the scientific -name of one of the subspecies is perhaps one of the most appropriate for -this industrious collector. This subspecific title is _orolestes_, which -translated from the Greek means _oros_, mountain, and _lestes_, robber. - -The penchant for carrying away another's property leads to many -incidents both comic and tragic. The rats are not at all averse to -sharing a prospector's cabin, and during hours when the rightful owner -is away at work raise havoc with his possessions. During long winter -nights they are no less industrious, and the mysterious sounds of their -activities will keep even a sound sleeper awake for hours. Eventually -this becomes so exasperating that drastic action is called for. One old -prospector told me of a woodrat that had been bothering him for a long -time. Traps proved of no avail and finally one night he placed his -forty-five on a box beside his bed, together with a candle and matches. -During the night he was again awakened and quietly sat up and lighted -the candle. There on one of his cupboard shelves was the dim form of the -rat. Taking careful aim in the flickering candlelight, he pulled the -trigger and hit the animal "dead center." The heavy slug literally blew -it apart. Unfortunately it happened to be sitting directly in front of a -5-pound can of coffee. One may assume that without either woodrat or -coffee he slept soundly thereafter. - -My own experiences with this species have been no less exasperating. -When but a youth, my brother and I were quartered in an old bunkhouse -one winter. We chose the smaller of the two rooms as being easier to -keep warm, and after a thorough clean-up moved in. No rank novices, we -wired our watches to a nail driven into the wall and hung our other -valuables from a wire stretched across the room. In the morning our -socks were missing! Thereafter matters were uneventful for a week. The -woodrat would come up through a hole in the corner of the room as soon -as the lights were out. All night long it would make trips through the -connecting door into the adjoining room and carry away loads of cotton -from an old mattress on the unused bed. - -Came the week-end and the Saturday barn dance about 3 miles up the -canyon. Fresh shirts and trousers donned, coats and vests were taken -from the chair backs upon which they had been carefully hung. Behold! -One vest front was completely chewed out and carried away, presumably -for nesting material. This was the last straw; the creature must be done -away with. - -On the following night plans were laid with care. Two 5-gallon oil cans -were placed in the doorway. This left a narrow passageway just wide -enough to accommodate a small jump trap. A piece of newspaper was placed -over the trap and the end of the chain wired to the head of the steel -bedstead. A short time after the lights were put out, a scratching noise -indicated that the animal had come in through the hole. All was quiet -until its nose came into contact with one of the empty cans. Then snap! -A series of squeaks and the rattle of the chain gave warning that the -creature was climbing into bed. As it came in over the head, the wildly -excited occupants left by the foot. When the light was struck the rat -was sitting in the middle of the bed. A heavy boot soon dispatched it -and a semblance of order again returned to the bunkhouse. Strange to -say, no more woodrats came in for the remainder of the season. - -Although such experiences are the rule when this rat has moved into a -dwelling, it is a delightful creature in its native haunts. It is a rim -rock dweller; that is, it likes best to build its nest far back in some -deep crevice of a cliff. If such a location is not available it may find -a protected site in a talus slope or even among the roots of a tree. -Usually these natural fortresses are further reinforced by the addition -of a pile of sticks and miscellaneous materials piled helter skelter -over the nest. The nest itself is quite large, usually a foot or more in -diameter, built of the softest and warmest materials at hand. Somewhere -adjacent to the nest will be found one or more caches of food against -the time when the snows are deep and famine stalks the land. As has been -mentioned, the woodrat is usually associated with the pines of the -Transition Life Zone and above, and pine nuts are one of its most -popular items of food. Acorns, seeds, berries, stone fruits, and some -vegetation round out its vegetable diet. It will also eat meat whenever -available although, except for insects, shows little inclination to kill -its own. With such a varied menu, it seems entirely proper to call this -rodent omnivorous. - -One of the most characteristic marks of the woodrat's home is a strong, -musky odor. This is not an indication of uncleanliness. The animal is -most fastidious in its toilette but has this body odor in large measure. -A study skin will retain a strong trace of it for many years. Whether it -functions for an identification to others of the species is not known, -but it could well serve this purpose. - -Although classed as a nocturnal animal, the bushy-tailed woodrat is -often active throughout the daylight hours. They are not gregarious -creatures; yet, since suitable nesting sites may not be found in some -areas, other more favored localities often will harbor considerable -numbers of the animals. Overhanging ledges may shelter the piles of -litter denoting a nest every few feet. In such cases, a well-worn trail -will lead from one to the other. This is not an indication that a colony -lives there in peace and harmony. These rats are truculent creatures -among themselves, and if a stranger should venture into a nest mound, he -is evicted with many indignant squeaks and a fearsome snapping of teeth. -The interloper seems to know he is out of order and usually leaves the -nest at once without more than a token show of resistance. In neutral -territory such as a cabin, however, several woodrats may share the area -quite peacefully, but to the great annoyance of the human occupant. - -The variety of sounds produced by such a group is quite amazing. Added -to the usual high-pitched squeaks and patter of running feet are the -mysterious rustlings of paper and other objects being dragged about. A -peculiar thumping sound indicates a gait which I have never seen but -often heard at night. It must be somewhat like the leaping flight of a -kangaroo rat, at least it indicates a swift succession of leaps across a -flat surface such as a floor or roof. Perhaps the broad surface -presented by the flat of the bushy tail is of assistance in this -maneuver. Then, like most rodents, the woodrat will thump with its hind -legs as an alarm signal. This is perhaps the most noticeable sound of -all, for it marks the instant cessation of all activity for every member -of its kind within hearing distance. The "ear-splitting silence" that -follows this signal literally presses in on one in the darkness. - - - Muskrat - _Ondatra zibethicus_ (French Canadian word from the Iroquois and Huron - Indian word for muskrat. Latin: the odorous substance of the civet - alluding to the musk secreted by the muskrat) - -Range: Virtually all of North America north of the Mexican border. -Muskrats are found from near sea level to as high as 10,000 feet above -it. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This large rodent can exist only near a permanent water supply -which is deep enough to shelter it from its enemies. This may be a lake, -a marsh, or a running stream. - -Description: A large aquatic rodent whose long, flat tail undulates from -side to side when it swims. Total length 18 to 25 inches. Tail 8 to 11 -inches. Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The thick, dark brown fur of the upper -body is overlaid with brown to black guard hairs. The legs are short but -powerful. The front feet are small, but the hind feet are relatively -large and partially webbed, with stiff hairs on the edges of the webs -and along the sides of the toes. The long, black tail is flattened -vertically. It is so scantily haired that it may be said to be naked, -but is covered with small scales up to 2 millimeters in diameter. The -head is quite similar to that of a vole. The ears are so short as to -barely protrude through the fur, and the eyes are small. Average number -of young thought to be six per litter. Several litters may be born each -year. - -The presence of muskrats in a shallow lake or marsh is not difficult to -detect. This is their chosen habitat, and here in water about 1-1/2 feet -deep, they build their characteristic mounds of rushes and cat-tails. -Here they may also be seen on quiet days swimming about and carrying on -their normal activities. In much of the Southwest, however, such -favorite habitats are few and far between and the muskrats must take -their choice, if there be one, between the few permanent streams and -irrigation canals. In these altered circumstances they react quite -differently; they may often be present in considerable numbers without -anyone being the wiser. The change in habits required by this different -environment illustrates the great adaptability exhibited by many of our -most common mammal species. - -The most important requirement of a muskrat is a permanent body of water -of a depth sufficient for it to dive into and escape from its enemies. -Given this, it will at once set about constructing a home. In a lake or -marsh, there is little or no current. In sheltered bays, where wave -action is slight, the bottom often will be muddy. In the shallow water -along the shore, water plants such as tules and cattails will become -established. This is indeed muskrat heaven, for these and other aquatic -plants are both their food and building materials. The most edible -portions of the plants are the roots and the stem portions which are -below the surface of the mud. When one of these choice tidbits has been -cut free by the muskrat's sharp teeth, it is carried to some favorite -place to be eaten. This may be a mud bar well sheltered by overhanging -vegetation from prying eyes, the end of a log projecting above the -surface of the water, or perhaps the roof of the "house." The discarded -portion of the stem is buoyant and usually lodges among the remaining -plants until needed for building purposes. - - [Illustration: muskrat] - -When the muskrat house is being built, a great quantity of this flotsam -is piled up until the resultant mound may project as much as 3 feet -above the water and be 5 or 6 feet in diameter. The nest is built above -the waterline in this half-submerged "haystack." Entrance to the living -quarters is by a tunnel which usually starts through the mud a short -distance from the base of the house, goes under the edge of the -structure, then inclines upward to the nest. Only one entrance is -necessary for even if some enemy should tear through the tangle of -rushes deep enough to reach the nest, it would take so long that every -inmate could easily escape by this submarine route. The house serves one -more important purpose in the far north. When the ice lies thick over -the marsh and seals this water world away from air, the muskrats can -still take short forays under the ice for food and return again to free -air, without which no mammal can exist. - -Had the muskrat learned to build dams such as beavers construct, the -species might very well be near extinction in the Southwest, since such -structures would seriously interfere with irrigation. However, since -they have accepted conditions as they are, the muskrats do very well for -themselves in the shallow streams and irrigation ditches. In fact, their -population under the adverse conditions of today is probably far above -that of the days before the white man arrived on the scene. Do not -assume from this statement that a whole new way of life has been opened -up for the muskrat. There has always been a "bank" muskrat that lived in -burrows in the stream banks. This fast-water addict has now taken full -advantage of the artificial streams that are the forerunners of -agriculture almost everywhere in the Southwest. The burrows built into -the canal banks seem to be identical with those constructed under -natural conditions. - -The "bank" muskrat builds three types of shelters, each with a definite -and necessary function. These might be called the feeding burrow, the -shelter burrow, and the breeding burrow, respectively. The first two are -simple in design and have few variations, but the breeding burrow may be -extremely complex. If a choice is available, all burrows will be in a -bank along the swiftest flow of water, as on the outside of a curve in -the canal, for instance. This prevents the entrances from silting shut -as they would in the more quiet reaches. - -There are two types of feeding burrows. The first and more common -consists of a cut made just above water level in the side of a vertical -bank. If possible, it is behind a portiere of hanging grass or weeds, so -as to be completely screened from view. This is merely a safe place to -which the muskrat can take its food and eat without being bothered by -enemies. The second type of feeding burrow is more elaborate, consisting -of several such chambers along the bank connected by short tunnels. -These seem to be community shelters since they are used by several -individuals at the same time. The added safety provided by the -connecting tunnels seems to be the advantage in this type of dining -room. - -The shelter burrow not only affords escape from enemies, but may be a -sleeping burrow as well. It consists of two tunnels which start at -different levels under water and join just before they reach the main -chamber, which of course, is above water level. The two tunnels assure -an escape route if one or the other is invaded by an enemy. Each muskrat -may have several of these shelter burrows. The one used as a sleeping -burrow will be furnished with a soft nest of shredded leaves. Cattail -leaves are a favorite material for this purpose. Wet, green cattail -leaves in a damp underground cavern make a poor bed by most standards, -but no doubt, it seems a dry, cozy retreat to the muskrat as it emerges -dripping from its underwater tunnel. - -The breeding burrows are large and elaborate in design. There is reason -to believe they are not always the work of one individual. They may even -represent combined efforts of several generations of muskrats. Often -they are a labyrinth of tunnels connecting many nesting chambers, each -with a nest of different age. This can be determined by the yellowing of -the shredded leaves. As might be expected, there are usually a number of -tunnels leading from this maze into the water. A half dozen of these -underwater entrance tunnels is not unusual. All this room gives the -young a place to exercise before they are able to take to the water. - -Young muskrats are surprisingly precocious. They are able to leave the -nest when very small, and at 4 weeks of age are weaned and capable of -taking care of themselves, although only about one-fourth grown. At this -stage, they are peculiar looking little individuals. The fur is still in -the woolly stage, dark and bluish in color. The guard hairs have not yet -appeared, and altogether they have an unkempt appearance. This rapidly -disappears, however, when they leave the burrow. Their progress is so -rapid that young born early in the spring are believed to breed during -the following fall. - -Though ordinarily confined to the immediate vicinity of water, muskrats -sometimes are found in amazing places. The urge to travel sometimes -influences them to go across country for many miles to some other body -of water. They may also become overcrowded in an area so that food -becomes scarce and some may leave on that account. It is not uncommon in -the Middle West for them to burrow into a farmer's root cellar in early -fall and spend months in this haven of warmth and good food before they -are discovered. Floods may carry them many miles away from established -haunts and leave them stranded on high ground when the waters recede. A -muskrat found in this predicament is not an animal with which to trifle. -If it cannot escape by water, it will probably elect to make a stand. -The long, sharp incisors are formidable weapons indeed, and any enemy, -including man, had best allow judgment to become the better part of -valor. - -The tracks of muskrats are so characteristic that they cannot be -mistaken for those of any other animal. Strangely enough they resemble -to a striking degree those of certain types of extinct reptiles called -dinosaurs. The tracks of the two small front feet are close together and -overlapped somewhat by those of the larger hind feet. Between the tracks -is the sinuous trail left by the sharp-edged tail. - - - Beaver - _Castor canadensis_ (Latin: a beaver ... from Canada) - -Range: The beaver, like the muskrat, can be found almost everywhere in -North America north of the Mexican border. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near any water supply of enough volume, with or without -damming, to provide security for a beaver family. - -Description: The largest North American rodent; further distinguished by -having a broad flat tail. Total length 34 to 40 inches. Tail 9 to 10 -inches. Weight from 30 to 60 pounds. In color the beaver varies from a -deep, rich brown in the northern states to a much paler shade in desert -regions of the Southwest. The soft, rich underfur is partially concealed -by coarse, rather stiff guard hairs. The brown color of the upper parts -shades to a chestnut under the belly and on the inner sides of the legs. -The forefeet are small with well developed claws. They appear naked but -have a scanty cover of coarse hairs. The hind feet are large and webbed, -and are similarly covered with a few coarse hairs. - -The body of the beaver has somewhat the appearance of a kangaroo in that -the rear portion is heavy and appear overdeveloped in comparison with -the more stream-lined head and forequarters. Much of this impression is -gained from the heavy, flat tail which is thick and muscular at the -point where it joins the body. One of the most useful appendages -possessed by any creature, the tail is paddled-shaped horizontally and -about an inch thick in the middle, tapering to thin edges and tip. It -appears naked, but is covered with scales. - -The young, averaging four in number, are born in the late spring and, -although they are soon able to take care of themselves, the family -remains together for most of the year. - -Indications of beavers in an area are their dams or the distinctive -stumps left by their tree felling. Beaver tracks are seldom found. -Although this aquatic animal often leaves the water, and may go a -considerable distance overland, its tracks usually are obliterated by -the passage of the heavy rump and the dragging tail. - -The beaver, perhaps as much as any other factor, was instrumental in -opening up western America to civilization. Even before the Thirteen -Original Colonies had become firmly established along the eastern -seaboard, venturesome men were working westward in search of more beaver -to supply the ever-increasing demand for this soft-rich fur. Industrial -empires were founded on this traffic in skins which came from as far -west as the Mississippi River. By the early 1800's, the trappers had -penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, and in 1806, upon the return of the -Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Pacific Northwest, they swarmed to -the headwaters of the Missouri River system. Prior to this, the -Southwest had been given little attention by the fur industry. It was -considered an inhospitable region, inhabited by hostile Indians, and -with a few settlements of Spanish colonists who, up to that time, had -actively resisted the intrusions of the more aggressive Americans. -However, by the year 1820, relations had improved to such a degree that -a few of these hardy individuals were trapping on the headwaters of the -desert rivers. Later, their activities spread to include the entire -length of these remarkable watercourses. - -These were the Mountain Men, a hard-as-nails breed of frontiersmen in a -class by themselves. In the period from 1820-1854, when a large part of -the Southwest became part of the United States through the Gadsden -Purchase, they roamed the plains and mountains of the American Desert. -Their roster includes such legendary figures as Bill Williams, Pauline -Weaver, Kit Carson, and James Pattie. Their argosy was a quest for the -rich, brown beaver pelts which were a golden fleece indeed when -presented to the fur traders in far-off St. Louis. In time, their -moccasined feet beat a broad path across the western plains--a path then -known as the Santa Fe Trail, but identified today as U.S. 66, the "Main -Street of America." - -Today, many of the streams which supported beaver colonies in the desert -places have vanished entirely, and others have been so effectively -harnessed for irrigation and power that there is no place for beavers in -them. In the higher mountains, however, there are many streams remote -from civilization where clear ponds still sparkle in the sunlight, and -the splash and dripping of busy beavers can be heard on quiet, summer -evenings. Because beavers quickly become established under any -conditions which are at all favorable, they have been reintroduced into -numerous places where they had been extinct for many years. Usually this -is good conservation practice, but under some conditions, it may prove a -mistake. Ecologically speaking, beavers probably are the most important -creatures in any animal community of which they are members. This is -because these busy engineers not only impose a tremendous drain on the -surrounding area for material, very often they also radically alter the -character of the terrain to fit their own needs. - - [Illustration: beaver] - -The life history of the beaver is one of the most interesting of all -mammals. It has been studied for centuries by naturalists in both the -New and Old Worlds, for the beaver, with but few differences, is native -to both. All this study and observation notwithstanding, the habits are -still only partially known. This is because the beaver is mainly a -nocturnal creature which spends most of its daylight hours in the -concealment of a lodge or burrow. Then, too, in the northern latitudes -where the ponds are covered with ice throughout the long winters there -is little opportunity to observe this phase of its existence. There is -but one species of beaver in North America but about two dozen -subspecies. The northern types and those which live in the mountains of -the Southwest seem to be dam builders who live in beaver "lodges." Those -which inhabited rivers of the lower desert were mostly "bank" beavers -which lived in burrows in the banks of streams. This latter type is rare -today. - -Perhaps the best way to understand the ecological importance of the -beaver is through watching the rise and decline of a typical colony. -Picture if you will a small, shallow stream flowing gently down a narrow -valley in the mountains. Bordering the low banks is a thicket of alders. -Back of them a thick growth of aspens extends to the edge of the valley -and mingles with the spruce trees on the slope. Down this slope comes a -young male beaver at a clumsy gallop, his broad tail striking the ground -with an audible thump at every lope. This emigrant has struck out for -himself because the colony to which he belongs has become crowded. He -finds the stream and, since the water is too shallow to conceal him, -crouches under an overhanging bank until darkness falls. - -As soon as it becomes completely dark, he hunts for a suitable place to -build a dam and soon finds a site to his liking. On one side of the -stream a thick clump of alders projects from the bank, and on the other -a water-soaked log is half buried in the bottom of the creek. From these -anchor points, he begins his dam, building toward the middle from each -side. The work calls for a great deal of the alder brush to be cut and -sunk in the bed of the stream. There it is weighted down with rocks and -mud until secure. Additional brush is brought and interwoven with the -first; gradually the structure grows until in a few days it converts the -stream into a quiet pool deep enough to hide the beaver, should an enemy -appear. As the water rises it covers the bases of the alders, which -begin to die in the pond. - -The beaver next turns his attention to building a lodge. Selecting a -point to one side of the current entering the pond, he begins as he did -with the dam by sinking brush to the bottom and weighting it down with -rocks. As he builds, he cleverly fashions several underwater entrances -to the house that will be. When he has finished, the house projects -several feet above the water, and the materials are so thoroughly -interlaced and plastered that even the most determined enemy would -despair of gaining entry to the living room. Debris from the -construction has floated downstream to become lodged in and on the dam, -making it more secure and watertight that it was when first built. - -With the dam and the lodge both completed, the next task is to collect a -food supply for the following winter. This is carried on intermittently -during the autumn. It consists of cutting down aspens, whose bark the -beaver dearly loves, sectioning the branches and small trunks into -pieces which may be handled conveniently, and dragging them to the pond. -Once in the water, they are weighted down and will remain in good -condition for a long time. The beaver is joined in this task by a female -which has also migrated from an overcrowded colony. Two need more food -than one, consequently their trails begin to head a little farther into -the aspen forest as they work through the crisp autumn nights. These -trails converge as they leave the forest and approach the pond, and end -in a few well-developed mud slides that enter the water. Constant -traffic of the wet beavers leaving the water keeps the slides moist and -slippery. - -As winter settles in on the mountains, a thin skim of ice begins to form -on the edges of the quiet water on cold nights. Then one night it -freezes completely over. This causes the beavers no inconvenience at all -because if on one of their underwater excursions they should wish to -surface for air, they have but to swim to a shallow place with firm -bottom, and with one quick lift of their powerful muscles break a hole -through the ice with their backs. They can break surprisingly thick ice -in this way. The beavers live in comfort and plenty throughout the -winter. The living room of the lodge has been furnished with comfortable -beds of the cattails that have already become established along the edge -of the pond. The lodge, although tightly built, still admits enough air -for the beavers and food is stored in plenty on the bottom of the pond. -As the bark is gnawed from the aspen branches, the bare poles are added -to the bulk of the house or used in further construction of the dam. -Before long, the mild southwestern winter merges into spring. - -In late spring the beaver family is considerably increased by the -arrival of four miniature beavers. They weigh but 1 pound each at birth -and are fully furred. At this time, the father is ostracized and the -mother and her young live together in the lodge. When the young are -about 3 weeks old, they take to the water for the first time. They -quickly learn the beaver method of swimming; this is to kick with the -hind feet and let the forelegs trail loosely alongside the breast, using -the flat tail both as elevator and rudder. The young beavers are called -kits, and indeed are as playful as true kittens can be. It is most -amazing to watch them cavorting about in the water with as much ease as -youngsters of other mammals do on dry land. As autumn nears, this play -is exchanged for the sterner duties of existence, and the young take -their places as adults of the family. - -Fifty years pass. As the colony increases the dam must be made larger, -new lodges must be built; and when the trails to the aspen forest become -too long, canals are dug part way out to lessen the hazards which may -befall the beaver on dry land. The pond gradually silts up to higher and -higher levels until at last it is full of black, fertile soil. All of -the aspens within reach are finally cut down and the hungry beavers turn -to the resinous bark of the spruces. Finally the struggle is given up. -The beavers migrate to a new location, and the following spring a -freshet tears out the center of the dam. Now the pond is gone. With it -are gone the trout that played in its depths, and the teal that rested -there on their way south. In its place is a beaver meadow, a grassy park -in the center of the spruce forest with spring flowers spangling its -green surface. Aspens are already beginning to crowd in about its edges, -and the creek is cutting deeper into its soft soil with every spring. -Before long heavy erosion will begin to take its toll, and some day in -the future a male beaver will again come galloping awkwardly down the -slope. - -The changing conditions which such a cycle bring about are almost -impossible to evaluate. At least three climax types of environment are -represented: those of the alder thicket, the beaver pond, and the beaver -meadow. In a graphic fashion this cycle illustrates what is going on in -Nature continually, more slowly perhaps, but just as surely. - - - Porcupine - _Erethizon dorsatum_ (Greek: to irritate in allusion to the quills and - Latin: pertaining to the back) - -Range: Most of North America north of the Mexican border. Notable by -their exception are the south central and southeastern United States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually associated with conifer forest, yet may sometimes be -found miles from any forest. An inhabitant of all life zones up to -timberline (Arctic-Alpine). - -Description: A black to grizzled black and yellow creature covered with -quills. Total length 18 to 22 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight 10 to -28 pounds. Body short and wide; supported by short bowed legs. Tail -heavy and muscular, armed with short slender quills. Head small with -dull eyes and long black whiskers, but with short ears. The incisors are -extremely large and are of a bright, rich yellow color. The quills are -shortest on the face and reach their greatest length near the middle of -the back. Often they are nearly hidden in the coarse, seal brown to -black underfur. The long guard hairs are also seal brown close to the -body, but change to a rather sere yellow at the tips. Only one young is -brought forth each year in a den among the rocks, or sometimes in a -hollow log. The young are among the most precocious of any mammal. - -The porcupine in North America is considered as belonging to but the one -species _dorsatum_, although there are seven subspecies. The most common -subspecies found in the Southwest is _epixanthum_ (Greek _epi_, upon, -and _xanthus_, yellow), sometimes called "yellow-haired" porcupine. The -porcupine is unique among North American mammals in bearing the sharp -quills which are perhaps its most interesting feature. Certainly they -are responsible in large part for the unusual life history of this -misunderstood animal. - -Quills are no more than greatly modified hairs, and in sorting through -the various types of pelage on a porcupine's back, a few examples will -be found which are intermediate between the hair and the quills. This -does not mean that coarser hairs gradually turn to quills. Each follicle -produces hair or quill, as the case may be, for the life of the animal. -A quill consists of three well-defined parts: a solid sharp tip usually -black in color; a hollow shaft, which is white; and a root similar to -that of a hair. - - [Illustration: porcupine] - -The sharp tip is smooth for a fraction of an inch, but from this point -on, it is covered with a great number of closely appressed barbs. These -can be felt by rubbing the quill the "wrong" way between thumb and -forefinger. It has been found that these barbs flare away from the -surface, when the quill is immersed in warm water. It seems natural that -they would do the same when embedded in warm, moist flesh. At any rate, -quills are always difficult to extract, and if left in the victim they -penetrate ever more deeply until they may pierce some vital organ and -cause death. In other cases, they have been known to work entirely -through body or limb and emerge on the opposite side. This is due to -muscular action of the victim, some movements tending to force the point -farther, the barbs at the same time effectively preventing any retreat. - -Below the barbs the tip of the quill flares to join the shaft. Pure -white and opaque, this portion is used by Indians to form decorative -bands of quill work on the fronts of buckskin vests and jackets. This -part is also hollow, and before removal of a quill from the flesh is -attempted, a little of the end should be cut off. This collapses the -shaft and makes extraction somewhat more easy, but very little less -painful. Actually there is little excuse for a human to become involved -with one of these mild-tempered creatures, but sometimes dogs are badly -hurt in encounters with them. - -The root is the portion by which the quill is attached to the body. -Although it is a common belief that the porcupine can "throw" its -quills, the truth is that the root portion is extremely weak and the -quills are easily withdrawn from the body when the barbed tip is driven -into an enemy. In fact, any violent movement of the animal may dislodge -quills, even though nothing has touched them. There are several -well-authenticated accounts of quills having been flipped for several -feet in this way, but in each case, it was entirely accidental and -through no conscious effort of the porcupine. In other words, the -armament of this slow, awkward creature should be considered strictly -defensive in every respect. - -Like the skunk, which can also defend itself most effectively, the -porcupine has little apparent fear of its enemies. When threatened with -violence it simply brings its head down between the forelegs and turns -its rump toward the attacker. With hair and quills erect it resembles a -soft furry ball. Appearances are seldom more deceiving! The guard hairs -half conceal a spot on the back where a whorl of long quills radiates -out in a large "cowlick." Should any enemy touch these long guard hairs, -the muscular tail is thrashed vigorously about in an effort to drive the -somewhat shorter but equally keen-pointed tail quills into the attacker. -With every attempt at attack from another angle, the porcupine turns so -as to present its rump to the enemy. There is one Achilles heel, -however, in this otherwise almost perfect defense. It is the unprotected -underparts, which at times of danger are always kept pressed against the -ground or against a tree trunk. A few carnivores, among them the -mountain lion and the fisher, are known to kill the porcupine by -flipping it over on its back and tearing it open. Even these large -predators seldom escape unscathed, however, and both lions and fishers -are known to have died from the effects of quills accidentally taken -into the digestive tract. - -To those who have heard that porcupines live only on bark and always -girdle the host trees, it may come as a surprise to find that this is -only partly true. Although "bark" is eaten to some extent throughout the -year, it is seldom the main diet. When a great deal is taken from one -tree, it is gnawed off in an aimless pattern which may or may not girdle -the tree. During the spring and summer, a porcupine becomes a browser on -tender leaves and twigs in the undergrowth. In autumn and winter, it -feeds more on mistletoe and pine needles than on bark. With its low -reproduction rate, there is little danger of it eating up our forests, -unless its natural enemies are removed. - - - Northern pocket gopher - _Thomomys talpoides_ (Greek: thomos, a heap and mys, mouse. Latin: - talpa, a mole) - -Range: From northwestern United States and southwestern Canada to as far -south as northern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Soft loam in the open places in the high mountains. Seldom -found below 8,000 feet, but up to elevations of over 13,000 feet in New -Mexico. - -Description: The characteristic mounds of earth built up by this group -of burrowing rodents are usually the best indication of their presence. -The northern pocket gopher is of medium size. Total length 6-1/2 to -9-1/2 inches. Tail 1-3/4 to 3 inches. It is usually gray in color with -darker patches behind the rounded ears. Eyes and ears are small. The -short tail has a bare, blunt tip. Front claws are long and curved. The -entire body is well muscled and gives an impression of power. Average -number of young thought to be about four. At the high elevations at -which this species lives, the young are not seen until rather late in -summer. - - [Illustration: northern pocket gopher] - -The northern pocket gopher is one of the hardiest rodents on the North -American Continent. Even so, it would not be able to survive the climate -of the inhospitable regions it sometimes inhabits were it not for the -fact that is spends almost all its life underground. This creature does -not hibernate, but continues busily at the task of searching out food -when most other subterranean dwellers are curled up fast asleep in their -cozy nests. Why the gopher should continue working, while its ground -squirrel cousins sleep, is hard to say. It would seem that it has the -same opportunities to lay on fat for a winter's rest. The chief reason -seems to be that the bulbs and roots upon which it feeds are always -available so long as the gopher keeps extending its underground -workings. On the other hand, the ground squirrels, which gather their -food aboveground, are cut off from this supply as soon as cold weather -drives them to shelter. - -The pocket gophers are much alike. There are three genera and a -considerable number of species represented in the Southwest but, except -for variations due to climate and terrain, their habits are similar. -Burrows usually are constructed in deep loam or alluvial soils. These -tunnels seem to follow an aimless pattern. Their course is marked by -mounds of earth thrown out of the workings at irregular intervals. When -the gopher is engaged in throwing out this excavated earth, the entrance -to the tunnel is left open until the job is completed, then tightly -plugged to prevent enemies from entering. The tunnels themselves are -rather small in diameter, considering the size of the gopher, for if it -wishes to retrace its steps and there is no gallery near at hand in -which to turn around, it can run backward almost as easily as forward. -There are usually numerous rooms excavated along the course of the -tunnels. In one is a warm nest constructed of grass and fibers. Others -are utilized for storage rooms and at least one is reserved as a toilet, -thereby keeping the rest of the workings sanitary. When the ground is -covered with snow the northern pocket gopher especially is quite likely -to extend its activities aboveground. Here it builds its tunnels through -the snow and often packs them tightly with earth brought up from below. -This remains as earth casts, when the snow melts and forms a -characteristic mark of its presence. - -Chief foods of pocket gophers are the bulbs, tubers, and fibrous roots -encountered in the course of their diggings. Whenever an especially -abundant supply is found, the surplus is stored away as insurance -against the time when future excavation produces nothing. Gophers also -eat leaves and stems whenever available. Some plants are pulled down -through the roof of the tunnel by the roots, and some are gathered near -its mouth, although these trips "outside" are fraught with danger. -Coyotes, foxes, and bobcats all are willing to chance an encounter with -this doughty little scrapper for the sake of the tasty meal he will -furnish. - -Little is known of gopher family life. For the most part, they are -solitary individuals, avoiding others of their kind. At breeding time, -however, they may travel some distance across country to find a mate. -These trips usually are carried out under cover of darkness. The young -average four in number. They are born late in the spring and do not -leave to make their own homes until early autumn. - -Physically the gopher exhibits a striking adaptation to its way of life. -The fur is thick and warm. It keeps soil particles from working into the -skin at the same time it protects the wearer from the chill of his -underground workings. The heavy, curved front claws are admirable -digging tools. In especially hard soil, the large strong incisors are -also pressed into service for this purpose. To remove the dirt from the -tunnel, the gopher becomes an animal bulldozer. The front legs are -employed as a blade pushing the soil, while the powerful hind legs push -the body and load towards the nearest tunnel opening. The pockets from -which this creature gets its common name are never used for hauling -earth. They are hair-lined pouches located in each cheek and utilized -for carrying food to the storerooms. There they are emptied by placing -the forefeet behind them and pushing forward. Last, by virtue of its -location, but certainly not least in usefulness, is the short, almost -hairless tail. It is used as a tactile organ to feel out the way when -the gopher runs backwards through the tunnels. In some respects, it is -of more use than the eyes although the gopher uses these too, as can be -attested by the quickness with which it detects any movement near the -mouth of its tunnel. - -The gopher's place in Nature seems to be akin to that of the earthworm. -By turning over the soil, the gopher enables it to more readily absorb -water and air. At the same time, fertility is increased by the addition -of buried plants and animal matter. This is indeed a fair exchange for -the plants it destroys in its quest for food. - - - - - CARNIVORES - _Including the Insectivores and Chiropterans_ - - -This group is distinguished from other animals by having canine teeth in -both jaws. The function of these teeth is to catch and hold other -animals, for carnivores are the predators. This is the most highly -developed branch of the animal world and reaches a peak of -specialization in man who, while lacking some of the physical -qualifications of the other predators, has developed a brain which has -enabled him to gain and keep ascendancy over all other animals. -Considered with the group in this book are two other orders, the -Insectivora and the Chiroptera. These orders embrace the mammals in -North America that live principally on worms or insects rather than on -other mammals. They are the shrews and bats, respectively. - -Since carnivores are the hunters rather than the hunted, they enjoy far -greater mobility than, for instance, the rodents. It is not necessary -that they have a burrow in which to escape the attacks of other animals, -for it is unusual for them to prey upon each other. Most of the -predators remain in one area only from choice or, in the case of adult -females, in order to rear the young. Few of them hibernate; bears and -skunks do spend a considerable time during the cold weather in a torpor, -but it is an uneasy sleep at best, as anyone who has disturbed these -animals at this time can attest. As far as the Chiroptera are concerned, -some species of bats hibernate and others migrate to a warmer climate to -spend the winter. Since most of the predators are active all winter, -while many of the rodents are in hibernation, this can be a period of -famine for carnivores. At the same time, it is a season of increased -danger for those species which are still active and upon which these -predators prey. - -Because these hunters are continually stalking other animals, their -habitats are as varied as those of their quarries. Thus, the mountain -lion is a creature of the rimrock, where he can most conveniently find -deer browsing on mountain-mahogany; while his smaller cousin, the -bobcat, stalks smaller animals in the slope chaparral. The wild dogs -hunt plains and brushy country for ground squirrels and rabbits. In the -weasel family we find the marten in the treetops pursuing squirrels, the -weasel hunting mice in the meadow, and mink and otter pursuing prey near -to or in the water, Some species, such as the bears, are omnivorous and -may be encountered almost anywhere that a plentiful supply of food of -any kind can be found. Practically all of the species, excepting bats -and skunks, can be considered diurnal as well as nocturnal, but the -majority are most active during the hours between dusk and sunrise. - -Since the carnivores' purpose in Nature's scheme is to control the -vegetable eaters, it follows that each predator must be somewhat -superior, either physically or mentally, or both, to the species upon -which it preys. The associations between pursuer and pursued may be -casual with species such as the coyote, which preys on a great number of -smaller species, or they may be sharply defined as with the lynx, which -in certain localities depends almost entirely upon the snowshoe hare for -food. The apparent ferocity with which some predators will kill, not -only enough for a meal, but much more than they need, cannot as yet be -explained. This habit is most pronounced in the weasel family. It may be -that more than ordinary control is called for in the case of their host -species, rodents in most cases. Whatever the reason, this wanton killing -has not upset the balance which these species maintain. Man, the most -ruthless and intelligent predator of all, is the only species which has -been successful in exterminating others. - -The predators hold a favored place in the esteem of most naturalists. At -first, sympathy for the weak and indignation against the strong are -perfectly natural human feelings. As the necessity for control and the -wonderful way in which Nature attains a balance becomes apparent, the -role of the predator becomes more and more appreciated by the student. - - - Mountain lion -_Felis concolor_ (Latin: a cat of the same color; referring no doubt to - the smooth blending of the body coloration) - -Range: At present, mostly confined to the western United States and -Canada, and all of Mexico south to the southern tip of South America. -There are a number of mountain lions in Florida, and persistent reports -indicate that they may be making a comeback in a number of other Eastern -States. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: As the range indicates, habitats vary widely. Mountain lions in -the Southwest show a preference for rimrock country in the Transition -Life Zone or higher, but they are often seen in all the life zones. - -Description: A huge, tawny cat with long, heavy tail. The long tail is a -field mark identifying the young, which, having a spotted coat, -otherwise resemble young bobcats to some degree. Total length 72 to 90 -inches. Tail 30 to 36 inches. Weight 80 to 200 pounds. Color may vary -from tawny gray to brownish red over most of the body, the underparts -being lighter. The head and ears appear small in proportion to the lean -muscular body. The teeth are large, the canines being especially -massive. Like most members of the cat family, the mountain lion has -large feet with long, sharp claws. The tracks show the imprint of four -toes together with a large pad in the center of the foot. The young may -be born at any time of the year. Only one litter is born every 2 to 3 -years, and the average number of young is three. - -Probably no species of mammal in the New World equals the mountain lion -in farflung distribution. From the Yukon to Patagonia, this elusive -carnivore can still be found in considerable numbers in spite of -aggressive campaigns against it. In the United States, it is the chief -representative of the wild cats, a group noted for fierce and predacious -habits. Fortunate indeed is the person who sees one of these great -felines in the wild. This may not be as difficult as one might imagine -because mountain lions often travel through comparatively well settled -areas. It is especially possible in the Southwest, for the four-State -area covered by this book contains the heaviest population of mountain -lions in the United States. However, the comparative abundance of this -carnivore has not resulted in a better understanding of it. The mountain -lion is still one of the least known and most maligned creatures of our -times. - - [Illustration: mountain lion] - -The Mexicans know this cosmopolite as "leon." In Brazil it is called -"onca." Perhaps the most distinguished name, and rating as the first in -New World history, is "puma," given it by the Incas. Early American -settlers of the east coast called it "panther," "painter," and -"catamount." In the northwestern United States, it is known as "cougar" -and in the Southwest, as mountain lion. Although there is but the one -species _concolor_, there are a number of subspecies. About 15 are now -recognized, most of them geographical races and not markedly different -from the species. Four of these subspecies are found in the four States -with which we are concerned. One of the most interesting is -_hippolestes_ which inhabits the State of Colorado. Translated from the -Greek this is "horse thief," an appropriate epithet indeed for this -ghostly marauder. As might be expected from their vast distribution, the -several subspecies have a tremendous vertical range. In the Southwest -they are found from near sea level in southwestern Arizona to the tops -of the highest peaks in Colorado. - -In the more than four centuries that have elapsed since the white man -first set foot on soil of the New World, a great mass of folklore -concerning the mountain lion has accumulated. Half fact, half fiction, -these tales have been repeated from one generation to another and few -details have been lost in the telling; indeed, in most cases, several -have been added. Most common are those which describe its fierceness and -its attacks on man. In the main, these tales are lurid and convincing, -but they do not stand up under scientific scrutiny. It is true that such -attacks have occurred; one of the most recent and best verified was that -on a 13-year old boy in Okanogan County, Washington, in 1924. It -resulted in the death and partial devouring of the unfortunate -youngster. Yet sensational as this incident was, it resulted in -publicity far out of proportion to its importance. In fact, articles -concerning this case are still appearing at intervals. The truth of the -matter is that very few authentic cases of mountain lion attacks upon -humans have ever occurred in the United States, and that most of these -_could_ have been caused by the mountain lion's being rabid. Certainly -such attacks are not typical behavior of the normal animal. As far as -man is concerned, the lion will take flight whenever possible, and even -when cornered it is not nearly so pugnacious as its little cousin, the -bobcat. - -Other stories about the mountain lion often emphasize the bloodcurdling -screams with which it preludes its stalk of some unfortunate person deep -in the forest. The facts are that there is no reason to believe that -lions cannot or do not scream, but most authorities agree that such -vocal expressions are most likely to be made by an old male courting his -lady love or warning away a rival. The cats are creatures of stealth and -cunning that creep upon their prey as noiselessly as possible. Lions -would hardly announce their presence with the sort of screams with which -they are credited. It seems safe to say that at least 90 percent of -these alleged screams can be traced to owls or amorous bobcats. -Oftentimes these sounds have been linked to large tracks found in the -vicinity as proof that a mountain lion was in the area. This has led one -author to remark that "the witness usually is unable to distinguish the -track of a large dog from that of a mountain lion." In addition, the -infrequent screams made by captive mountain lions indicate that such -sounds in Nature would be far from spectacular. They consist of a sound -that is more like a whistle than the demoniacal wail so often ascribed -to the wild animal. - -Many stories are told of a person, usually a pioneer ancestor, who has -been followed by a mountain lion. In most cases this person has returned -to the area suitably armed and with witnesses who found tracks of the -beast together with those of their friend. Strange to say, such -incidents are not at all uncommon. They have been recorded and verified -a number of times. In these cases the animal often has made no effort at -concealment but has followed the person quite openly. Despite this -boldness it seems there is no sinister motive, merely a naive and -surprising curiosity on the part of the big cat as to what kind of -creature man is. It is most unfortunate that so little data have been -recorded in these instances, yet this is quite understandable under the -circumstances. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Finally, in most stories there is only one size of mountain lion--big! -As the story makes its rounds the lion never gets smaller; it invariably -grows larger. Somehow the records have missed all these really big -lions. Any lion which measures more than 8 feet in length and 200 pounds -in weight will be an extremely large, old male in the record class. The -average will be much smaller. Statistics show most lions to be 5 to 7 -feet in length and 80 to 130 pounds in weight for adult females, and 6 -to 8 feet in length with weights of 120 to 200 pounds for adult males. -Errors in estimating the size of these big cats are easily accounted -for. In the first place the lion is a long, low, sleek creature that -gives an impression of being longer than it is. Too, its size is -unconsciously exaggerated by many people who are impressed with its -tremendous power and agility. Many of its feats of strength seem -impossible for an animal so small. Lastly, its tanned hide may be -available for measurement. Actually this proves nothing; hides often are -stretched 2 feet or more at the time the animal is skinned, and tanning -does not shrink them appreciably. - -None of the above is meant to detract in any way from the reputation of -the mountain lion or its place in American folklore. It is the third -largest predator in the Southwest, being exceeded only by the jaguar and -the bear in size, and surpassing them both in agility. In the past, it -has been feared and hated by those whose herds and flocks have suffered -from its depredations. Their efforts to exterminate it have resulted in -grave biological problems at times, but in the light of more advanced -study it seems probable this big carnivore will be spared in the future -to keep its rightful place in our wilder areas. - -The mountain lion "goes with the deer"; that is to say, its function is -to keep deer in check so that they will not eat up their range and -starve to death. Though at first glance such a possibility seems out of -the question, this has become a serious problem in recent years. It will -be further intensified as suitable deer range becomes more restricted -with the advance of civilization. Another function of the mountain -lion-deer relationship is to weed out the diseased and inferior -individuals so that the deer herd will remain healthy and up to good -physical standards. It may be argued that the same end is reached by -hunting, and so it is, with one major exception. The nimrod, intent on a -fine trophy head, takes the buck in the prime of life, a time when he -should be sireing the herd of the future. The cougar does not -consciously select its victims; it takes the most easily caught, thus -leaving the wisest and healthiest survivors as breeding stock. - -Though deer are the lion's preferred food, many other species of mammals -are preyed upon when deer are scarce. These range in size from the -smallest rodents to animals as large as elk. Among the more unlikely -species recorded are skunk and bobcat. The lion also has the dubious -distinction of being one of the chief predators of the porcupine. Dining -on this last species is fraught with danger, however, because no matter -how expertly the carcass is removed from its spiney covering, a few -quills will penetrate the flesh of the diner. Little prey other than -mammals is ever taken. Birds are not easily caught by such a large -animal and, although it does not shun water, it is poorly equipped to -take any form of aquatic life. The mountain lion will not eat carrion -except under the most dire circumstances and prefers food that it has -killed itself. - -There are two principal methods by which the mountain lion catches its -prey. The stalk and pounce technique of the common house cat is most -effective in brushy country where the low crouch of the lion places its -bulk behind the close ground cover. With tip of tail twitching, it -creeps forward until a short run and spring, or the spring alone, will -carry it to the front flank of the unsuspecting victim. If the neck of -the hunted is not broken by the impact of the heavy body, the sharp -claws or massive canine teeth are brought into play to rip the jugular -vein and end the struggle. In the other method of hunting, the lion -chooses a ledge above a game trail and simply waits there until some -animal to its liking passes below. The weight of its body usually is -sufficient to bear the victim to the ground and it is soon dispatched. -Mountain lion studies in California have determined that in hunting deer -the animal will catch one in every three attempts. It has been estimated -that in an area of heavy deer population each mountain lion will kill -one each week. It is of interest to note that in many places in the -Southwest deer are on the increase, indicating the need for more -predators to keep down their number. - -Since the mountain lion has few enemies, its reproduction rate is low. -Two to four kittens are born in each litter, but usually at 2- to 3-year -intervals. Dens are sometimes located deep among the rocks; others may -be no more than a grass nest in the brush on a rocky ridge. Like -domestic kittens the young are born blind. They have an interesting -color pattern at birth, a strongly spotted coat and a faintly ringed -tail. This completely disappears when they are about half grown, leaving -them with the tawny reddish coat which blends so well with their -surroundings. They mature at about 2 years of age; beautifully evolved -killers which must be admired by everyone who has come to understand the -methods by which Nature regulates the animal world. - - - Bobcat - _Lynx rufus_ (Latin: name of animal, and rufus, reddish) - -Range: Common throughout much of the United States and Mexico. Found -throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This common species is found in all zones wherever there is -sufficient cover to hide it. - -Description: A bobcat distinguished from the lynx by having small ear -tufts, a more rufous color, and a black band which crosses only the -upper surface of the tail tip. Total length 30 to 35 inches. Tail 5 -inches. Weight 15 to 30 pounds. This is a chunky animal with long, -muscular legs and large feet. The sides of the face are heavily streaked -with black, backs of ears dark, coat generally tawny to rufous above, -underparts lighter. Dark spots rather prominent throughout coat, insides -of front legs often barred with darker color. Young from two to six, -usually born in early spring; only one litter per year. - -These are the most common wild members of the cat family in the -Southwest. Their distribution over the United States takes a strange -pattern, inasmuch as they are not found in several of the midwestern and -southeastern States, and in a large area in central Mexico. In all there -are a dozen subspecies of _Lynx rufus_ in North America. They are tough -little predators, among the last to retreat before the advance of -civilization. In fact, they may often be found on the very fringes of -our larger cities, existing on the rats that infest the city dump. - -In the wilder areas, which are the bobcat's appropriate home, its tracks -are distinguishable from those of the larger _Felidae_ only by their -smaller size. Like the larger members of the cat family, it is equipped -with a set of strong retractile and extremely sharp claws. Although -there are five toes on each front foot and only four on the hind feet, -the tracks of both feet are similar. This is because the fifth toe, -corresponding to our thumb, is so high on the inside of the foreleg that -normally it does not touch the ground. During normal travel the claws -are always in the retracted position and never show in the tracks. All -native cats have a tendency to place the hind feet in the tracks left by -the front feet, so that in effect each track is a double print. This may -be one of the reasons a cat's approach is so silent! - - [Illustration: bobcat] - -Bobcats have numerous traits in common with their relative, _Lynx -canadensis_ (not treated in this book because of its extreme rarity in -the Southwest), but are more versatile in their dietary tastes. While -the lynx is sufficiently dependent on the snowshoe hare that its -population corresponds closely in fluctuation with that of its "host," -the bobcat has a much less discriminating appetite. It also loves -snowshoe hares and rabbits, but takes various other mammals as -opportunity offers, and ground-living birds. Bobcats will even eat -carrion, but prefer fresh meat. They are reliably reported to eat -porcupines, young pronghorns, deer, and sheep, both bighorn and -domestic; and they sometimes kill adult deer, although this is a -difficult and dangerous proceeding. Usually a kill is at least partially -covered with debris, and the cat will return at least once to feed again -on it. - -Though bobcats are the least spectacular of our native cats they are the -most numerous and evenly distributed. Thus collectively they may be of -more importance in Nature's master plan than we realize. Their role may -even increase in importance as time goes on, because of the increasing -scarcity of the larger cat species. - - - Red fox - _Vulpes fulva_ (Latin: a fox ... fulva, meaning deep yellow or tawny) - -Range: Found throughout most of North America north of the Mexican -border. Exceptions in the United States are areas in the southeastern -and central States and desert portions of the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest these foxes are restricted to wooded areas of -mountains. They usually are found in the Transition Life Zone or higher. - -Description: About the size of a small dog, having a bushy tail with -white tip. Total length 36 to 40 inches. Tail 14 to 16 inches. Weight 10 -to 15 pounds. Besides the type, this fox has at least two well-defined -color phases with many intermediate forms. These will be considered -separately. A typical western form of red fox will be more yellow than -red. The brightest red will be a rufous median line running down the -back. This fades to an ochre yellow along the edges and grades to the -lighter yellow of the sides. The tail is usually dark yellow with black -guard hairs and always a white tip. The underparts are light yellow to -white. Fronts of feet and lower legs and backs of ears are always very -dark to black. The underfur is lead-colored. The head is small with -large ears, yellowish eyes having elliptical pupils, narrow nose and -jaws. The young, four to six in a litter, are born early in the summer -and but one litter is produced each year. - -The western form of red fox might more aptly be named the "yellow" fox, -since it is definitely more yellow than red. To add to the confusion, -the gray fox, _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_, of the West usually has more -good red in its coat than the red fox. However, the gray fox is a -denizen of the desert and will not often be found at elevations -preferred by the red fox. In addition, its tail is tipped with black; -this definitely separates the two species at a glance. The differences -of color phases within the red fox group are more pronounced and have -led many people to consider them separate species. The two most distinct -types of these varieties are known as the "cross" fox and the "black" or -"silver" fox. - -The term "cross" fox refers neither to the disposition of the animal nor -to its being a hybrid variety, although it often is cross or mean and is -not a hybrid. It alludes to the dark cross on its back. This is formed -by a dark to black median line crossing at right angles to a dark band -that traverses the shoulders. Its effect is increased by considerable -amounts of gray and black mixed with the normal yellow color of the -sides. The long hairs of the tail are yellowish gray to black, the -general effect being dark but, as with the type, the tip is pure white. -As might be expected, there are many gradations between this color phase -and the type, some of them being among the most striking and beautiful -foxes in the world. - -The "black" or "silver" fox is a melanistic form of the red fox. In the -most striking form it is a smooth shining black, the general sombreness -of its coat being relieved by a sprinkling of silvery white guard hairs. -These are thickest in the area of the shoulders, on the posterior -portion of the back, and on the top and sides of the head. The -underparts, though black, lack the lustrous "finish" so evident on the -back and sides. The tip of the tail is pure white in this form also. -This is the "silver" fox of commerce, an animal which through selective -breeding has become standardized in the fur industry. Nevertheless, the -black color is a recessive character, as evidenced by the throw-backs -that often make their appearance in otherwise black litters. Without -constant vigilance on the part of breeders, the "silver" fox would soon -become a rarity again. The Mendelian law cannot be cancelled out by a -few generations of selective breeding. - -The foxes are the smallest canines native to the United States. Though -they look much larger because of their long fur and bushy tail, the -average red fox will not outweigh a large house cat. They make up for -this lack of size, however, by being exceedingly quick in their -movements. They are thus able to catch many of the small mammals which -outmaneuver coyotes and wolves. Rabbits are about the largest mammals -with which they can cope, but mice, woodrats, pikas, and ground -squirrels are all a common part of their diet. In addition, they take -many large insects and ground nesting birds and eggs whenever possible. -Foxes are not as omnivorous as coyotes, but they relish berries and -stone fruits and sometimes raid watermelon patches. - -The social life of foxes is most interesting. The family is a closely -knit unit which as a rule does not break up until the young are well -able to care for themselves. Foxes are monogamous; that is, they -normally choose their mates for life. Dens may be in burrows dug in the -soil or in deep crevices in the rocks. They are usually in some spot -where there is a good view of the surrounding territory. The pups are -born rather early in the spring and by early summer will be playing -around in the den entrance, although they do not venture to any distance -until much later. Should the den be approached while the young are in -it, the female often will be very bold in her attempts to lead the -intruders away from it. As soon as the young are weaned the male joins -his mate in bringing food to them. By early fall, the family is hunting -together. - -The red fox has been a symbol of sagacity and cunning since long before -Aesop. Much of this reputation is well earned, as witness their stubborn -withdrawal as civilization surrounds them. Yet sometime one wonders if -their wisdom is not overrated. I am reminded of an old female who every -year whelped her young in the mouth of a tile drain which drained a -marshy piece of ground that had since become dry. The upper end of the -tile was buried some 15 feet below the surface of the ground. My friend -would watch the area until the pups were about half grown. Then he would -block the entrance to the tile with a box trap and catch them as hunger -drove them out to the bait. This went on for several years, the old -vixen never seeming to learn from bitter experience that her family -would be taken away from her. - - [Illustration: red fox] - - - Gray wolf - _Canis lupus_ (Latin: dog ... a wolf) - -Range: Canada and Alaska north to the northern coast of Greenland. In -the United States it is found in three widely separated areas in Oregon, -Utah and Colorado, and New Mexico and Arizona. It extends south into the -tablelands of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest the wolf, like the coyote, is leaving the -plains, which are its chosen habitat, to live in the broken country of -the Transition Life Zone. - -Description: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. Carries -its short, bushy tail above the horizontal when traveling. The gray wolf -is almost unbelievably big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19 -inches. Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to 170 pounds. -These animals show a tremendous variation in color, but the average -individual will appear very much like a big German shepherd dog. From -this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska -to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is -distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The -straw-yellow eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much -more like a dog's than a coyote's. The feet, in keeping with the rest of -the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with -canines, the first toe or "thumb" does not touch the ground. The hind -foot has but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each -year the single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the -average is assumed to be from 6 to 8. - -The wolf's association with man is older than recorded history. When man -first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is believed to -have been the progenitor of the dog. As man's partner in the chase, it -helped him become the one superior animal capable of exterminating it. -At the present time, man has come close to doing just that. Only a few -of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the United States. Those are -concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and some of them undoubtedly have -come across the border from Mexico. Before long the species probably -will become extinct in this country, but the large numbers remaining in -Alaska and Canada should persist for many years. - -Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. Who, as a -child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little Red Riding -Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? Long before -animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children's books were well -thumbmarked at the page where the "big bad wolf huffed and puffed and -blew the house down." To "keep the wolf from the door" is an expression -as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th century when the animal -became extinct in England. The wolf has always been a symbol of taking -ruthlessly. The genus _lupinus_ (Latin: wolf), a beautiful group of -plants of the pea family, is so called because early botanists thought -it robbed the soil. The "wolf" so often encountered at house parties is -included in this class. None of these characterizations gives a good -impression, and all are indicative of man's feeling toward the wolf. It -is most unfortunate that man so often condemns anything which interferes -with his own economic progress. Nature has a place for the wolf, a -specialized task for which it is admirably adapted. - -In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains in -great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and -coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were -relatively safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These -were quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest -portions, the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white -man exterminated the bison, the wolves' host was gone and they turned to -the logical substitute, the white man's cattle. This could have but one -result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was -driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group -isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and New -Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of wolves -from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back and forth -across the border in response to local conditions. During the -extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a -considerable extent. - -Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which the -gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, the -wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts had -been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time the -wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild creatures. -Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by complete -isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. To this -end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible places in -the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, and I -consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains in -years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence of a -cold winter night. - - [Illustration: gray wolf] - - - Coyote - _Canis latrans_ (Latin: dog ... barking) - -Range: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is found -in all life zones and among many different associations. - -Description: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic -range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble a -rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good field -mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal is running -and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. Average total -length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny to reddish -gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs and feet. -There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the tail also is -somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; despite an -impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large coyote seldom -weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that of a -medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge -toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes are -moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups, -although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that -coyotes are in an area is their "singing" during the evening. They will -sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day. - -There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote in its -relationship to other animals than any other North American mammal -today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking a 10 minute -walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living things, plant or -animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing conditions -presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which survive do so -because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as well as take -from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of the coyote to -withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination indicates that -this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. Certainly -many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its -associations have never been fully explored and others have not been -discovered. - -In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent -documentary films in its favor, the coyote's place in Nature is now -becoming better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason -why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to the -fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog with what most -naturalists agree is a higher degree of native cunning and intelligence -than that of the average domestic breed. In general, this attitude seems -to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate stories circulated by -word of mouth. A few hours spent in reading the scientific literature on -the coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading -try J. Frank Dobie's _The Voice of the Coyote_ (Little, Brown & Co., -Boston 1949) or _Sierra Outpost_ (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila -Loftberg and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the -coyote for what it is--one of the more important creatures in animal -society. - - [Illustration: coyote] - -When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, the -coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes of -the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but sharing -with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray wolves. -With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads upon the -rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was also a -scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger animals -which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were practically -exterminated, the coyote "took to the hills" and now is as frequently -encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther west in the -desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization has -advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills until now -its "song" is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size and -omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with its -success in this new environment. - -About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the coyote is -large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to catch the -smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. The rest -is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are less often -encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable -portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus -fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in -considerable quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat. -Besides this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will -usually take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations -against the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost -entirely of the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain -sheep, the coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records -of such occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game. -Nature meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such -predation by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would -restore the balance before long. Nature's laws are as definite as those -of human society and far more sternly enforced. - -The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its -variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule -coyotes, like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the -other will usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early -spring, followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter -of up to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft -soil close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More -rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have -been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging -shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not allowed to -approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, he brings -his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them to the -young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, both -parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They usually -come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. If a -human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location at -once. - -When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new phase of -their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance like a -group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful new -world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself, -however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This is -the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be taken -away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every passing day. -The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young into the coyote -way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along the perimeter of -her range, bringing food to them as she makes her rounds. In either -event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by the following -spring are mature animals. - -Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler, -the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will -learn every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of -great importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in -the matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be -deep within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and -called upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts. -The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be -intercepted en route tonight. - -Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This is -especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a -combination is especially efficient in running down such animals as -jackrabbits and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in -a circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the -animal is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn -hunting is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time -their young are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to -pursue and kill coyotes. - -It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will -soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the -ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously -affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is -deplored by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that -the West should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with -its legends and history. - - - Wolverine - _Gulo luscus_ (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed; - purblind) - -Range: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, and -possibly New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Near timberline in the most remote areas. - -Description: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat -resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. Tail 7 -to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with no -sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color on top -of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish bands -which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. The -underparts are lighter and usually a "blaze" or spot of white decorates -the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally powerful, -the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These register -rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat like that of -a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are not well known, -but it is assumed the den is located among rocks in talus slopes. The -average number of young is thought to be four or less. They are born -early in the year. - -This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly will never be seen -by anyone who reads these lines, so scarce has it become in the United -States. Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little -understood, and because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado -several times, and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico, -it is here included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see -this celebrated creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune. - -The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to the -white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals which -goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its -shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It -is a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall -probably never fully learn before it becomes extinct. - -When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North America they -found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce with the -wolverine. They called it "Carcajou," a term said to have been derived -from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent spirit. -I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but I well remember -that it was considered a "windigo" or evil spirit. Eskimos coveted its -fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The long guard hairs -protected the face from the bitter air without collecting frost, and the -underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs. - - [Illustration: wolverine] - -The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. _Gulo_, the Latin -term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the -animal. _Luscus_, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors -suggest, blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be -almost invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first -wolverine taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to -have lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any -rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind. - -The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example of -what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline in the high -mountains of desert country and is also found at or near sea level far -north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, with -exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily with snow. -In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the edges of the -feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small snowshoes, -and enable the animal to travel with less effort. - -Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and clumsy in -build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey to this -awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger predators -away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At such times it -eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. It will -return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, even if -they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which it can -dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes across in -its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators of the -porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams its -isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike. - -The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious -delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be -explained by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems -to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking -into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their -contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or -carried away and hidden. - - - Marten - _Martes americana_ (Latin: a marten ... America) - -Range: North America from Alaska through the greater part of Canada, -thence through northwestern, United States and south into California, -Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up to the -Alpine Zone. - -Description: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large -squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a -short, bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. -Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The -body is a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, legs and -tail. On the chest the color lightens to a pale buff or sometimes a -rather distinct orange. The underparts are lighter than the rest of the -body. The fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in being -almost entirely underfur, there being very few guard hairs. The body is -extremely graceful with relatively long legs and small feet. The head is -small with features somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears -are large for a member of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance -to the face. This alertness is further borne out by the lively movements -of this animal, which is the most active of any in that group. - -The marten, often called "pine marten," is one of the most solitary -animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps this -is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to -overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually and -not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire -group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could -not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this -clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of -normal needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is -confined to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It -is evidently one of Nature's methods of controlling the rodent -population. To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt -alone. These factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a -consequence, although there may be many in an area, the marten is -usually found alone except for a brief time during the breeding season -or in the case of a female with young. The male evidently has no part in -bringing up the family. - -The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its range, -and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to be seen -by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat is among -the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock slides, and -the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their homes there. -Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, hunting in the -talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the trees in winter -when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. It is an extremely -hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned squirrel or woodpecker -nest only during the short periods of storm, when hunting would be -useless. As might be expected, its summer and winter diets vary widely. -Both, however, have as their basic item the spruce squirrel, the -important host of the marten, and like it a hardy creature that is -abroad throughout the year. - -There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the ground -there is available an amazing number of species which are denied to the -marten during the winter, some because of protection afforded them by -the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. Among these are -pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, and many species of mice. -In summer, the marten also takes eggs and young of ground-nesting birds. -In the trees are found other nests, not excepting those of the -woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its forepaw and comes out not -only with young birds, but often the adult as well. Martens are known to -eat quantities of the larger insects and, since they are fond of fruits -and berries when raised in captivity, there is little doubt that they -indulge in these delicacies in the wild. - -Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such other -small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it would -seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its lavish -summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and healthy under -weather conditions that would seriously hamper most other predators. To -a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the untiring -perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, few -creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which to -withstand the long, cold winter. - - [Illustration: marten] - -It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is -most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its -boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm and -does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering any -hollow log or woodpecker's nest will do as a resting place. Snow is the -least of the marten's troubles; not only does it stay warm among the -drifts, but travels across them with ease on its "built-in" hair -snowshoes, which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a -marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is a -blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at -all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like a -weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will -serve to identify it as a marten. - -Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the -response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no -less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and -more or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that -is favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time -when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts a -reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough to -excite one's interest. For the following information, I am indebted to -James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many of these -interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them was -relatively meager. - -Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the winter, -when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This was at -an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern Idaho. As -a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be heard -growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack would be -placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, apparently -mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap out into the -sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten was usually -wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box trap, and if -allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack was placed -within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack and carried -down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually in the house, -then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so tame that they -would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming treacherous like -their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They loved fruit and berries, and -were especially fond of chocolate candy. - -Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females were -giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that -breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but -that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be born in -April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be apparent -until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates that, like -most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one season, but -the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to develop until -conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This also insures -arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that they may -enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young varies from -three to five, usually the smaller number. - -No description of the marten would be complete without mention of its -tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially -in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another. -In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts, -seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for -martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently in -search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest, -is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run -away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put -on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white -teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might -attack its tormenter. - - - River otter - _Lutra canadensis_ (Latin: otter ... of Canada) - -Range: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New Mexico in -the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes. - -Description: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick tapered -tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail 12 to 17 -inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark brown with a -silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest are lighter than -the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to aquatic life, having -a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All four feet are webbed. -The head is long and round, with short ears. Long, stiff whiskers stand -out near the rather thick nose. The tail is thick at the base, and the -body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing the general -"torpedo" effect. - - [Illustration: river otter] - -The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely rare -in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized -habits, coupled with an inability to compete with man in the use of the -few fresh water streams and lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has -been recorded often enough in the past decade to warrant the hope that -with careful management and complete protection it might increase in -numbers. This is much to be desired because the otter is unique in -several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered member of -the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty habits of -its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful. - -Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter's habit of building -slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement of the -way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud flats, in which -they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and small amphibians. The -remarkable thing about the slides is that they seem to be built for one -specific purpose, that of sport, an activity which ordinarily is one of -the least important to most mammals. In soft or muddy places, even in -soft snow, the otter slides along on its chest with head held high and -forelegs trailing alongside the body. Motive power is furnished by -thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear on the underparts is reduced by -many coarse, close-set overhairs which seem to have been developed for -this very purpose. The slide itself is only a narrow groove, 12 to 20 -inches wide, that is worn down a steep bank to the water's edge. The wet -bodies of the otters make it smooth and slippery, and soon they are able -to shoot down it with only an occasional helping kick of the hind feet. -This fascinating game may go on for hours on end. The descent often is -followed by a general rough and tumble in the "swimming hole." There the -action is almost too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can -match the otter for grace and speed in the water. - -Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this -leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide, -and usually at several other places along the waterway which is -frequented by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found -areas several feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall -grass, where the animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also -to be community news centers, because usually near such areas are found -the scent "posts," where otters deposit scent from the glands common to -all members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete -the high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks. -Nevertheless, it is sufficiently "loud" to be identified with the otter. - -The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are usually -situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile from the -nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take over the -abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode must be by -an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is merely a nest in a -thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water. - -The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are blind, -toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development 6 -weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and before long -are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in the -neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until they -are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together -until the young are fully able to make their own way. - -Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will -prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases -they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to -catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other -supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so -evidently the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey -must be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs, -several species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be -available. - -The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide, -"rolling place," or characteristic web-toed track are all sure -indications that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its -acquaintance if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and -should you be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his -slippery slide, I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he -does. - - - Mink - _Mustela vison_ (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful) - -Range: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the otter, -that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending southward -into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf of Mexico -in the east. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh water -streams or ponds. - -Description: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, but is -much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males 20 to 26 -inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2-1/4 pounds. Females will -average almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most of the -body, shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along the tail -to a black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots on chest -and belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, round -neck. The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, and -dark, beady eyes. The legs are short and, as would be expected on an -aquatic animal, the feet are webbed, but in this case only the bases of -the toes are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick and fine, the -guard hairs coarse and conspicuously shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 -young, but the average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, which -may or may not have an underwater entrance. - -The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily -determined by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water's edge. -The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here -the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the -outlines of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most -cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are -conspicuous. The occurrence of mink away from water can not be -considered normal, because this creature ranks second only to the otter, -among southwestern carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life. -Exceptions do occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing -mountain ranges where they might be many miles from the closest -watercourse. It is thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations -from unfavorable areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search -of a mate. - -Much of the mink's dependence on water stems from its diet. Some of its -preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are more -adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever -circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting -to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that one of -these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the -extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are -unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive -proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such inroads. Even -with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at hunting, the mink -is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated 100 acres are -only enough to support one adult. The continual hunt for food may be the -motivation for another interesting habit of the mink which is seldom -found among other carnivores. - -Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it later -for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink's close -relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a -considerable store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it -away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals, -such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging bank. -Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold weather -practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater. - -A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal glands -which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are best known -in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both release an odor -which, by comparison, makes the skunk's "almost nice." The one saving -grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, while that -released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, and regains -much of the original potency with every rain. Like the skunks, these -animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. It no doubt has -other uses too, such as identifying the individual and its territory to -other animals of the same species. - -Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that here -is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having -widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home in -trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the -badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends -much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely -in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and -defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even -affectionate. The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable. -There seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood -is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I -have seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was -attempting to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon -with; there are few animals its size that are so courageous. - - [Illustration: mink] - -As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor parents. -The females sometimes desert the young while they are still too small to -make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human criticism. Who -is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to exist under -conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable species? - - - Short-tailed weasel (ermine) - _Mustela erminea_ (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine) - -Range: From northern Greenland south to northern United States with one -extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be expected in -northern Arizona. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone and -higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone. - -Description: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total length -from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight 1-1/2 to 3-2/3 ounces. -This wide range in statistics is from comparing the smallest females -with the largest males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to -one-fourth larger than females. Summer color is dark brown with white -underparts and feet. There is a white line down the insides of the hind -legs connecting the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of -the tail is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the -black tail tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck -long and round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. -The ears are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are -usually in the ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. -Average number of young is thought to be about four. - -I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of its -fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which -would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid -creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid -which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the -close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its -tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these -characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the -longtailed weasel (_Mustela frenata_), which is also found in the -Southwest, and the least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), which inhabits part -of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed -weasel will not be mistaken for either of the other species, since the -least weasel has no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has -a tail about one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed -weasel is only about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is -considerably smaller than the long-tailed weasel. - -Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. In -fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North -American Continent. Despite its size, _Mustela erminea_ is so hardy it -ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere. -This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North -Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally -hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but -penetrates far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our -Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more -often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change of -color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north. - -The term "ermine" refers to this animal's fur in the winter pelage. This -is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the -aristocracy. At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the -sharply contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had -symbolic significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These -are as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of -enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory and -complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern -mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature can -descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, evade -most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent are -left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. In -snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower down it -probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the animal will -retain the same brown above and white below that it wears all summer. - - [Illustration: short-tailed weasel] - -Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids are -admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits them to -enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their strength and -suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue animals several -times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able to climb, they do -not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. Small mice seem to be -preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, and woodrats also are -taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these mighty mites, and -there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed by them. Like the -mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food when hunting is -good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; it has been -estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food every 24 -hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area -where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping -these creatures under control. - -I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under varying -circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident that at -first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as an enemy, -but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will continue its -activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. However, -should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will make its -escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, and as -a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents of the -anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk's perfume, this odorous -mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to stand -aside and watch the little predator go about its work! - -If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is being -irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being flooded out -of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more short-tailed -weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You may even find a -cache laid away during this period of good hunting. Neither pity the -voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling their destinies in -an ages-old plan. - - - Spotted skunk - _Spilogale gracilis_ (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ... - gracilis, Latin: slender) - -Range: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common -spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a "spotty" distribution over the -whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned. - -Habitat: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment from -near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. Seldom -encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in burrows in -the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under buildings or -in the walls or attics of frame houses. - -Description: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the size -of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of which -6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color pattern -would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent white spot -between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides of the face. -The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular white stripes -which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched with white. Tail -very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes dark in color, ears -small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger species of skunks. -Young number three to six, born in early summer. - -Although this little animal has a slight heaviness of the hind quarters, -reminiscent of the larger skunks, it is indeed, as both generic and -specific names suggest, much more like a weasel. This impression is -heightened by its quick movements and a bright-eyed attention to details -which its larger relatives would hardly notice. It lacks the wild and -fierce disposition of the weasels however, and becomes a charming and -confiding nocturnal visitor if properly encouraged. Remember though that -this acquaintance can be no more than an armed truce, and that should -the articles of Formal Conduct be violated it can be terminated at a -moment's notice. - -Probably no nocturnal mammal in the Southwest is more likely to be -encountered than this little skunk. How many of my readers can recall -drifting up from an uneasy sleep to the sibilant whisper of, "there's -something in the tent." While eyes strain to pierce the darkness, faint -patterings on the floor and urgent scratching at the grub box indicate -that there is indeed "something in the tent." Turning over with the -utmost care, while the joints of the cot loudly complain, the flashlight -under the pillow is finally extricated. Surely the creature has been -frightened away, but no, the rattlings continue--in the dishes now. The -brilliant white beam stabs in that direction. Red eyes stare back, -interested perhaps, but unafraid. The rounded ball of black and white -fluff waits motionless to see if any harm is intended. When none is -offered, his highness makes his way to the door and ambles away into the -enveloping darkness. In the morning tiny squirrel-like tracks in the -dust show that _Spilogale_ has paid a nocturnal call. These, and perhaps -the contents missing from the butter and bacon grease containers, -because this little animal dearly loves animal fats. These are the foods -which attract these animals to camp sites in such numbers that they -frequently become a nuisance. - -In the wild, spotted skunks live largely on insects. These are taken not -only in the adult form but also in great numbers in the larval stage, as -is shown by the well-winnowed debris under clumps of cactus and around -the bases of shrubs and trees. In these searches for insects small prey -of other kinds is captured as circumstances permit. Worms and scorpions -as well as small rodents are not refused. More rarely a ground-nesting -bird may be disturbed and the eggs or young taken. In rural communities -hen roosts are sometimes raided too but in the main the spotted skunk -should be considered beneficial, with control of grasshoppers and -beetles it's chief function. - -Like most predators, this member of the weasel family has few natural -enemies. This is not surprising; few animals willingly take a chance on -attacking this doughty little warrior, which sometimes does a handstand -the better to spray it's enemies. These tactics avail nothing against -the steely monsters that rush up and down our highways in the dead of -night. In the space of 50 years the automobile has developed into the -most successful enemy of the spotted skunk. Yet even in death on the -highway the skunk has it's revenge. Few will pass the spot for many a -day without paying unwilling tribute to this malodorous legacy. - - - Striped skunk - _Mephitis mephitis_ (Latin: a pestilential exhalation) - -Range: The southern half of Canada, the whole of the United States, and -the northern half of Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: All life zones up to timberline in places which have a -sufficient food supply and proper cover. - -Description: This is the "wood kitty," approached with due respect by -all but the most naive. About the size of a house cat. Total length 22 -to 30 inches. Tail 8 to 15 inches. Weight 6 to 10 pounds. Body color is -black, with black tail except for the tip, which is commonly white. -There are usually two white stripes on the back joining in a "V" at the -back of the head and a white stripe down the front of the face. The head -is small with a rather pointed nose, small black eyes, and small ears. -Front legs are short, and the small feet are tipped with stout claws. -Hind legs are longer and appreciably more of the large hind feet touch -the ground. The tail is quite long and extremely bushy. It is carried in -a downward curve when traveling; if its owner is startled or angry, it -is held straight up with the hairs flared out. Dens of the striped skunk -are usually in an underground burrow, but dens in hollow logs have been -recorded. The usual number of young average from four to six. The family -remains together for the greater part of a year before the young leave -to make their own way. - -There are four species of skunks in the Southwest, but the observer in -the higher country will see only two. These are the striped and the -spotted. They are distinguished by two characteristics: first, the -striped skunk is easily double the size of the spotted skunk; and, -second, the spotted has a pattern of broken stripes and spots of white, -whereas the larger animal has definitely long, continuous white stripes -along sides or back. Both species have the same method of defense, but -the odor of the smaller skunk is said to be somewhat less pungent and -dissipates sooner than that of the striped. To the recipient of either -barrage this has the same consolation as if he were given a choice -between being hit by the H bomb or the A bomb. In the event of a direct -strike it makes little difference. - -Should the reader be involved in an encounter with one of these -malodorous creatures, there are many remedies prescribed but few giving -any great measure of relief. If the skin is washed with a weak solution -of acid such as lemon or tomato juice and then scrubbed thoroughly with -soap and water, much of the odor will disappear. Clothes can be given -the same treatment, but usually it is cheaper and easier to burn them -and charge the cost to experience. Grandpa said to bury scented clothes -in damp earth. Perhaps in time this will do the trick; I contend they -are better left there. - -So much misinformation exists about the skunk's defensive mechanism and -the manner in which it is employed that brief explanation may not be -amiss. The scent is a fluid stored in two glands located near the base -of the tail. These glands are embedded in a mass of contractile muscle, -and each has a duct which connects with a tiny spray nozzle that can be -protruded from the anus. When danger threatens the tail is lifted, the -nozzles aimed at the enemy, and the contraction of the muscles around -the glands forces out a spray of fine droplets which may carry as far as -15 feet. The result is usually effective and lasting. Contrary to -popular belief, the odor is distressing to the skunk as well as to its -enemy. The tail is kept out of the way if possible, since its plumey -depths would hold the scent for a long time. - - [Illustration: striped skunk] - -Skunks of different species will use this defensive weapon against each -other. Whether individuals of the same species use it in their fights -together is not known. In situations involving humans the skunk will try -to bluff the enemy if possible. This consists of stamping the front -feet, of short runs at the intruder, and finally of hoisting the tail -and aiming the "guns." If a skunk is approached deliberately and if -quick movements are avoided, it is surprising what liberties may be -taken before it will resort to scent. On the other hand, should it be -taken by surprise or should it be physically hurt, retaliation is swift -and certain. In all cases where skunks are encountered at close range, -remember that this little animal is one of the most independent -creatures on earth, that this nonchalance stems from a supreme -confidence in its defensive powers, and that if left alone or at least -treated with consideration it will go on its way as soon as possible. - -This independent attitude inherent in all skunks probably has much to do -with the happy-go-lucky life that the young family lives. About -midsummer when the young are able to leave the burrow, the mother often -will take them for a stroll early in the afternoon. As she walks, -oblivious to danger, the young play along behind her, sometimes a ball -of struggling little bodies with now and then a fluffy tail breaking -free and again all at odds in a mock show of ferocity with front feet -stamping and flared tails held aloft. When the patient mother finds a -tidbit on the trail, there is a concerted rush for the prize, which is -seldom won without a struggle. All of this is excellent practice against -the time when they will be on their own. It is during this early age -that the young first learn to catch insects, items of great importance -in skunk diet. Later frogs and small mammals will also be preyed upon. - -The striped skunk is generally considered a hibernating animal. This is -not strictly true for, while it may remain inactive in its den for weeks -at a time, the body processes do not slow down to the extent common in -true hibernation. The skunk does lay on a considerable amount of fat -each fall in preparation for this period of winter when food is scarce. -Actual retirement to a den for even a few days is rare in the Southwest, -however. The mild climate makes this unnecessary, except in the highest -part of their habitat. - - - Black bear - _Euarctos americanus_ (Latin: a bear ... of America) - -Range: At present the range of the black bear in the United States is -confined to a narrow strip adjacent to both the Atlantic and Pacific -coasts, a few of the southeastern States, a narrow band in the Great -Lakes area, and the Rocky Mountain chain. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: In the Southwest, the higher mountains mostly in the Transition -Life Zone and above. - -Description: The black bear needs little description because through -pictures and reputation it has become well known to almost everyone. It -averages 5 to 6 feet in total length with a tail so short as to be -inconsequential. Height at shoulders is 2 to 3 feet. Weight 200 to 400 -pounds. Color varies in the Southwest from deep, shining black through -brown to light cinnamon. In all color phases the nose is brown almost -back to the eyes and there is usually a white "blaze" on the chest. The -legs are short and muscular. The feet are plantigrade, that is, the bear -steps on the whole foot, not just the toes. There are stout claws on all -four feet. The head proper is rather round, the muzzle long and pointed. -Ears are relatively small, as are the dark eyes. The young number from -one to four, with twins being very common. They are born while the -mother is still in winter quarters. When the weather moderates to a -point where she can leave, the cubs are large enough to follow her. - -Bears are probably the most popular of our wild creatures to those who -visit the National Park Service areas. Why this should be is hard to -say. Perhaps it dates back to the nursery tale of the three bears, -familiar to all of us from the time we were able to walk. Perhaps too it -stems from the easy familiarity with which these roadside bandits hail -the tourist in hopes of a handout. At any rate, these seemingly friendly -clowns have become endeared to the hearts of the American public. This -is regrettable because actually in the Park Service areas these big -carnivores are the most dangerous of all animals. Native intelligence -indicates to the bears that food may be had merely by standing up -alongside the road when a car stops. More complicated routines are soon -learned to wheedle bigger and better handouts. At this professional -level, a substantial reward is expected when Bruin has "sung for his -supper," and should none be forthcoming, trouble is apt to ensue. This -is but a minor annoyance to a bear, however, when compared with some of -the indignities dealt out to these big creatures by a thoughtless -public. It must be said in all fairness that anyone who teases a bear -deserves whatever is handed out in return. It is unfortunate that -retribution may be in the form of serious injury or even death. Though -this applies mainly to the half-tame bears which roam along the highways -in our National Parks, it is only common sense to avoid incidents with -any bear wherever encountered. This is especially true of an old female -with cubs, a combination well nigh irresistible to the average -vacationer with camera. - -In more remote areas where bears have not had contact with man, they are -wary to the point of timidity. Gifted with a keen sense of hearing and -smell which makes up for their poor eyesight, they are difficult to -approach. Like most animals, they instinctively know that by "freezing" -they can in most cases escape being seen. The sunburned coat of the -brown phase of the black bear is especially hard to spot in the -underbrush. However, with patience and the aid of binoculars, it should -not be too difficult to get a glimpse into the private life of these -engaging creatures. - - [Illustration: black bear] - -Though bears, because of their dentition, are classed as carnivores, -they might more accurately be termed omnivores. It is a matter of record -that the black bear will eat almost anything, either animal or -vegetable. Nevertheless, its appetite is prodigious and demands little -variety, if but a few kind of foods are available. Its status as a -predator is somewhat confused. Technically speaking, since the black -bear preys on ground squirrels, mice and other small rodents it should -be classed as a predator. It will also take young deer and elk whenever -it can, but these opportunities come rarely. Actually this bear has -little direct influence on its mammal neighbors. As a scavenger it has -considerable value in cleaning up the remains of kills made by other -predators. - -Some of the small animals eaten are in almost amusing contrast with the -huge size of their enemy. For instance, ants are eagerly lapped up by -most bears, and they will literally tear old logs apart to get at these -toothsome morsels. Grubs are another small item which may be found -around fallen logs and under stones. Bears are extremely fond of honey -and will go to great lengths to get at this delicacy, which they eat -comb, bees, and all. Another food item which seems unusual is fish. At -spawning time a bear will wade out into a stream and either snag a -passing fish on its long claws or flip it out on the bank where it is -more easily subdued. Finally, their natural animal diet is greatly -augmented in most Park Service areas by the scraps and bones which they -pick up on the garbage heaps. They can become a great nuisance in the -camping areas where, under cover of darkness, their ingenuity and great -strength enable them to steal many a ham and side of bacon. - -Wide as this variety of animal food seems, it cannot equal the -cosmopolitan tastes of these bears in a vegetable diet. Roots and bulbs -of many species are dug up. Grass and browse are eaten during several -seasons of the year; even pine needles are recorded as having been -eaten. The liking of bears for berries of all kinds is well known. -_Arctostaphylos_, the generic name of the manzanitas, translated from -the Greek means "bear grape." Pinyon nuts, acorns, chokecherries, and -other stone fruits all are gathered in season. These heavy animals often -damage trees severely in their search for fruit. On the garbage heaps, -watermelon rinds and seeds, peelings of all kinds, leafy vegetables, and -corn cobs add to the fare. All tin cans are licked clean, and in many -cases greasy paper and cellophane wrappings are eaten. - -The yearly cycle of a bear's life is a study in contrasts. Much of the -warm part of the year is spent in search for food with which to build up -a store of fat so that the winter may be spent in inactivity. Bears -hibernate or, more properly, retire for several months of the winter. -They do not fall into the deep sleep indulged by some of the rodents. -Theirs is an uneasy sleep broken by periods of lethargy when they are -awake but avoid any activity. By these means they conserve enough of -their thick layer of fat to live out the cold weather and emerge in -early spring with a considerable reserve. - -Hibernation takes place in late autumn, usually after the first light -snows. Evidently the animals have a den already located, for when they -feel the urge to retire they strike out across country to it. The same -winter quarters often will be used by one individual for several -seasons. Dens are chosen in a variety of locations. They may be in old -hollow logs or in the bases of fire-gutted trees. Some are in crevices -among huge boulders, others in caves. The main concern seems to be to -find a place sheltered from the wind and snow. If the floor happens to -be covered with chips or leaves, so much the better. It usually is, -either from air currents which bring in falling leaves or through the -labors of woodrats which deposit much litter in such places. The bears -curl up on the floor, and after the first heavy snow there is nothing to -mark the spot. In the case of a small den, such as a cavity in the base -of a tree, an airhole may form in the drift from the warmth of the -animal's respiration. - -The cubs are born in late winter. From one to four in number, they are -incredibly small at birth. They develop rather slowly and at the time -the family emerges from the den are approximately 18 inches long. The -cubs may all be one color or some may be brown and some black. The male -bear has no part in raising the family; indeed, he is driven from the -scene by the irate mother, should he approach too closely. She has all -the responsibility for raising the family, and a busy time is assured -with such mischievous, carefree youngsters. - -One of the first lessons learned by young cubs is that of obedience. The -mother insists on compliance with her every command, and enforces her -authority with a heavy paw. It is fortunate the cubs are sturdily built, -for some of the slaps they receive in the course of an average day's -instruction would kill a less durable animal. The first haven of refuge -when danger threatens is in the trees. A special command note and a slap -or two sends them hustling. Now the cubs are out of the way and the -decks cleared for action, so to speak. The cubs will remain in the trees -until the mother lets them know they may come down. This is not a time -of boredom for the youngsters, however. Expert climbers, they carry on -the same games and rough play indulged on the ground, with never a fall. -Their confidence in the trees is amazing. It is not unusual to see a cub -sound asleep on the end of a 20-foot branch that is bending down with -its weight and swaying in the wind. As the months go on the cubs begin -to lose their juvenile ways. By autumn, they have put on enough fat to -last the winter. They usually hibernate with the mother, since they -remain with her for well over a year. During the following summer they -are well able to take care of themselves, and the mother deserts them. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -It is normal, rather than unusual, among black bears to breed only every -other year. The youngsters usually do not breed until about three years -old. - -No account of this bear would be complete without mention of the -so-called "bear trees." These are trees situated at the crossroads, that -is, near the intersections of bear trails or otherwise prominently -located. When a bear encounters one, it stands up and scratches at the -bark with its front claws as high as it can reach. Sometimes it will -also bite at the bark. Bears have been observed rubbing the sides of -their jaws against the bark. Whether this is a way of leaving their -scent is not known. It is thought this may be a way of communication -with others of the species, but this has not been definitely proven. -Many of the trees chosen for this purpose in mountains of the Southwest -have been aspens. The heavy black furrows left in the white bark will -persist until the death of the tree. Often they are the only evidence -that bears have ever been in the locality. - -Another custom which will be observed very early in one's experience -with bears is the scratching that goes on. It may be due in part to the -presence of ectoparasites, but the bear takes such an obvious -satisfaction in scratching that, one feels, this must be only -incidental. Trees, posts, rocks, and claws are all employed for this -purpose. Some of the smaller trees often suffer severe damage from the -treatment accorded them. - -My cautious attitude toward bears is a result of early experiences with -them, ranging from humorous to tragic, and probably best typified by an -incident which took place near Yellowstone Park in the late 1920s. I was -on my first trip into the Rockies at the time and hired out on a -construction job at an isolated dude ranch. Horses were being used, and -their supplies, including a considerable store of oats, were kept in a -large tent adjacent to that in which some of the employees slept. On the -previous night a bear had gained access to the supply tent, torn open a -number of oat sacks, and wasted more of the grain than it had eaten. The -foreman, an old-time packer in the Park, vowed vengeance on the bear. -That night when he went to bed he leaned a small, double-bitted axe -against the entrance to the tent. During the night I awoke as the -foreman went out the entrance in his underwear. A partial moon shed a -weak light over the scene and revealed the foreman entering the other -tent with the axe in his hand. A short silence was followed by a heavy -splat, a tremendous grunt, and some frenzied shouts. The supply tent -heaved violently, went down, and split open as the bear hurtled out and -through the woods toward the creek. When order had been restored it -transpired that the foreman had stolen up to the bear, which had its -back to him, and had struck it across the rump as hard as he could with -the flat of the axe. The element of surprise apparently was all in his -favor because the startled bear charged directly away from him into the -far end of the tent. Although in this instance no injuries were -suffered, it has always seemed that this was an extremely foolhardy -thing to do. Although one of the most laughable happenings I have ever -seen, it also had all the elements of a possible tragedy. - - - Grizzly bear - _Ursus horribilis_ (Latin: a bear ... horrible) - -Range: Alaska, western Canada, and in the United States confined to the -high mountains of the Continental Divide as far south as northern New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Except in National Park areas, grizzlies are seldom seen, since -they frequent only the most isolated places in the mountains; Transition -Life Zone and higher. - -Description: The largest carnivore in the Southwest. Easily -distinguished from the black bear by the prominent hump on the -shoulders. Total length 6 to 7 feet. Tail so short as to be -unnoticeable. Height at shoulders 3 to 3-1/2 feet. Weight 325 to 850 -pounds. Color of the southwestern grizzlies is variable, ranging from -yellowish brown to nearly black, but has a characteristic grizzled -effect caused by the white-tipped hairs scattered through the fur. This -is especially noticeable along the back. The grizzly, though massively -built, gives an impression of leanness. The shoulders are higher than -the posterior, giving the animal a streamlined appearance. The head is -large and round with a square, uptilted muzzle. The legs are extremely -powerful, the feet large and with formidable claws, those of the front -feet being up to 4 inches long. The young will number from one to three, -with two being most common. Grizzlies breed every 2 or 3 years. - -Probably no mammal in the United States is more certain soon to become -extinct than these great bears. Many factors contribute toward this end, -chief among them being the low reproduction rate and the rapid decrease -of its range because of an increase in stock raising and agriculture. -Ousted from its former haunts, the species is now found chiefly in only -the few areas where it is rigidly protected. It seems extremely unlikely -that it can long survive this reduction of its once unlimited range. -This is the culmination of a program of destruction wrought on the -grizzly since penetration of the white man into the West. It but follows -the disappearance of other, less well known bears which lived in the -Southwest at that time. - -When the Mountain Men came into the West in the period from 1800 to 1850 -they found a huge, light-colored bear roaming the foothills of the -desert country. For want of a better name they called it the "gray -bear." From the accounts of that time it is now assumed that it was a -grizzly; at any rate, it was said to have been extremely ferocious, a -trait which led to its downfall. In the space of about 70 years this -animal was discovered, hunted and exterminated, all without a specimen -of any kind being preserved. Today not a trace of this big predator -remains. Its fate illustrates the usual result of contact between a -dangerous, highly specialized animal and man. The question which arises -is, should any group of men ever be allowed such control over a -wilderness that they are able to exterminate the fauna and flora to the -detriment of succeeding generations? The answer seems obvious if we -consider that "we but hold these things in trust." - - [Illustration: grizzly bear] - -Many species of the grizzly are recognized by taxonomists, but few are -alive today. In the United States only New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, -Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho still have some of these big animals. In -some other western States they have but recently become extinct. -California is thought to have lost its last grizzly in 1925. The few -survivors are probably all of the species _horribilis_. Since grizzly -country is also black bear country, the layman may become confused in -identifying the two species. A few important differences make -identification easy. - -The first and most conspicuous field mark is the prominent shoulder hump -of the grizzly. The male black bear will sometimes with age develop a -shoulder hump, but it cannot compare with that of the grizzly. Second, -the grizzly has what has been described as a "dish" face; that is, a -concavity in the general shape of the front of the face, whereas the -black bear develops a definite "Roman" nose. Third, the claws of the -grizzly are twice as long as those of the black bear; this is most -noticeable in the tracks. If one is close enough to see this -characteristic in the field, he probably is too close for safety! -Lastly, the attitude of the two species toward each other when they meet -on common ground is characteristic. As a rule, the approach of a grizzly -to a garbage dump is enough to put all black bears to flight. There is -no intermingling of the two species; the grizzly is the master and the -black bear will not challenge his authority. - -In most of its habits the grizzly resembles the black bear. It is -omnivorous to the same degree, but somewhat more predatory. It also goes -into hibernation for the winter, and the cubs are born during this -inactive period. They receive the same rigorous training as that -accorded their black cousins, and like them, are able to climb into the -trees and out of harm's way. As they grow older, this ability leaves -them with the growing of the long claws, and adult grizzlies are -supposed to be unable to climb. In one respect the grizzly differs from -not only the black bear but from most other native mammals. It has never -learned to fear man to the same degree that other creatures have. - -Whether the grizzly's belligerent attitude stems from fear or contempt -is a moot question. The important point to remember is that a grizzly -should be avoided at all times. Injuries suffered by humans in their -contacts with black bears are usually accidental rather than the result -of deliberate assault by the animal. Grizzlies have been known to charge -without other provocation than trespass on what they consider their -territory. Surely the public can afford to humor this irascible giant. A -little consideration for its irritable nature is not too great a price -to pay for its continued existence in our rapidly dwindling numbers of -large carnivores. - - - Vagrant shrew - _Sorex vagrans_ (Latin: a shrew ... wandering) - -Range: Confined to mountains of western United States and Canada, and -northern and southern Mexico. - - [Illustration: Habitat map] - -Habitat: Moist places in forests of the Transition Life Zones and -higher. - -Description: A tiny creature with a long nose. Total length 4 to 5 -inches. Tail 1-1/2 to 2 inches. Color reddish brown to black above with -sides drab and lightening to gray below. Tail indistinctly bi-color -except for the last half which is dark all the way around. Head round -and narrowing to a long, pointed, somewhat flexible nose. Long whiskers -are found along the sides of the upper jaw. Eyes and ears so small as to -be difficult to see. Little is known of breeding habits of the shrews. -The vagrant shrew is said to breed at any time of year and to have from -5 to 11 young in a litter. - -Shrews are the smallest American mammals. Their size and secretive -habits combine to make them among the least known of native animals. -They are classed as insectivores, although they eat other small mammals -as well as insects. They may be distinguished from mice by their -bicuspid incisors and modified canine teeth. Another difference is that -shrews have five toes, in contrast to the four-toed feet of mice. - - [Illustration: vagrant shrew] - -As far as is known at present, certain species of shrews are the only -poisonous mammals. The big short-tailed shrew (eastern United States) -has a toxic substance in its saliva which helps subdue some of the -animals it captures. It is thought that some western species also have -this peculiarity. Though shrews are among the tiniest animals known, -they are not unduly persecuted by larger predators. This is thought to -be partly because of certain glands on the shrew's body which give it an -offensive odor. - -An outstanding characteristic of shrews is their need for a constant -supply of food. Because all small animals lose heat quickly, they must -eat almost constantly to replace this loss. Some species will eat their -own weight in food as often as every 3 hours. An outstanding exception -is the water shrew, which can do without food for as long as 2 days -without starving to death. Since most shrews live in or near the water, -they find ample food in the insects, spiders, minnows, and small mammals -which live in moist locations. The group is as ferocious as it is -voracious. Most shrews do not hesitate to attack animals outweighing -them several times. It has been said that if shrews were as big as -squirrels they probably would even attack man. - -In the mountains of Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico the northern -water shrew (_Sorex palustris_) may be encountered. It is somewhat -larger than the vagrant shrew and will not be seen away from water. Gray -below and black above, it is wonderfully camouflaged, whether in water -or on land. It, like other shrews, has long whiskers known as vibrissae. -Land shrews use these whiskers as tactile organs to help them follow the -dark maze of their runways. Water shrews are thought to use them as -sense organs in place of eyes to pursue the minnows, tadpoles, and water -bugs they eat. Actually, the water shrew resembles a large water bug as -it darts about below the surface surrounded by the silvery bubbles of -air imprisoned in its fine fur. - - - Bats - Order _Chiroptera_ (Latin: chir, hand, and optera, wing) - -The special treatment accorded bats in this book is not given them by -choice. It results from an inability to so clearly describe any one or -two species chosen that the layman might be able to distinguish these -from their numerous and equally interesting relatives. When one -considers that numerically bats are thought to compare favorably with -birds, that there are a great number of species divided into many -genera, and that the four-State area with which we are concerned is -invaded, so to speak, by eastern, northern, western and Mexican species -besides having several of its own, it soon becomes apparent that this -group can be described here only in the most general way. If some of the -popular superstitions about bats are contradicted here, it is to be -hoped the reader will find the facts no less interesting. - -The adaptation for which bats are best known is their ability to fly. -This specialized talent is shared by no other type of mammal. It is made -possible by considerable modification of several structures of the body, -that of the forelimbs being the most extreme. The bones of both the -upper and lower forelegs are considerably lengthened, but cannot compare -with the extreme elongation of the digits. The clawlike protuberance -from the front of the wing corresponds to the thumb. The wing membrane -stretched across the "fingers" is attached to the side of the body and -to the hindlegs as far as the ankle. Most bats have another wing -membrane, called the interfemoral membrane, which joins both hind legs, -and in many species it also embraces the tail. The wing membranes look -and feel somewhat like thin leather. Running through them is an -intricate system of blood vessels. These not only supply nourishment to -the membrane but also act as a radiator in cooling the blood stream -during the strenuous physical labor involved in flight. The principles -of flight are similar to those used by birds; that is, the wings are -partially folded on the upstroke and fully extended during the down -beat. This maneuver produces a rustling sound that is clearly audible in -the quiet of a cave. In fact, if thousands of bats are disturbed at the -same time it becomes a low roar. - -The fact that bats are nocturnal, and at the same time lead an aerial -life which necessitates flying through labyrinths plunged in total -darkness, has been the cause of much research as to the means by which -they can do this. It is now definitely known that they depend on a sonar -system where, by emitting shrill cries, they are guided by the echoes -rebounding from nearby objects. These "squeaks" range within a frequency -of from 25,000 to 75,000 vibrations per second, which is too high for -the human ear to register. The sounds are uttered at rates from about 10 -per second when the bat is at rest to as many as 60 per second when it -is in flight and surrounded by the many obstacles to be found in a cave. -Fantastic as this performance seems, it is matched by a theory that tiny -muscles close the bat's ears to each squeak and open them again to hear -only the echo. - -The response of their vocal and hearing structure to this specialized -use is truly amazing. There are no more unique faces in the mammal -kingdom than those of the bats. Most bats have enormous ears with ridged -and channeled interiors that probably have much to do with amplifying -faint sounds. Set in front of the ear is a narrow, upright protuberance -known as the tragus. Farther down the face, in the region of the nose, -are other strangely shaped skin structures including the "nose leaf." As -yet the functions of these appendages are not entirely known, but it is -suspected that at least part of their purpose is to beam the squeaks -along a definite line and thus help orient the bat with its -surroundings. With such an efficient system to guide it, the bat has -small need for eyes. The expression "blind as a bat" is misleading, -however, because most bats, in spite of their relatively small eyes, can -see rather well. - -Since most southwestern bats are insectivorous, with the exception of a -very few species along the Mexican border which are considered fruit -eaters, the question arises as to how they exist during the winter -months when insects are not to be found. There are two common methods by -which animals avoid such a lean period: by migration and by hibernation. -Bats employ both. Some species are thought to fly as far south as -Central America. Others group together in caves and hang in a deep -torpor all winter. In this state of inactivity their body temperatures -may fall to within one degree of their surroundings, and their rate of -metabolism sometimes falls to one-eighteenth of that during active -periods. As a rule, bats prefer a cool place for hibernation, because -the cooler the temperature the slower the rate of metabolism. Body -temperatures as low as 33.5° F. have been recorded in hibernating bats. -The temperature must not fall below freezing, or the animals will -perish. During this period of inactivity bats have been known to lose up -to one-third of their weight. - -Because of their secretive habits and nocturnal periods of activity, -bats have few enemies other than man that are capable of making any -serious inroads on their numbers. Consequently the birth rate is quite -low in most species. Many have no more than one young each year; and the -red bat, which bears up to four young, seems to be the most prolific in -the United States. There is great variety in the methods by which -different species care for the young. Some mothers leave the babies -hanging to the roof of the cave while they go on their nightly search -for food; others carry the young clinging tightly to their fur. The -young mature quickly. They are usually able to fly within a month after -they are born. - -Despite much recent scientific study, bats are still among our least -known creatures. Their insectivorous diet surely makes them of great -importance to man. Beyond this, their immense numbers indicate that -ecologically they must have tremendous influence on any area in which -they live. - - - - - REFERENCES - - -Bailey, Vernon - 1931. _Mammals of New Mexico._ North American Fauna, No. 53, - Washington, D. C., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of - Biological Survey. - -Barnes, Claude T. - 1927. _Utah Mammals._ Salt Lake City, The University of Utah. - -Burt, William Henry and Grossenheider, Richard Philip - 1952. _A Field Guide to the Mammals._ Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., - The Riverside Press, Cambridge. - -Hall, Raymond E. - 1946. _Mammals of Nevada._ Berkeley. University of California Press. - -Ingles, Lloyd Glenn - 1954. _Mammals of California and its Coastal Waters._ Stanford - University Press. Stanford, California. - -Jaeger, Edmund C. - 1950. _Our Desert Neighbors._ Stanford University Press. Stanford, - California. - -Mearns, Edgar Alexander - 1907. _Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States._ Part - 1. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office. - -Miller, Gerrit S. and Kellogg, Remington - 1955. _List of North American Recent Mammals._ Washington: United - States National Museum, Bulletin 205. - -Nelson, E. W. - 1918. _Wild Animals of North America._ National Geographic Society. - -Warren, Edward Royal - 1910. _The Mammals of Colorado._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. - -Cockrum, E. Lendell - 1960. _The Recent Mammals of Arizona._ Tucson: University of Arizona - Press. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - Abert's squirrel. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Alpine Life Zone, xiv - Antelope. _See_ Pronghorn. - _Antilocapra americana_, 4 - Arizona gray squirrel, 36 - Artiodactyla, 1 - - - B - Bats, 121 - Bear, black, 112 - grizzly, 117 - Beaver, 67 - Bighorn, 2 - Bison, 8 - _Bison bison_, 8 - Black bear, 112 - Black-tailed deer, 11 - Bobcat, 85 - Buffalo. _See_ Bison. - Bushy-tailed woodrat, 60 - - - C - Canadian Life Zone, xiii - _Canis latrans_, 92 - _lupus_, 89 - Carnivores, 79 - _Castor canadensis_, 67 - Catamount. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Cervus canadensis_, 16 - Chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Chipmunks, western, 44 - cliff, 45 - Colorado, 44 - gray-necked, 44 - least, 45 - Uinta, 44 - Chiroptera, 79, 121 - _Citellus lateralis_, 48 - Classification of animals, xv - Cliff chipmunk, 45 - Colorado chipmunk, 44 - Cottontail, mountain, 26 - Cougar. _See_ Mountain lion. - Coyote, 92 - _Cynomys gunnisoni_, 51 - _leucurus_, 51 - _parvidens_, 51 - - - D - Deer - black-tailed, 11 - mule, 10 - fantail, Sonora, 11, 14 - white-tailed, 13 - Deermouse, 57 - Douglas squirrel. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - - - E - Elk, 16 - _Erethizon dorsatum_, 72 - Ermine. _See_ Short-tailed weasel. - _Euarctos americanus_, 112 - _Eutamias cinereicollis_, 44 - _dorsalis_, 45 - _minimus_, 45 - _quadrivittatus_, 44 - - - F - _Felis concolor_, 80 - Field mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - Fox, red, 87 - - - G - _Glaucomys sabrinus_, 42 - Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 48 - Gopher, northern pocket, 75 - Gray-necked chipmunk, 44 - Gray wolf, 89 - Grizzly bear, 117 - Ground squirrel, golden-mantled, 48 - _Gulo luscus_, 95 - - - H - Hare, snowshoe, 22 - Hoofed animals, 1 - - - I - Insectivores, 79 - - - J - Jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - - - K - Kaibab squirrel, 34 - - - L - Lagomorphs, 21 - hare, snowshoe, 22 - jackrabbit, white-tailed, 24 - cottontail, mountain, 26 - pika, 28 - Least chipmunk, 45 - _Lepus americanus_, 22 - _townsendi_, 24 - Life zones, xiii - Alpine, xiv - Canadian, xiii - Lower Sonoran, xiii - Transition, xiii - Upper Sonoran, xiii - Lion, mountain, 80 - Long-tailed weasel, 106 - Lower Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Lutra canadensis_, 101 - Lynx, 85 - _Lynx canadensis_, 86 - _rufus_, 85 - - - M - Marmot, yellow-bellied, 53 - _Marmota flaviventris_, 53 - Marten, 97 - _Martes americana_, 97 - Meadow mouse. _See_ Mountain vole. - _Mephitis mephitis_, 110 - _Microtus montanus_, 58 - Mink, 103 - Mountain cottontail, 26 - Mountain sheep. _See_ Bighorn. - Mountain lion, 80 - Mountain vole, 58 - Mouse, western jumping, 59 - white-footed. _See_ Deermouse. - Field. _See_ Mountain vole. - Meadow. _See_ Mountain vole. - Mule deer, 10 - Muskrat, 64 - _Mustela erminea_, 105 - _frenata_, 106 - _rixosa_, 106 - _vison_, 103 - - - N - _Neotoma cinerea_, 60 - Northern flying squirrel, 42 - Northern pocket gopher, 75 - - - O - _Ochotona princeps_, 28 - _Odocoileus couesi_, 14 - _hemionus_, 10 - _virginianus_, 13 - _Ondatra zibethicus_, 64 - Otter, river, 101 - _Ovis canadensis_, 2 - - - P - Pack rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Painter. _See_ Mountain lion. - Panther. _See_ Mountain lion. - _Peromyscus maniculatus_, 57 - Pika, 28 - Pine squirrel, 39 - Porcupine, 72 - Prairie dog, white-tailed, 51 - Pronghorn, 4 - Puma. _See_ Mountain lion. - - - R - Red fox, 87 - Red squirrels. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - River otter, 101 - Rodents, 21 - _Sciurus aberti_, 31 - _arizonensis_, 36 - _kaibabensis_, 34 - - - S - Short-tailed weasel, 105 - Shrew, vagrant, 119 - Skunk, spotted, 108 - striped, 110 - Snowshoe hare, 22 - Sonora fantail deer, 11, 14 - _Sorex vagrans_, 119 - _Spilogale gracilis_, 108 - Spruce squirrel, 39 - Squirrel, Abert's. _See_ Tassel-eared squirrel. - Arizona gray, 36 - chickaree. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - Douglas. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - golden-mantled ground, 48 - Kaibab, 34 - flying, northern, 42 - pine, 39 - red. _See_ Spruce squirrel. - spruce, 39 - tassel-eared, 31 - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_, 26 - - - T - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, 39 - Tassel-eared squirrel, 31 - _Thomomys talpoides_, 75 - Trade rat. _See_ Bushy-tailed woodrat. - Transition Life Zone, xiii - - - U - Uinta chipmunk, 44 - Upper Sonoran Life Zone, xiii - _Ursus horribilis_, 117 - - - V - Vagrant shrew, 119 - Vole, mountain, 58 - _Vulpes fulva_, 87 - - - W - Wapiti. _See_ Elk. - Weasel, least, 106 - long-tailed, 106 - short-tailed, 105 - Western jumping mouse, 59 - White-footed mouse, 57 - White-tailed deer, 13 - White-tailed jackrabbit, 24 - White-tailed prairie dog, 51 - Wolf, gray, 89 - Wolverine, 95 - Woodchuck. _See_ Yellow-bellied marmot. - Woodrat, bushy-tailed, 60 - - - Y - Yellow-bellied marmot, 53 - - - Z - _Zapus princeps_, 59 - - [Illustration: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association logo] - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - - ---Silently corrected several palpable typographical errors. - ---Retained publication information from the original source. - ---In the text versions, included italicized text in _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of the Southwest Mountains and -Mesas, by George Joyce Olin - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS MESAS *** - -***** This file should be named 50822-8.txt or 50822-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/8/2/50822/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |