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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by 

-Charles William Domville-Fife

-

-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most

-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions

-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of

-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at

-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have

-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

-

-Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War

-

-Author: Charles William Domville-Fife

-

-Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347]

-

-Language: English

-

-Character set encoding: UTF-8

-

-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR ***

-

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-Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online

-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This

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-                          Transcriber’s Notes

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-

-Italic text enclosed with _underscores_.

-

-Small-caps replaced by ALL CAPS.

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-

-

-

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]

-

-                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”

-

-  Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes

-                            and 2 q.-f. guns.

-

-     There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.

-

-]

-

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-

-

-

-

-               SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR

-

-

-

-

-                                   BY

-

-                        CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE

-

-             AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”,

-                “SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.

-

-

-

-

-                              ILLUSTRATED

-

-

-

-

-                          HODDER AND STOUGHTON

-

-                        LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO

-

-                                 MCMXIV

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-                                PREFACE

-

-

-Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to

-arrive at an intelligent understanding of the _naval situation_ or of

-the _military campaigns_ in the Great European War, a knowledge of the

-scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And

-in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting

-underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to

-the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I

-venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the

-prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances,

-and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the

-vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine

-Phase” in naval warfare.

-

-                                                            C. W. D-F.

-

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-

-

-

-

-                                CONTENTS

-

-                                                                  PAGE

-

- INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR                   9

-

-                               CHAPTER I

- THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT                                  40

-

-                              CHAPTER II

- BRITISH SUBMARINES                                                 60

-

-                              CHAPTER III

- FRENCH SUBMARINES                                                  79

-

-                              CHAPTER IV

- RUSSIAN SUBMARINES                                                 94

-

-                               CHAPTER V

- JAPANESE SUBMARINES                                               104

-

-                              CHAPTER VI

- GERMAN SUBMARINES                                                 108

-

-                              CHAPTER VII

- AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES                                               118

- TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS  123

-

-                             CHAPTER VIII

- SUBMARINES IN ACTION                                              124

-

-                              CHAPTER IX

- ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS                                            146

-

-                               CHAPTER X

- THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO                                             160

-

-                              CHAPTER XI

- SUBMARINE MINES                                                   168

-

-                              CHAPTER XII

- MINE-LAYING FLEETS                                                174

-

-                             CHAPTER XIII

- MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS                                              179

-

-                              CHAPTER XIV

- COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR         184

-

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-

-

-

-

-                              INTRODUCTION

-

-                  THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR

-

-

-In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less

-than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine

-fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the

-highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies

-comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the

-grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and

-their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in

-its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications.

-Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks,

-ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval

-construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the

-1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion

-of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering

-submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging

-tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German

-and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept

-clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained

-observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the _dark

-patches in the semi-transparent sea-green_ which denote the presence of

-mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial

-scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle

-to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small

-steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the

-hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted

-to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these

-deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction

-with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect

-the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances

-are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every

-harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by

-elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare

-underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of

-the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone

-of war.

-

-Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine

-attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and

-describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is

-necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this

-new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its

-influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to

-survey _in their submarine aspect_ the naval operations in the opening

-phase of this, the greatest war in history.

-

-In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered

-conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and

-sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and

-even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land

-forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid

-burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with

-difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the

-powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs.

-and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy

-of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the

-reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets

-by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive

-engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening

-phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in

-numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for

-their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in

-conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North

-Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of

-the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive

-actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be

-frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies,

-costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these

-grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to

-delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be

-screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer

-types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in

-the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British

-submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed

-in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the

-enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast

-fortifications. Not content with this _rôle_, however, several British

-submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the

-Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering

-distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk

-their big ships.

-

-With what degree of success this new opening or _submarine phase_ in

-naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the

-first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser _Amphion_, a vessel

-of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch

-guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the

-destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser

-_Birmingham_; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off

-Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. _Pathfinder_, a fleet scout of about

-3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905‒6, by a German submarine; the

-destruction of the Wilson liner _Runo_ by a mine; the sinking of the

-German cruiser _Hela_, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in

-1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British

-armoured cruisers _Aboukir_, _Hogue_ and _Cressy_—vessels of 12,000 tons

-displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides

-twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German

-submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over

-which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind.

-

-This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and

-property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German

-floating mines on the trade-routes.

-

-To the Allies this _submarine phase_ did not come unexpected. The

-British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and

-engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;

-Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the

-Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co.

-Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd.,

-as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been

-engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems

-continually arising in the practical application of all forms of

-submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in

-1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth

-of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and

-in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82

-vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been

-evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American

-inventor.

-

-[Illustration: North Sea Coastlines]

-

-To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the

-submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the

-_Gymnôte_, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the

-Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine

-flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.

-

-The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since

-that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now

-numbers 37 vessels.

-

-Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and

-up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a

-British-Holland boat in 1904.

-

-Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of

-the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines,

-but in 1905‒6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels

-U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine

-flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany

-possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The

-Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet

-until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels.

-

-From this brief _resumé_ of the growth of the submarine fleets of the

-six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers

-as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great

-Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must,

-however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the

-steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets

-at war.

-

-The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the

-British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with

-submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction

-caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine

-mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored

-to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on

-contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking

-of the Japanese battleships _Hatsuse_ and _Yashima_ as well as the

-Russian battleship _Petropavlovsk_ and the cruiser _Boyarin_—the British

-Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen

-would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines

-could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into

-being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old

-torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these,

-however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing

-trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made

-arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the

-disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new

-mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a

-new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is

-known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 _skippers_ and 1,136

-men taken from the fishing fleet.

-

-Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British

-Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven

-old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and

-provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid

-over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly

-laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is

-a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to

-its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of

-second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although

-much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was,

-during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and

-dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were

-swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact

-with each other during the progress of sweeping operations.

-

-What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines

-in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the

-German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France,

-Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is

-perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several

-hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and

-Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of

-merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested

-sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of

-food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also

-officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin

-their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported

-across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a

-guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile

-warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast

-had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means

-least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that

-the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and

-left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not

-difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of

-these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in

-these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by

-thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes,

-many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy

-themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept

-clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there

-blockaded with their cowardly fleet.

-

-The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of

-naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is

-essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface

-vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary

-for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of

-the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with

-an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel

-can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking

-the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the

-submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and

-approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel

-the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to

-its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like

-an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night

-owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater

-fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea,

-however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or

-destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled,

-and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day

-and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often

-attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw

-attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine

-attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain

-imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war.

-

-Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day,

-naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight

-torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo

-and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the _rôle_

-of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to

-1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a

-considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing

-guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of

-accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and

-A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power

-and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of

-the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the

-case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons,

-the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four

-12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean

-cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing

-wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British

-submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by

-numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which

-indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may

-be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future.

-

-The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself

-a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it

-sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own

-engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of

-attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in

-the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range

-and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45

-knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of

-the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton

-which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This

-very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous

-hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The

-type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies

-is the _Whitehead_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses

-the _Schwartzkopf_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar

-to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon.

-

-In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have

-been sunk by submarine torpedoes.

-

-The activity of the British submarines _in the theatre of war_, from the

-beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following

-dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first

-dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine

-attack and reconnaissance:—

-

-                                                H.M.S. _Maidstone_,

-                                                  _17th October, 1914_.

-

- “Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the

- honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the

- Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:—

-

- “Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6

- (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander

- Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a

- reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned

- with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers

- on a service which is attended by some risk.

-

- “During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the _Lurcher_

- and _Firedrake_ and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine

- Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the

- High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our

- transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief,

- until the _personnel_ of our Army had been transported and all chance

- of effective interference had disappeared.

-

- “These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s

- Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much

- valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his

- patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his

- anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and

- well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by

- Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes.

-

- “At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the _Lurcher_, and, in

- company with _Firedrake_ and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7,

- E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part

- in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th.

- The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th,

- when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions

- from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the

- following morning.

-

- “At daylight on August 28th the _Lurcher_ and _Firedrake_ searched the

- area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile

- Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of

- Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the

- object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward.

-

- “On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good

- to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added

- considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding

- Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and

- judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well

- as foes.

-

- “Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions

- under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of

- closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range.

-

- “Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4,

- witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187

- through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the _Stettin_ class

- close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their

- boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser,

- but she altered course before he could get within range. After

- covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon

- their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and

- nine men of _Defender_, who had been left behind. The boats also

- contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and

- eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the

- latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six

- unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before

- leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a

- compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war.

-

- “Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the

- vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his

- vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist,

- was altogether admirable.

-

- “This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance

- which supplied the information on which these operations were based,

- and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot,

- the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and

- skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of

- Their Lordships.

-

- “On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed

- and sank the German Light Cruiser _Hela_ six miles South of

- Heligoland.

-

- “A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9

- had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours.

-

- “On September 14th, in accordance with his orders,

- Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of

- Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk.

-

- “On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),

- while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On

- rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was

- securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately,

- however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of

- the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine

- clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was

- effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able

- Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released

- mine descended to its original depths.

-

- “On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when

- patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer

- S.126.

-

- “The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with

- their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with

- torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of

- much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine

- officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration.

-

- “Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is

- also deserving of credit.

-

- “Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers

- have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of

- delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one

- occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines

- been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours.

-

- “During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between

- the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee

- shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one.

-

- “The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland

- Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There

- was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60

- feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—_i.e._

- vertically moving about twenty feet.

-

- “I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they

- should have maintained their stations under such conditions.

-

- “Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the

- Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have

- all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties.

- These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of

- the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their

- command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to

- single out individuals when all have performed their duties so

- admirably, and in this I concur.

-

- “The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during

- these operations:—

-

- D.1  (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).

-

- D.2  (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).

-

- D.3  (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).

-

- D.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).

-

- E.4  (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).

-

- E.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).

-

- E.6  (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).

-

- E.7  (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann).

-

- E.9  (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).

-

-  I have the honour to be, Sir,

-      Your obedient servant,

-        (Signed) ROGER KEYES,

-                    Commodore (S).”

-

-In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase

-in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack

-and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen

-sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp

-engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction

-with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of

-its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the

-forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering

-rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness

-while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the

-flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the

-seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean.

-

-The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German

-Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a

-hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in

-the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the

-great battle fleets of England.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER I

-

-                   THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT

-

-

-The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and

-before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets

-at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal

-features common to all types of submarine craft.

-

-

-                        _Method of Submergence_

-

-It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have

-occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a

-submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of

-operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[1]

-

-It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the

-surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action.

-For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring

-the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the

-submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at

-a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is

-necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would,

-in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the

-destroyers.

-

-When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is

-technically called the _light condition_, that is to say, with her water

-ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only

-the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface,

-water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes

-her to sink into the sea until her _back_ is almost flush with the

-surface—this is known as the _awash condition_.

-

-It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might

-at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine,

-break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout

-into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result,

-for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little

-additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the

-surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when

-proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the

-mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine

-hermetically closed, ready to sink.

-

-To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished

-by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with

-the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and

-sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to

-guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to

-dive and rise. Two additional _fins_ are frequently placed on each side

-of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising.

-

-In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal

-rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The

-action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced

-down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is

-much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the

-force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to

-right or left.

-

-From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the

-surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the

-propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down,

-she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no

-longer any effect.

-

-Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is

-controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to

-move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed

-to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is

-operated by electricity.

-

-In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was

-required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the

-ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now

-obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to

-carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they

-were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode

-too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with

-the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the

-ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of

-water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to

-enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal

-fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome,

-and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three

-minutes.

-

-When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the

-submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is

-compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always

-exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in.

-Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface

-again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the

-compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered

-that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to

-bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker

-accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this

-case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash

-condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the

-light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at

-the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a

-submarine sink than it is to make her rise.

-

-It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the

-other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so

-delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may

-have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So

-steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially

-those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies,

-that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to

-amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few

-feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is

-almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a

-sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect

-the firing of the torpedoes.

-

-The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or

-_diving-trim_, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily

-very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a

-thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100

-gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability

-of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known

-as _positive-buoyancy_ must be accompanied by a corresponding increase

-in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to

-drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural

-tendency to float on the surface.

-

-For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in

-such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of

-weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or

-rise with dangerous rapidity.

-

-This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were

-provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by

-means of _compensating-tanks_, into which sufficient water is pumped to

-compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of _each_

-torpedo.

-

-Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern _trimming-tanks_,

-into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any

-tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity.

-

-

-                             _Propulsion._

-

-Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction

-the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are

-still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity,

-petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since

-first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for

-using these _prime movers_ in conjunction with each other and with

-chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors.

-

-About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a

-good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were

-abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and

-electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful

-machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being

-used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion.

-

-The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all

-circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons

-have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is

-more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged

-would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be

-made.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). _A._ Deck

- superstructure. _B._ Scuppers for filling superstructure. _D._ External

- connections. _E._ Conning-tower (4-inch armour). _F._ Periscope. _G._

- Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). _H._ Air cowls. _I._ Conning-tower

- cap (opening sideways). _J._ Mast stays. _K._ Mast (not part of service

- equipment). _L._ Torpedo-tube cap. _M._ Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes

- in. _N._ Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). _O._ Hydroplane engines.

- _X._ Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. _Y._ Spare

- torpedoes. _Z._ Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal

- pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s

- platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering

- submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol

- engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries.

- 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.

-

-]

-

-It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol

-engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with

-its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the

-submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in

-almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs

-in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is

-extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the

-storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities,

-although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French

-Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in

-air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is

-impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine

-(compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius

-of action are curtailed.

-

-If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines

-could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful

-set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and

-when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be

-simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of

-action would naturally result.

-

-In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more

-modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is

-being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power

-obtained with greater safety.

-

-Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the

-vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the

-electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored

-in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three

-separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which

-drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a

-suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the

-electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives

-the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the

-batteries.

-

-It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources

-of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of

-power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The

-only actual source being the oil or petrol.

-

-There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of

-machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging

-the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and

-for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps,

-steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this,

-hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate

-most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the

-armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic

-quick-firing guns.

-

-From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine

-presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible.

-Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed

-up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and

-with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their

-backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and

-nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in

-front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of

-the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in

-the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the

-arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that

-trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping,

-and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as

-possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to

-create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to

-be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft.

-

-

-                        _Vision When Submerged._

-

-Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine

-construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged.

-This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up

-from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the

-surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a

-picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors

-inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope

-can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when

-the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be

-easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by

-gun-fire.

-

-The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern

-submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of

-vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting

-only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly

-clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at

-night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would

-be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an

-enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight

-torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by

-ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to

-discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed

-to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a

-surprise attack.

-

-

-                              _Armament._

-

-The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is

-expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in

-the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat,

-so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts

-can be made.

-

-About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they

-now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future

-chapter is devoted.

-

-The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for

-use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are

-arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to

-disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of

-guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of

-defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat

-destroyers, or by air-craft.

-

-

-                            _Habitability._

-

-Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold,

-hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth.

-The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room,

-the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well

-illuminated by electric lamps.

-

-The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel

-cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks

-of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same

-time chemically absorbed.

-

-Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained

-from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is

-almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a

-time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped

-deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so

-also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER II

-

-                           BRITISH SUBMARINES

-

-

-The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82

-submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were,

-however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and

-distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities

-were as follows:—

-

-

-                       SUBMARINES IN HOME WATERS.

-

-                          _Patrol Flotillas._

-

- 1st Flotilla. Devonport.

-     Depôt ship: _Onyx_.

-   Submarines: A.8 and A.9.

-

- 2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.

-     Depôt ship: _Dolphin_.

-   Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.

-

- 3rd Flotilla. Devonport.

-     Depôt ship: _Forth_.

-   Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,

-     C.15 and C.16.

-

- 4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.

-     Depôt ships: _Arrogant_ and _Hazard_.

-   Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.

-

- 5th Flotilla. Chatham.

-     Depôt ship: _Thames_.

-   Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.

-

- 6th Flotilla. Chatham.

-     Depôt ships: _Bonaventure_ and _Hebe_.

-   Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.

-

- 7th Flotilla. Chatham.

-     Depôt ships: _Vulcan_ and _Alecto_.

-   Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27,

-      C.28, C.29, C.30.

-

- 8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.

-     Depôt ships: _Maidstone_ and _Adamant_.

-   Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3,

-      E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.

-

- 9th Flotilla. Devonport.

-     Depôt ship: _Pactolus_.

-   Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.

-

-

-                    SUBMARINES ON FOREIGN STATIONS.

-

-    Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11.

-

-    At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8.

-

-    Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38.

-

-    With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[2] and A.E.2.

-

-The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas

-in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be

-taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast

-protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the

-_Patrol Flotillas_. The wide range of action of modern submarines

-enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt,

-and consequently Chatham becomes merely the _general store_, or

-head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not

-only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England

-and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form

-of _Depôt Ships_, which, with their attached submarines, are often at

-Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely

-the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover,

-Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with

-their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line

-to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England,

-Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however,

-furthest removed from the zone of war.

-

-Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and

-distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of

-war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main

-theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels

-of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this

-rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas

-guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels

-from overseas.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]

-

-                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”

-

- Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern

-                              torpedo tube.

-

-      There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.

-

-]

-

-The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched

-from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and

-was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the

-famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most

-successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with

-this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched

-during 1901‒2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of

-craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four

-new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the

-first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were

-designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement

-of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were

-propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric

-motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots

-an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their

-maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8

-knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and

-one bow tube.

-

-All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before

-the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of

-interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of

-British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13,

-launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the

-table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine

-flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All

-the following British submarines are now in the fighting line.

-

-

-                               “A” CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1904.)

-

-                    A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.

-

-These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were

-built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged

-displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled

-on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of

-100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots

-and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface

-endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the

-endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists

-of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:

-Eleven officers and men.

-

-These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence,

-can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and

-single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914,

-and was never raised.

-

-

-                               “B” CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1904‒6.)

-

-                  B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.

-

-These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way

-superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the

-sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135

-feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the

-“A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when

-submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the

-electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for

-driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged

-by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running

-on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these

-storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the

-surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300

-knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80‒100

-knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with

-4‒6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men.

-

-The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type

-which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the

-bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse

-the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original

-Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes,

-each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels

-three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed

-below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper

-water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them

-better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are

-liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed

-of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in

-this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages

-derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The

-speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit.

-

-The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the

-forward superstructure, and the _two_ periscopes. The B.2 was run down

-by the liner _Amerika_ in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was

-never recovered.

-

-

-                               “C” CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1906‒10.)

-

-  C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

- 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.

-

-This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B”

-type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet

-long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give

-to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power

-of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged

-speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000

-knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100

-knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with

-six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers

-and men.

-

-In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of

-petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative

-additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of

-both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and

-safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event

-of disaster while submerged.

-

-The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11

-collided with the steamer _Eddystone_ in the North Sea in 1909 and was

-irretrievably lost.

-

-

-                               “D” CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1908‒11.)

-

-                      D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

-

-These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of

-considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each

-other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons;

-and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an

-approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines

-of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the

-surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of

-just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated

-below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000

-miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels

-were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of

-electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The

-armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six

-18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with

-a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This

-gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and

-almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the

-superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The

-complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]

-

-                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”

-

-   Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo

-                                 tubes.

-

-     There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.

-

-]

-

-

-                               “E” CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1912‒14.)

-

-   E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.

-

-These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the

-British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are

-176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly

-2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the

-electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots

-an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at

-economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an

-hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their

-predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the

-largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped

-with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings

-for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers.

-They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the

-“B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three

-tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and

-increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep

-the sea in almost any weather.

-

-

-                         AUSTRALIAN SUBMARINES:

-

-                            A.E.1 and A.E.2.

-

-These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they

-both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under

-their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range,

-seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval

-Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in

-October, 1914, and has not been recovered.

-

-

-                      BRITISH SUBMARINES BUILDING.

-

-At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in

-course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval

-dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the

-British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid

-down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been

-constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by

-Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding

-yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co.

-Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham.

-

-Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of

-which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been

-all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being

-constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less

-than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were

-of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines

-under construction at Greenock were of the _Laurenti_, or Italian type,

-and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the _Laubeuf_, or French type. In

-addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new

-vessels have been given the names of _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.

-

-The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say

-definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas,

-and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy

-regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it

-advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss

-too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable

-capabilities.

-

-

-                               “F” CLASS.

-

-There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are

-the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going

-submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1,

-which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of

-1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum

-speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000

-H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six

-torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns.

-

-

-                   “V” CLASS.  “W” CLASS.  “S” CLASS.

-

-                      _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.

-

-These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to

-those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of

-which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are

-large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000

-tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which

-four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French

-_Laubeuf_ type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number,

-are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—_Laurenti_ type. The two named

-vessels—_Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_—are large sea-going submarines of

-wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000

-tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when

-submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two

-quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about

-25 officers and men.

-

------

-

-Footnote 1:

-

-  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.

-  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.)

-

-Footnote 2:

-

-  Sunk October, 1914.

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER III

-

-                           FRENCH SUBMARINES

-

-

-France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared.

-In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various

-stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of

-two different types of vessels: _Submarines Defensive_ and

-_Submersibles_. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely

-for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and

-they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The

-submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and

-Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great

-offensive power.

-

-The first naval submarine (_Gymnôte_) was launched in 1888, giving to

-France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine

-torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction

-in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M.

-Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the

-French Navy was the _Gustave Zédé_, launched in 1893. So successful did

-this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the _Morse_,

-was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four

-vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and

-named _Lutin_, _Farfâdet_ (re-named _Follet_), _Korrigan_, and _Gnôme_.

-These, with the exception of the ill-fated _Lutin_, are still in the

-active flotillas.

-

-

-                              LUTIN CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1901‒2.)

-

-                   _Follet_.  _Korrigan_.  _Gnôme_.

-

-These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the

-defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with

-electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged.

-Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their

-range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of

-one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The

-complement is nine officers and men.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photos, M. Bar._]

-

-          A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)

-

-         A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)

-

-]

-

-

-                            FRANÇAISE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1901‒2.)

-

-                       _Française._  _Algérien._

-

-These two vessels are of the improved _Morse_ type, and are intended

-solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146

-tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and

-submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an

-hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots.

-They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The

-complement is nine officers and men.

-

-

-                            TRITON CLASS.[3]

-

-                          (Completed 1901‒2.)

-

-              _Triton._  _Sirene._  _Espadon._  _Silure._

-

-These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were

-designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both

-France and other countries (_Laubeuf_ type). They have a submerged

-displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam.

-Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when

-submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when

-submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are

-armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and

-have a complement of ten officers and men.

-

-

-                             NAIADE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1902‒4.)

-

-     _Naiade._  _Loutre._  _Protée._  _Lynx._  _Perle._  _Truite._

-   _Castor._  _Oursin._  _Meduse._  _Otarie._  _Phoque._  _Ludion._

-  _Alose._  _Anguille._  _Grondin._  _Dorade._  _Souffleur._  _Thon._

-                        _Bonite._  _Esturgeon._

-

-Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about

-67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of

-8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament

-consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried.

-Their complement is six officers and men.

-

-

-                            AIGRETTE CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1904.)

-

-                        _Aigrette._  _Cicogne._

-

-These two vessels are submersibles of the _Laubeuf_ type, and were great

-improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged

-displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A

-triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface

-propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their

-speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700

-miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament

-consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement

-is about fifteen officers and men.

-

-

-                               ARGONAUTE.

-

-                           (Completed 1905.)

-

-A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French

-Navy). This vessel, which was first named _Omega_, has a displacement of

-about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed

-of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two

-holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about

-seventeen officers and men.

-

-

-                            EMERAUDE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1906‒8.)

-

-  _Emeraude._  _Saphir._  _Opale._  _Topaz._  _Rubis._  _Turquoise._

-

-These six vessels are of the _Maugas_ type and are sea-going submarines

-with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and

-electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface

-speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius

-is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of

-two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their

-complement is seventeen officers and men.

-

-

-                              CIRCE CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1907.)

-

-                         _Circe._  _Calypso._

-

-These two vessels are of the _Laubeuf_ type, and are improvements on the

-_Aigrette_ class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons

-and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440

-H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric

-motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the

-range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four

-holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men.

-

-

-                            PLUVIÔSE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1907‒12.)

-

-     _Pluviôse._  _Nivôse._  _Ventôse._  _Messidor._  _Thermidor._

-    _Fructidor._  _Brumaire._  _Frimaire._  _Florèal._  _Prairial._

-                              _Germinal._

-

-Submarines of the _Laubeuf_ type with a submerged displacement of nearly

-600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The _Brumaire_ and _Frimaire_ are

-driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but

-all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of

-flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their

-speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch

-torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men.

-

-

-                             FRESNEL CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1908‒12.)

-

- _Fresnel._  _Berthelot._  _Papin._  _Monge._  _Ampère._  _Gay-Lussac._

- _Cagnot._  _Faraday._  _Giffard._  _Montgolfier._  _Newton._  _Volta._

-  _Watt._  _Euler._  _Faucault._  _Franklin._  _Arago._  _Permouilli._

-              _Joule._  _Coulomb._  _Curie._  _Le Verrier._

-

-Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going _Laubeuf_ type. Only

-three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for

-surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the

-_Pluviôse_ class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed

-is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch

-torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes.

-Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.

-

-

-                           AMIRAL BOURGEOISE.

-

-                           (Completed 1912.)

-

-An experimental boat of the _Bourdelle_ type, built at Cherbourg. The

-submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet.

-She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which

-give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion

-are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of

-seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.

-

-

-                               ARCHIMÈDE.

-

-                           (Completed 1912.)

-

-Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement

-is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet

-respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and

-electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots

-below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24

-officers and men.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photo, M. Bar._]

-

-                A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.

-

-]

-

-

-                               MARIOTTE.

-

-                           (Completed 1912.)

-

-The third experimental boat, of the _Rodiquet_ type, built at Cherbourg.

-The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200

-feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the

-surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her

-radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch

-torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The

-complement is about 25 officers and men.

-

-

-                             CHARLES BRUN.

-

-                           (Completed 1912.)

-

-The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The

-submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam

-turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface,

-and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her

-armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22

-officers and men.

-

-

-                            CLORINDE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1913‒14.)

-

-    _Clorinde._  _Cornélie._  _Amphritrite._  _Astree._  _Artémis._

-   _Aréthuse._  _Atalante._  _Amaranthe._  _Ariane._  _Andromaque._

-

-These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine

-flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a

-length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300

-H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors

-of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged.

-They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and

-men.

-

-

-                          GUSTAVE ZEDE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1913‒14.)

-

-                      _Gustave Zede._  _Néréide._

-

-These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas.

-They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet,

-and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16

-knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament

-consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes.

-They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,

-disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the

-complement 27 officers and men.

-

-

-                             BELLONE CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1914.)

-

-                  _Bellone._  _Hermione._  _Gorgone._

-

-Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons.

-They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a

-surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at

-12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.

-Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.

-quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men.

-

-

-                      FRENCH SUBMARINES BUILDING.

-

-On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early

-stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the _Diane_

-and _Daphne_. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800

-tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament

-will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will

-be 30 officers and men.

-

-The other seven vessels are of the improved _Gustave Zede_ Class. They

-will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20

-knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will

-consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be

-about 35 officers and men.

-

------

-

-Footnote 3:

-

-  The _Narval_, the first of this type, has been removed from the

-  effective list.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER IV

-

-                           RUSSIAN SUBMARINES

-

-

-The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37

-submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction.

-The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as

-follows:—

-

-BALTIC FLOTILLA: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12

-vessels building. _Bases_: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and

-Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free).

-

-BLACK SEA FLOTILLA: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and

-several new vessels building. _Bases_: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.

-

-SIBERIAN FLOTILLA: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6

-vessels building. _Base_: Vladivostok.

-

-The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902,

-and named the _Petr Kochka_. She was built in sections to facilitate

-transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of

-Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her

-armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus,

-containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots

-on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered

-for the Russian Navy was the _Delphin_, which foundered off Kronstadt,

-but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the

-submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active

-flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the

-_Graf Cheremetieve_—is still in commission.

-

-

-                        GRAF CHEREMETIEVE CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1904‒5.)

-

-          _Graf Cheremetieve._  _Kasatka._  _Nalim._  _Skat._

-

-These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small

-vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement

-of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the

-surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow

-torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes.

-

-

-                              OSTR CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1904‒6.)

-

-         _Ostr._  _Byts-chok._  _Kefal._  _Platus._  _Plotva._

-

-These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The _Ostr_ was

-originally the American Lake Co.’s boat _Protector_. They have a

-submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in

-breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and

-electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above

-and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full

-speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four

-18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The _special_ characteristics of the

-American Lake type will be seen on pages 119‒120.

-

-

-                               SOM CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1904‒6.)

-

-                          _Som._  _Shtshuka._

-

-These two vessels, which are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, have a

-submerged displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol and electric motors are

-used for surface and submerged propulsion, and the speed is 9 ½ knots

-and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. Their armament consists of

-two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is

-about fifteen officers and men.

-

-

-                            STERLIAD CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1905‒6.)

-

-                  _Sterliad._  _Bialuga._  _Peskar._

-

-These three vessels are also of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a

-submerged displacement of 150 tons. The petrol motors for surface

-propulsion are of 160 H.-P. The speed is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above

-and below, respectively. Their armament consist of two bow tubes with

-four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is eleven to fifteen

-officers and men.

-

-

-                                  SIG.

-

-                           (Completed 1906.)

-

-A submarine of the Lake type; similar in almost every respect to vessels

-of the _Ostr_ class.

-

-

-                             MAKREL CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1907.)

-

-                          _Makrel._  _Okun._

-

-Two vessels of the _Improved_ Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a

-submerged displacement of about 200 tons. The petrol motors are of 300

-H.-P., and the electric engines of 150 H.-P. Their speed is 10 knots on

-the surface and 8 knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow

-tubes and two stern _holders_, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen officers and men.

-

-

-                             LOSSOS CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1907.)

-

-                          _Lossos._  _Ludak._

-

-Two somewhat smaller submarines of the Holland type. Intended either for

-the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. Similar to those of the

-_Sterliad_ class.

-

-

-                              KARP CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1907‒8.)

-

-                           _Karp._  _Karas._

-

-These two submarines are of the Germania, or Krupp type, and have a

-submerged displacement of 250 tons. They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil

-engines of 400 H.-P., and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on

-the surface is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range

-of action is about 1,000 miles, and the submerged endurance about three

-hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes

-and four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is fifteen officers and

-men.

-

-

-                            ALLIGATOR CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1908‒9.)

-

-            _Alligator._  _Kaiman._  _Drakon._  _Krokodil._

-

-Four submarines of the improved Lake type. They have a submerged

-displacement of 500 tons. Their speed is 15 knots on the surface and 10

-knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow and two stern tubes,

-and carry six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is seventeen

-officers and men. (See also page 96.)

-

-

-                             MINOGA CLASS.

-

-                           (Completed 1908.)

-

-                        _Minoga._  _Potschovy._

-

-Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff type, which were built in

-sections to facilitate transport by rail. They have a submerged

-displacement of about 150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and 9 knots,

-above and below, respectively. Their complement is eleven officers and

-men.

-

-

-                                 AKULA.

-

-                           (Completed 1909.)

-

-A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff type. Her displacement is about

-570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when

-submerged. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube, with six

-18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is 20 officers and men.

-

-

-                            KASCHALOT CLASS.

-

-                          (Completed 1909‒12.)

-

- _Kaschalot._  _Kit._  _Krab._  _Morsh._  _Narval._  _Nerpa._  _Tinlen._

-

-These seven vessels are among the most modern submarines in the Russian

-flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, and have a submerged

-displacement of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of over 1,000 H.-P.

-drive them at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, and electric motors

-of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour.

-Their surface cruising range is about 3,000 miles. Their armament

-consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes. They are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, high-angle

-gun for defence against air-craft. Their complement is 21 officers and

-men.

-

-

-                      RUSSIAN SUBMARINES BUILDING.

-

-At the commencement of the war there were nineteen Russian submarines in

-course of construction. Very little information concerning these boats

-can be obtained, except that their submerged displacement ranges from

-800 to 1,500 tons, and their _anticipated_ surface speed is 20 knots.

-Some of the 800-ton vessels have already been completed, and the first

-twelve will be named: _Svitza_, _Leopard_, _Pantera_, _Ruis_, _Kaguar_,

-_Tiqr_, _Yaguar_, _Vepr_, _Wolk_, _Baro_, _Gepard_, and _Tur_. These

-vessels have a speed of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when

-submerged. Their complement is 25 officers and men.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER V

-

-                          JAPANESE SUBMARINES

-

-

-The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a submarine flotilla of seventeen

-vessels, all except two of which are of the British Holland or Vickers

-type. Japan commenced the construction of what is now a rapidly

-increasing and powerful flotilla in 1904 by the purchase of five

-elementary Holland boats. These, however, are still in the active

-flotilla and are designated Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement

-of 120 tons, and are 65 feet in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol

-motors of 160 H.-P. drive them at 9 knots on the surface and electric

-motors of 70 H.-P. at 7 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of

-one bow expulsion tube with three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.

-

-

-                             NOS. 6 AND 7.

-

-                           (Completed 1906.)

-

-These two vessels were the first submarine boats to be built in Japan,

-but are of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger and faster. They have

-a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of

-10 feet. The petrol engines are of 300 H.-P. and the electric motors of

-100 H.-P. The surface and submerged speed is 10 knots and 8 knots an

-hour, respectively. Their armament consists of one torpedo tube with

-three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.

-

-

-                             NOS. 8 AND 9.

-

-                          (Completed 1907‒8.)

-

-These two vessels are very similar to the British “C” class, and were

-built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged displacement of 320

-tons; petrol motors of 600 H.-P., and a surface and submerged speed of

-13 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their armament consists of

-two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their

-complement is sixteen officers and men.

-

-

-                              Nos. 10‒15.

-

-                          (Completed 1909‒12.)

-

-These six vessels are the same in almost every respect as the later “C”

-class of British submarines (pages 70‒71).

-

-

-                             Nos. 16‒17[4].

-

-                          (Completed 1912‒14.)

-

-These two vessels are of the _Schneider-Laubeuf_ or French type.

-(British “W” class.) Their submerged displacement is about 500 tons, and

-the horse-power of their surface engines 2,500. The surface and

-submerged speed is 18 knots and 9 knots respectively. Their armament

-consists of six torpedo tubes with eight _Schneider_ torpedoes. The

-complement is about 30 officers and men.

-

-The natural adroitness with which Japanese sailors manipulate

-complicated machinery, combined with their absolute fearlessness, make

-them ideal for torpedo work.

-

------

-

-Footnote 4:

-

-  It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered before the

-  outbreak of war.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER VI

-

-                           GERMAN SUBMARINES

-

-

-On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany possessed 30 submarine

-torpedo-boats. These were divided into three flotillas, with their

-headquarters at Kiel, the largest and most modern vessels being attached

-to the Heligoland or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, although 24

-submarines were stated as being in commission, only about 15 were

-actively employed, and these mostly in training reserves, the older

-boats being docked and modernized where possible. But during the year

-six new vessels were added to the flotilla and the _personnel_ of the

-submarine service was largely increased. At the same time the inspection

-of submarines was separated from that of the other torpedo-boats and a

-flag-officer was appointed as head of the submarine branch of the Naval

-Service, with headquarters at Kiel. Thus when the hour came for the

-great struggle which was to decide the mastery of the seas the whole

-German Flotilla of 30 vessels, _with a reserve of six new boats which

-had been secretly hurried forward and were rapidly nearing completion_,

-was ready to put to sea.

-

-The German Naval Law provided for the construction of 72 submarines by

-the end of 1917. All the vessels built up to the present time have been

-known as the “U” class and numbered in rotation. They are painted a

-brownish-grey colour and have high collier-like bows with massive

-armoured conning-towers and long superstructures amounting to narrow

-decks. They have all been built at either Kiel or Dantzig.

-

-Although the first submarine boats built for the German Navy were two

-vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched in 1890, they were never

-actively employed with the fleet and have long since been reduced to

-scrap-iron, and the first vessel which can now be reckoned as a fighting

-unit of the German torpedo-boat flotilla was a vessel designated the

-“U.1.” This was built at the Germania Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on

-August 30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of the “U” class, which in

-most of the essential features resembles the British Improved Holland

-type.

-

-

-                                  U.1.

-

-                           (Completed 1905.)

-

-This U.1 was built as an experimental boat by the famous firm of Krupps.

-She has a surface displacement of 197 tons, a submerged displacement of

-236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface engines are of 250 H.-P. The

-electric motors for submerged use develop just over 100 H.-P. The speed

-ranges from 10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 knots when submerged,

-and her surface range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. The armament

-consists of one bow torpedo tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf torpedoes

-are carried. The complement is nine officers and men.

-

-The trials of the U.1 extended over a period of a year and a half, and

-all proved remarkably satisfactory. During the tests which took place in

-Eckernforder Bay she succeeded, twice in succession, in torpedoing a

-moving target while travelling submerged at full speed.

-

-The uncertainty displayed for some years previous by the German Naval

-Authorities regarding the value of submarine boats gave place to a

-thorough sense of the important part these “mighty atoms” would play in

-future naval warfare, and to a strong determination that the German Navy

-should include a powerful submarine flotilla.

-

-

-                                U.2-U.8.

-

-                          (Completed 1907‒10.)

-

-These seven vessels were great improvements on the U.1. Their

-displacement is 210 tons on the surface and about 250 tons when

-submerged. They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil engines of 400

-H.-P. and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on the surface is 12

-knots and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range of action is 1,000

-miles and the submerged endurance about three hours at full speed. Their

-armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes are

-carried. The complement is eleven officers and men.

-

-

-                              U.9-U.18.[5]

-

-                          (Completed 1910‒12.)

-

-These ten vessels are of increased size and power, their submerged

-displacement being 300 tons, and the horse-power of their heavy oil

-surface engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The

-surface and submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The

-surface range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two

-bow and one stern torpedo tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 and

-subsequent vessels of this class are provided with a quick-firing,

-high-angle gun for defence against aircraft, and have sleeping

-accommodation for the crew. They may be termed the first German

-sea-going submarines. Their complement is twenty officers and men.

-

-

-                             U.19 AND U.20.

-

-                          (Completed 1912‒13.)

-

-There are only two vessels in this class owing to the adoption of

-certain improvements with the aid of which a partly new type has been

-evolved. These two vessels have a displacement when submerged of 450

-tons. Their oil engines of 650 H.-P. give a speed of 13 ½ knots an hour

-on the surface, and their electric motors of 300 H.-P. give 8 knots an

-hour when submerged. Their surface range of action is 2,000 miles, and

-their armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube with six

-torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns on disappearing

-mountings. The complement is seventeen officers and men.

-

-

-                               U.21-U.24.

-

-                          (Completed 1912‒13.)

-

-These four vessels are the first of the new type of large sea-going

-submarines for the German Navy. Their submerged displacement is 800

-tons. They are propelled on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200

-H.-P., and when submerged by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed

-above water is 14 knots an hour and below the surface 9 knots. The

-surface range of action is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance 120

-miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two bow and two

-stern torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing

-gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, all on disappearing mountings, for

-defence against hostile destroyers and aircraft. Their complement is

-twenty-five officers and men.

-

-

-                               U.25-U.30.

-

-                          (Completed 1913‒14.)

-

-These six vessels are the latest additions to the German submarine

-flotilla. They are vessels of 900 tons submerged displacement with

-heavy-oil engines of 2,000 H.-P., and electric motors of 900 H.-P. Their

-surface and submerged speed is 18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. The

-surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of two

-bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large size torpedoes, and,

-in addition, two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. high-angle

-guns. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus on board, and are

-specially constructed with long superstructures and high _collier-like_

-bows to enable them to keep at sea in almost any weather. They are

-fitted with two or three periscopes, and also possess a small _look-out_

-cap on the top of the lofty conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”

-attack in the half-lights of dawn and dusk, when the periscope is almost

-useless. The conning-towers and decks are armoured. Their complement is

-30 to 35 officers and men.

-

-

-                               U.31-U.36.

-

-                              (Building.)

-

-These are the six vessels which are rapidly nearing completion, and

-which were in a much more advanced state, at the opening of hostilities,

-than was generally known in foreign naval circles. They are the same in

-almost every respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. There is, however,

-another submarine being built for Germany of a totally different design.

-This is the F.I.A.T. or _Laurenti_ boat (Italian), laid down at the

-beginning of 1914. This vessel is very similar to the four “S” boats

-being built at Greenock for the British Navy.

-

-No German submarines have in the past been sent to any Colonial or

-oversea station. Therefore, the whole flotilla of 30 to 36 vessels was

-immediately available for operations in the North Sea and Baltic when

-war began. The _personnel_ of the whole torpedo service is very

-efficient, great attention having been paid to this branch of the Navy.

-The three German Submarine flotillas have their headquarters at Kiel,

-Wilhelmshaven, and Heligoland.

-

------

-

-Footnote 5:

-

-  The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER VII

-

-                          AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES

-

-

-At the commencement of the War the Austro-Hungarian Navy included six

-submarines in the active flotilla and five others were being _completed_

-at the Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful if they had been

-delivered. In which event they must be added to the strength of the

-German flotilla. In addition to these, several larger vessels, mostly of

-the latest “U” or Krupp design, had been ordered, but were not expected

-to take their place in the active flotillas before the end of 1915.

-

-Austria commenced the formation of a submarine flotilla in 1908 by the

-acquisition of two vessels of the _Improved Holland type_ from Messrs.

-Vickers Ltd., and two others of the American _Lake type_. In the

-following year two more submarines were ordered, this time from Krupp’s

-Germania Yard. All these vessels were delivered during 1910, and

-Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into being.

-

-

-                              U.1 AND U.2.

-

-                           (Completed 1910.)

-

-These two vessels are of the American Lake type. They have a submerged

-displacement of 250 tons and petrol surface motors of 720 H.-P. Their

-speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The

-armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube. This type of

-submarine has three special features which distinguish it from all

-others. It is fitted with a kind of underframe and wheels, and is

-designed to travel in four different positions: (1) on the surface; (2)

-semi-submerged, with only a look-out cowl above water; (3) submerged,

-with nothing but the periscope showing; (4) totally submerged and

-running along the sea-bed on wheels, like a submarine motor car. It is

-drawn down from the surface to the sea-bed by an ingenious system of

-wire-hawsers and drop-weights, which can be released in the event of

-accident. A “diving chamber” enables members of the crew to don

-diving-dresses and leave the submarine when on the sea-bed, for the

-purpose of laying or destroying submerged mines. The Lake type of

-submarine is also used in the Russian Navy.[6]

-

-

-                              U.3 AND U.4.

-

-                           (Completed 1910.)

-

-These two vessels are of the Krupp design, and have a submerged

-displacement of 300 tons. The horse-power of their heavy-oil surface

-engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The surface and

-submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The surface

-range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two bow and

-one stern tube with five 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen

-officers and men.

-

-

-                              U.5 AND U.6.

-

-                           (Completed 1910.)

-

-These are submarines of the Improved Holland type. Their submerged

-displacement is about 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The

-horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 and that of the electric

-engines 189. The speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when

-submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots an

-hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is sixteen officers and men.

-

-

-                               U.7-U.11.

-

-                  (Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)

-

-These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania type, and are similar to

-those completed for the German Navy in 1912‒13. They are large sea-going

-submarines with a submerged displacement of 800 tons. They are propelled

-on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P., and when submerged,

-by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed is 14 knots and 9 knots,

-above and below, respectively. The surface range of action is 3,000

-miles, and the submerged endurance 120 miles at economical speed.

-

-Their armament consists of two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with

-eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing gun and two 1-pdr.

-high-angle guns, for defence against hostile destroyers and air-craft.

-Their complement is twenty-five officers and men.

-

-One or two Austrian submarines are supposed to have been sunk by the

-Allied Fleet during the first few weeks of the war, but exactly which

-vessels they were is not known.

-

-Several other submarines have been ordered in foreign countries for the

-Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered while the war lasts.

-

-

-            SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS.

-

-          COUNTRY. │    VESSELS BUILT.   │ VESSELS BUILDING.

-         ──────────┬─────────────────────┬────────────────────

-         Italy     │ 20 (100‒300 tons)   │ 8 (large size)

-         Denmark   │  9 (100‒300 tons)   │ several

-         Holland   │  6 (100‒300 tons)   │ 4 (large)

-         Sweden    │  7 (150‒300 tons)   │ 3 (large)

-         Greece    │  2 (Laubeuf)        │     ――

-         Norway    │  1    ――            │ 4 (Germania)

-         Portugal  │  1    ――            │ 3   ――

-         Turkey    │ ――                  │ 3   ――

-         Spain     │ ――                  │ 3   ――

-         ──────────┴─────────────────────┴────────────────────

-

------

-

-Footnote 6:

-

-  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.

-  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914).

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER VIII

-

-                          SUBMARINES IN ACTION

-

-

-Submarines have two great advantages over all types of surface warships;

-they can become invisible at will—or sufficiently invisible to make gun

-or torpedo-practice, except at very close quarters, almost entirely

-useless—and they can, by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate of

-sufficient thickness to be absolutely shell-proof. These are the two

-main points in favour of the submarine. There are, however, many minor

-features. Although submarines are known in the naval services as

-“daylight torpedo-boats,” for their _greatest_ value lies in their

-ability to perform the same task in the “light” as the ordinary surface

-torpedo-boats and destroyers can do under cover of darkness or fog—that

-of creeping up close to an enemy, and launching a torpedo

-unobserved—they have been given, during recent years, so much greater

-speed, armament, and range of action, that they can no longer be looked

-upon as small boats just suitable for daylight torpedo attack in

-favourable circumstances. Their surface speed has been increased from 10

-to 20 knots, making them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.

-This, combined with manœuvering powers and general above-water

-invisibility, has enabled them to take over the duty of the surface

-torpedo-boat—that of delivering night-attacks on the surface. After

-nightfall a submarine attack is almost impossible owing to the

-periscope—the eyes of the submarine—being useless in the dark.

-

-The increase in the armament of the submarine—from the single bow

-torpedo tube with two torpedoes of short range and weak explosive

-charge, to the four bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten torpedoes

-of long range and high explosive charge—has greatly increased their

-chances of successful attack on surface warships, first, by giving them

-four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, in the event of all these

-torpedoes missing, of a dive under the object of attack, and two more

-shots at close range from the stern tubes (still retaining two

-torpedoes); and, secondly, by increasing the distance from which the

-first projectile can be launched, owing to the increased range of the

-modern torpedo. There are also the advantages derived from the battery

-of quick-firing guns installed on the decks of modern submarines.

-Although at the present time these guns are only of small power they

-nevertheless afford a means of defence—and even of attack under

-favourable circumstances—against hostile surface torpedo-boats,

-destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a flotilla of submarines could

-undoubtedly now give a very good account of itself if attacked either on

-the surface or when submerged by one or two prowling destroyers. The

-increase in the power of the guns carried by submarines, which will

-certainly come soon, will enable this type of craft to take up the

-additional duties of the destroyer—that of clearing the seas of hostile

-torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced scouting—for which work their

-ability to travel submerged and in a state of invisibility for distances

-of over 100 miles makes them eminently suitable.

-

-The enormous increase in the size and range of action of submarines,

-combined with the improvements effected in the surface cruising

-qualities, have enabled these vessels to be taken from the “nursery” of

-harbour and coast defence and placed with the sea-going flotillas and

-battle-fleets. In the short period of ten years the tonnage of

-submarines has risen from 100 to over 1,000 tons, and the range of

-action from 400 miles at economical speed to 5,000 miles. Exactly what

-this means is more easily realized when it is stated that the earlier

-types of submarines could scarcely cross the English Channel and return

-without taking in supplies of fuel, and in rough weather were forced to

-remain in harbour, whereas the modern vessel can go from England to

-Newfoundland _and back_ without assistance, and can remain at sea in

-almost any weather, as was first demonstrated by the successful voyage

-of the British submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since

-been proved by the operations of the British submarine flotilla in the

-North Sea.

-

-In addition to the cruising range there is, however, the question of

-habitability. In this respect the progress has been equally as rapid. In

-the older boats no sleeping accommodation was provided for the crew, and

-food supplies and fresh water sufficient only for a few days were

-carried. In the latest British, French and German vessels proper

-sleeping and messing accommodation is provided, and supplies of all

-kinds and in sufficient quantity to last a month are carried. Although

-work on these craft is still very cramping for the crew, the increase in

-the deck space and in the surface buoyancy has greatly minimised the

-discomforts of service in the submarine flotilla.

-

-With regard to safety, it has already been shown that a submarine is

-only held below the surface by the power of her engines and the action

-of the water on her diving-rudders. This means that in the event of

-anything going wrong _inside_ the vessel she would automatically rise to

-the surface; but should the hull be pierced in any way, either by shot

-or by collision, and an overwhelming inrush of water result—overcoming

-the buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing out the water-ballast

-tanks—then the vessel must inevitably sink, and the question of whether

-or not the crew can save themselves becomes a problem to which no

-definite answer can be given, although a special means is provided in

-all modern vessels belonging to the British Navy. Speaking generally, it

-may, however, be said that if the disaster occurs suddenly, and the

-vessel sinks into very deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving

-are extremely small; but if the water is comparatively shallow, as along

-the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood of many of the crew being

-able to save themselves with the aid of the _special escape helmets and

-air-locks_ is fairly good.

-

-We now come to the most important improvement made in the fighting

-qualities of these vessels since first they came into being, viz. the

-wonderful increase in the surface and submerged speed. In the older

-craft the surface speed did not exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it

-now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the submerged speed has risen from 5

-knots to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult for any but a naval

-man to realize exactly what this increase in the speed of submarines

-really means, and it is equally as difficult to adequately describe it

-here in non-technical language. It is a mere platitude to say that in

-order to attack a surface warship the submarine must first get within

-torpedo range of it; and yet it is on this very point that the strategy

-and tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A clever naval tactician once

-described the submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” The two points

-on which he based this opinion were—the (then) slow speed of these

-vessels compared with that of the surface warship, and its almost total

-blindness when submerged. These two defects were for some years the

-principal drawbacks of all the submarines afloat; but since that naval

-expert pronounced submarines to be “handicapped torpedo-boats,” great

-changes, great improvements have been made. The speed of the submarine

-has increased by over 100 per cent., and they have been given longer and

-wider range of vision by the introduction of two and three improved

-periscopes instead of one elementary instrument. Nevertheless, the speed

-difficulty is still a very real one, as will readily be seen when it is

-taken into consideration that the speed of a submarine when attacking

-submerged is frequently only half, or even a third, of that of her

-enemy. In order to more clearly illustrate this and lift for a moment

-the veil of secrecy which enshrouds the methods of attack adopted by

-this type of craft, it will be necessary to describe what is known as

-the_ right-angle attack_.

-

-

-                       ATTACKING AT RIGHT ANGLES.

-

-The difficulty of attacking a surface warship steaming at right angles

-to the course of the submarine will be clearly understood by referring

-to the following diagrams. The first shows an attack on a warship

-travelling at 20 miles an hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser

-Any increase in the speed of the surface vessel not only adds to the

-difficulty of the attacking submarine, but also the direction from which

-the attack must be made. This feature is shown in the second diagram,

-which illustrates a submarine attack on a vessel steaming at 30 miles an

-hour, such as a fast destroyer or fleet scout. On the other hand, a

-decrease in the speed of the on-coming surface vessel tends to either

-make easier the task of the attacking submarine, or else to increase the

-distance from which the attack can be delivered. This is shown in the

-third diagram, which assumes the speed of the surface vessel to be only

-15 miles an hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, food-ship, collier,

-or old warship.

-

-[Illustration:

-

-  RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES.

-]

-

-FIG. 1 represents a submarine attacking a hostile warship (or fleet)

-steaming at 20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the line of vision. The

-submarine sights the warship at a distance of just over 11 miles on her

-port bow. “B” shows the hostile vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to

-point marked “C,” and each division beyond equals 1 mile.

-

-Directly the submarine, which is assumed to be lying in an _awash

-condition_, sights the object of attack, she totally submerges and

-steers forward at a speed of 10 miles an hour. The loss, and gain, of

-the submarine on the different courses, can be seen in the table above

-the chart.[7]

-

-The spaces between the black dots show the most favourable points of

-attack. It will be noticed in the table that both vessels are equal at

-point “C,” but for many reasons this is not the best point of attack.

-The gain of about six minutes on the longer course enables the submarine

-not only to manœuvre into the best possible position for the attack, but

-also to discharge more than one torpedo if necessary.

-

-FIG. 2 shows the extreme limit at which a submarine could, with

-reasonable chances of success, attack a destroyer, or other vessel,

-steaming at 30 (statute) miles an hour, having sighted her at a distance

-of 16 miles in the position shown by the line of vision “A.”

-

-The distance to “C” is 15 miles for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for

-the submarine. Here, again, the two vessels would be equal; but the most

-favourable point of attack is shown by the two black dots—where the

-submarine has gained two minutes.

-

-FIG. 3.—The submarine sights the object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼

-miles, in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” The surface

-vessel has a speed of only 15 miles an hour (merchantman). In this case

-the surface vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey along course

-“B”—arriving at point “C” 20 minutes in advance of the submarine. The

-table shows how the submarine, by changing her course and “throwing” the

-surface vessel on her beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, at the

-point marked with the two black dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At

-this distance she could fire her torpedoes at long range, with some

-likelihood of success.

-

-Although these charts show approximately the extreme limits of the

-right-angle attack, a submarine could, of course, proceed for some

-distance on the surface at a much faster speed; but considering the rate

-at which the two vessels would be approaching each other, the submarine

-which attempted it would run considerable risk of being detected, and

-thus destroy her chances of a successful attack. Considering also the

-time lost in sinking from the “light” to the totally submerged

-condition, in coming to close quarters, the gain in speed would not

-amount to as much as may at first seem probable.[8]

-

-These charts are drawn and calculations made assuming the following

-points:—

-

- (1)  The weather—fine and bright.

-

- (2)  Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.

-

- (3)  The enemy on the alert.

-

- (4)  Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.

-

- (5)  Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D”

-        in all courses in a submerged condition.

-

-The most favourable position for a submarine flotilla is to manœuvre

-close up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within 1,000 yards of a

-fleet—steaming across its course; but both of these ideal positions for

-attack are extremely difficult to obtain, and consequently in all the

-less favourable positions speed is the deciding factor. Strategems will

-undoubtedly play an important part in submarine warfare. An example of

-this has already been afforded when the German submarines resorted to

-the dishonest trick of laying in wait behind a trawler engaged in laying

-mines, over which _the flag of a neutral state_ had been hoisted as a

-blind. This resulted in the loss of three British cruisers with over

-1,000 lives. It would, however, be quite in accord with the rules of

-_civilised_ warfare for a submarine to shelter behind a “decoy”; to

-attack simultaneously with a seaplane; or to approach an enemy behind

-one of its own merchant ships.

-

-

-                           THE PORPOISE DIVE.

-

-The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise Dive” is merely the sudden rising of

-a submarine in order to enable her commander to get a better view of the

-surface than that afforded by the periscope. The submarine on

-approaching the object of attack rises quickly to the surface by the

-action of her horizontal rudders, then dives again, only remaining above

-water for a few seconds to enable her commander to get a glimpse of the

-enemy, and to take bearings. The submarine can then get within

-torpedo-range, with simply the tiny periscope projecting from the

-surface. This manœuvre is now seldom necessary, owing to the long and

-wide range of vision of the two or three periscopes fitted in modern

-submarines.

-

-

-                 DIFFICULTY OF THE FIXED TORPEDO TUBE.

-

-With the exception of one or two vessels, which it would be unwise to

-specify, all the submarines engaged in the present war have what are

-called _fixed submerged tubes_. This means that the tubes from which the

-torpedoes are discharged are fitted _inside_ the submarine _on a line

-with the centre of the boat_, and cannot be moved or aimed in any way

-apart from the boat itself. It therefore becomes necessary for the

-submarine to be _aligned_ by the steering rudders on the object of

-attack before the torpedoes can be discharged. In simpler vein,

-torpedoes can only be fired by a submarine straight ahead or straight

-astern. Hence a submarine, with a hostile warship coming up on its beam,

-is compelled to turn and face its opponent (or turn its stern towards

-her) before delivering an attack.

-

-

-                 SUBMARINE FLOTILLA _v._ SURFACE FLEET.

-

-It is absolutely necessary for submarines acting in company to have each

-its allotted task; and for a wide space of water to be left between each

-boat; as it is impossible, at present, for one submarine to know the

-exact position of another when both vessels are submerged. Therefore, if

-each boat was not previously instructed how to act, there would not only

-be the likelihood of the greater portion of an attacking flotilla firing

-their torpedoes at one or two vessels of the hostile fleet and allowing

-the remainder either to escape or to keep up a heavy and dangerous fire

-unmolested, but also of collision and of torpedoeing each other by

-accident. There is no means of inter-communication between submarines

-when submerged, and a battle between submarines is almost impossible.

-

-

-                            SURPRISE ATTACK.

-

-In this case invisibility is the element of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian

-Bridge, G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once said: “When submerged the

-concealment of the submarine is practically perfect. If she has not been

-sighted up to the moment of diving, she will almost certainly reach,

-unobserved, the point at which she can make her attack.” And this

-opinion—shared for many years by all experts—has been amply proved in

-the present war.

-

-A submarine must, however, blend with the surrounding sea in its

-ever-varying colours, lights and shades, in order that she may be as

-invisible as possible when cruising on the surface. The French Naval

-Authorities experimented off Toulon with a luminous paint of a sea-green

-colour; but this, although causing the hull to be almost totally

-invisible in certain weather, was found to be useless, as, on a bright

-day with a blue sky, the green showed up clear against the bluish tint

-of the surrounding sea. After many months of experimenting, a pale,

-sea-green, non-luminous paint was chosen as the best colour for French

-submarines. The British Admiralty also carried out a few experiments in

-this direction, and came to the conclusion that a dull grey was the most

-invisible shade. The German authorities decided in favour of a

-grey-brown.

-

-When travelling submerged, with only the thin periscopic tube above the

-surface, it is almost impossible to detect the approach of a submarine

-_before_ she gets within torpedo range; and when cruising on the surface

-she is equally as invisible at a distance of a few miles. These

-qualities enable the submarine in nearly all cases where her speed

-permits, to effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship or cruiser

-_when not closely screened by fast destroyers_, whose duty it is to be

-ever on the watch for submarines.

-

-As to the tactics which would be employed by a submarine (or flotilla)

-in attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it is impossible to say, for,

-like the impromptu attacks of all “mosquito craft,” the exact method, or

-manœuvre, is arranged to suit the circumstances, and it is very seldom

-that two such attacks are carried out alike. Generally speaking,

-however, a hostile warship could be easily sighted, on a fairly clear

-day, from the flying-bridge of a submarine at a distance of 10 miles;

-but it would be practically impossible to detect the submarine from the

-deck of a warship at that distance. On sighting her object of attack the

-submarine would sink to the “awash” condition, and proceed for from 2 ½

-to 5 miles, as might be deemed expedient. She would then submerge and

-steer by her periscopes, each of which has a field of vision of 60

-degrees. He would be a very keen look-out who would be able to detect

-the few square inches of periscopic tube at a distance of three miles.

-As this distance lessened, it might be advisable, if the sea was _very_

-calm and if the object of attack was stationary, for the submarine to

-slacken speed, so as to prevent any spray being thrown off by the

-periscopic tube. Assuming, however, that the optical tube was seen by

-the enemy, it would be extremely difficult to hit it with gun-fire at a

-distance of one or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, which would

-probably be immersed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of about

-2,000 yards, or just over one mile, the submarine would discharge her

-first torpedo, following it up with another at closer range from the

-second bow tube. A rapid dive would then probably be necessary in order

-to avoid the hail of shot which would plough up the waters around her.

-If the first two torpedoes missed their mark the submarine might either

-dive completely under the object of attack and then fire her stern tubes

-at close range, or else manœuvre below the surface for an attack from

-some other point.

-

-One of the effects produced on fleets or individual warships in war time

-by the ever present possibility of submarine attack is, however, that

-they never remain at anchor or even stationary in an exposed position,

-and seldom—if wise—proceed without destroyers as advance and flank

-guards. These precautions double the difficulties of a successful

-submarine attack.

-

------

-

-Footnote 7:

-

-  As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally submerged, to

-  steer a _perfectly_ straight course, the table above each chart shows

-  the approximate average loss and gain on each mile. It must also be

-  remembered that the submarine in actual practice need only reach the

-  torpedo firing line.

-

-Footnote 8:

-

-  “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.

-  (London: Francis Griffiths.)

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER IX

-

-                         ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS

-

-

-In all warfare, new weapons of attack are, sooner or later, met by new

-methods of defence. The submarine and the aeroplane are at present the

-only weapons against which there is no true means of defence, and yet

-one is being used as an antidote for the other without, however, any

-very striking success so far. The seaplane may be able to distinguish

-the dark patch in the sea caused by the hull of the submarine _in clear

-water_, but she cannot destroy it, neither can she signal the _exact_

-locality to an accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing to the speed with

-which seaplane and submarine pass over and under each other;

-furthermore, in rough weather or in shallow muddy water no sign of the

-submarine when submerged is visible from above. The great value of the

-seaplane as an antidote for submarines lies, however, first in the fact

-that the water of the open sea is usually clear, and the _submarine

-shadow_ is visible from above, and, secondly, in the great speed of

-these aircraft which enables them to quickly cover miles of sea in their

-search for hostile submarines and to report their presence in a given

-locality by wireless to all ships operating within range.

-

-When the enormous superficial area of a zone of war, such as the North

-Sea and English Channel, is duly considered, however, the difficulty in

-quickly and reliably locating from the air the few scattered “submarine

-shadows” will be easily realized. To make this method of locating

-submarines even fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes would be

-required. Again seaplanes do not, in themselves, constitute a means of

-defence against submarine attack, they merely increase the likelihood of

-detection, but, in actual warfare, it has now been proved that for every

-submarine detected by seaplanes two others pass quite unobserved.

-

-Many means of attack on submarines have been proposed; and no doubt some

-of these, in certain cases, would prove effective; but none can be

-relied upon. Therefore, one of the points in favour of the submarine

-still remains without its antidote. This is the _moral effect_; for if

-there is no absolutely reliable means of defence, there can be no

-feeling of security for surface warships or merchant vessels when

-anywhere within the danger zone of the submarine.

-

-Let us now examine briefly what practical methods of defence a modern

-warship has against submarine attacks. Great speed is undoubtedly a

-surface ship’s most reliable defence; and when combined with a frequent

-change of course, would greatly reduce the chances of a successful

-under-water attack. Should hostile submarines be on the line of advance

-they would not know whether to wait and chance the enemy approaching

-within torpedo range or whether to run to starboard or port. This is, if

-the surface warship was steaming in an erratic course—not a zigzag

-course, for then it might be possible to estimate, within torpedo range,

-the position of the ship at a given point if the “tacks” were regular.

-

-Should submarines be seen approaching, a surface vessel would do well to

-turn her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting as small a target

-as possible, and deflecting the torpedoes by her propeller race.

-

-The escape of the Battle Cruiser _Queen Mary_ and the Light Cruiser

-_Lowestoft_, during the action in the Heligoland Bight, as described in

-the dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what

-may be done by the skilful use of the helm on surface warships to

-frustrate submarine attacks. So interesting, and informative as to the

-actual fighting between British warships and hostile submarines, in this

-dispatch that I give it here in full. It should, however, be studied in

-conjunction with the comprehensive report—the first in the history of

-Naval warfare detailing submarine attack and reconnaissance—from

-Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., of the British submarines, given on

-page 28.

-

-                                                   “H.M.S. _Lion_,

-                                                _1st September, 1914_.

-

- “SIR,—I have the honour to report that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5

- a.m., I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser Squadron and First

- Light Cruiser Squadron in company, to rendezvous with the

- Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_.

-

- “At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements of the Flotillas commenced as

- previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser Squadron and Light Cruiser

- Squadron supporting. The Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_, with _New

- Zealand_ and four Destroyers having joined my flag, the Squadron

- passed through the pre-arranged rendezvous.

-

- “At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal from the Commodore (T), informing me

- that the Flotilla was in action with the enemy. This was presumably in

- the vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. From this time until 11

- a.m. I remained about the vicinity ready to support as necessary,

- intercepting various signals, which contained no information on which

- I could act.

-

- “At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked by three Submarines. The attack

- was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and the four Destroyers were

- ordered to attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., various signals having

- been received indicating that the Commodore (T) and Commodore (S) were

- both in need of assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser Squadron to

- support the Torpedo Flotillas.

-

- “Later I received a signal from the Commodore (T), stating that he was

- being attacked by a large Cruiser, and a further signal informing me

- that he was being hard pressed and asking for assistance. The Captain

- (D), First Flotilla, also signalled that he was in need of help.

-

- “From the foregoing the situation appeared to me critical. The

- Flotillas had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., and were only

- about twenty-five miles from two enemy bases on their flank and rear

- respectively. Commodore Goodenough had detached two of his Light

- Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier in the day, and these had

- not yet rejoined. (They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As the reports

- indicated the presence of many enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I

- considered that his force might not be strong enough to deal with the

- situation sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the Battle Cruisers

- turned to E.S.E., and worked up to full speed. It was evident that to

- be of any value the support must be overwhelming and carried out at

- the highest speed possible.

-

- “I had not lost sight of the risk of Submarines, and possible sortie

- in force from the enemy’s base, especially in view of the mist to the

- South-East.

-

- “Our high speed, however, made submarine attack difficult, and the

- smoothness of the sea made their detection comparatively easy. I

- considered that we were powerful enough to deal with any sortie except

- by a Battle Squadron, which was unlikely to come out in time, provided

- our stroke was sufficiently rapid.

-

- “At 12.15 p.m. _Fearless_ and First Flotilla were sighted retiring

- West. At the same time the Light Cruiser Squadron was observed to be

- engaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beat.

-

- “I then steered N.E. to sounds of firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m.

- sighted _Arethusa_ and Third Flotilla retiring to the Westward

- engaging a Cruiser of the _Kolberg_ class on our Port Bow. I steered

- to cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At

- 12.42 the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased at 27 knots.

-

- “At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead.

- _Lion_ fired two salvoes at her, which took effect, and she

- disappeared into the mist, burning furiously and in a sinking

- condition. In view of the mist and that she was steering at high speed

- at right angles to _Lion_, who was herself steaming at 28 knots, the

- _Lion’s_ firing was very creditable.

-

- “Our Destroyers had reported the presence of floating mines to the

- Eastward and I considered it inadvisable to pursue her. It was also

- essential that the Squadrons should remain concentrated, and I

- accordingly ordered a withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned North and

- circled to port to complete the destruction of the vessel first

- engaged. She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. steaming S.E. with colours

- still flying. _Lion_ opened fire with two turrets, and at 1.35 p.m.,

- after receiving two salvoes, she sank.

-

- “The four attached Destroyers were sent to pick up survivors, but I

- deeply regret that they subsequently reported that they searched the

- area but found none.

-

- “At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers turned to the Northward, and _Queen

- Mary_ was again attacked by a Submarine. The attack was avoided by the

- use of the helm. _Lowestoft_ was also unsuccessfully attacked. The

- Battle Cruisers covered the retirement until nightfall. By 6 p.m., the

- retirement having been well executed and all Destroyers accounted for,

- I altered course, spread the Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in

- accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s orders. At 7.45 p.m. I

- detached _Liverpool_ to Rosyth with German prisoners, seven officers

- and 79 men, survivors from _Mainz_. No further incident occurred.—I

- have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant.

-

-                                            “(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,

-                                                         “Vice-Admiral.

-                                  “The Secretary of the Admiralty.”

-

-Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and 6-inch type are certainly the best

-weapons for an attack on submarines. In combination with “sharp

-look-outs,” they could be used with effect from the elevated positions

-on the fore part of warships. The periscopic-tube of the submarine

-always proves a target for gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches in

-diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards requires “excellent” marksmanship

-to hit. That it can be done is proved by the sinking of the German

-submarine U.15 by the British Cruiser _Birmingham_ in the North Sea. The

-effect of a shot carrying away the periscope is to blind the submarine,

-at least in one eye, she can then be _run-down_ by the surface warship

-or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at close range.

-

-Of course, if submarines were caught napping on the surface the guns of

-surface warships could quickly sink them; but another incident, similar

-to that which opened the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese War,

-cannot be looked for in the naval engagements to come.

-

-For a fleet engaged in bombarding or blockading, one of the best methods

-of defence would be to lower the torpedo nets, not close round each

-vessel, but suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance from the

-bombarding or blockading fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a good

-defence during daylight, but neither of these methods are reliable. A

-submarine might be able to dive unobserved under, or past, the

-destroyers acting as pickets, and it is this chance which causes these

-under-water craft to be a source of constant anxiety.

-

-The torpedo-boat destroyer should prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.

-In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot vessels to look after their

-under-water opponents.

-

-It has been suggested that internal armour could be fitted to warships

-below the water-line, which would render the hulls able to withstand

-mine or torpedo explosions. At present this is practically impossible,

-as the great weight of this additional armour, combined with the

-ever-increasing size of guns and weight of above-water protection, would

-necessitate a vessel of such enormous displacement as to be quite

-impossible, if the important factor—high speed—has also to be

-maintained.

-

-The defence of harbours against submarines is a problem which does not

-present nearly so many difficulties as the defence of moving ships.

-Portsmouth, for example, is closed by means of a submarine boom-defence,

-which is stretched across the mouth of the harbour. The entrance to the

-River Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal) is effectively closed

-to British submarines by boom-defences, mines, and submerged wire

-entanglements. Narrow waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, can be

-closed by the laying of contact-mines, and even broader seas can be made

-dangerous to submarines by the same method. An example of this is

-afforded by the laying of a British mine-field somewhere between the

-Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to prevent German submarines from

-penetrating into the English Channel.

-

-There are so many reliable means of defending harbours and narrow

-waterways against submarines that it is unnecessary to say anything

-further here. But to protect moving ships at sea, under all conditions,

-certainly presents a most profound puzzle.

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER X

-

-                         THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO

-

-

-The submarine torpedo has become one of the principal naval arms. Not

-only does it supply the chief offensive power of the submarine, the

-torpedo-boat and the destroyer, but it is also carried as a separate

-arm, with a special highly-trained crew, by almost every warship afloat.

-At the beginning of hostilities the Naval Powers engaged owned

-considerably over 80,000 of these weapons, and _one_ factory in England

-alone can make them at the rate of two a day. During the first few weeks

-of the _Great War_ the torpedo was responsible for the sinking of

-warships to the value of over one million sterling. Had the German Fleet

-been on the high seas instead of in harbour and protected from torpedo

-raids by carefully-prepared submarine defences, there is little doubt

-but what several more of the enemy’s ships would have been sunk by this

-weapon. The fact that at first the British light cruisers suffered

-rather heavily—though in total loss of ships and men less than the

-German Navy—does not point to any advantage derived either from the type

-of torpedo used or from skill in this mode of warfare possessed by the

-Germans, but clearly to the timidity of the German main fleet, which was

-at the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn from the zone of war and

-placed behind fortifications, where it was safe from torpedo attack. The

-British Fleet, true to the policy of “attack and not defence,” began

-operations the moment war was declared, with results so brilliantly

-successful, and of such far-reaching and world-wide importance, that

-enumeration is well-nigh impossible. But while all these operations were

-in progress the British Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo attack

-by any hostile submarines or fast surface craft which might succeed in

-getting past the cordon of protecting destroyers, while the German Fleet

-was safe, but ignominiously impotent. That the naval losses of Great

-Britain, with all her fleets at sea, have not been far greater than they

-have is in itself a victory of the greatest magnitude—a victory due

-entirely to consummate naval skill.

-

-The modern torpedo varies in length from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to

-half a ton. It has an extreme range of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼

-miles. There are three types of torpedoes in use by the fleets at war.

-The British use the _Whitehead Torpedo_, the French the Whitehead and

-the _Schneider_, the Russians and the Japanese use the Whitehead; the

-Germans have a type of their own, known as the _Schwartzkopf_, and the

-Austrian arm is principally the Whitehead. All these types are alike in

-their essential features, and therefore need not be described

-separately.

-

-The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is propelled by compressed

-air stored in that section of the weapon known as the _air-chamber_ (see

-diagram). The air on being released is heated and expanded in a tiny

-three or four-cylinder engine which operates twin screws, moving

-“clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” The “war-head” contains about 200

-pounds of wet gun-cotton which is exploded on the torpedo striking an

-object. The essential features of the Whitehead torpedo are shown in the

-diagram.[9]

-

-This torpedo maintains a speed of 42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for

-2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, and 28 knots for 4,000 yards.

-Thus, if discharged at a distance of half a mile it reaches its object

-in about 45 seconds.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead torpedo. _A._ Pistol,

- detonator, primer, which causes the explosion of “B” when the torpedo

- strikes an object. _B._ Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton.

- (The “war-head” is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)

- _C._ Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of approximately

- 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The chamber is tested to stand a

- pressure of 1700 lbs. per square inch. _D._ Balance chamber, containing

- mechanism for regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo

- is adjusted to run. _E._ Engine-room, containing propelling machinery

- (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). _F._ Buoyancy chamber—a practically

- empty chamber—to give the necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. _G._

- Gyroscope. An instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo

- from the line of fire. _H._ Rudders, and mechanism for operating. _I._

- Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”

-

-]

-

-Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into the sea from surface or submerged

-tubes, and on striking the water are propelled by their own engines in

-an absolutely straight course towards the target. The exact mechanism of

-the submerged tube—which is used in surface warships as well as in

-submarines—is a naval secret. When fired from a surface tube the torpedo

-sinks immediately to a depth of about 10 to 14 feet, and maintains this

-depth until it strikes its object. When fired from a submerged tube it

-rises—if necessary—to the same level. A torpedo always proceeds towards

-its object of attack at a depth of a few feet below the surface. This,

-combined with speed, renders it almost impossible to destroy an

-approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So marvellous is the mechanism of these

-little weapons that in anything like favourable circumstances they may

-be _depended upon_, if well aimed, to strike within a yard or two of the

-spot aimed at. This accuracy is due almost entirely to the gyroscope,

-which, briefly described, is a rotating wheel automatically controlling

-the torpedo’s course.

-

-Although for many years torpedoes have been carried by nearly all types

-of service warships, none of them were really ideal for this kind of

-warfare. A new field for the torpedo was, however, opened out by the

-introduction of the submarine boat. In order to be effective the torpedo

-must be discharged from a distance under 4,000 yards—preferably from a

-point less than half this distance from the object of attack. This means

-that the vessel carrying the torpedo would have to get within a mile, or

-at least a mile and a-half, of her object of attack before discharging a

-torpedo. For a surface vessel to accomplish this in the face of a heavy

-cannonade from quick-firing guns would be extremely risky. To make a

-quick rush to close quarters, if possible, by several vessels from

-different points, was the only chance of delivering a successful torpedo

-attack on a hostile warship; unless, of course, she was favoured by fog

-or darkness _at the right moment_—favourable conditions which would

-seldom obtain in actual warfare. Again, every increase in the speed of

-the big surface warship rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat

-and destroyer more difficult because in the event of a threatened attack

-the larger vessel would make use of her speed to keep out of torpedo

-range while her powerful guns were repelling the attacking torpedo-boat.

-

-The _hour_ of the torpedo came with the _perfection_ of the

-submarine. All the conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were

-fulfilled—_invisibility_ rendering daylight attacks possible;

-_almost perfect immunity from gun-fire_ enabling the torpedo to be

-discharged at closer range; _submerged discharge_ removing the

-likelihood of the weapon being exploded by accurate gun-fire before

-being discharged; _speed on the surface_ enabling the “carrying”

-vessel to manœuvre for position; _moderate speed when submerged_

-enabling an attack under all reasonably tactical conditions; and

-_comparatively large displacement_ giving good cruising qualities,

-wide range of action, and enabling a large number of torpedoes and

-tubes being carried.

-

------

-

-Footnote 9:

-

-  “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.

-  (London: Francis Griffiths.)

-

-

-

-

-                               CHAPTER XI

-

-                            SUBMARINE MINES

-

-

-If the Russo-Japanese war was the first to fully demonstrate the value

-of the explosive mine, the Great European Conflict has certainly brought

-this weapon to the forefront in the rapidly growing science of submarine

-warfare. During the first few weeks of the naval fighting several

-warships, beginning with H.M.S. _Amphion_, and many merchant vessels

-representing millions of pounds sterling, were destroyed by these

-weapons. Had it not been for the foresight of the British Admiralty in

-providing a very large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by seaplanes, there

-can be no doubt but what the shipping of all countries—neutrals and

-belligerents alike—would have suffered far greater losses.

-

-[Illustration: LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.]

-

-[Illustration:

-

-  A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.

-

-  These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.

-]

-

-The indiscriminate scattering of mines across the trade routes, as

-carried on by Germany immediately on the outbreak of war, and before

-hardly any of the ships at sea belonging to neutral countries could be

-warned to avoid the zone of operations, has never before been so

-ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised power.

-

-The system of defence consists of the mooring of these mines in such

-positions as to make it almost impossible for hostile ships to pass

-without either striking or coming within the destructive zone of one or

-more of them. What are known as _floating mines_ are those set adrift to

-be washed about by the tide. They explode immediately on being struck by

-a passing vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate between friend and

-foe. The systems of destroying hostile mine-fields consist of

-_counter-mining_, or placing other mines in the enemy’s field and

-destroying it by their explosion, and by _sweeping_. The latter method

-is the one mostly employed in modern warfare. The boats taking part in

-the _sweep_ place themselves one on each side of the mine-field, and

-between them hangs a long wire rope, weighted in the centre to keep it

-well submerged. They then move forward, sweeping the mines to the

-surface or exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, very dangerous but

-highly necessary work.

-

-There are two kinds of submarine mines, one is designed to explode on

-being struck by a passing vessel, and is called a _contact mine_, and

-the other is fired from the shore by an electric current, and is known

-as an _observation mine_. The explosive principally used is wet

-gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only to the safety with which they can

-be stored and manipulated, but also to the fact that they seldom explode

-in sympathy with neighbouring mines, requiring to be actually fired. The

-importance of this will be more fully realised when it is remembered

-that in warfare it is often necessary to explode certain mines over

-which hostile ships are endeavouring to pass, while leaving others in

-fairly close proximity intact, ready to repel a second invasion or to

-destroy ships nearer to them. The actual explosion is caused by an

-electric current, either from the shore or from a battery in the mine

-itself, causing the detonation of fulminate of mercury in conjunction

-with a small priming charge of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid in a

-series, connected to a battery on the sea-bed in the centre of the line

-of defence.

-

-The _observation mine_ is mostly used for defending the approaches to

-harbours, as an observer on shore can watch the movements of hostile

-warships and explode each mine when the vessel passes over it. _Contact

-mines_, on the other hand, are used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely

-to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed by means of a cable and heavy

-weight, and are allowed to float a few feet below the surface. They

-explode immediately on contact. At times an unscrupulous or demoralised

-enemy will simply throw a number of these mines overboard and allow them

-to float at the mercy of wind and tide. They then become a terrible

-danger to the shipping of all nations, as once they are left unwatched

-it is extremely difficult to tell with any degree of certainty where

-they will eventually proclaim their presence by devastating explosions.

-Happily for the whole seafaring world, this method is seldom resorted

-to, as mines set adrift in this way become a danger to both friend and

-foe. In the Russo-Japanese war several ships were destroyed by their own

-mines.

-

-There are many different kinds of submarine mines, both of the

-observation and the contact type. Some are spherical in shape and others

-cylindrical. Some are moored close down to the sea-bed with a very heavy

-explosive charge (200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have a small buoyant

-globe floating above them, which, when struck, fires the mine below.

-Others, known as secret-mines, are kept continually moored in the

-waterways leading to important naval harbours, and are only allowed to

-rise sufficiently high from the sea-bed to be struck by passing vessels

-in times of emergency. The type most generally used is, however, the

-ordinary _offensive contact mine_, which contains a powerful explosive

-charge and is anchored in the path of hostile warships. These mines are

-usually automatically sown in large numbers over a wide area of sea by

-the mine-laying fleets.

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER XII

-

-                           MINE-LAYING FLEETS

-

-

-The _regular_ mine-laying fleets of the powers at war are composed of

-the following vessels, all of which are fitted with special apparatus

-for the work. Submarine mines can, however, be laid by any vessel, and

-it is therefore almost impossible to say exactly what ships are engaged

-in this work. Both Germany and Austria have converted a large number of

-their merchantmen into mine-layers. England, in reply, has converted a

-large number of small steamers into _mine-sweepers_. Russia is a strong

-believer in explosive mines, and has strewn the gulfs of Finland and

-Riga with them. Japan, being on the offensive, is employing more

-mine-sweepers than layers. France has an elaborate system of submarine

-mine defence for all her important harbours, and maintains a small fleet

-at each base, known as the “defence mobile.” These vessels are all

-capable of both mine-laying and sweeping.

-

-The submarine mine is primarily the defence of the weaker naval power,

-and therefore a fleet acting on the defensive, either temporarily or

-permanently, requires more mine-layers than mine-sweepers, but the

-reverse is naturally the case with a fleet acting on the offensive.

-Although this may be taken as a general rule, it does not imply that a

-strong naval power like Great Britain, whose policy is attack and not

-defence, needs no mines or mine-layers. On the contrary, the laying of

-_counter_ mines is one of the ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;

-and even the strongest fleet cannot guard every portion of a long coast

-line with many harbours exposed to attack. The judicious laying of

-mine-fields will often prevent raids by hostile submarines and

-torpedo-boats; and will limit the theatre of operations, as was done by

-the British Navy in the southern portion of the North Sea in October,

-1914. The axiom that a really strong navy needs to be strong in _every_

-branch, therefore holds good in this, as in all other respects.

-

-

-                          MINE-LAYING FLEETS.

-

-

-                             GREAT BRITAIN.

-

- _Apollo._  _Thetis._  _Andromache._  _Latona._  _Naiad._  _Intrepid._

-                             _Iphigenia._

-

-These are all second class cruisers of from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built

-about 1891‒2, which have been converted into mine-layers. They are

-equipped with a very large number of submarine explosive mines, which

-can be automatically lowered into the water as the vessels steam along.

-Their speed is about 15 knots, and their armament consists of four

-4·7-inch quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 150 officers and

-men.

-

-[Illustration:

-

- _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]

-

-               THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. _IPHIGENIA_.

-

-            The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.

-

-]

-

-

-                                GERMANY.

-

-  _Pelikan_ (1890).  _Nautilus_ (1906).  _Albatross_ (1907).  _Arkona_

-                                (1903).

-

-All these vessels, with the exception of the _Arkona_, which was a

-protected cruiser, have been specially built for mine-laying work. Their

-displacement is about 2,000 tons. The _Pelikan_ has a speed of 15 knots,

-the _Albatross_ and _Nautilus_ of 20 knots, and the _Arkona_ of 21 ½

-knots. They are all fitted with special gear for dropping the large

-number of mines carried, and their armament consists of from four to

-eight 21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 200 officers

-and men.

-

-

-                                AUSTRIA.

-

-The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses only one regular mine-laying

-warship—the _Chamaleon_, which was being completed when war was

-declared. She is a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, with a speed of 20

-knots. Her mine-launching gear is of the most modern and efficient type,

-and she is armed with several quick-firing guns.

-

-Since the beginning of hostilities Austria has converted several old

-warships and merchantmen into mine-layers.

-

-

-                           FRANCE AND RUSSIA.

-

-Neither of these powers possess proper mine-laying vessels, but on the

-outbreak of war several old warships and small merchant steamers were

-used for that purpose.

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER XIII

-

-                          MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS

-

-

-For clearing away the mines dropped by an enemy special vessels are

-employed. Each vessel is fitted on both sides with a curious contrivance

-known as the “picking-up gear.” This apparatus is lowered into the

-water, and “picks up” any mines which may lie in the path of an

-on-coming fleet. When a mine-field is discovered by either destroyers or

-seaplanes these vessels are immediately dispatched to destroy it; and

-they are aided, in the case of the British Navy, by a large flotilla of

-steam trawlers. Many of these auxiliary vessels are not fitted with the

-_picking-up gear_, but go to work in pairs. Two vessels, connected

-together by a long wire rope weighted in the centre to keep it

-submerged, range themselves on each side of a mine-field, and by

-steaming ahead in a parallel line sweep up the mines floating between

-them. This process can be carried on simultaneously by a large number of

-trawlers, covering a very wide area of sea. In the meantime the attached

-destroyers and seaplanes can be searching for new fields. It often

-happens during sweeping operations that mines are brought into contact

-with each other and violent explosions occur. Sometimes the vessels

-engaged in this hazardous work will themselves strike one of the mines,

-but it is more often the _searching_ flotillas which meet with sudden

-disaster in this way. Fully equipped mine-sweepers usually precede a

-fleet of battleships and big cruisers through dangerous and narrow seas,

-within the likely zone of hostile mines.

-

-The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet comprises the following vessels:—_Circe_

-(810 tons), _Jason_ (810 tons), _Speedy_ (810 tons), _Leda_ (810 tons),

-_Gossamer_ (735 tons), _Seagull_ (735 tons), _Skipjack_ (735 tons), and

-_Speedwell_ (735 tons).

-

-These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats which have been

-specially fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. There is also a

-large flotilla of steam fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these vessels

-were purchased by the Admiralty before the war, and were also equipped

-for mine-sweeping; but many others were, by special arrangement, handed

-over to the Navy on the outbreak of war. The whole of the mine-sweeping

-fleet is manned by a special section of the Royal Naval Reserve, known

-as the “Trawler Section,” which consists of about 142 _skippers_ and

-1,136 men. This is, of course, in addition to the several thousand naval

-sailors employed on the regular mine-sweepers, named above, and also to

-those employed on the large number of additional small steamers taken

-over for this work by the Admiralty at the commencement of hostilities.

-It is estimated that the task of keeping the North Sea clear of mines

-during the first four weeks of the Great War required over 100 vessels

-and 5,000 sailors, in addition to the usual destroyer and submarine

-patrols with their crews, and also to the seaplanes with their pilots

-and observers.

-

-Almost any steamship can be quickly converted into an effective

-mine-sweeper, and for this reason it is impossible to give here more

-than the very briefest information concerning the vessels employed in

-these operations by the other Naval Powers at war. Russia had fifteen

-special mine-sweeping vessels building when war broke out; but,

-doubtless, many small merchant ships have since been used for this

-purpose. France employed a number of mine-sweepers in the Adriatic; and

-Japan used some in clearing the approaches to Tsing-tau. Germany and

-Austria, of course, did not need many vessels of this kind, as the

-Allied Navies laid comparatively few mines and German oversea commerce

-ceased to exist almost as soon as war was declared. It was in the North

-Sea, during the first phase of the naval war, that the value of a big

-British mine-sweeping fleet made itself so wonderfully apparent.

-

-

-

-

-                              CHAPTER XIV

-

-       COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR

-

-

-Tempered and tried in the forge of war the submarine has at last been

-lifted from the experimental stage of naval construction to the

-fore-front of fleets in being. For over twenty years naval experts,

-marine engineers and scientists have been wrestling with the vast and

-complex problems of submarine construction, navigation and warfare, and

-have, at a cost of many lives and many millions sterling, produced

-submersible warships of steadily increasing size and power, until to-day

-264 of these vessels, of over a dozen different and more or less secret

-designs, with displacements ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in the

-fighting line of the Fleets at war. Thousands of sailors have been

-trained to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, guns, engines, and even

-the air to breath, have been adapted for submarine work. A comparison,

-therefore, of the strength and fighting power of the submarine fleets

-engaged for the first time in this great struggle for the mastery of the

-seas is of more than passing interest.

-

-

-                             BRITISH NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles,     6

-    speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns:

-    (nearly completed)

-

-  Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed      19

-    16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed   8

-    16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed  37

-    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        70

-

-

-                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 10

-    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7    8

-    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    18

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in British Flotillas                      88

-

-It must, however, be pointed out that six vessels of the sea-going “F”

-class have not yet taken their place in the active flotillas; and that

-eight vessels of the “E” class were on duty on foreign stations when war

-commenced.

-

-

-                              FRENCH NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (_Diane_ class, _Bellone_ class, and  7

-    _Gustave Zede_ class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10

-    knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns:

-    (completing)

-

-  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Clorinde_ class), range 3,500 miles, 10

-    speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: _Mariotte_, _Archimède_,      4

-    _Charles Brun_, and _Admiral Bourgeoise_), range 3,000‒3,500

-    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 600 tons (_Fresnel_ class), range 2,000 miles,      22

-    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Pluviôse_ class), range 2,500 miles, 11

-    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        54

-

-

-                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 450 tons (_Circe_ class), range 1,000 miles, speed   2

-    11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in

-    holders: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 400 tons (_Emeraude_ class), range 1,000 miles,      6

-    speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Argonaute_ and _Aigrette_ class),     3

-    range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo

-    tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    11

-

-

-                        HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Triton_ class, _Française_ class,     9

-    and _Lutin_ class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots,

-    armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 50‒100 tons (_Naiade_ class), range 100 miles,      20

-    speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Total Harbour Defence Submarines                                  29

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in French Flotillas                       94

-

-

-                             RUSSIAN NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (_Tigr_ class), no particulars:      12

-    (completing)

-

-  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Kaschalot_ class), range 3,000        7

-    miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f.

-    gun: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (_Alligator_ class), range 3,000        4

-    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Akula_ class), range 2,500 miles,     1

-    speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (_Karp_ class), range 1,000 miles,      2

-    speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 200 tons (_Makrel_ class), range 800‒1,000 miles,    2

-    speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        28

-

-

-                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Minoga_ class, _Lossos_ class,       19

-    _Sig_, _Sterliad_ class, _Som_ class, _Ostr_ class, and _Graf

-    Cheremetieve_ class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on

-    surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and

-    holders: (in commission)

-

-  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    19

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas                      47

-

-

-                             JAPANESE NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed      6

-    18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)

-

-  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed  6

-    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8   2

-    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        14

-

-

-                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed      2

-    10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7  5

-    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)

-

-  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                     7

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas                     21

-

-

-                              GERMAN NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37        13

-    completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4

-    torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)

-

-  Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9  4

-    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed   2

-    13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8  10

-    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in

-    commission)

-

-  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed    7

-    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        36

-

-

-                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7      1

-    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in German Flotillas                       37

-

-

-                             AUSTRIAN NAVY.

-

-

-                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.

-

-  Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9   5

-    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns:

-    (completing—delivery doubtful)

-

-  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed     2

-    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8    2

-    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8  2

-    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)

-

-                                                                    ――

-

-  Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas                      6

-

-When war commenced all the vessels of the German Flotillas (30 to 37)

-were concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. The Austrian Flotilla of

-six vessels was in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in home waters 74

-submarines and 14 others on duty in the outer seas. France had several

-of the 92 vessels composing her powerful flotillas at her oversea

-colonial naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines in the Baltic, 11 in the

-Black Sea, and 12 in the Far East. The Japanese Flotilla (17) was

-concentrated in Japanese waters.

-

-

-  _Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading._

-

-

-

-

-                          Transcriber’s Notes

-

-

- Printed           Corrected                 Page

- guns              guns.             Frontispiece and 2 q.-f. guns.

- gunfire           gun-fire                    30 attacked by gun-fire

- ),                ).                          37 E. B. Feilmann).

- Submarines        Submarines:                 61 Submarines: B.3, B.4,

- destroyers·       destroyers.                 74 and destroyers.

- BUILDING:         BUILDING.                   75 SUBMARINES BUILDING.

- topedo-boats      torpedo-boats.             108 torpedo-boats.

- and               AND                        113 U.19 AND U.20.

- _eompleted_       _completed_                118 were being _completed_

- manœvring         manœuvering                125 with manœuvering

- Fig. 1            FIG. 1                     133 FIG. 1 represents a

- Fig. 2            FIG. 2                     135 FIG. 2 shows the

- manœuvre          manœuvre,                  143 method, or manœuvre,

- “anti-clockwise.’ “anti-clockwise.”          164 and “anti-clockwise.”

- oncoming          on-coming                  179 path of an on-coming

-

-On the Title Page, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S

-NAVIES”.

-

-The image for RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. appeared after Page 160

-in the digitized source.

-

-Under the SEA-GOING VESSELS heading on Page 190, “Total Sea-going

-Submarines | 36” was added for consistency.

-

-Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.

-

-

-

-

-

-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the

-War, by Charles William Domville-Fife

-

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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 51347 ***
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+Italic text enclosed with _underscores_.
+
+Small-caps replaced by ALL CAPS.
+
+Tables require a monospace font in order to align properly.
+
+More notes appear at the end of the file.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”
+
+  Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes
+                            and 2 q.-f. guns.
+
+     There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.
+
+]
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+               SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR
+
+
+
+
+                                   BY
+
+                        CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE
+
+             AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”,
+                “SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.
+
+
+
+
+                              ILLUSTRATED
+
+
+
+
+                          HODDER AND STOUGHTON
+
+                        LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO
+
+                                 MCMXIV
+
+
+
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to
+arrive at an intelligent understanding of the _naval situation_ or of
+the _military campaigns_ in the Great European War, a knowledge of the
+scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And
+in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting
+underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to
+the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I
+venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the
+prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances,
+and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the
+vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine
+Phase” in naval warfare.
+
+                                                            C. W. D-F.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR                   9
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+ THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT                                  40
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+ BRITISH SUBMARINES                                                 60
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+ FRENCH SUBMARINES                                                  79
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+ RUSSIAN SUBMARINES                                                 94
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+ JAPANESE SUBMARINES                                               104
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+ GERMAN SUBMARINES                                                 108
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+ AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES                                               118
+ TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS  123
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+ SUBMARINES IN ACTION                                              124
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+ ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS                                            146
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+ THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO                                             160
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+ SUBMARINE MINES                                                   168
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+ MINE-LAYING FLEETS                                                174
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+ MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS                                              179
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+ COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR         184
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+                  THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR
+
+
+In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less
+than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine
+fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the
+highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies
+comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the
+grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and
+their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in
+its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications.
+Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks,
+ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval
+construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the
+1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion
+of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering
+submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging
+tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German
+and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept
+clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained
+observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the _dark
+patches in the semi-transparent sea-green_ which denote the presence of
+mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial
+scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle
+to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small
+steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the
+hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted
+to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these
+deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction
+with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect
+the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances
+are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every
+harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by
+elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare
+underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of
+the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone
+of war.
+
+Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine
+attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and
+describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is
+necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this
+new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its
+influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to
+survey _in their submarine aspect_ the naval operations in the opening
+phase of this, the greatest war in history.
+
+In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered
+conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and
+sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and
+even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land
+forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid
+burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with
+difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the
+powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs.
+and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy
+of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the
+reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets
+by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive
+engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening
+phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in
+numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for
+their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in
+conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North
+Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of
+the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive
+actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be
+frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies,
+costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these
+grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to
+delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be
+screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer
+types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in
+the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British
+submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed
+in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the
+enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast
+fortifications. Not content with this _rôle_, however, several British
+submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the
+Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering
+distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk
+their big ships.
+
+With what degree of success this new opening or _submarine phase_ in
+naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the
+first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser _Amphion_, a vessel
+of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch
+guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the
+destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser
+_Birmingham_; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off
+Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. _Pathfinder_, a fleet scout of about
+3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905‒6, by a German submarine; the
+destruction of the Wilson liner _Runo_ by a mine; the sinking of the
+German cruiser _Hela_, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in
+1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British
+armoured cruisers _Aboukir_, _Hogue_ and _Cressy_—vessels of 12,000 tons
+displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides
+twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German
+submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over
+which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind.
+
+This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and
+property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German
+floating mines on the trade-routes.
+
+To the Allies this _submarine phase_ did not come unexpected. The
+British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and
+engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;
+Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the
+Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co.
+Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd.,
+as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been
+engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems
+continually arising in the practical application of all forms of
+submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in
+1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth
+of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and
+in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82
+vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been
+evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American
+inventor.
+
+[Illustration: North Sea Coastlines]
+
+To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the
+submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the
+_Gymnôte_, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the
+Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine
+flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.
+
+The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since
+that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now
+numbers 37 vessels.
+
+Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and
+up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a
+British-Holland boat in 1904.
+
+Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of
+the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines,
+but in 1905‒6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels
+U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine
+flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany
+possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The
+Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet
+until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels.
+
+From this brief _resumé_ of the growth of the submarine fleets of the
+six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers
+as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great
+Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must,
+however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the
+steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets
+at war.
+
+The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the
+British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with
+submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction
+caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine
+mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored
+to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on
+contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking
+of the Japanese battleships _Hatsuse_ and _Yashima_ as well as the
+Russian battleship _Petropavlovsk_ and the cruiser _Boyarin_—the British
+Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen
+would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines
+could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into
+being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old
+torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these,
+however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing
+trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made
+arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the
+disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new
+mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a
+new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is
+known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 _skippers_ and 1,136
+men taken from the fishing fleet.
+
+Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British
+Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven
+old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and
+provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid
+over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly
+laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is
+a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to
+its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of
+second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although
+much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was,
+during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and
+dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were
+swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact
+with each other during the progress of sweeping operations.
+
+What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines
+in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the
+German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France,
+Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is
+perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several
+hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and
+Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of
+merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested
+sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of
+food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also
+officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin
+their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported
+across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a
+guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile
+warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast
+had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means
+least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that
+the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and
+left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not
+difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of
+these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in
+these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by
+thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes,
+many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy
+themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept
+clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there
+blockaded with their cowardly fleet.
+
+The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of
+naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is
+essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface
+vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary
+for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of
+the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with
+an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel
+can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking
+the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the
+submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and
+approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel
+the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to
+its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like
+an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night
+owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater
+fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea,
+however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or
+destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled,
+and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day
+and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often
+attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw
+attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine
+attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain
+imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war.
+
+Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day,
+naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight
+torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo
+and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the _rôle_
+of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to
+1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a
+considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing
+guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of
+accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and
+A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power
+and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of
+the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the
+case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons,
+the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four
+12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean
+cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing
+wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British
+submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by
+numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which
+indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may
+be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future.
+
+The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself
+a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it
+sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own
+engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of
+attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in
+the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range
+and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45
+knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of
+the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton
+which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This
+very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous
+hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The
+type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies
+is the _Whitehead_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses
+the _Schwartzkopf_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar
+to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon.
+
+In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have
+been sunk by submarine torpedoes.
+
+The activity of the British submarines _in the theatre of war_, from the
+beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following
+dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first
+dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine
+attack and reconnaissance:—
+
+                                                H.M.S. _Maidstone_,
+                                                  _17th October, 1914_.
+
+ “Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the
+ honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the
+ Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:—
+
+ “Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6
+ (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander
+ Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a
+ reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned
+ with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers
+ on a service which is attended by some risk.
+
+ “During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the _Lurcher_
+ and _Firedrake_ and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine
+ Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the
+ High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our
+ transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief,
+ until the _personnel_ of our Army had been transported and all chance
+ of effective interference had disappeared.
+
+ “These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s
+ Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much
+ valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his
+ patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his
+ anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and
+ well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by
+ Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes.
+
+ “At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the _Lurcher_, and, in
+ company with _Firedrake_ and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7,
+ E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part
+ in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th.
+ The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th,
+ when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions
+ from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the
+ following morning.
+
+ “At daylight on August 28th the _Lurcher_ and _Firedrake_ searched the
+ area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile
+ Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of
+ Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the
+ object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward.
+
+ “On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good
+ to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added
+ considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding
+ Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and
+ judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well
+ as foes.
+
+ “Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions
+ under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of
+ closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range.
+
+ “Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4,
+ witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187
+ through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the _Stettin_ class
+ close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their
+ boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser,
+ but she altered course before he could get within range. After
+ covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon
+ their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and
+ nine men of _Defender_, who had been left behind. The boats also
+ contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and
+ eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the
+ latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six
+ unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before
+ leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a
+ compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war.
+
+ “Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the
+ vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his
+ vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist,
+ was altogether admirable.
+
+ “This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance
+ which supplied the information on which these operations were based,
+ and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot,
+ the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and
+ skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of
+ Their Lordships.
+
+ “On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed
+ and sank the German Light Cruiser _Hela_ six miles South of
+ Heligoland.
+
+ “A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9
+ had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours.
+
+ “On September 14th, in accordance with his orders,
+ Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of
+ Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk.
+
+ “On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),
+ while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On
+ rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was
+ securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately,
+ however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of
+ the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine
+ clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was
+ effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able
+ Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released
+ mine descended to its original depths.
+
+ “On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when
+ patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer
+ S.126.
+
+ “The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with
+ their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with
+ torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of
+ much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine
+ officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration.
+
+ “Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is
+ also deserving of credit.
+
+ “Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers
+ have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of
+ delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one
+ occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines
+ been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours.
+
+ “During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between
+ the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee
+ shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one.
+
+ “The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland
+ Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There
+ was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60
+ feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—_i.e._
+ vertically moving about twenty feet.
+
+ “I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they
+ should have maintained their stations under such conditions.
+
+ “Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the
+ Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have
+ all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties.
+ These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of
+ the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their
+ command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to
+ single out individuals when all have performed their duties so
+ admirably, and in this I concur.
+
+ “The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during
+ these operations:—
+
+ D.1  (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).
+
+ D.2  (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).
+
+ D.3  (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).
+
+ D.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).
+
+ E.4  (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).
+
+ E.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).
+
+ E.6  (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).
+
+ E.7  (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann).
+
+ E.9  (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).
+
+  I have the honour to be, Sir,
+      Your obedient servant,
+        (Signed) ROGER KEYES,
+                    Commodore (S).”
+
+In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase
+in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack
+and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen
+sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp
+engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction
+with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of
+its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the
+forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering
+rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness
+while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the
+flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the
+seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean.
+
+The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German
+Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a
+hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in
+the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the
+great battle fleets of England.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                   THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT
+
+
+The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and
+before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets
+at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal
+features common to all types of submarine craft.
+
+
+                        _Method of Submergence_
+
+It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have
+occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a
+submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of
+operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[1]
+
+It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the
+surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action.
+For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring
+the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the
+submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at
+a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is
+necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would,
+in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the
+destroyers.
+
+When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is
+technically called the _light condition_, that is to say, with her water
+ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only
+the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface,
+water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes
+her to sink into the sea until her _back_ is almost flush with the
+surface—this is known as the _awash condition_.
+
+It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might
+at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine,
+break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout
+into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result,
+for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little
+additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the
+surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when
+proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the
+mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine
+hermetically closed, ready to sink.
+
+To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished
+by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with
+the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and
+sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to
+guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to
+dive and rise. Two additional _fins_ are frequently placed on each side
+of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising.
+
+In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal
+rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The
+action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced
+down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is
+much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the
+force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to
+right or left.
+
+From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the
+surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the
+propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down,
+she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no
+longer any effect.
+
+Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is
+controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to
+move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed
+to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is
+operated by electricity.
+
+In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was
+required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the
+ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now
+obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to
+carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they
+were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode
+too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with
+the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the
+ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of
+water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to
+enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal
+fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome,
+and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three
+minutes.
+
+When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the
+submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is
+compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always
+exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in.
+Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface
+again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the
+compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered
+that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to
+bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker
+accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this
+case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash
+condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the
+light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at
+the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a
+submarine sink than it is to make her rise.
+
+It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the
+other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so
+delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may
+have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So
+steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially
+those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies,
+that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to
+amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few
+feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is
+almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a
+sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect
+the firing of the torpedoes.
+
+The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or
+_diving-trim_, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily
+very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a
+thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100
+gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability
+of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known
+as _positive-buoyancy_ must be accompanied by a corresponding increase
+in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to
+drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural
+tendency to float on the surface.
+
+For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in
+such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of
+weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or
+rise with dangerous rapidity.
+
+This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were
+provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by
+means of _compensating-tanks_, into which sufficient water is pumped to
+compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of _each_
+torpedo.
+
+Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern _trimming-tanks_,
+into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any
+tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity.
+
+
+                             _Propulsion._
+
+Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction
+the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are
+still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity,
+petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since
+first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for
+using these _prime movers_ in conjunction with each other and with
+chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors.
+
+About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a
+good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were
+abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and
+electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful
+machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being
+used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion.
+
+The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all
+circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons
+have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is
+more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged
+would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be
+made.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). _A._ Deck
+ superstructure. _B._ Scuppers for filling superstructure. _D._ External
+ connections. _E._ Conning-tower (4-inch armour). _F._ Periscope. _G._
+ Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). _H._ Air cowls. _I._ Conning-tower
+ cap (opening sideways). _J._ Mast stays. _K._ Mast (not part of service
+ equipment). _L._ Torpedo-tube cap. _M._ Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes
+ in. _N._ Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). _O._ Hydroplane engines.
+ _X._ Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. _Y._ Spare
+ torpedoes. _Z._ Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal
+ pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s
+ platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering
+ submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol
+ engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries.
+ 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.
+
+]
+
+It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol
+engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with
+its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the
+submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in
+almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs
+in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is
+extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the
+storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities,
+although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French
+Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in
+air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is
+impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine
+(compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius
+of action are curtailed.
+
+If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines
+could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful
+set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and
+when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be
+simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of
+action would naturally result.
+
+In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more
+modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is
+being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power
+obtained with greater safety.
+
+Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the
+vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the
+electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored
+in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three
+separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which
+drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a
+suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the
+electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives
+the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the
+batteries.
+
+It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources
+of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of
+power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The
+only actual source being the oil or petrol.
+
+There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of
+machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging
+the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and
+for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps,
+steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this,
+hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate
+most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the
+armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic
+quick-firing guns.
+
+From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine
+presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible.
+Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed
+up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and
+with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their
+backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and
+nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in
+front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of
+the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in
+the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the
+arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that
+trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping,
+and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as
+possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to
+create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to
+be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft.
+
+
+                        _Vision When Submerged._
+
+Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine
+construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged.
+This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up
+from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the
+surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a
+picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors
+inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope
+can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when
+the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be
+easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by
+gun-fire.
+
+The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern
+submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of
+vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting
+only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly
+clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at
+night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would
+be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an
+enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight
+torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by
+ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to
+discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed
+to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a
+surprise attack.
+
+
+                              _Armament._
+
+The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is
+expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in
+the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat,
+so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts
+can be made.
+
+About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they
+now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future
+chapter is devoted.
+
+The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for
+use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are
+arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to
+disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of
+guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of
+defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat
+destroyers, or by air-craft.
+
+
+                            _Habitability._
+
+Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold,
+hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth.
+The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room,
+the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well
+illuminated by electric lamps.
+
+The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel
+cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks
+of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same
+time chemically absorbed.
+
+Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained
+from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is
+almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a
+time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped
+deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so
+also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                           BRITISH SUBMARINES
+
+
+The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82
+submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were,
+however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and
+distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities
+were as follows:—
+
+
+                       SUBMARINES IN HOME WATERS.
+
+                          _Patrol Flotillas._
+
+ 1st Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Onyx_.
+   Submarines: A.8 and A.9.
+
+ 2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ship: _Dolphin_.
+   Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.
+
+ 3rd Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Forth_.
+   Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,
+     C.15 and C.16.
+
+ 4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ships: _Arrogant_ and _Hazard_.
+   Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.
+
+ 5th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ship: _Thames_.
+   Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.
+
+ 6th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ships: _Bonaventure_ and _Hebe_.
+   Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.
+
+ 7th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ships: _Vulcan_ and _Alecto_.
+   Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27,
+      C.28, C.29, C.30.
+
+ 8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ships: _Maidstone_ and _Adamant_.
+   Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3,
+      E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.
+
+ 9th Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Pactolus_.
+   Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.
+
+
+                    SUBMARINES ON FOREIGN STATIONS.
+
+    Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11.
+
+    At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8.
+
+    Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38.
+
+    With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[2] and A.E.2.
+
+The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas
+in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be
+taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast
+protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the
+_Patrol Flotillas_. The wide range of action of modern submarines
+enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt,
+and consequently Chatham becomes merely the _general store_, or
+head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not
+only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England
+and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form
+of _Depôt Ships_, which, with their attached submarines, are often at
+Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely
+the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover,
+Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with
+their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line
+to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England,
+Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however,
+furthest removed from the zone of war.
+
+Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and
+distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of
+war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main
+theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels
+of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this
+rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas
+guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels
+from overseas.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”
+
+ Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern
+                              torpedo tube.
+
+      There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.
+
+]
+
+The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched
+from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and
+was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the
+famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most
+successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with
+this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched
+during 1901‒2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of
+craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four
+new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the
+first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were
+designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement
+of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were
+propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric
+motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots
+an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their
+maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8
+knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and
+one bow tube.
+
+All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before
+the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of
+interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of
+British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13,
+launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the
+table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All
+the following British submarines are now in the fighting line.
+
+
+                               “A” CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1904.)
+
+                    A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
+
+These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were
+built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged
+displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled
+on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of
+100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots
+and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface
+endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the
+endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:
+Eleven officers and men.
+
+These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence,
+can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and
+single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914,
+and was never raised.
+
+
+                               “B” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+                  B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.
+
+These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way
+superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the
+sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135
+feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the
+“A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when
+submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the
+electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for
+driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged
+by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running
+on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these
+storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the
+surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300
+knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80‒100
+knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with
+4‒6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men.
+
+The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type
+which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the
+bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse
+the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original
+Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes,
+each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels
+three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed
+below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper
+water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them
+better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are
+liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed
+of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in
+this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages
+derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The
+speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit.
+
+The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the
+forward superstructure, and the _two_ periscopes. The B.2 was run down
+by the liner _Amerika_ in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was
+never recovered.
+
+
+                               “C” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1906‒10.)
+
+  C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
+ 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.
+
+This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B”
+type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet
+long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give
+to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power
+of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged
+speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000
+knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100
+knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers
+and men.
+
+In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of
+petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative
+additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of
+both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and
+safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event
+of disaster while submerged.
+
+The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11
+collided with the steamer _Eddystone_ in the North Sea in 1909 and was
+irretrievably lost.
+
+
+                               “D” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒11.)
+
+                      D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
+
+These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of
+considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each
+other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons;
+and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an
+approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines
+of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the
+surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of
+just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated
+below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000
+miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels
+were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of
+electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The
+armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with
+a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This
+gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and
+almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the
+superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The
+complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”
+
+   Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo
+                                 tubes.
+
+     There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.
+
+]
+
+
+                               “E” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒14.)
+
+   E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.
+
+These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the
+British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are
+176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly
+2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the
+electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots
+an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at
+economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an
+hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their
+predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the
+largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped
+with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings
+for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers.
+They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the
+“B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three
+tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and
+increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep
+the sea in almost any weather.
+
+
+                         AUSTRALIAN SUBMARINES:
+
+                            A.E.1 and A.E.2.
+
+These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they
+both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under
+their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range,
+seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval
+Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in
+October, 1914, and has not been recovered.
+
+
+                      BRITISH SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in
+course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval
+dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the
+British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid
+down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been
+constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by
+Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding
+yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co.
+Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham.
+
+Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of
+which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been
+all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being
+constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less
+than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were
+of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines
+under construction at Greenock were of the _Laurenti_, or Italian type,
+and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the _Laubeuf_, or French type. In
+addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new
+vessels have been given the names of _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.
+
+The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say
+definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas,
+and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy
+regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it
+advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss
+too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable
+capabilities.
+
+
+                               “F” CLASS.
+
+There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are
+the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going
+submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1,
+which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of
+1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum
+speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000
+H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six
+torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns.
+
+
+                   “V” CLASS.  “W” CLASS.  “S” CLASS.
+
+                      _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.
+
+These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to
+those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of
+which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are
+large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000
+tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which
+four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French
+_Laubeuf_ type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number,
+are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—_Laurenti_ type. The two named
+vessels—_Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_—are large sea-going submarines of
+wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000
+tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when
+submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two
+quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about
+25 officers and men.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.)
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+  Sunk October, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                           FRENCH SUBMARINES
+
+
+France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared.
+In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various
+stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of
+two different types of vessels: _Submarines Defensive_ and
+_Submersibles_. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely
+for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and
+they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The
+submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and
+Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great
+offensive power.
+
+The first naval submarine (_Gymnôte_) was launched in 1888, giving to
+France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine
+torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction
+in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M.
+Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the
+French Navy was the _Gustave Zédé_, launched in 1893. So successful did
+this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the _Morse_,
+was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four
+vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and
+named _Lutin_, _Farfâdet_ (re-named _Follet_), _Korrigan_, and _Gnôme_.
+These, with the exception of the ill-fated _Lutin_, are still in the
+active flotillas.
+
+
+                              LUTIN CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+                   _Follet_.  _Korrigan_.  _Gnôme_.
+
+These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the
+defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with
+electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged.
+Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their
+range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of
+one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photos, M. Bar._]
+
+          A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)
+
+         A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)
+
+]
+
+
+                            FRANÇAISE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+                       _Française._  _Algérien._
+
+These two vessels are of the improved _Morse_ type, and are intended
+solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146
+tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and
+submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an
+hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots.
+They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.
+
+
+                            TRITON CLASS.[3]
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+              _Triton._  _Sirene._  _Espadon._  _Silure._
+
+These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were
+designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both
+France and other countries (_Laubeuf_ type). They have a submerged
+displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam.
+Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when
+submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when
+submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are
+armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and
+have a complement of ten officers and men.
+
+
+                             NAIADE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1902‒4.)
+
+     _Naiade._  _Loutre._  _Protée._  _Lynx._  _Perle._  _Truite._
+   _Castor._  _Oursin._  _Meduse._  _Otarie._  _Phoque._  _Ludion._
+  _Alose._  _Anguille._  _Grondin._  _Dorade._  _Souffleur._  _Thon._
+                        _Bonite._  _Esturgeon._
+
+Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about
+67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of
+8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament
+consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried.
+Their complement is six officers and men.
+
+
+                            AIGRETTE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1904.)
+
+                        _Aigrette._  _Cicogne._
+
+These two vessels are submersibles of the _Laubeuf_ type, and were great
+improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged
+displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A
+triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface
+propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their
+speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700
+miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament
+consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                               ARGONAUTE.
+
+                           (Completed 1905.)
+
+A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French
+Navy). This vessel, which was first named _Omega_, has a displacement of
+about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed
+of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two
+holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about
+seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                            EMERAUDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1906‒8.)
+
+  _Emeraude._  _Saphir._  _Opale._  _Topaz._  _Rubis._  _Turquoise._
+
+These six vessels are of the _Maugas_ type and are sea-going submarines
+with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and
+electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface
+speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius
+is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of
+two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their
+complement is seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                              CIRCE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                         _Circe._  _Calypso._
+
+These two vessels are of the _Laubeuf_ type, and are improvements on the
+_Aigrette_ class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons
+and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440
+H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric
+motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the
+range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four
+holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men.
+
+
+                            PLUVIÔSE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒12.)
+
+     _Pluviôse._  _Nivôse._  _Ventôse._  _Messidor._  _Thermidor._
+    _Fructidor._  _Brumaire._  _Frimaire._  _Florèal._  _Prairial._
+                              _Germinal._
+
+Submarines of the _Laubeuf_ type with a submerged displacement of nearly
+600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The _Brumaire_ and _Frimaire_ are
+driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but
+all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of
+flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their
+speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men.
+
+
+                             FRESNEL CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒12.)
+
+ _Fresnel._  _Berthelot._  _Papin._  _Monge._  _Ampère._  _Gay-Lussac._
+ _Cagnot._  _Faraday._  _Giffard._  _Montgolfier._  _Newton._  _Volta._
+  _Watt._  _Euler._  _Faucault._  _Franklin._  _Arago._  _Permouilli._
+              _Joule._  _Coulomb._  _Curie._  _Le Verrier._
+
+Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going _Laubeuf_ type. Only
+three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for
+surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the
+_Pluviôse_ class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed
+is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes.
+Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.
+
+
+                           AMIRAL BOURGEOISE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+An experimental boat of the _Bourdelle_ type, built at Cherbourg. The
+submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet.
+She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which
+give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion
+are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of
+seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.
+
+
+                               ARCHIMÈDE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement
+is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet
+respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and
+electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots
+below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24
+officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, M. Bar._]
+
+                A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.
+
+]
+
+
+                               MARIOTTE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+The third experimental boat, of the _Rodiquet_ type, built at Cherbourg.
+The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200
+feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the
+surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her
+radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The
+complement is about 25 officers and men.
+
+
+                             CHARLES BRUN.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The
+submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam
+turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface,
+and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her
+armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22
+officers and men.
+
+
+                            CLORINDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+    _Clorinde._  _Cornélie._  _Amphritrite._  _Astree._  _Artémis._
+   _Aréthuse._  _Atalante._  _Amaranthe._  _Ariane._  _Andromaque._
+
+These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine
+flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a
+length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300
+H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors
+of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged.
+They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and
+men.
+
+
+                          GUSTAVE ZEDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+                      _Gustave Zede._  _Néréide._
+
+These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet,
+and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16
+knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament
+consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes.
+They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,
+disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the
+complement 27 officers and men.
+
+
+                             BELLONE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1914.)
+
+                  _Bellone._  _Hermione._  _Gorgone._
+
+Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons.
+They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a
+surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at
+12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.
+Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.
+quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men.
+
+
+                      FRENCH SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early
+stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the _Diane_
+and _Daphne_. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800
+tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament
+will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will
+be 30 officers and men.
+
+The other seven vessels are of the improved _Gustave Zede_ Class. They
+will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20
+knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will
+consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be
+about 35 officers and men.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 3:
+
+  The _Narval_, the first of this type, has been removed from the
+  effective list.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                           RUSSIAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37
+submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction.
+The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as
+follows:—
+
+BALTIC FLOTILLA: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12
+vessels building. _Bases_: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and
+Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free).
+
+BLACK SEA FLOTILLA: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and
+several new vessels building. _Bases_: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.
+
+SIBERIAN FLOTILLA: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6
+vessels building. _Base_: Vladivostok.
+
+The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902,
+and named the _Petr Kochka_. She was built in sections to facilitate
+transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of
+Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her
+armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus,
+containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots
+on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered
+for the Russian Navy was the _Delphin_, which foundered off Kronstadt,
+but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the
+submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active
+flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the
+_Graf Cheremetieve_—is still in commission.
+
+
+                        GRAF CHEREMETIEVE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒5.)
+
+          _Graf Cheremetieve._  _Kasatka._  _Nalim._  _Skat._
+
+These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small
+vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement
+of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the
+surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow
+torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes.
+
+
+                              OSTR CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+         _Ostr._  _Byts-chok._  _Kefal._  _Platus._  _Plotva._
+
+These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The _Ostr_ was
+originally the American Lake Co.’s boat _Protector_. They have a
+submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in
+breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and
+electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above
+and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full
+speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The _special_ characteristics of the
+American Lake type will be seen on pages 119‒120.
+
+
+                               SOM CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+                          _Som._  _Shtshuka._
+
+These two vessels, which are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, have a
+submerged displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol and electric motors are
+used for surface and submerged propulsion, and the speed is 9 ½ knots
+and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. Their armament consists of
+two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is
+about fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                            STERLIAD CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1905‒6.)
+
+                  _Sterliad._  _Bialuga._  _Peskar._
+
+These three vessels are also of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of 150 tons. The petrol motors for surface
+propulsion are of 160 H.-P. The speed is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above
+and below, respectively. Their armament consist of two bow tubes with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is eleven to fifteen
+officers and men.
+
+
+                                  SIG.
+
+                           (Completed 1906.)
+
+A submarine of the Lake type; similar in almost every respect to vessels
+of the _Ostr_ class.
+
+
+                             MAKREL CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                          _Makrel._  _Okun._
+
+Two vessels of the _Improved_ Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of about 200 tons. The petrol motors are of 300
+H.-P., and the electric engines of 150 H.-P. Their speed is 10 knots on
+the surface and 8 knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow
+tubes and two stern _holders_, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                             LOSSOS CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                          _Lossos._  _Ludak._
+
+Two somewhat smaller submarines of the Holland type. Intended either for
+the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. Similar to those of the
+_Sterliad_ class.
+
+
+                              KARP CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒8.)
+
+                           _Karp._  _Karas._
+
+These two submarines are of the Germania, or Krupp type, and have a
+submerged displacement of 250 tons. They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil
+engines of 400 H.-P., and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on
+the surface is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range
+of action is about 1,000 miles, and the submerged endurance about three
+hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes
+and four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is fifteen officers and
+men.
+
+
+                            ALLIGATOR CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒9.)
+
+            _Alligator._  _Kaiman._  _Drakon._  _Krokodil._
+
+Four submarines of the improved Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 500 tons. Their speed is 15 knots on the surface and 10
+knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow and two stern tubes,
+and carry six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is seventeen
+officers and men. (See also page 96.)
+
+
+                             MINOGA CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1908.)
+
+                        _Minoga._  _Potschovy._
+
+Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff type, which were built in
+sections to facilitate transport by rail. They have a submerged
+displacement of about 150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and 9 knots,
+above and below, respectively. Their complement is eleven officers and
+men.
+
+
+                                 AKULA.
+
+                           (Completed 1909.)
+
+A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff type. Her displacement is about
+570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when
+submerged. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube, with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is 20 officers and men.
+
+
+                            KASCHALOT CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1909‒12.)
+
+ _Kaschalot._  _Kit._  _Krab._  _Morsh._  _Narval._  _Nerpa._  _Tinlen._
+
+These seven vessels are among the most modern submarines in the Russian
+flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, and have a submerged
+displacement of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of over 1,000 H.-P.
+drive them at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, and electric motors
+of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour.
+Their surface cruising range is about 3,000 miles. Their armament
+consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. They are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, high-angle
+gun for defence against air-craft. Their complement is 21 officers and
+men.
+
+
+                      RUSSIAN SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+At the commencement of the war there were nineteen Russian submarines in
+course of construction. Very little information concerning these boats
+can be obtained, except that their submerged displacement ranges from
+800 to 1,500 tons, and their _anticipated_ surface speed is 20 knots.
+Some of the 800-ton vessels have already been completed, and the first
+twelve will be named: _Svitza_, _Leopard_, _Pantera_, _Ruis_, _Kaguar_,
+_Tiqr_, _Yaguar_, _Vepr_, _Wolk_, _Baro_, _Gepard_, and _Tur_. These
+vessels have a speed of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when
+submerged. Their complement is 25 officers and men.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                          JAPANESE SUBMARINES
+
+
+The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a submarine flotilla of seventeen
+vessels, all except two of which are of the British Holland or Vickers
+type. Japan commenced the construction of what is now a rapidly
+increasing and powerful flotilla in 1904 by the purchase of five
+elementary Holland boats. These, however, are still in the active
+flotilla and are designated Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement
+of 120 tons, and are 65 feet in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol
+motors of 160 H.-P. drive them at 9 knots on the surface and electric
+motors of 70 H.-P. at 7 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of
+one bow expulsion tube with three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+
+
+                             NOS. 6 AND 7.
+
+                           (Completed 1906.)
+
+These two vessels were the first submarine boats to be built in Japan,
+but are of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger and faster. They have
+a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of
+10 feet. The petrol engines are of 300 H.-P. and the electric motors of
+100 H.-P. The surface and submerged speed is 10 knots and 8 knots an
+hour, respectively. Their armament consists of one torpedo tube with
+three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+
+
+                             NOS. 8 AND 9.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒8.)
+
+These two vessels are very similar to the British “C” class, and were
+built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged displacement of 320
+tons; petrol motors of 600 H.-P., and a surface and submerged speed of
+13 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their armament consists of
+two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is sixteen officers and men.
+
+
+                              Nos. 10‒15.
+
+                          (Completed 1909‒12.)
+
+These six vessels are the same in almost every respect as the later “C”
+class of British submarines (pages 70‒71).
+
+
+                             Nos. 16‒17[4].
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒14.)
+
+These two vessels are of the _Schneider-Laubeuf_ or French type.
+(British “W” class.) Their submerged displacement is about 500 tons, and
+the horse-power of their surface engines 2,500. The surface and
+submerged speed is 18 knots and 9 knots respectively. Their armament
+consists of six torpedo tubes with eight _Schneider_ torpedoes. The
+complement is about 30 officers and men.
+
+The natural adroitness with which Japanese sailors manipulate
+complicated machinery, combined with their absolute fearlessness, make
+them ideal for torpedo work.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 4:
+
+  It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered before the
+  outbreak of war.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                           GERMAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany possessed 30 submarine
+torpedo-boats. These were divided into three flotillas, with their
+headquarters at Kiel, the largest and most modern vessels being attached
+to the Heligoland or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, although 24
+submarines were stated as being in commission, only about 15 were
+actively employed, and these mostly in training reserves, the older
+boats being docked and modernized where possible. But during the year
+six new vessels were added to the flotilla and the _personnel_ of the
+submarine service was largely increased. At the same time the inspection
+of submarines was separated from that of the other torpedo-boats and a
+flag-officer was appointed as head of the submarine branch of the Naval
+Service, with headquarters at Kiel. Thus when the hour came for the
+great struggle which was to decide the mastery of the seas the whole
+German Flotilla of 30 vessels, _with a reserve of six new boats which
+had been secretly hurried forward and were rapidly nearing completion_,
+was ready to put to sea.
+
+The German Naval Law provided for the construction of 72 submarines by
+the end of 1917. All the vessels built up to the present time have been
+known as the “U” class and numbered in rotation. They are painted a
+brownish-grey colour and have high collier-like bows with massive
+armoured conning-towers and long superstructures amounting to narrow
+decks. They have all been built at either Kiel or Dantzig.
+
+Although the first submarine boats built for the German Navy were two
+vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched in 1890, they were never
+actively employed with the fleet and have long since been reduced to
+scrap-iron, and the first vessel which can now be reckoned as a fighting
+unit of the German torpedo-boat flotilla was a vessel designated the
+“U.1.” This was built at the Germania Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on
+August 30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of the “U” class, which in
+most of the essential features resembles the British Improved Holland
+type.
+
+
+                                  U.1.
+
+                           (Completed 1905.)
+
+This U.1 was built as an experimental boat by the famous firm of Krupps.
+She has a surface displacement of 197 tons, a submerged displacement of
+236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface engines are of 250 H.-P. The
+electric motors for submerged use develop just over 100 H.-P. The speed
+ranges from 10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 knots when submerged,
+and her surface range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. The armament
+consists of one bow torpedo tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf torpedoes
+are carried. The complement is nine officers and men.
+
+The trials of the U.1 extended over a period of a year and a half, and
+all proved remarkably satisfactory. During the tests which took place in
+Eckernforder Bay she succeeded, twice in succession, in torpedoing a
+moving target while travelling submerged at full speed.
+
+The uncertainty displayed for some years previous by the German Naval
+Authorities regarding the value of submarine boats gave place to a
+thorough sense of the important part these “mighty atoms” would play in
+future naval warfare, and to a strong determination that the German Navy
+should include a powerful submarine flotilla.
+
+
+                                U.2-U.8.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒10.)
+
+These seven vessels were great improvements on the U.1. Their
+displacement is 210 tons on the surface and about 250 tons when
+submerged. They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil engines of 400
+H.-P. and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on the surface is 12
+knots and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range of action is 1,000
+miles and the submerged endurance about three hours at full speed. Their
+armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes are
+carried. The complement is eleven officers and men.
+
+
+                              U.9-U.18.[5]
+
+                          (Completed 1910‒12.)
+
+These ten vessels are of increased size and power, their submerged
+displacement being 300 tons, and the horse-power of their heavy oil
+surface engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The
+surface and submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The
+surface range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two
+bow and one stern torpedo tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 and
+subsequent vessels of this class are provided with a quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against aircraft, and have sleeping
+accommodation for the crew. They may be termed the first German
+sea-going submarines. Their complement is twenty officers and men.
+
+
+                             U.19 AND U.20.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒13.)
+
+There are only two vessels in this class owing to the adoption of
+certain improvements with the aid of which a partly new type has been
+evolved. These two vessels have a displacement when submerged of 450
+tons. Their oil engines of 650 H.-P. give a speed of 13 ½ knots an hour
+on the surface, and their electric motors of 300 H.-P. give 8 knots an
+hour when submerged. Their surface range of action is 2,000 miles, and
+their armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube with six
+torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns on disappearing
+mountings. The complement is seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.21-U.24.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒13.)
+
+These four vessels are the first of the new type of large sea-going
+submarines for the German Navy. Their submerged displacement is 800
+tons. They are propelled on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200
+H.-P., and when submerged by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed
+above water is 14 knots an hour and below the surface 9 knots. The
+surface range of action is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance 120
+miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two bow and two
+stern torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, all on disappearing mountings, for
+defence against hostile destroyers and aircraft. Their complement is
+twenty-five officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.25-U.30.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+These six vessels are the latest additions to the German submarine
+flotilla. They are vessels of 900 tons submerged displacement with
+heavy-oil engines of 2,000 H.-P., and electric motors of 900 H.-P. Their
+surface and submerged speed is 18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. The
+surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of two
+bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large size torpedoes, and,
+in addition, two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. high-angle
+guns. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus on board, and are
+specially constructed with long superstructures and high _collier-like_
+bows to enable them to keep at sea in almost any weather. They are
+fitted with two or three periscopes, and also possess a small _look-out_
+cap on the top of the lofty conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”
+attack in the half-lights of dawn and dusk, when the periscope is almost
+useless. The conning-towers and decks are armoured. Their complement is
+30 to 35 officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.31-U.36.
+
+                              (Building.)
+
+These are the six vessels which are rapidly nearing completion, and
+which were in a much more advanced state, at the opening of hostilities,
+than was generally known in foreign naval circles. They are the same in
+almost every respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. There is, however,
+another submarine being built for Germany of a totally different design.
+This is the F.I.A.T. or _Laurenti_ boat (Italian), laid down at the
+beginning of 1914. This vessel is very similar to the four “S” boats
+being built at Greenock for the British Navy.
+
+No German submarines have in the past been sent to any Colonial or
+oversea station. Therefore, the whole flotilla of 30 to 36 vessels was
+immediately available for operations in the North Sea and Baltic when
+war began. The _personnel_ of the whole torpedo service is very
+efficient, great attention having been paid to this branch of the Navy.
+The three German Submarine flotillas have their headquarters at Kiel,
+Wilhelmshaven, and Heligoland.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 5:
+
+  The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                          AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+At the commencement of the War the Austro-Hungarian Navy included six
+submarines in the active flotilla and five others were being _completed_
+at the Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful if they had been
+delivered. In which event they must be added to the strength of the
+German flotilla. In addition to these, several larger vessels, mostly of
+the latest “U” or Krupp design, had been ordered, but were not expected
+to take their place in the active flotillas before the end of 1915.
+
+Austria commenced the formation of a submarine flotilla in 1908 by the
+acquisition of two vessels of the _Improved Holland type_ from Messrs.
+Vickers Ltd., and two others of the American _Lake type_. In the
+following year two more submarines were ordered, this time from Krupp’s
+Germania Yard. All these vessels were delivered during 1910, and
+Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into being.
+
+
+                              U.1 AND U.2.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These two vessels are of the American Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 250 tons and petrol surface motors of 720 H.-P. Their
+speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The
+armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube. This type of
+submarine has three special features which distinguish it from all
+others. It is fitted with a kind of underframe and wheels, and is
+designed to travel in four different positions: (1) on the surface; (2)
+semi-submerged, with only a look-out cowl above water; (3) submerged,
+with nothing but the periscope showing; (4) totally submerged and
+running along the sea-bed on wheels, like a submarine motor car. It is
+drawn down from the surface to the sea-bed by an ingenious system of
+wire-hawsers and drop-weights, which can be released in the event of
+accident. A “diving chamber” enables members of the crew to don
+diving-dresses and leave the submarine when on the sea-bed, for the
+purpose of laying or destroying submerged mines. The Lake type of
+submarine is also used in the Russian Navy.[6]
+
+
+                              U.3 AND U.4.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These two vessels are of the Krupp design, and have a submerged
+displacement of 300 tons. The horse-power of their heavy-oil surface
+engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The surface and
+submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The surface
+range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two bow and
+one stern tube with five 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.
+
+
+                              U.5 AND U.6.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These are submarines of the Improved Holland type. Their submerged
+displacement is about 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The
+horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 and that of the electric
+engines 189. The speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when
+submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots an
+hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is sixteen officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.7-U.11.
+
+                  (Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)
+
+These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania type, and are similar to
+those completed for the German Navy in 1912‒13. They are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged displacement of 800 tons. They are propelled
+on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P., and when submerged,
+by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed is 14 knots and 9 knots,
+above and below, respectively. The surface range of action is 3,000
+miles, and the submerged endurance 120 miles at economical speed.
+
+Their armament consists of two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with
+eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing gun and two 1-pdr.
+high-angle guns, for defence against hostile destroyers and air-craft.
+Their complement is twenty-five officers and men.
+
+One or two Austrian submarines are supposed to have been sunk by the
+Allied Fleet during the first few weeks of the war, but exactly which
+vessels they were is not known.
+
+Several other submarines have been ordered in foreign countries for the
+Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered while the war lasts.
+
+
+            SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS.
+
+          COUNTRY. │    VESSELS BUILT.   │ VESSELS BUILDING.
+         ──────────┬─────────────────────┬────────────────────
+         Italy     │ 20 (100‒300 tons)   │ 8 (large size)
+         Denmark   │  9 (100‒300 tons)   │ several
+         Holland   │  6 (100‒300 tons)   │ 4 (large)
+         Sweden    │  7 (150‒300 tons)   │ 3 (large)
+         Greece    │  2 (Laubeuf)        │     ――
+         Norway    │  1    ――            │ 4 (Germania)
+         Portugal  │  1    ――            │ 3   ――
+         Turkey    │ ――                  │ 3   ――
+         Spain     │ ――                  │ 3   ――
+         ──────────┴─────────────────────┴────────────────────
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 6:
+
+  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                          SUBMARINES IN ACTION
+
+
+Submarines have two great advantages over all types of surface warships;
+they can become invisible at will—or sufficiently invisible to make gun
+or torpedo-practice, except at very close quarters, almost entirely
+useless—and they can, by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate of
+sufficient thickness to be absolutely shell-proof. These are the two
+main points in favour of the submarine. There are, however, many minor
+features. Although submarines are known in the naval services as
+“daylight torpedo-boats,” for their _greatest_ value lies in their
+ability to perform the same task in the “light” as the ordinary surface
+torpedo-boats and destroyers can do under cover of darkness or fog—that
+of creeping up close to an enemy, and launching a torpedo
+unobserved—they have been given, during recent years, so much greater
+speed, armament, and range of action, that they can no longer be looked
+upon as small boats just suitable for daylight torpedo attack in
+favourable circumstances. Their surface speed has been increased from 10
+to 20 knots, making them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.
+This, combined with manœuvering powers and general above-water
+invisibility, has enabled them to take over the duty of the surface
+torpedo-boat—that of delivering night-attacks on the surface. After
+nightfall a submarine attack is almost impossible owing to the
+periscope—the eyes of the submarine—being useless in the dark.
+
+The increase in the armament of the submarine—from the single bow
+torpedo tube with two torpedoes of short range and weak explosive
+charge, to the four bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten torpedoes
+of long range and high explosive charge—has greatly increased their
+chances of successful attack on surface warships, first, by giving them
+four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, in the event of all these
+torpedoes missing, of a dive under the object of attack, and two more
+shots at close range from the stern tubes (still retaining two
+torpedoes); and, secondly, by increasing the distance from which the
+first projectile can be launched, owing to the increased range of the
+modern torpedo. There are also the advantages derived from the battery
+of quick-firing guns installed on the decks of modern submarines.
+Although at the present time these guns are only of small power they
+nevertheless afford a means of defence—and even of attack under
+favourable circumstances—against hostile surface torpedo-boats,
+destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a flotilla of submarines could
+undoubtedly now give a very good account of itself if attacked either on
+the surface or when submerged by one or two prowling destroyers. The
+increase in the power of the guns carried by submarines, which will
+certainly come soon, will enable this type of craft to take up the
+additional duties of the destroyer—that of clearing the seas of hostile
+torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced scouting—for which work their
+ability to travel submerged and in a state of invisibility for distances
+of over 100 miles makes them eminently suitable.
+
+The enormous increase in the size and range of action of submarines,
+combined with the improvements effected in the surface cruising
+qualities, have enabled these vessels to be taken from the “nursery” of
+harbour and coast defence and placed with the sea-going flotillas and
+battle-fleets. In the short period of ten years the tonnage of
+submarines has risen from 100 to over 1,000 tons, and the range of
+action from 400 miles at economical speed to 5,000 miles. Exactly what
+this means is more easily realized when it is stated that the earlier
+types of submarines could scarcely cross the English Channel and return
+without taking in supplies of fuel, and in rough weather were forced to
+remain in harbour, whereas the modern vessel can go from England to
+Newfoundland _and back_ without assistance, and can remain at sea in
+almost any weather, as was first demonstrated by the successful voyage
+of the British submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since
+been proved by the operations of the British submarine flotilla in the
+North Sea.
+
+In addition to the cruising range there is, however, the question of
+habitability. In this respect the progress has been equally as rapid. In
+the older boats no sleeping accommodation was provided for the crew, and
+food supplies and fresh water sufficient only for a few days were
+carried. In the latest British, French and German vessels proper
+sleeping and messing accommodation is provided, and supplies of all
+kinds and in sufficient quantity to last a month are carried. Although
+work on these craft is still very cramping for the crew, the increase in
+the deck space and in the surface buoyancy has greatly minimised the
+discomforts of service in the submarine flotilla.
+
+With regard to safety, it has already been shown that a submarine is
+only held below the surface by the power of her engines and the action
+of the water on her diving-rudders. This means that in the event of
+anything going wrong _inside_ the vessel she would automatically rise to
+the surface; but should the hull be pierced in any way, either by shot
+or by collision, and an overwhelming inrush of water result—overcoming
+the buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing out the water-ballast
+tanks—then the vessel must inevitably sink, and the question of whether
+or not the crew can save themselves becomes a problem to which no
+definite answer can be given, although a special means is provided in
+all modern vessels belonging to the British Navy. Speaking generally, it
+may, however, be said that if the disaster occurs suddenly, and the
+vessel sinks into very deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving
+are extremely small; but if the water is comparatively shallow, as along
+the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood of many of the crew being
+able to save themselves with the aid of the _special escape helmets and
+air-locks_ is fairly good.
+
+We now come to the most important improvement made in the fighting
+qualities of these vessels since first they came into being, viz. the
+wonderful increase in the surface and submerged speed. In the older
+craft the surface speed did not exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it
+now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the submerged speed has risen from 5
+knots to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult for any but a naval
+man to realize exactly what this increase in the speed of submarines
+really means, and it is equally as difficult to adequately describe it
+here in non-technical language. It is a mere platitude to say that in
+order to attack a surface warship the submarine must first get within
+torpedo range of it; and yet it is on this very point that the strategy
+and tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A clever naval tactician once
+described the submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” The two points
+on which he based this opinion were—the (then) slow speed of these
+vessels compared with that of the surface warship, and its almost total
+blindness when submerged. These two defects were for some years the
+principal drawbacks of all the submarines afloat; but since that naval
+expert pronounced submarines to be “handicapped torpedo-boats,” great
+changes, great improvements have been made. The speed of the submarine
+has increased by over 100 per cent., and they have been given longer and
+wider range of vision by the introduction of two and three improved
+periscopes instead of one elementary instrument. Nevertheless, the speed
+difficulty is still a very real one, as will readily be seen when it is
+taken into consideration that the speed of a submarine when attacking
+submerged is frequently only half, or even a third, of that of her
+enemy. In order to more clearly illustrate this and lift for a moment
+the veil of secrecy which enshrouds the methods of attack adopted by
+this type of craft, it will be necessary to describe what is known as
+the_ right-angle attack_.
+
+
+                       ATTACKING AT RIGHT ANGLES.
+
+The difficulty of attacking a surface warship steaming at right angles
+to the course of the submarine will be clearly understood by referring
+to the following diagrams. The first shows an attack on a warship
+travelling at 20 miles an hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser
+Any increase in the speed of the surface vessel not only adds to the
+difficulty of the attacking submarine, but also the direction from which
+the attack must be made. This feature is shown in the second diagram,
+which illustrates a submarine attack on a vessel steaming at 30 miles an
+hour, such as a fast destroyer or fleet scout. On the other hand, a
+decrease in the speed of the on-coming surface vessel tends to either
+make easier the task of the attacking submarine, or else to increase the
+distance from which the attack can be delivered. This is shown in the
+third diagram, which assumes the speed of the surface vessel to be only
+15 miles an hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, food-ship, collier,
+or old warship.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES.
+]
+
+FIG. 1 represents a submarine attacking a hostile warship (or fleet)
+steaming at 20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the line of vision. The
+submarine sights the warship at a distance of just over 11 miles on her
+port bow. “B” shows the hostile vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to
+point marked “C,” and each division beyond equals 1 mile.
+
+Directly the submarine, which is assumed to be lying in an _awash
+condition_, sights the object of attack, she totally submerges and
+steers forward at a speed of 10 miles an hour. The loss, and gain, of
+the submarine on the different courses, can be seen in the table above
+the chart.[7]
+
+The spaces between the black dots show the most favourable points of
+attack. It will be noticed in the table that both vessels are equal at
+point “C,” but for many reasons this is not the best point of attack.
+The gain of about six minutes on the longer course enables the submarine
+not only to manœuvre into the best possible position for the attack, but
+also to discharge more than one torpedo if necessary.
+
+FIG. 2 shows the extreme limit at which a submarine could, with
+reasonable chances of success, attack a destroyer, or other vessel,
+steaming at 30 (statute) miles an hour, having sighted her at a distance
+of 16 miles in the position shown by the line of vision “A.”
+
+The distance to “C” is 15 miles for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for
+the submarine. Here, again, the two vessels would be equal; but the most
+favourable point of attack is shown by the two black dots—where the
+submarine has gained two minutes.
+
+FIG. 3.—The submarine sights the object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼
+miles, in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” The surface
+vessel has a speed of only 15 miles an hour (merchantman). In this case
+the surface vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey along course
+“B”—arriving at point “C” 20 minutes in advance of the submarine. The
+table shows how the submarine, by changing her course and “throwing” the
+surface vessel on her beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, at the
+point marked with the two black dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At
+this distance she could fire her torpedoes at long range, with some
+likelihood of success.
+
+Although these charts show approximately the extreme limits of the
+right-angle attack, a submarine could, of course, proceed for some
+distance on the surface at a much faster speed; but considering the rate
+at which the two vessels would be approaching each other, the submarine
+which attempted it would run considerable risk of being detected, and
+thus destroy her chances of a successful attack. Considering also the
+time lost in sinking from the “light” to the totally submerged
+condition, in coming to close quarters, the gain in speed would not
+amount to as much as may at first seem probable.[8]
+
+These charts are drawn and calculations made assuming the following
+points:—
+
+ (1)  The weather—fine and bright.
+
+ (2)  Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.
+
+ (3)  The enemy on the alert.
+
+ (4)  Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.
+
+ (5)  Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D”
+        in all courses in a submerged condition.
+
+The most favourable position for a submarine flotilla is to manœuvre
+close up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within 1,000 yards of a
+fleet—steaming across its course; but both of these ideal positions for
+attack are extremely difficult to obtain, and consequently in all the
+less favourable positions speed is the deciding factor. Strategems will
+undoubtedly play an important part in submarine warfare. An example of
+this has already been afforded when the German submarines resorted to
+the dishonest trick of laying in wait behind a trawler engaged in laying
+mines, over which _the flag of a neutral state_ had been hoisted as a
+blind. This resulted in the loss of three British cruisers with over
+1,000 lives. It would, however, be quite in accord with the rules of
+_civilised_ warfare for a submarine to shelter behind a “decoy”; to
+attack simultaneously with a seaplane; or to approach an enemy behind
+one of its own merchant ships.
+
+
+                           THE PORPOISE DIVE.
+
+The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise Dive” is merely the sudden rising of
+a submarine in order to enable her commander to get a better view of the
+surface than that afforded by the periscope. The submarine on
+approaching the object of attack rises quickly to the surface by the
+action of her horizontal rudders, then dives again, only remaining above
+water for a few seconds to enable her commander to get a glimpse of the
+enemy, and to take bearings. The submarine can then get within
+torpedo-range, with simply the tiny periscope projecting from the
+surface. This manœuvre is now seldom necessary, owing to the long and
+wide range of vision of the two or three periscopes fitted in modern
+submarines.
+
+
+                 DIFFICULTY OF THE FIXED TORPEDO TUBE.
+
+With the exception of one or two vessels, which it would be unwise to
+specify, all the submarines engaged in the present war have what are
+called _fixed submerged tubes_. This means that the tubes from which the
+torpedoes are discharged are fitted _inside_ the submarine _on a line
+with the centre of the boat_, and cannot be moved or aimed in any way
+apart from the boat itself. It therefore becomes necessary for the
+submarine to be _aligned_ by the steering rudders on the object of
+attack before the torpedoes can be discharged. In simpler vein,
+torpedoes can only be fired by a submarine straight ahead or straight
+astern. Hence a submarine, with a hostile warship coming up on its beam,
+is compelled to turn and face its opponent (or turn its stern towards
+her) before delivering an attack.
+
+
+                 SUBMARINE FLOTILLA _v._ SURFACE FLEET.
+
+It is absolutely necessary for submarines acting in company to have each
+its allotted task; and for a wide space of water to be left between each
+boat; as it is impossible, at present, for one submarine to know the
+exact position of another when both vessels are submerged. Therefore, if
+each boat was not previously instructed how to act, there would not only
+be the likelihood of the greater portion of an attacking flotilla firing
+their torpedoes at one or two vessels of the hostile fleet and allowing
+the remainder either to escape or to keep up a heavy and dangerous fire
+unmolested, but also of collision and of torpedoeing each other by
+accident. There is no means of inter-communication between submarines
+when submerged, and a battle between submarines is almost impossible.
+
+
+                            SURPRISE ATTACK.
+
+In this case invisibility is the element of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian
+Bridge, G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once said: “When submerged the
+concealment of the submarine is practically perfect. If she has not been
+sighted up to the moment of diving, she will almost certainly reach,
+unobserved, the point at which she can make her attack.” And this
+opinion—shared for many years by all experts—has been amply proved in
+the present war.
+
+A submarine must, however, blend with the surrounding sea in its
+ever-varying colours, lights and shades, in order that she may be as
+invisible as possible when cruising on the surface. The French Naval
+Authorities experimented off Toulon with a luminous paint of a sea-green
+colour; but this, although causing the hull to be almost totally
+invisible in certain weather, was found to be useless, as, on a bright
+day with a blue sky, the green showed up clear against the bluish tint
+of the surrounding sea. After many months of experimenting, a pale,
+sea-green, non-luminous paint was chosen as the best colour for French
+submarines. The British Admiralty also carried out a few experiments in
+this direction, and came to the conclusion that a dull grey was the most
+invisible shade. The German authorities decided in favour of a
+grey-brown.
+
+When travelling submerged, with only the thin periscopic tube above the
+surface, it is almost impossible to detect the approach of a submarine
+_before_ she gets within torpedo range; and when cruising on the surface
+she is equally as invisible at a distance of a few miles. These
+qualities enable the submarine in nearly all cases where her speed
+permits, to effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship or cruiser
+_when not closely screened by fast destroyers_, whose duty it is to be
+ever on the watch for submarines.
+
+As to the tactics which would be employed by a submarine (or flotilla)
+in attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it is impossible to say, for,
+like the impromptu attacks of all “mosquito craft,” the exact method, or
+manœuvre, is arranged to suit the circumstances, and it is very seldom
+that two such attacks are carried out alike. Generally speaking,
+however, a hostile warship could be easily sighted, on a fairly clear
+day, from the flying-bridge of a submarine at a distance of 10 miles;
+but it would be practically impossible to detect the submarine from the
+deck of a warship at that distance. On sighting her object of attack the
+submarine would sink to the “awash” condition, and proceed for from 2 ½
+to 5 miles, as might be deemed expedient. She would then submerge and
+steer by her periscopes, each of which has a field of vision of 60
+degrees. He would be a very keen look-out who would be able to detect
+the few square inches of periscopic tube at a distance of three miles.
+As this distance lessened, it might be advisable, if the sea was _very_
+calm and if the object of attack was stationary, for the submarine to
+slacken speed, so as to prevent any spray being thrown off by the
+periscopic tube. Assuming, however, that the optical tube was seen by
+the enemy, it would be extremely difficult to hit it with gun-fire at a
+distance of one or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, which would
+probably be immersed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of about
+2,000 yards, or just over one mile, the submarine would discharge her
+first torpedo, following it up with another at closer range from the
+second bow tube. A rapid dive would then probably be necessary in order
+to avoid the hail of shot which would plough up the waters around her.
+If the first two torpedoes missed their mark the submarine might either
+dive completely under the object of attack and then fire her stern tubes
+at close range, or else manœuvre below the surface for an attack from
+some other point.
+
+One of the effects produced on fleets or individual warships in war time
+by the ever present possibility of submarine attack is, however, that
+they never remain at anchor or even stationary in an exposed position,
+and seldom—if wise—proceed without destroyers as advance and flank
+guards. These precautions double the difficulties of a successful
+submarine attack.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 7:
+
+  As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally submerged, to
+  steer a _perfectly_ straight course, the table above each chart shows
+  the approximate average loss and gain on each mile. It must also be
+  remembered that the submarine in actual practice need only reach the
+  torpedo firing line.
+
+Footnote 8:
+
+  “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Francis Griffiths.)
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+                         ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS
+
+
+In all warfare, new weapons of attack are, sooner or later, met by new
+methods of defence. The submarine and the aeroplane are at present the
+only weapons against which there is no true means of defence, and yet
+one is being used as an antidote for the other without, however, any
+very striking success so far. The seaplane may be able to distinguish
+the dark patch in the sea caused by the hull of the submarine _in clear
+water_, but she cannot destroy it, neither can she signal the _exact_
+locality to an accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing to the speed with
+which seaplane and submarine pass over and under each other;
+furthermore, in rough weather or in shallow muddy water no sign of the
+submarine when submerged is visible from above. The great value of the
+seaplane as an antidote for submarines lies, however, first in the fact
+that the water of the open sea is usually clear, and the _submarine
+shadow_ is visible from above, and, secondly, in the great speed of
+these aircraft which enables them to quickly cover miles of sea in their
+search for hostile submarines and to report their presence in a given
+locality by wireless to all ships operating within range.
+
+When the enormous superficial area of a zone of war, such as the North
+Sea and English Channel, is duly considered, however, the difficulty in
+quickly and reliably locating from the air the few scattered “submarine
+shadows” will be easily realized. To make this method of locating
+submarines even fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes would be
+required. Again seaplanes do not, in themselves, constitute a means of
+defence against submarine attack, they merely increase the likelihood of
+detection, but, in actual warfare, it has now been proved that for every
+submarine detected by seaplanes two others pass quite unobserved.
+
+Many means of attack on submarines have been proposed; and no doubt some
+of these, in certain cases, would prove effective; but none can be
+relied upon. Therefore, one of the points in favour of the submarine
+still remains without its antidote. This is the _moral effect_; for if
+there is no absolutely reliable means of defence, there can be no
+feeling of security for surface warships or merchant vessels when
+anywhere within the danger zone of the submarine.
+
+Let us now examine briefly what practical methods of defence a modern
+warship has against submarine attacks. Great speed is undoubtedly a
+surface ship’s most reliable defence; and when combined with a frequent
+change of course, would greatly reduce the chances of a successful
+under-water attack. Should hostile submarines be on the line of advance
+they would not know whether to wait and chance the enemy approaching
+within torpedo range or whether to run to starboard or port. This is, if
+the surface warship was steaming in an erratic course—not a zigzag
+course, for then it might be possible to estimate, within torpedo range,
+the position of the ship at a given point if the “tacks” were regular.
+
+Should submarines be seen approaching, a surface vessel would do well to
+turn her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting as small a target
+as possible, and deflecting the torpedoes by her propeller race.
+
+The escape of the Battle Cruiser _Queen Mary_ and the Light Cruiser
+_Lowestoft_, during the action in the Heligoland Bight, as described in
+the dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what
+may be done by the skilful use of the helm on surface warships to
+frustrate submarine attacks. So interesting, and informative as to the
+actual fighting between British warships and hostile submarines, in this
+dispatch that I give it here in full. It should, however, be studied in
+conjunction with the comprehensive report—the first in the history of
+Naval warfare detailing submarine attack and reconnaissance—from
+Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., of the British submarines, given on
+page 28.
+
+                                                   “H.M.S. _Lion_,
+                                                _1st September, 1914_.
+
+ “SIR,—I have the honour to report that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5
+ a.m., I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser Squadron and First
+ Light Cruiser Squadron in company, to rendezvous with the
+ Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_.
+
+ “At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements of the Flotillas commenced as
+ previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser Squadron and Light Cruiser
+ Squadron supporting. The Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_, with _New
+ Zealand_ and four Destroyers having joined my flag, the Squadron
+ passed through the pre-arranged rendezvous.
+
+ “At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal from the Commodore (T), informing me
+ that the Flotilla was in action with the enemy. This was presumably in
+ the vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. From this time until 11
+ a.m. I remained about the vicinity ready to support as necessary,
+ intercepting various signals, which contained no information on which
+ I could act.
+
+ “At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked by three Submarines. The attack
+ was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and the four Destroyers were
+ ordered to attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., various signals having
+ been received indicating that the Commodore (T) and Commodore (S) were
+ both in need of assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser Squadron to
+ support the Torpedo Flotillas.
+
+ “Later I received a signal from the Commodore (T), stating that he was
+ being attacked by a large Cruiser, and a further signal informing me
+ that he was being hard pressed and asking for assistance. The Captain
+ (D), First Flotilla, also signalled that he was in need of help.
+
+ “From the foregoing the situation appeared to me critical. The
+ Flotillas had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., and were only
+ about twenty-five miles from two enemy bases on their flank and rear
+ respectively. Commodore Goodenough had detached two of his Light
+ Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier in the day, and these had
+ not yet rejoined. (They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As the reports
+ indicated the presence of many enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I
+ considered that his force might not be strong enough to deal with the
+ situation sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the Battle Cruisers
+ turned to E.S.E., and worked up to full speed. It was evident that to
+ be of any value the support must be overwhelming and carried out at
+ the highest speed possible.
+
+ “I had not lost sight of the risk of Submarines, and possible sortie
+ in force from the enemy’s base, especially in view of the mist to the
+ South-East.
+
+ “Our high speed, however, made submarine attack difficult, and the
+ smoothness of the sea made their detection comparatively easy. I
+ considered that we were powerful enough to deal with any sortie except
+ by a Battle Squadron, which was unlikely to come out in time, provided
+ our stroke was sufficiently rapid.
+
+ “At 12.15 p.m. _Fearless_ and First Flotilla were sighted retiring
+ West. At the same time the Light Cruiser Squadron was observed to be
+ engaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beat.
+
+ “I then steered N.E. to sounds of firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m.
+ sighted _Arethusa_ and Third Flotilla retiring to the Westward
+ engaging a Cruiser of the _Kolberg_ class on our Port Bow. I steered
+ to cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At
+ 12.42 the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased at 27 knots.
+
+ “At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead.
+ _Lion_ fired two salvoes at her, which took effect, and she
+ disappeared into the mist, burning furiously and in a sinking
+ condition. In view of the mist and that she was steering at high speed
+ at right angles to _Lion_, who was herself steaming at 28 knots, the
+ _Lion’s_ firing was very creditable.
+
+ “Our Destroyers had reported the presence of floating mines to the
+ Eastward and I considered it inadvisable to pursue her. It was also
+ essential that the Squadrons should remain concentrated, and I
+ accordingly ordered a withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned North and
+ circled to port to complete the destruction of the vessel first
+ engaged. She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. steaming S.E. with colours
+ still flying. _Lion_ opened fire with two turrets, and at 1.35 p.m.,
+ after receiving two salvoes, she sank.
+
+ “The four attached Destroyers were sent to pick up survivors, but I
+ deeply regret that they subsequently reported that they searched the
+ area but found none.
+
+ “At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers turned to the Northward, and _Queen
+ Mary_ was again attacked by a Submarine. The attack was avoided by the
+ use of the helm. _Lowestoft_ was also unsuccessfully attacked. The
+ Battle Cruisers covered the retirement until nightfall. By 6 p.m., the
+ retirement having been well executed and all Destroyers accounted for,
+ I altered course, spread the Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in
+ accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s orders. At 7.45 p.m. I
+ detached _Liverpool_ to Rosyth with German prisoners, seven officers
+ and 79 men, survivors from _Mainz_. No further incident occurred.—I
+ have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant.
+
+                                            “(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,
+                                                         “Vice-Admiral.
+                                  “The Secretary of the Admiralty.”
+
+Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and 6-inch type are certainly the best
+weapons for an attack on submarines. In combination with “sharp
+look-outs,” they could be used with effect from the elevated positions
+on the fore part of warships. The periscopic-tube of the submarine
+always proves a target for gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches in
+diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards requires “excellent” marksmanship
+to hit. That it can be done is proved by the sinking of the German
+submarine U.15 by the British Cruiser _Birmingham_ in the North Sea. The
+effect of a shot carrying away the periscope is to blind the submarine,
+at least in one eye, she can then be _run-down_ by the surface warship
+or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at close range.
+
+Of course, if submarines were caught napping on the surface the guns of
+surface warships could quickly sink them; but another incident, similar
+to that which opened the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese War,
+cannot be looked for in the naval engagements to come.
+
+For a fleet engaged in bombarding or blockading, one of the best methods
+of defence would be to lower the torpedo nets, not close round each
+vessel, but suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance from the
+bombarding or blockading fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a good
+defence during daylight, but neither of these methods are reliable. A
+submarine might be able to dive unobserved under, or past, the
+destroyers acting as pickets, and it is this chance which causes these
+under-water craft to be a source of constant anxiety.
+
+The torpedo-boat destroyer should prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.
+In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot vessels to look after their
+under-water opponents.
+
+It has been suggested that internal armour could be fitted to warships
+below the water-line, which would render the hulls able to withstand
+mine or torpedo explosions. At present this is practically impossible,
+as the great weight of this additional armour, combined with the
+ever-increasing size of guns and weight of above-water protection, would
+necessitate a vessel of such enormous displacement as to be quite
+impossible, if the important factor—high speed—has also to be
+maintained.
+
+The defence of harbours against submarines is a problem which does not
+present nearly so many difficulties as the defence of moving ships.
+Portsmouth, for example, is closed by means of a submarine boom-defence,
+which is stretched across the mouth of the harbour. The entrance to the
+River Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal) is effectively closed
+to British submarines by boom-defences, mines, and submerged wire
+entanglements. Narrow waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, can be
+closed by the laying of contact-mines, and even broader seas can be made
+dangerous to submarines by the same method. An example of this is
+afforded by the laying of a British mine-field somewhere between the
+Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to prevent German submarines from
+penetrating into the English Channel.
+
+There are so many reliable means of defending harbours and narrow
+waterways against submarines that it is unnecessary to say anything
+further here. But to protect moving ships at sea, under all conditions,
+certainly presents a most profound puzzle.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                         THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO
+
+
+The submarine torpedo has become one of the principal naval arms. Not
+only does it supply the chief offensive power of the submarine, the
+torpedo-boat and the destroyer, but it is also carried as a separate
+arm, with a special highly-trained crew, by almost every warship afloat.
+At the beginning of hostilities the Naval Powers engaged owned
+considerably over 80,000 of these weapons, and _one_ factory in England
+alone can make them at the rate of two a day. During the first few weeks
+of the _Great War_ the torpedo was responsible for the sinking of
+warships to the value of over one million sterling. Had the German Fleet
+been on the high seas instead of in harbour and protected from torpedo
+raids by carefully-prepared submarine defences, there is little doubt
+but what several more of the enemy’s ships would have been sunk by this
+weapon. The fact that at first the British light cruisers suffered
+rather heavily—though in total loss of ships and men less than the
+German Navy—does not point to any advantage derived either from the type
+of torpedo used or from skill in this mode of warfare possessed by the
+Germans, but clearly to the timidity of the German main fleet, which was
+at the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn from the zone of war and
+placed behind fortifications, where it was safe from torpedo attack. The
+British Fleet, true to the policy of “attack and not defence,” began
+operations the moment war was declared, with results so brilliantly
+successful, and of such far-reaching and world-wide importance, that
+enumeration is well-nigh impossible. But while all these operations were
+in progress the British Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo attack
+by any hostile submarines or fast surface craft which might succeed in
+getting past the cordon of protecting destroyers, while the German Fleet
+was safe, but ignominiously impotent. That the naval losses of Great
+Britain, with all her fleets at sea, have not been far greater than they
+have is in itself a victory of the greatest magnitude—a victory due
+entirely to consummate naval skill.
+
+The modern torpedo varies in length from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to
+half a ton. It has an extreme range of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼
+miles. There are three types of torpedoes in use by the fleets at war.
+The British use the _Whitehead Torpedo_, the French the Whitehead and
+the _Schneider_, the Russians and the Japanese use the Whitehead; the
+Germans have a type of their own, known as the _Schwartzkopf_, and the
+Austrian arm is principally the Whitehead. All these types are alike in
+their essential features, and therefore need not be described
+separately.
+
+The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is propelled by compressed
+air stored in that section of the weapon known as the _air-chamber_ (see
+diagram). The air on being released is heated and expanded in a tiny
+three or four-cylinder engine which operates twin screws, moving
+“clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” The “war-head” contains about 200
+pounds of wet gun-cotton which is exploded on the torpedo striking an
+object. The essential features of the Whitehead torpedo are shown in the
+diagram.[9]
+
+This torpedo maintains a speed of 42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for
+2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, and 28 knots for 4,000 yards.
+Thus, if discharged at a distance of half a mile it reaches its object
+in about 45 seconds.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead torpedo. _A._ Pistol,
+ detonator, primer, which causes the explosion of “B” when the torpedo
+ strikes an object. _B._ Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton.
+ (The “war-head” is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)
+ _C._ Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of approximately
+ 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The chamber is tested to stand a
+ pressure of 1700 lbs. per square inch. _D._ Balance chamber, containing
+ mechanism for regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo
+ is adjusted to run. _E._ Engine-room, containing propelling machinery
+ (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). _F._ Buoyancy chamber—a practically
+ empty chamber—to give the necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. _G._
+ Gyroscope. An instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo
+ from the line of fire. _H._ Rudders, and mechanism for operating. _I._
+ Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”
+
+]
+
+Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into the sea from surface or submerged
+tubes, and on striking the water are propelled by their own engines in
+an absolutely straight course towards the target. The exact mechanism of
+the submerged tube—which is used in surface warships as well as in
+submarines—is a naval secret. When fired from a surface tube the torpedo
+sinks immediately to a depth of about 10 to 14 feet, and maintains this
+depth until it strikes its object. When fired from a submerged tube it
+rises—if necessary—to the same level. A torpedo always proceeds towards
+its object of attack at a depth of a few feet below the surface. This,
+combined with speed, renders it almost impossible to destroy an
+approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So marvellous is the mechanism of these
+little weapons that in anything like favourable circumstances they may
+be _depended upon_, if well aimed, to strike within a yard or two of the
+spot aimed at. This accuracy is due almost entirely to the gyroscope,
+which, briefly described, is a rotating wheel automatically controlling
+the torpedo’s course.
+
+Although for many years torpedoes have been carried by nearly all types
+of service warships, none of them were really ideal for this kind of
+warfare. A new field for the torpedo was, however, opened out by the
+introduction of the submarine boat. In order to be effective the torpedo
+must be discharged from a distance under 4,000 yards—preferably from a
+point less than half this distance from the object of attack. This means
+that the vessel carrying the torpedo would have to get within a mile, or
+at least a mile and a-half, of her object of attack before discharging a
+torpedo. For a surface vessel to accomplish this in the face of a heavy
+cannonade from quick-firing guns would be extremely risky. To make a
+quick rush to close quarters, if possible, by several vessels from
+different points, was the only chance of delivering a successful torpedo
+attack on a hostile warship; unless, of course, she was favoured by fog
+or darkness _at the right moment_—favourable conditions which would
+seldom obtain in actual warfare. Again, every increase in the speed of
+the big surface warship rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat
+and destroyer more difficult because in the event of a threatened attack
+the larger vessel would make use of her speed to keep out of torpedo
+range while her powerful guns were repelling the attacking torpedo-boat.
+
+The _hour_ of the torpedo came with the _perfection_ of the
+submarine. All the conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were
+fulfilled—_invisibility_ rendering daylight attacks possible;
+_almost perfect immunity from gun-fire_ enabling the torpedo to be
+discharged at closer range; _submerged discharge_ removing the
+likelihood of the weapon being exploded by accurate gun-fire before
+being discharged; _speed on the surface_ enabling the “carrying”
+vessel to manœuvre for position; _moderate speed when submerged_
+enabling an attack under all reasonably tactical conditions; and
+_comparatively large displacement_ giving good cruising qualities,
+wide range of action, and enabling a large number of torpedoes and
+tubes being carried.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 9:
+
+  “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Francis Griffiths.)
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+                            SUBMARINE MINES
+
+
+If the Russo-Japanese war was the first to fully demonstrate the value
+of the explosive mine, the Great European Conflict has certainly brought
+this weapon to the forefront in the rapidly growing science of submarine
+warfare. During the first few weeks of the naval fighting several
+warships, beginning with H.M.S. _Amphion_, and many merchant vessels
+representing millions of pounds sterling, were destroyed by these
+weapons. Had it not been for the foresight of the British Admiralty in
+providing a very large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by seaplanes, there
+can be no doubt but what the shipping of all countries—neutrals and
+belligerents alike—would have suffered far greater losses.
+
+[Illustration: LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.
+
+  These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.
+]
+
+The indiscriminate scattering of mines across the trade routes, as
+carried on by Germany immediately on the outbreak of war, and before
+hardly any of the ships at sea belonging to neutral countries could be
+warned to avoid the zone of operations, has never before been so
+ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised power.
+
+The system of defence consists of the mooring of these mines in such
+positions as to make it almost impossible for hostile ships to pass
+without either striking or coming within the destructive zone of one or
+more of them. What are known as _floating mines_ are those set adrift to
+be washed about by the tide. They explode immediately on being struck by
+a passing vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate between friend and
+foe. The systems of destroying hostile mine-fields consist of
+_counter-mining_, or placing other mines in the enemy’s field and
+destroying it by their explosion, and by _sweeping_. The latter method
+is the one mostly employed in modern warfare. The boats taking part in
+the _sweep_ place themselves one on each side of the mine-field, and
+between them hangs a long wire rope, weighted in the centre to keep it
+well submerged. They then move forward, sweeping the mines to the
+surface or exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, very dangerous but
+highly necessary work.
+
+There are two kinds of submarine mines, one is designed to explode on
+being struck by a passing vessel, and is called a _contact mine_, and
+the other is fired from the shore by an electric current, and is known
+as an _observation mine_. The explosive principally used is wet
+gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only to the safety with which they can
+be stored and manipulated, but also to the fact that they seldom explode
+in sympathy with neighbouring mines, requiring to be actually fired. The
+importance of this will be more fully realised when it is remembered
+that in warfare it is often necessary to explode certain mines over
+which hostile ships are endeavouring to pass, while leaving others in
+fairly close proximity intact, ready to repel a second invasion or to
+destroy ships nearer to them. The actual explosion is caused by an
+electric current, either from the shore or from a battery in the mine
+itself, causing the detonation of fulminate of mercury in conjunction
+with a small priming charge of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid in a
+series, connected to a battery on the sea-bed in the centre of the line
+of defence.
+
+The _observation mine_ is mostly used for defending the approaches to
+harbours, as an observer on shore can watch the movements of hostile
+warships and explode each mine when the vessel passes over it. _Contact
+mines_, on the other hand, are used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely
+to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed by means of a cable and heavy
+weight, and are allowed to float a few feet below the surface. They
+explode immediately on contact. At times an unscrupulous or demoralised
+enemy will simply throw a number of these mines overboard and allow them
+to float at the mercy of wind and tide. They then become a terrible
+danger to the shipping of all nations, as once they are left unwatched
+it is extremely difficult to tell with any degree of certainty where
+they will eventually proclaim their presence by devastating explosions.
+Happily for the whole seafaring world, this method is seldom resorted
+to, as mines set adrift in this way become a danger to both friend and
+foe. In the Russo-Japanese war several ships were destroyed by their own
+mines.
+
+There are many different kinds of submarine mines, both of the
+observation and the contact type. Some are spherical in shape and others
+cylindrical. Some are moored close down to the sea-bed with a very heavy
+explosive charge (200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have a small buoyant
+globe floating above them, which, when struck, fires the mine below.
+Others, known as secret-mines, are kept continually moored in the
+waterways leading to important naval harbours, and are only allowed to
+rise sufficiently high from the sea-bed to be struck by passing vessels
+in times of emergency. The type most generally used is, however, the
+ordinary _offensive contact mine_, which contains a powerful explosive
+charge and is anchored in the path of hostile warships. These mines are
+usually automatically sown in large numbers over a wide area of sea by
+the mine-laying fleets.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                           MINE-LAYING FLEETS
+
+
+The _regular_ mine-laying fleets of the powers at war are composed of
+the following vessels, all of which are fitted with special apparatus
+for the work. Submarine mines can, however, be laid by any vessel, and
+it is therefore almost impossible to say exactly what ships are engaged
+in this work. Both Germany and Austria have converted a large number of
+their merchantmen into mine-layers. England, in reply, has converted a
+large number of small steamers into _mine-sweepers_. Russia is a strong
+believer in explosive mines, and has strewn the gulfs of Finland and
+Riga with them. Japan, being on the offensive, is employing more
+mine-sweepers than layers. France has an elaborate system of submarine
+mine defence for all her important harbours, and maintains a small fleet
+at each base, known as the “defence mobile.” These vessels are all
+capable of both mine-laying and sweeping.
+
+The submarine mine is primarily the defence of the weaker naval power,
+and therefore a fleet acting on the defensive, either temporarily or
+permanently, requires more mine-layers than mine-sweepers, but the
+reverse is naturally the case with a fleet acting on the offensive.
+Although this may be taken as a general rule, it does not imply that a
+strong naval power like Great Britain, whose policy is attack and not
+defence, needs no mines or mine-layers. On the contrary, the laying of
+_counter_ mines is one of the ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;
+and even the strongest fleet cannot guard every portion of a long coast
+line with many harbours exposed to attack. The judicious laying of
+mine-fields will often prevent raids by hostile submarines and
+torpedo-boats; and will limit the theatre of operations, as was done by
+the British Navy in the southern portion of the North Sea in October,
+1914. The axiom that a really strong navy needs to be strong in _every_
+branch, therefore holds good in this, as in all other respects.
+
+
+                          MINE-LAYING FLEETS.
+
+
+                             GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+ _Apollo._  _Thetis._  _Andromache._  _Latona._  _Naiad._  _Intrepid._
+                             _Iphigenia._
+
+These are all second class cruisers of from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built
+about 1891‒2, which have been converted into mine-layers. They are
+equipped with a very large number of submarine explosive mines, which
+can be automatically lowered into the water as the vessels steam along.
+Their speed is about 15 knots, and their armament consists of four
+4·7-inch quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 150 officers and
+men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+               THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. _IPHIGENIA_.
+
+            The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.
+
+]
+
+
+                                GERMANY.
+
+  _Pelikan_ (1890).  _Nautilus_ (1906).  _Albatross_ (1907).  _Arkona_
+                                (1903).
+
+All these vessels, with the exception of the _Arkona_, which was a
+protected cruiser, have been specially built for mine-laying work. Their
+displacement is about 2,000 tons. The _Pelikan_ has a speed of 15 knots,
+the _Albatross_ and _Nautilus_ of 20 knots, and the _Arkona_ of 21 ½
+knots. They are all fitted with special gear for dropping the large
+number of mines carried, and their armament consists of from four to
+eight 21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 200 officers
+and men.
+
+
+                                AUSTRIA.
+
+The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses only one regular mine-laying
+warship—the _Chamaleon_, which was being completed when war was
+declared. She is a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, with a speed of 20
+knots. Her mine-launching gear is of the most modern and efficient type,
+and she is armed with several quick-firing guns.
+
+Since the beginning of hostilities Austria has converted several old
+warships and merchantmen into mine-layers.
+
+
+                           FRANCE AND RUSSIA.
+
+Neither of these powers possess proper mine-laying vessels, but on the
+outbreak of war several old warships and small merchant steamers were
+used for that purpose.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+                          MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS
+
+
+For clearing away the mines dropped by an enemy special vessels are
+employed. Each vessel is fitted on both sides with a curious contrivance
+known as the “picking-up gear.” This apparatus is lowered into the
+water, and “picks up” any mines which may lie in the path of an
+on-coming fleet. When a mine-field is discovered by either destroyers or
+seaplanes these vessels are immediately dispatched to destroy it; and
+they are aided, in the case of the British Navy, by a large flotilla of
+steam trawlers. Many of these auxiliary vessels are not fitted with the
+_picking-up gear_, but go to work in pairs. Two vessels, connected
+together by a long wire rope weighted in the centre to keep it
+submerged, range themselves on each side of a mine-field, and by
+steaming ahead in a parallel line sweep up the mines floating between
+them. This process can be carried on simultaneously by a large number of
+trawlers, covering a very wide area of sea. In the meantime the attached
+destroyers and seaplanes can be searching for new fields. It often
+happens during sweeping operations that mines are brought into contact
+with each other and violent explosions occur. Sometimes the vessels
+engaged in this hazardous work will themselves strike one of the mines,
+but it is more often the _searching_ flotillas which meet with sudden
+disaster in this way. Fully equipped mine-sweepers usually precede a
+fleet of battleships and big cruisers through dangerous and narrow seas,
+within the likely zone of hostile mines.
+
+The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet comprises the following vessels:—_Circe_
+(810 tons), _Jason_ (810 tons), _Speedy_ (810 tons), _Leda_ (810 tons),
+_Gossamer_ (735 tons), _Seagull_ (735 tons), _Skipjack_ (735 tons), and
+_Speedwell_ (735 tons).
+
+These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats which have been
+specially fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. There is also a
+large flotilla of steam fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these vessels
+were purchased by the Admiralty before the war, and were also equipped
+for mine-sweeping; but many others were, by special arrangement, handed
+over to the Navy on the outbreak of war. The whole of the mine-sweeping
+fleet is manned by a special section of the Royal Naval Reserve, known
+as the “Trawler Section,” which consists of about 142 _skippers_ and
+1,136 men. This is, of course, in addition to the several thousand naval
+sailors employed on the regular mine-sweepers, named above, and also to
+those employed on the large number of additional small steamers taken
+over for this work by the Admiralty at the commencement of hostilities.
+It is estimated that the task of keeping the North Sea clear of mines
+during the first four weeks of the Great War required over 100 vessels
+and 5,000 sailors, in addition to the usual destroyer and submarine
+patrols with their crews, and also to the seaplanes with their pilots
+and observers.
+
+Almost any steamship can be quickly converted into an effective
+mine-sweeper, and for this reason it is impossible to give here more
+than the very briefest information concerning the vessels employed in
+these operations by the other Naval Powers at war. Russia had fifteen
+special mine-sweeping vessels building when war broke out; but,
+doubtless, many small merchant ships have since been used for this
+purpose. France employed a number of mine-sweepers in the Adriatic; and
+Japan used some in clearing the approaches to Tsing-tau. Germany and
+Austria, of course, did not need many vessels of this kind, as the
+Allied Navies laid comparatively few mines and German oversea commerce
+ceased to exist almost as soon as war was declared. It was in the North
+Sea, during the first phase of the naval war, that the value of a big
+British mine-sweeping fleet made itself so wonderfully apparent.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+       COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR
+
+
+Tempered and tried in the forge of war the submarine has at last been
+lifted from the experimental stage of naval construction to the
+fore-front of fleets in being. For over twenty years naval experts,
+marine engineers and scientists have been wrestling with the vast and
+complex problems of submarine construction, navigation and warfare, and
+have, at a cost of many lives and many millions sterling, produced
+submersible warships of steadily increasing size and power, until to-day
+264 of these vessels, of over a dozen different and more or less secret
+designs, with displacements ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in the
+fighting line of the Fleets at war. Thousands of sailors have been
+trained to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, guns, engines, and even
+the air to breath, have been adapted for submarine work. A comparison,
+therefore, of the strength and fighting power of the submarine fleets
+engaged for the first time in this great struggle for the mastery of the
+seas is of more than passing interest.
+
+
+                             BRITISH NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles,     6
+    speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns:
+    (nearly completed)
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed      19
+    16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed   8
+    16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed  37
+    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        70
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 10
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7    8
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    18
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in British Flotillas                      88
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that six vessels of the sea-going “F”
+class have not yet taken their place in the active flotillas; and that
+eight vessels of the “E” class were on duty on foreign stations when war
+commenced.
+
+
+                              FRENCH NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (_Diane_ class, _Bellone_ class, and  7
+    _Gustave Zede_ class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10
+    knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns:
+    (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Clorinde_ class), range 3,500 miles, 10
+    speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: _Mariotte_, _Archimède_,      4
+    _Charles Brun_, and _Admiral Bourgeoise_), range 3,000‒3,500
+    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 600 tons (_Fresnel_ class), range 2,000 miles,      22
+    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Pluviôse_ class), range 2,500 miles, 11
+    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        54
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 450 tons (_Circe_ class), range 1,000 miles, speed   2
+    11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in
+    holders: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400 tons (_Emeraude_ class), range 1,000 miles,      6
+    speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Argonaute_ and _Aigrette_ class),     3
+    range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo
+    tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    11
+
+
+                        HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Triton_ class, _Française_ class,     9
+    and _Lutin_ class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots,
+    armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 50‒100 tons (_Naiade_ class), range 100 miles,      20
+    speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Total Harbour Defence Submarines                                  29
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in French Flotillas                       94
+
+
+                             RUSSIAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (_Tigr_ class), no particulars:      12
+    (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Kaschalot_ class), range 3,000        7
+    miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f.
+    gun: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (_Alligator_ class), range 3,000        4
+    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Akula_ class), range 2,500 miles,     1
+    speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (_Karp_ class), range 1,000 miles,      2
+    speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (_Makrel_ class), range 800‒1,000 miles,    2
+    speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        28
+
+
+                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Minoga_ class, _Lossos_ class,       19
+    _Sig_, _Sterliad_ class, _Som_ class, _Ostr_ class, and _Graf
+    Cheremetieve_ class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on
+    surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and
+    holders: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    19
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas                      47
+
+
+                             JAPANESE NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed      6
+    18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed  6
+    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8   2
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        14
+
+
+                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed      2
+    10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7  5
+    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                     7
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas                     21
+
+
+                              GERMAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37        13
+    completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4
+    torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9  4
+    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed   2
+    13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8  10
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed    7
+    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        36
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7      1
+    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in German Flotillas                       37
+
+
+                             AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9   5
+    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns:
+    (completing—delivery doubtful)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed     2
+    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8    2
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8  2
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas                      6
+
+When war commenced all the vessels of the German Flotillas (30 to 37)
+were concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. The Austrian Flotilla of
+six vessels was in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in home waters 74
+submarines and 14 others on duty in the outer seas. France had several
+of the 92 vessels composing her powerful flotillas at her oversea
+colonial naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines in the Baltic, 11 in the
+Black Sea, and 12 in the Far East. The Japanese Flotilla (17) was
+concentrated in Japanese waters.
+
+
+  _Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading._
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+ Printed           Corrected                 Page
+ guns              guns.             Frontispiece and 2 q.-f. guns.
+ gunfire           gun-fire                    30 attacked by gun-fire
+ ),                ).                          37 E. B. Feilmann).
+ Submarines        Submarines:                 61 Submarines: B.3, B.4,
+ destroyers·       destroyers.                 74 and destroyers.
+ BUILDING:         BUILDING.                   75 SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+ topedo-boats      torpedo-boats.             108 torpedo-boats.
+ and               AND                        113 U.19 AND U.20.
+ _eompleted_       _completed_                118 were being _completed_
+ manœvring         manœuvering                125 with manœuvering
+ Fig. 1            FIG. 1                     133 FIG. 1 represents a
+ Fig. 2            FIG. 2                     135 FIG. 2 shows the
+ manœuvre          manœuvre,                  143 method, or manœuvre,
+ “anti-clockwise.’ “anti-clockwise.”          164 and “anti-clockwise.”
+ oncoming          on-coming                  179 path of an on-coming
+
+On the Title Page, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S
+NAVIES”.
+
+The image for RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. appeared after Page 160
+in the digitized source.
+
+Under the SEA-GOING VESSELS heading on Page 190, “Total Sea-going
+Submarines | 36” was added for consistency.
+
+Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the
+War, by Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 51347 ***
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-<pre>

-

-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by 

-Charles William Domville-Fife

-

-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most

-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions

-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of

-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at

-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have

-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

-

-Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War

-

-Author: Charles William Domville-Fife

-

-Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347]

-

-Language: English

-

-Character set encoding: UTF-8

-

-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR ***

-

-

-

-

-Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online

-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This

-file was produced from images generously made available

-by The Internet Archive)

-

-

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-

-

-</pre>

-

-

-<div class='tnotes covernote'>

-

-<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>

-

-</div>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c001' />

-</div>

-<div>

-  <h1 class='c002' title='Submarines, Mines and torpedoes in the War'></h1>

-</div>

-

-<div class='c003'></div>

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='British Submarine E.2' />

- <div>

-<p class='c005'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-  <div class='nf-center'>

-    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c006'>

-    <div>Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns<a id='tnfrontis'></a>.</div>

-    <div class='c001'>There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c001' />

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c007'>

-    <div><span class='c008'>SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR</span></div>

-    <div class='c009'>BY</div>

-    <div class='c001'><span class='c010'>CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE</span></div>

-    <div class='c001'>AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”<a id='tntitle'></a>,</div>

-    <div>“SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.</div>

-    <div class='c011'><span class='c012'>ILLUSTRATED</span></div>

-    <div class='c011'><span class='c010'>HODDER AND STOUGHTON</span></div>

-    <div class='c001'><span class='c012'>LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO</span></div>

-    <div class='c013'>MCMXIV</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c001' />

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>

-  <h2 class='c014'>PREFACE</h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c015'>Warfare has become so largely a matter

-of science that in order to arrive at an

-intelligent understanding of the <i>naval

-situation</i> or of the <i>military campaigns</i> in

-the Great European War, a knowledge

-of the scientific factors contributing to

-victory or defeat is essential. And in

-this volume it has been my aim not only

-to review the actual fighting underseas,

-but also to present a compendium of

-information relative to the submarine

-fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers

-engaged; which I venture to hope will

-prove of present interest on account of

-the prominent part played by the under-water

-fighting ships and appliances, and

-of permanent historic value as being the

-first work to describe the vast preparations

-and curious events leading to the new

-“Submarine Phase” in naval warfare.</p>

-

-<div class='c016'>C. W. D-F.</div>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c001' />

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>

-  <h2 class='c014'>CONTENTS</h2>

-</div>

-

-<table class='table0' summary=''>

-  <tr>

-    <th class='c017'></th>

-    <th class='c018'>PAGE</th>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#intro'>9</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch1'>40</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch2'>60</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch3'>79</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch4'>94</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch5'>104</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch6'>108</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>CHAPTER VII</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch7'>118</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#flotillas'>123</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch8'>124</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch9'>146</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER X</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch10'>160</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINE MINES</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch11'>168</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch12'>174</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch13'>179</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</td>

-    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch14'>184</a></td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c001' />

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>

-  <h2 id='intro' class='c014'>INTRODUCTION <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>In the mist of war which envelops over

-half the entire world, no less than 264

-underwater fighting ships are engaged.

-They form the submarine fleets of

-England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany

-and Austria; and the highly-trained

-crews of these modern additions to the

-fighting navies comprise nearly 20,000

-men. But the conduct of submarine warfare

-on the grand scale requires far more

-than flotillas of submergible warships

-and their daring crews. This new branch

-of naval science is ever widening in its

-scope, its means of offence, and in its

-attendant ramifications. Every important

-naval base has its curious submarine

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>floating docks, ready for crippled members

-of its attached flotilla; every naval construction

-department has its corps of

-submarine experts; each of the 1,500

-surface warships engaged in this titanic

-struggle for the dominion of Europe and

-the mastery of the seas carries the means

-for delivering submarine attacks in its

-torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging

-tubes. The oceans in the

-theatres of war have been strewn with

-German and Austrian mines; then they

-have been either counter-mined or swept

-clear and mined again. British seaplanes,

-with specially trained observers,

-are continually searching from high in

-the air for the <i>dark patches in the semi-transparent

-sea-green</i> which denote the

-presence of mines and submarines.

-Within signal-range or wireless call of

-the aërial scouts and their attendant ships

-are destroyer flotillas to give battle to

-the hostile submarines, while hundreds of

-trawlers and small steamers, fitted with

-special apparatus, are continually sweeping

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>up the hundreds of submarine mines laid

-by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted

-to enable them to sow like seeds over the

-pathways of the sea these deadly perils

-to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements

-in conjunction with boom-defences

-and observation and contact submarine

-mines protect the seaward approaches to

-harbours in the same way as similar

-appliances are used to protect the

-approaches to land fortifications; and

-every harbour, waterway and channel of

-strategic importance is protected by

-elaborate submarine mine defences. All

-this is part of the new warfare underseas—that

-science which is daily rendering

-hazardous the life of the greatest battleship

-and the smallest merchantman afloat

-in the zone of war.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Before placing in review order the vast

-preparations made for submarine attack

-and defence in the years which preceded

-the outbreak of war and describing in

-detail the powerful submarine fleets

-engaged, it is necessary to make clear

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>to the reader the wonderful change which

-this new mode of attack has made in all

-branches of naval warfare and its influence

-on sea power. As indicative of

-this change we have only to survey <i>in

-their submarine aspect</i> the naval operations

-in the opening phase of this, the

-greatest war in history.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In the domain of naval strategy we

-find reflected the altered conditions caused

-by these invisible arms. Every battle

-on land and sea teaches its lesson of

-concealment and sudden stealthy attack;

-and even as the huge siege guns and

-devastating artillery fire of the land

-forces is causing the extension of the

-battle-front and the rapid burrowing

-under earth or entrenching of positions

-dearly won or with difficulty retained—“approximating

-to siege warfare”—so

-are the powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval

-guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. and

-1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with

-the rapidity and accuracy of the modern

-warship’s secondary armament, necessitating

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the reduction in numbers of the

-big surface ships of the opposing fleets

-by frequent submarine and torpedo

-attacks prior to the decisive engagements

-between the battle fleets. Hence

-we find, in the opening phase of the

-naval war, the German and Austrian

-fleets, inferior in numbers and gun

-power, skulking behind fortifications and

-waiting for their submarine and surface

-torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in conjunction

-with the hundreds of submerged

-mines strewn over the North Sea, Baltic,

-Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the

-number and power of the British, French,

-Russian and Japanese fleets before the

-decisive actions are fought; and in order

-that these tactics might be frustrated, and

-the big British ships, as well as those

-of her allies, costing several millions

-sterling each, should not be exposed

-to these grave risks when no good

-could result, they have been compelled

-to delay initiative, and meanwhile all

-their operations had to be screened by

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and

-destroyer types, while they waited within

-call should the German Battle Fleet—in

-the case of the North Sea—dare to

-come out to fight. The British submarines

-of the large sea-going type were

-in the meantime employed in watching

-the Frisian coast with the object of

-attacking any of the enemy’s ships which

-ventured from behind the elaborate coast

-fortifications. Not content with this <i>rôle</i>,

-however, several British submarines made

-their way unseen through the dangerous

-waters of the Heligoland Bight and

-succeeded in getting within reconnoitering

-distance of the German submerged

-harbour defences, behind which lurk their

-big ships.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>With what degree of success this new

-opening or <i>submarine phase</i> in naval

-warfare has been attended is shown by

-the sinking, during the first few weeks

-of the war, of the British cruiser

-<i>Amphion</i>, a vessel of 3,440 tons displacement,

-completed in 1912, and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>carrying ten 4-inch guns, with a loss of

-131 men, by contact with a German

-mine; the destruction of the German

-submarine U.15 by the British cruiser

-<i>Birmingham</i>; the sinking of an Austrian

-torpedo-boat by a mine off Pola; the

-torpedoing of H.M.S. <i>Pathfinder</i>, a

-fleet scout of about 3,000 tons displacement,

-completed in 1905‒6, by a

-German submarine; the destruction of

-the Wilson liner <i>Runo</i> by a mine; the

-sinking of the German cruiser <i>Hela</i>, a

-vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built

-in 1896, by the British submarine E 9,

-and the torpedoing of the British

-armoured cruisers <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Hogue</i> and

-<i>Cressy</i>—vessels of 12,000 tons displacement,

-carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve

-6-inch guns besides twelve 12-pounder

-quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by

-German submarines concealed behind

-a trawler engaged in laying mines,

-over which the Dutch flag had been

-hoisted as a blind.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>This is in addition to the lamentable

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>destruction of much life and property

-belonging to neutral powers caused by

-the laying of German floating mines on

-the trade-routes.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>To the Allies this <i>submarine phase</i>

-did not come unexpected. The British

-Naval yards in conjunction with the big

-shipbuilding and engineering firms, such

-as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;

-Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth

-and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the

-Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd.,

-Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and

-Co. Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’

-Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., as

-well as many other firms and individual

-submarine experts had been engaged for

-many years in solving one after another

-the problems continually arising in the

-practical application of all forms of

-submarine warfare. The first British

-naval submarines were launched in

-1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at

-Barrow, and the subsequent growth of

-our submarine flotillas has been rapid

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>both in number of vessels and in size

-and armament. The British submarine

-fleet now numbers 82 vessels. The

-original boats from which the British

-type has since been evolved were built

-from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland,

-an American inventor.</p>

-

-<div  class='figcenter id001'>

-<img src='images/016.jpg' alt='North Sea Coastlines' class='ig001' />

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>To France belongs the honour of being

-the first naval power to adopt the submarine

-torpedo-boat as a vessel of war;

-and the first vessel, the <i>Gymnôte</i>, was

-launched in 1888, but it was not until

-1893 that the Republic commenced the

-construction of her now powerful submarine

-flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The first Russian submarine was

-launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and

-since that date the Russian flotilla has

-steadily increased until it now numbers

-37 vessels.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Japan commenced the construction of

-what is now a powerful and up-to-date

-flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition

-of a British-Holland boat in 1904.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Turning to Germany we find at first

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>a great reluctance on the part of the

-Ministry of Marine to provide for the

-construction of submarines, but in 1905‒6

-this initial hesitation was overcome and

-the two vessels U.1 and U.2 were

-launched. Since then the belief in a

-powerful submarine flotilla steadily grew

-until at the moment when war was

-declared Germany possessed no less than

-30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient

-type. The Austro-Hungarian Navy did

-not adopt submarines as units of the

-Fleet until 1909, and now possess only

-six small vessels.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>From this brief <i>resumé</i> of the growth

-of the submarine fleets of the six great

-naval Powers at war, it will be seen that

-in point of numbers as well as in priority,

-bringing with it practical experience,

-Great Britain and France have a very

-appreciable superiority. It must, however,

-be left for succeeding chapters to

-describe in detail the steady growth and

-present size and capabilities of the

-submarine fleets at war.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese

-war were not lost on the

-British Admiralty, and special methods

-had been prepared to deal with submarine

-attack in its various forms.

-Having in mind the destruction caused

-to both Russian and Japanese warships

-by submarine mines—especially those

-of the “offensive contact” type, which

-are moored to the bottom, float just

-under the surface and explode immediately

-on contact; and in the Russo-Japanese

-War were responsible for

-the sinking of the Japanese battleships

-<i>Hatsuse</i> and <i>Yashima</i> as well

-as the Russian battleship <i>Petropavlovsk</i>

-and the cruiser <i>Boyarin</i>—the

-British Admiralty foresaw the danger to

-which both warships and merchantmen

-would be exposed in time of war if the

-seas strewn with these mines could not

-be quickly cleared, and a new type of

-auxiliary came into being. This was the

-mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old

-torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>the work. In addition to these, however,

-the Admiralty purchased a considerable

-number of steam fishing trawlers, and

-fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances,

-and made arrangements for a large fleet

-of similar vessels to be placed at the disposal

-of the navy in the event of war.

-In order to man this new mine-sweeping

-fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak

-of war, a new section of the Royal

-Naval Reserve was created in 1911.

-This is known as the “Trawler Section,”

-and consists of 142 <i>skippers</i> and 1,136

-men taken from the fishing fleet.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Realizing the value of the submarine

-mine in certain cases, the British

-Admiralty went further and created a

-small mine-laying fleet from seven old

-second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks

-cleared and provided with rails for

-a large number of mines to be run down

-and slid over the stern into the water as

-the vessels steamed along, thus quickly

-laying a mine-field. But as the laying

-of mines, speaking generally, is a defensive

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>mode of warfare and the policy of

-the British Navy—owing to its supremacy—is

-attack and not defence, the

-mine-laying fleet is of second importance

-to the sweeping fleet, the work of which,

-although much augmented by additional

-small steamers pressed into service, was,

-during the first few weeks of the war,

-of a nature more arduous and dangerous

-than will ever be realised. Hundreds of

-German mines were swept up, and

-hundreds more were exploded by being

-dragged into contact with each other during

-the progress of sweeping operations.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>What the clearance of these vast fields

-of floating and anchored mines in the

-North Sea meant to the British Navy,

-engaged in blockading the German

-Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not

-only of England, France, Russia and

-Belgium, but also to that of the neutral

-countries, it is perhaps a little difficult to

-realize until one remembers that several

-hundred British and French warships

-were patrolling the North Sea and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities,

-there were hundreds of merchantmen

-homeward bound whose course lay across

-this mine-infested sea. Many of these

-vessels had on board not only valuable

-cargoes of food, raw material for manufacture

-and gold and silver bullion, but

-also officers and men returning from

-various parts of the world to rejoin their

-regiments. Again, the Expeditionary

-Force had to be transported across the

-Channel to France. This could not be

-attempted until a guarantee had been

-given by the Navy that the seas were

-clear of hostile warships, submarines and

-mines. The fleet blockading the

-Frisian coast had to be supplied with

-coal and fresh food; and last but by no

-means least it was of vital importance

-to the Allied Armies in the Field that

-the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to

-Antwerp, forming the rear and left-flank,

-should be accessible to friendly shipping.

-It is not difficult to realize what would

-have been the effect had thousands of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>these deadly German contact mines been

-allowed to float unhindered in these

-narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the

-magnificent effort made by thousands of

-seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers

-assisted by seaplanes, many vessels—some

-belonging to neutral powers and

-others to the enemy themselves—were

-destroyed before the seas could be effectively

-swept clear, the hostile mine-layers

-destroyed or chased into port and there

-blockaded with their cowardly fleet.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The torpedo has long been recognised

-as one of the most effective of naval

-arms. It is carried by every modern

-warship afloat, but it is essentially the

-arm of the submarine and of the small

-and fast surface vessel. For a torpedo

-attack to be successful it is absolutely

-necessary for the vessel carrying the

-weapon to get within about 1,000 yards

-of the object of attack. The difficulty

-of accomplishing this manœuvre with an

-enemy on the alert is easily apparent,

-but if the attacking vessel can creep up

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>to within torpedo range unobserved her

-chances of sinking the enemy are decidedly

-good, and it is the quality

-possessed by the submarine of making

-herself invisible by sinking beneath the

-surface and approaching her enemy

-“seeing but unseen” that makes this

-type of vessel the ideal torpedo-boat.

-But, like everything else, there are limits

-to its use, for a submarine, although it can

-navigate on the surface like an ordinary

-torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged

-attack at night owing to the periscopes,

-which are the “eyes” of these underwater

-fighting ships, being useless in the dark.

-When night covers the sea, however, the

-chances of the fast grey-painted surface

-torpedo-boat or destroyer being able to

-approach the enemy unseen are more

-than doubled, and in this way fleets

-become exposed to submarine torpedo

-attack by day and surface torpedo attack

-by night. Further, a submarine will often

-attack while a seaplane hovers over the

-enemy in order to draw attention. It

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>is this constant exposure to sudden

-and unseen submarine attack which is

-primarily responsible for the terrible

-nerve strain imposed on the crews of

-modern surface warships in time of war.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Owing to the ability of submarines to

-deliver stealthy attacks by day, naval

-tacticians have designated this type of

-craft “Daylight torpedo-boats,” but they

-are rapidly passing beyond the purely

-torpedo and coastal defensive stage and

-are taking on to themselves the <i>rôle</i> of

-the ocean cruiser. The size of these

-vessels has increased from 50 to 1,000

-tons displacement in ten years. They

-now carry not only a considerable

-number of the largest size torpedo but

-also quick-firing guns for repelling attacks

-by small surface vessels, and are capable

-of accompanying fleets to sea. The

-Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and

-A.E.2 both made the voyage from

-Barrow to Sydney under their own

-power and without convoy. The radius

-of action of the latest vessels both of the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>British and French Navies amounts to

-several thousand miles. In the case of

-the British “F” class the displacement

-has risen to 1,500 tons, the speed to 20

-knots and the armament to six torpedo

-tubes and four 12-pounder quick-firing

-guns, thus making them in every sense

-ocean cruisers capable of keeping the

-sea in almost any weather and possessing

-wide range of action and considerable

-offensive power. Hitherto British submarines,

-like the ordinary surface

-torpedo-boats, have been known by

-numbers only, but the latest vessels are

-to receive names which indicates the

-increase in size and importance of these

-craft. They may be termed the advance

-guards of the submarine battleships of

-the future.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The torpedo, which is the principal

-arm of the submarine boat, is itself a

-submarine projectile. After being discharged

-from the firing tube it sinks a

-short distance below the surface and is

-propelled by its own engines at a high

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>rate of speed in a straight line towards

-its object of attack. Great improvements

-have been made during the past

-ten years in the construction of these

-delicate weapons. The extreme effective

-range and speed has risen from 4,000

-yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45

-knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The

-“war-head” or front section of the

-torpedo contains a charge of about 200

-pounds of damp gun-cotton which is

-fired by a detonator on the torpedo

-striking an object. This very powerful

-explosive charge is capable of tearing

-open an enormous hole in the unprotected

-under-water skin of the surface

-warship. The type of weapon used in

-the British, French, Russian and

-Japanese Navies is the <i>Whitehead</i>

-torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The

-German Navy uses the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>

-torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is

-very similar to the Whitehead and is a

-very powerful weapon.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In the first phase of the naval war no

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>less than eight warships have been sunk

-by submarine torpedoes.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The activity of the British submarines

-<i>in the theatre of war</i>, from the beginning

-of hostilities, is admirably set forth in

-the following dispatch from Commodore

-Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the

-first dispatch in the history of naval

-warfare to describe in detail submarine

-attack and reconnaissance:—</p>

-

-<div class='c023'>H.M.S. <i>Maidstone</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>

-<div class='c023'><i>17th October, 1914</i>.</div>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’

-directions, I have the honour to

-report as follows upon the services performed

-by the Submarines since the

-commencement of hostilities:—</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Three hours after the outbreak of war,

-Submarines E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander

-Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander

-Francis H. H. Goodhart),

-proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a

-reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight.

-These two vessels returned with useful

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>information, and had the privilege of

-being the pioneers on a service which is

-attended by some risk.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“During the transportation of the Expeditionary

-Force the <i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i>

-and all the Submarines of the

-Eighth Submarine Flotilla occupied

-positions from which they could have

-attacked the High Sea Fleet, had it

-emerged to dispute the passage of our

-transports. This patrol was maintained

-day and night without relief, until the

-<i>personnel</i> of our Army had been transported

-and all chance of effective

-interference had disappeared.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“These Submarines have since been

-incessantly employed on the Enemy’s

-Coast in the Heligoland Bight and

-elsewhere, and have obtained much

-valuable information regarding the composition

-and movement of his patrols.

-They have occupied his waters and

-reconnoitred his anchorages, and, while

-so engaged, have been subjected to

-skilful and well executed anti-submarine

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>tactics; hunted for hours at a time by

-Torpedo Craft and attacked by <a id='tn031'></a>gun-fire

-and torpedoes.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At midnight on August 26th, I

-embarked in the <i>Lurcher</i>, and, in company

-with <i>Firedrake</i> and Submarines

-D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, and

-E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla,

-proceeded to take part in the operations

-in the Heligoland Bight arranged for

-August 28th. The Destroyers scouted

-for the Submarines until nightfall on

-the 27th, when the latter proceeded independently

-to take up various positions from

-which they could co-operate with the Destroyer

-Flotillas on the following morning.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At daylight on August 28th the

-<i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i> searched the

-area, through which the Battle Cruisers

-were to advance, for hostile Submarines,

-and then proceeded towards Heligoland

-in the wake of Submarines E.6, E.7,

-and E.8, which were exposing themselves

-with the object of inducing the

-enemy to chase them to the westward.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>“On approaching Heligoland, the

-visibility, which had been very good

-to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000

-yards, and this added considerably to

-the anxieties and responsibilities of the

-Commanding Officers of Submarines,

-who handled their vessels with coolness

-and judgment in an area which was

-necessarily occupied by friends as well as

-foes.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Low visibility and calm sea are the

-most unfavourable conditions under which

-Submarines can operate, and no opportunity

-occurred of closing with the

-Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo

-range.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W.

-Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, witnessed

-the sinking of the German

-Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 through

-his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser

-of the <i>Stettin</i> class close, and open fire

-on the British Destroyers which had

-lowered their boats to pick up the survivors,

-he proceeded to attack the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Cruiser, but she altered course before

-he could get within range. After

-covering the retirement of our Destroyers,

-which had had to abandon their

-boats, he returned to the latter, and

-embarked a Lieutenant and nine men

-of <i>Defender</i>, who had been left behind.

-The boats also contained two Officers

-and eight men of V.187, who were

-unwounded, and eighteen men who were

-badly wounded. As he could not embark

-the latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir

-left one of the Officers and six unwounded

-men to navigate the British

-boats to Heligoland. Before leaving he

-saw that they were provided with water,

-biscuit, and a compass. One German

-Officer and two men were made prisoners

-of war.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action

-in remaining on the surface in the

-vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility

-which would have placed his vessel within

-easy gun range of an enemy appearing

-out of the mist, was altogether admirable.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>“This enterprising and gallant Officer

-took part in the reconnaissance which

-supplied the information on which these

-operations were based, and I beg to

-submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander

-Talbot, the Commanding

-Officer of E.6, who exercised patience,

-judgment, and skill in a dangerous

-position, for the favourable consideration

-of Their Lordships.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander

-Max K. Horton) torpedoed

-and sank the German Light

-Cruiser <i>Hela</i> six miles South of Heligoland.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“A number of Destroyers were evidently

-called to the scene after E.9 had

-delivered her attack, and these hunted

-her for several hours.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“On September 14th, in accordance

-with his orders, Lieutenant-Commander

-Horton examined the outer anchorage

-of Heligoland, a service attended by

-considerable risk.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“On September 25th, Submarine E.6

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>(Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),

-while diving, fouled the moorings of a

-mine laid by the enemy. On rising to

-the surface she weighed the mine and

-sinker; the former was securely fixed

-between the hydroplane and its guard;

-fortunately, however, the horns of the

-mine were pointed outboard. The weight

-of the sinker made it a difficult and

-dangerous matter to lift the mine clear

-without exploding it. After half an

-hour’s patient work this was effected by

-Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman

-and Able Seaman Ernest

-Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235,

-and the released mine descended to its

-original depths.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander

-Max K. Horton), when

-patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and

-sank the enemy’s Destroyer S.126.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue

-tactics which, in connection with their

-shallow draft, make them exceedingly

-difficult to attack with torpedo, and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success

-was the result of much patient and

-skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising

-submarine officer, and I beg to submit

-his name for favourable consideration.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman,

-the Second in Command of E.9, is also

-deserving of credit.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Against an enemy whose capital

-vessels have never, and Light Cruisers

-have seldom, emerged from their fortified

-harbours, opportunities of delivering

-Submarine attacks have necessarily been

-few, and on one occasion only, prior to

-the 13th September, has one of our

-Submarines been within torpedo range

-of a Cruiser during daylight hours.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“During the exceptionally heavy westerly

-gales which prevailed between the

-14th and 21st September the position

-of the Submarines on a lee shore,

-within a few miles of the Enemy’s

-coast, was an unpleasant one.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“The short steep seas which accompany

-westerly gales in the Heligoland Bight

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>make it difficult to keep the conning

-tower hatches open. There was no rest

-to be obtained, and even when cruising

-at a depth of 60 feet, the Submarines

-were rolling considerably, and pumping—<i>i.e.</i>

-vertically moving about twenty

-feet.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“I submit that it was creditable to

-the Commanding Officers that they

-should have maintained their stations

-under such conditions.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Service in the Heligoland Bight is

-keenly sought after by the Commanding

-Officers of the Eighth Submarine

-Flotilla, and they have all shown daring

-and enterprise in the execution of their

-duties. These Officers have unanimously

-expressed to me their admiration of the

-cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers

-and men under their command. They

-are however, of the opinion that it is

-impossible to single out individuals when

-all have performed their duties so

-admirably, and in this I concur.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“The following Submarines have been

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>in contact with the enemy during these

-operations:—</p>

-

-<div class='in2'>

-

-  <dl class='dl_1'>

-    <dt>D.1</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>D.2</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>D.3</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>D.5</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>E.4</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>E.5</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>E.6</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).

-    </dd>

-    <dt>E.7</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann)<a id='tn038'></a>.

-    </dd>

-    <dt>E.9</dt>

-    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).

-    </dd>

-    </dl>

-

-</div>

-<div class='lg-container-l c025'>

-  <div class='linegroup'>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line in1'>I have the honour to be, Sir,</div>

-      <div class='line in5'>Your obedient servant,</div>

-      <div class='line in7'>(Signed) ROGER KEYES,</div>

-      <div class='line in19'>Commodore (S).”</div>

-    </div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>In conclusion, it must therefore be set

-on record that the opening phase in the

-greatest naval war in history has been

-one of submarine attack and counter-attack,

-mine-laying and destroying, warships

-and merchantmen sunk in a few

-minutes by submarine torpedoes and

-mines, with sharp engagements between

-the cruisers and destroyers acting in

-conjunction with the under-water craft.

-The much-vaunted German Fleet, like

-that of its ally Austria-Hungary, has

-not dared to show itself from behind

-the forts and carefully-screened anchorages

-of the naval bases, suffering rather

-the everlasting disgrace of having stood

-in cowardly idleness while the 5,000

-merchant ships it was built to protect

-hauled down the flag of the “Fatherland”

-and German maritime commerce

-was swept from the seas while the Allied

-fleets hold undisputed command of every

-ocean.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The First Lord of the British

-Admiralty has said that if the German

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>Fleet will not come out to fight it must

-be “dug out like rats in a hole.” This,

-then, may be the second phase in the

-naval war, and out in the grey mist of

-the North Sea, ready and eager for

-the work, lies the great battle fleets of

-England.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>

-  <h2 id='ch1' class='c014'>CHAPTER I <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo-boat is to most

-people a complete mystery, and before

-describing the composition and strength

-of the submarine fleets at war it may

-therefore be of interest to say something

-of the principal features common to all

-types of submarine craft.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><i>Method of Submergence</i></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>It may sound ridiculous, in face of the

-many accidents which have occurred, to

-say that one of the greatest difficulties

-is to make a submarine sink sufficiently

-quickly, and one of the easiest of

-operations to make her rise, and yet

-such is undeniably the case.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c028'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>It will be readily understood that

-any delay in disappearing beneath the

-surface when attacking would be a

-great danger to a submarine in action.

-For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat

-destroyers are scouring the

-sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered

-at daybreak by the submarines,

-which are waiting to attack the fleet behind,

-approaching at a speed of 30 knots

-an hour. A hurried dive beneath the

-surface is necessary if the waiting submarines

-would avoid detection, which

-would, in all probability, mean destruction

-by the quick-firing guns of the destroyers.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>When a submarine is travelling on the

-surface she is in what is technically called

-the <i>light condition</i>, that is to say, with her

-water ballast tanks empty, but when it is

-required to sink her so that only the tiny

-platform, or deck, and conning-tower are

-above the surface, water is let into these

-ballast tanks, and the additional weight

-causes her to sink into the sea until her

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span><i>back</i> is almost flush with the surface—this

-is known as the <i>awash condition</i>.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>It is not difficult to perceive that when

-travelling awash, a wave might at any

-moment roll along the tiny unprotected

-deck of the submarine, break over the

-mouth of the conning-tower, and descend

-like a waterspout into the interior. Were

-this to happen a terrible disaster might

-result, for it must be remembered that

-when travelling awash, a very little

-additional weight would cause the submarine

-to plunge beneath the surface.

-In order to obviate this risk it has

-become a rule that when proceeding

-with this small margin of buoyancy,

-the hatch covering the mouth of the

-conning-tower should be screwed down

-and the submarine hermetically closed,

-ready to sink.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>To many it may appear strange that

-total submergence is not accomplished

-by letting still more water into the

-ballast tanks, but entirely with the aid

-of the propellers and rudders. A submarine

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>has two, and sometimes three,

-pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary

-vertical ones to guide her to port or

-starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause

-her to dive and rise. Two additional

-<i>fins</i> are frequently placed on each side of

-the forepart of the vessel to assist the

-diving and rising.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In order to make the submarine dive

-beneath the surface, the horizontal

-rudders are deflected when the boat is

-proceeding at full speed. The action of

-the water against the rudders is such

-that the bows are forced down and the

-whole vessel slides under the surface.

-The principle is much the same as that

-of steering an ordinary surface vessel,

-where the force of the water against the

-rudder causes the vessel to swing to

-right or left.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>From this it will be seen that a submarine

-is only held below the surface

-by the action of her rudders on the

-passing water; should the propellers

-driving her along cease to revolve and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>the vessel slow down, she automatically

-rises to the surface because the rudders

-have no longer any effect.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Although the steering both on the

-vertical and horizontal plane is controlled

-by hand, it would be quite beyond the

-strength of a man to move the various

-rudders as required, so electric motors

-are installed to perform the actual work.

-In fact, almost everything in a submarine

-is operated by electricity.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In the earlier types of submarine

-boats, a considerable time was required

-to open the valves and allow sufficient

-water to enter the ballast tanks to make

-them sink to the awash condition. Some

-of the now obsolete French naval boats

-took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes

-to carry out this simple operation. The

-main reason for this was, that they

-were designed with too much surface

-buoyancy, that is to say, they rode too

-high in the water when floating in the

-light condition compared with the inadequate

-means then employed for the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>inlet of water into the ballast tanks, and

-were thus forced to let in an enormous

-quantity of water at a very slow rate

-before they settled down sufficiently to

-enable total submergence to be accomplished

-by the use of the horizontal fins

-and rudders. This great drawback has

-now been completely overcome, and the

-modern submarine can sink below the

-surface in about three minutes.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>When water is pumped into the ballast

-tanks in order to make the submarine

-settle down, the air which normally fills

-these tanks is compressed into a fraction

-of its proper space, and is therefore

-always exerting a downward pressure

-which increases as more water is pumped

-in. Therefore, when it is desired to

-bring the submarine to the surface again,

-all that is necessary is to open the

-valves and allow the compressed air to

-force the water out. It should, however,

-be remembered that there is really no

-need to “blow out” the ballast tanks

-in order to bring the submarine to the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>surface, for this can be much quicker

-accomplished by simply elevating the

-horizontal rudders; but in this case the

-submarine only rises just above the

-surface—to the awash condition—whereas

-if the tanks are emptied of water she

-rises to the light or cruising condition.

-This substantiates the assertion made

-at the beginning of this chapter—that it

-is far more difficult to make a submarine

-sink than it is to make her rise.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>It has been said that a man walking

-from one end of a submarine to the other

-would, in all probability, cause her to

-plunge dangerously, so delicate is the

-state of equipoise when totally submerged.

-Whatever may have been the case in

-the early types it is certainly not so now.

-So steady are modern submarines when

-running below the surface, especially

-those of the British, Russian, French,

-and Japanese and German Navies, that

-the long up and down hill glides, which,

-with some boats, used to amount to

-yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>been reduced to a few feet in so many

-hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back

-motion is almost unnoticeable

-except when the submarine is being

-swung round at a sharp angle. In no

-case, however, is it sufficient materially

-to affect the firing of the torpedoes.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in

-the awash condition—or <i>diving-trim</i>, as it

-is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily

-very small, amounting to little

-more than two or three pounds in a

-thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means

-a difference of only about 100 gallons of

-sea-water between the ability to float

-and the inevitability of sinking. Any

-material increase in the small margin of

-what is known as <i>positive-buoyancy</i> must

-be accompanied by a corresponding

-increase in the power of propulsion,

-otherwise it would be quite impossible to

-drive her under, or, in other words, to

-overcome the vessel’s natural tendency

-to float on the surface.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>For these and other reasons, a submarine

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>when running submerged is in

-such a delicate state of equipoise that

-any sudden increase or loss of weight

-would upset the balance and so cause

-the vessel to either dive or rise with

-dangerous rapidity.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>This would be the effect produced

-when a torpedo was discharged were

-provision not made to counter-balance

-this sudden loss of weight by means of

-<i>compensating-tanks</i>, into which sufficient

-water is pumped to compensate for the

-loss of weight incurred by the discharge

-of <i>each</i> torpedo.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Many submarines are also fitted with

-bow and stern <i>trimming-tanks</i>, into which

-water can be pumped in such a manner

-as to correct any tendency of the vessel

-to float too high or low at either

-extremity.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><i>Propulsion.</i></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>Of the many complicated problems

-surrounding submarine boat construction

-the motive power and propelling engines

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>have been in the past, and are still, the

-most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed

-air, electricity, petrol, and heavy

-oil have all been used with varying

-results since first this type of vessel

-came into being; and many curious

-engines for using these <i>prime movers</i> in

-conjunction with each other and with

-chemical compounds have been evolved

-by ingenious inventors.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>About steam and compressed air little

-need be said, for although given a good

-trial, especially by the French naval

-authorities, they were abandoned some

-years ago in favour of a combination of

-petrol and electric engines, which in turn

-have given place to more powerful

-machines using heavy oil and electricity.

-Steam is, however, again being

-used in conjunction with turbine engines

-for surface propulsion.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The carrying of large quantities of

-petrol, or heavy oil, is under all circumstances

-attended with a certain

-amount of risk, and when many tons

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>have to be carried in a confined

-space, as in a submarine, this risk is

-more than doubled, as the slightest

-leakage when the vessel is submerged

-would mean that a powerful explosive

-mixture of petrol and air would be made.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c029'>

- <img src='images/050.jpg' alt='British Type Torpedo Boat' />

- <div>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). <i>A.</i>

-Deck superstructure. <i>B.</i> Scuppers for filling superstructure.

-<i>D.</i> External connections. <i>E.</i> Conning-tower (4-inch

-armour). <i>F.</i> Periscope. <i>G.</i> Periscope motor (for turning,

-&amp;c.). <i>H.</i> Air cowls. <i>I.</i> Conning-tower cap (opening

-sideways). <i>J.</i> Mast stays. <i>K.</i> Mast (not part of service

-equipment). <i>L.</i> Torpedo-tube cap. <i>M.</i> Torpedo-tubes

-(twin), torpedoes in. <i>N.</i> Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes).

-<i>O.</i> Hydroplane engines. <i>X.</i> Double casing, with special

-vent for accumulators. <i>Y.</i> Spare torpedoes. <i>Z.</i> Petrol

-storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal pumps.

-3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s

-platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection

-indicator, registering submarine’s deflection from horizontal.

-7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol engines. 10. Electric engines.

-11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.</span></p>

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>It being also quite impossible, for

-obvious reasons, to use a petrol engine

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>when running submerged, a second

-motive power, an engine, with its additional

-space and weight, has to be

-carried to drive the submarine when

-under water. For this purpose electricity

-is used in almost all types. But

-electricity, again, has many drawbacks.

-It costs in weight nearly thirty times

-more than other motive powers, and is

-extremely dangerous, for should salt

-water in any way gain access to the

-storage batteries, chlorine gas would be

-given off in large quantities, although in

-the more recent vessels of the British,

-American, and French Navies this danger

-has been minimised by enclosing the

-batteries in air-tight cases. On account

-of the weight and the space required,

-it is impossible to install a very powerful

-electric engine in a submarine

-(compared with the size of the boat),

-and thus both the speed and radius of

-action are curtailed.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>If this division of power between the

-surface and submerged engines could

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>be overcome, and the whole space made

-available for one powerful set of engines

-suitable for driving the vessel both on

-the surface and when submerged, not

-only would the mechanism of submarines

-be simplified, but a very considerable

-increase in both speed and range of

-action would naturally result.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes

-of British submarines, and in the more

-modern vessels of the French, Russian

-and German Navies, heavy oil is being

-used in place of petrol on account of the

-increase in power obtained with greater

-safety.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Arrangements are made in almost all

-modern submarines so that when the

-vessel is using the oil engines for running

-on the surface the electricity for use

-when submerged is being made by a

-dynamo and stored in batteries. From

-this it will be seen that there are really

-three separate engines in a submarine:—(1)

-the oil or petrol motor, which drives

-the vessel when on the surface, and, at

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>the same time, by a suitable arrangement

-of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2)

-which makes the electric current for

-storage, and (3) an electric engine which

-drives the vessel when submerged,

-obtaining the necessary power from the

-batteries.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>It is, however, technically incorrect

-to say that there are two sources of

-power in a submarine, for electricity is

-not, in itself, a source of power, but

-merely a handy method of storing and

-transmitting it. The only actual source

-being the oil or petrol.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>There are also numerous small engines

-to add to the complexity of machinery

-in a submarine, such as the air compressors

-used for charging the torpedo

-tubes with compressed air for expelling

-the torpedoes and for other purposes,

-and electric motors for operating the

-pumps, steering mechanism, and periscopes.

-In addition to all this, hand-mechanism

-is provided for use in case

-of a breakdown to operate most of these

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>important appliances. Then again there

-is, of course, the armament mechanism

-for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic

-quick-firing guns.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>From the foregoing it may appear that

-the interior of a submarine presents a

-picture of mechanical complexity utterly

-incomprehensible. Yet such is not the

-case. The fanciful belief that the crew

-stand, boxed up in these vessels, sweating

-with the heat, struggling for breath,

-and with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably

-close to the small of their backs,

-electric motors buzzing within a few

-inches of their ears, and nervous hands

-grasping one or other of the levers

-ranged in rows in front of them, is,

-doubtless, most romantic, but quite

-unreal. Much of the undoubtedly complicated

-machinery in a submarine is

-tucked away in the conical extremities,

-under the interior decking, and fixed

-to the arched steel sides. The centre

-is left almost entirely clear, so that

-trestle-tables may be erected for meals,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>hammocks swung for sleeping, and

-sufficient space allowed to make these

-small vessels as habitable as possible.

-Not the least difficulty of the submarine

-designer is to create order and leave

-space among the chaos of machinery

-which has to be installed in these peculiar

-and deadly little torpedo craft.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><i>Vision When Submerged.</i></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>Perhaps the greatest difficulty which

-has beset both submarine construction and

-navigation is the puzzle how to see when

-submerged. This is now accomplished

-by means of periscopes, or tubes extending

-up from the roof of the submarine

-to a height of several feet above the

-surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a

-series of lenses and reflectors a picture of

-the surface is thrown down these tubes

-on to reflectors inside the submarine. A

-man with his eyes at the bottom of a

-periscope can see the surface clearly.

-Although it projects above the surface

-when the whole submarine is submerged,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>it is far too small an object to be easily

-seen moving through the water, and

-extremely difficult to hit by gun-fire.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The latest panoramic periscope—two of

-which are fitted in modern submarines—has

-a field of vision of about 60

-degrees. The range of vision is, however,

-very short, owing to the periscopic

-tube projecting only a few feet above the

-surface. On a moderately smooth and

-fairly clear day steering by periscope is

-not altogether difficult, but at night or

-in fog this instrument is useless, and for

-this reason it would be almost impossible

-for a submarine to effect a submerged

-attack on an enemy at night. Hence

-the name given to this type of craft—daylight

-torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant

-light of day, when any attempt by

-ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently

-close to hostile warships to discharge a

-torpedo with reasonable hope of success

-would be foredoomed to failure, there is

-every possibility that submarines would

-effect a surprise attack.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><i>Armament.</i></h3>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c027'>The chief armament of all naval submarines

-is the torpedo, which is expelled

-by a blast of compressed air from one of

-the tubes fitted in the bow and stern.

-Several torpedoes are usually carried by

-each boat, so that if one failed to strike

-the object of attack further attempts can

-be made.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>About the efficiency of torpedoes

-nothing need be said here, for they now

-form an important weapon in every navy,

-and to this subject a future chapter is

-devoted.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The latest submarines built are also

-fitted with quick-firing guns for use when

-these vessels are cruising on the surface.

-The guns are arranged so that when it is

-desired to sink they can be made to

-disappear beneath the narrow deck of the

-submarine. The provision of guns has

-been made with the object of giving

-these vessels a means of defence should

-they be discovered by prowling hostile

-torpedo-boat destroyers, or by air-craft.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><i>Habitability.</i></h3>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c027'>Many people imagine the interior of a

-submarine to resemble a stokehold, hot,

-stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact

-contrary is the truth. The temperature

-is but little above the normal for a ship’s

-engine-room, the air-supply is amply

-sufficient, and the whole interior is well

-illuminated by electric lamps.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The necessary supply of pure air is

-derived either from large steel cylinders

-containing the air in a highly compressed

-state or from flasks of oxylithe. The

-carbonic acid gas of the respired air

-being at the same time chemically

-absorbed.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Food is cooked for the crew by

-electricity, and drinking water obtained

-from special tanks. Notwithstanding

-these arrangements, however, it is almost

-impossible for the crew to live on board

-for many weeks at a time, owing to the

-small free space in the interior and to the

-cramped deck; but as the size and radius

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>of action of these boats increase, so also

-does the space available for exercise, and

-thus the habitability.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>

-  <h2 id='ch2' class='c014'>CHAPTER II <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The British Fleet at the moment when

-war was declared possessed 82 submarine

-torpedo-boats built and 22 building.

-Some of these were, however, stationed

-at the oversea naval bases. The composition

-and distribution of the submarine

-flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities were

-as follows:—</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines in Home Waters.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div><i>Patrol Flotillas.</i></div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='lg-container-l c032'>

-  <div class='linegroup'>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>1st Flotilla. Devonport.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Onyx</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.8 and A.9.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Dolphin</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>3rd Flotilla. Devonport.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Forth</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines<a id='tn062'></a>: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>C.15 and C.16.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Arrogant</i> and <i>Hazard</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>5th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Thames</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>6th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Bonaventure</i> and <i>Hebe</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>7th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Vulcan</i> and <i>Alecto</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Maidstone</i> and <i>Adamant</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>9th Flotilla. Devonport.</div>

-      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Pactolus</i>.</div>

-      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.</div>

-    </div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines on Foreign Stations.</span></h4>

-

-<p class='c033'>  Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines

-B.9, B.10, and B.11.</p>

-

-<p class='c034'>  At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7,

-and B.8.</p>

-

-<p class='c034'>  Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines

-C.36, C.37, and C.38.</p>

-

-<p class='c034'>  With Australian Fleet.—Submarines

-A.E.1<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c028'><sup>[2]</sup></a> and A.E.2.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The statement that the headquarters

-of the various submarine flotillas in home

-waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and

-Devonport, must not be taken as indicating

-that these are the only points

-along the coast protected by submarines.

-These places are merely the chief bases

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the <i>Patrol Flotillas</i>. The wide range

-of action of modern submarines enables

-them to operate several hundred miles

-from any base or depôt, and consequently

-Chatham becomes merely the

-<i>general store</i>, or head-depôt, of what

-should be termed the North Sea Flotillas,

-which not only patrol the whole East,

-North-East and South-East Coasts of

-England and Scotland, but also have

-their floating secondary bases in the

-form of <i>Depôt Ships</i>, which, with their

-attached submarines, are often at

-Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In

-the same way Portsmouth is merely the

-headquarters of the submarines patrolling

-the Channel; and Dover, Portland, etc.,

-are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines

-with their Depôt ships. The

-Devonport Flotillas have the longest

-coast-line to patrol, for their area covers

-not only the West Coast of England,

-Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish

-Coast. They are, however, furthest

-removed from the zone of war.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Considerable alterations have taken

-place in the composition and distribution

-of the British submarine flotillas since

-the outbreak of war, with the object of

-materially strengthening the Fleet in

-the main theatre of operations, but the

-addition to the flotillas of new vessels of

-the latest “E” type—nearly completed

-when war broke out—has made this

-rearrangement possible without materially

-weakening the flotillas guarding the more

-distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling

-vessels from overseas.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/064.jpg' alt='British Submarine D.7' />

- <div>

-<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c006'>

-    <div>Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern torpedo tube.</div>

-    <div class='c001'>There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>The first submarine torpedo-boat built

-for the British Navy was launched from

-the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness

-in 1901, and was designated

-the No. 1. It was constructed from the

-designs of the famous American inventor,

-Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the

-most successful boats afloat at that time.

-A series of exhaustive trials with this

-and the succeeding five vessels, all of the

-same type and launched during 1901‒2,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>proved conclusively the fighting value of

-this type of craft, and a further order was

-given by the British Admiralty for four

-new vessels embodying the improvements

-suggested by the trials of the

-first five. These vessels were the first

-of the “A” class, and were designated

-the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a

-submerged displacement of 180 tons, a

-length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet.

-They were propelled by petrol motors

-of 190 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> on the surface and by

-electric motors of about 80 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when

-submerged. Their speed ranged from 8

-knots an hour on the surface to 5 knots

-when travelling submerged, and their

-maximum surface endurance (or fuel

-capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 knots.

-Their armament consisted of three 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes and one bow tube.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>All these vessels were, however,

-obsolete and therefore scrapped before

-the opening of hostilities, hence information

-concerning them is only of

-interest as showing the rapid growth

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>in size, power and armament of British

-submarines. The next batch of vessels

-were the A’s 5 to 13, launched at

-Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have

-been seen from the table showing the

-composition and distribution of the submarine

-flotillas at the outbreak of war,

-are still on the effective list. All the

-following British submarines are now in

-the fighting line.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“A” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These vessels are the oldest British

-submarines in commission. They were

-built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at

-Barrow, and have a submerged displacement

-of 204 tons. Their length is

-150 feet. They are propelled on the

-surface by petrol motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-and by electric engines of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-when submerged. Their surface and

-submerged speed is 11 knots and

-7 knots respectively. The cruising

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>range, or maximum surface endurance

-on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10

-knots an hour, and the endurance submerged

-three hours at full speed. Their

-armament consists of two bow tubes with

-four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:

-Eleven officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>These vessels, which are now used

-almost entirely for harbour defence, can

-be distinguished from later types by

-their high conning-towers and single

-short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off

-Plymouth early in 1914, and was never

-raised.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“B” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the improved

-Holland type, and are in every way

-superior to their predecessors. They

-may be considered the first of the sea-going

-type. Their submerged displacement

-is 316 tons; length 135 feet, and

-beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>same as in the “A’s”—petrol for surface

-propulsion and electricity for use when

-submerged. The horse-power of the

-petrol engines is 600, and that of the

-electric engines 189. As in most submarines

-the supply of current for driving

-the electric engines is derived from storage

-batteries charged by dynamos driven from

-the petrol engines while the vessels are

-running on the surface. In the “B”

-class a special system of encasing these

-storage batteries was introduced. Their

-speed averages 12 knots on the surface

-and 8 knots when submerged. The surface

-cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10

-knots per hour, and the maximum submerged

-endurance 80‒100 knots at 5

-knots per hour. Their armament consists

-of two bow tubes with 4‒6 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The “B” type are vessels about 50

-per cent. larger than the “A” type which

-preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures

-extending from the bow to the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>conning-tower, forming a narrow deck

-which tends to disperse the wave which

-heaped around the blunt noses of the

-“A’s” and original Hollands. Vision

-when submerged is obtained by two

-panoramic periscopes, each having an arc

-of vision of 60 degrees. In the more

-modern vessels three periscopes are fitted.

-The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed

-below the centre line of the vessel and

-consequently operate in deeper water

-when the vessels are cruising on the

-surface. This gives them better surface

-cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the

-propellers are liable to race if worked

-too near the surface. The increase in

-the speed of these vessels over that of the

-“A’s” was of great importance, as in

-this respect lies the weakness of the submarine.

-The tactical advantages derived

-from high speed in actual warfare cannot

-be over-estimated. The speed of a fleet

-is governed by that of its slowest unit.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “B”

-type is the straight bow, the forward

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>superstructure, and the <i>two</i> periscopes.

-The B.2 was run down by the liner

-<i>Amerika</i> in the Straits of Dover in

-October, 1912, and was never recovered.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“C” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1906‒10.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>This class of submarines is composed

-of vessels of the improved “B” type.

-They have a submerged displacement

-of 320 tons and are 135 feet long and

-13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop

-600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and give to these vessels a

-speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface.

-The power of the electric engines was

-increased to 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, giving a submerged

-speed of just over 9 knots an

-hour. The surface cruising range is

-2,000 knots at the most economical speed,

-and the submerged endurance 100 knots

-at 5 knots an hour. Their armament

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>consists of two bow tubes with six

-18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their

-complement sixteen officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In the later vessels of the “C” class

-heavy oil is used instead of petrol, giving

-a great increase in power without the

-comparative additional weight; enabling

-a wider radius of action. The vessels

-of both the “B” and “C” classes are

-fitted with air-traps and safety-helmets,

-giving the crew a possible means of

-escape in the event of disaster while

-submerged.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “C”

-class is the sloping bow. The C.11

-collided with the steamer <i>Eddystone</i>

-in the North Sea in 1909 and was

-irretrievably lost.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“D” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1908‒11.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are all modern vessels of the

-sea-going type, and are of considerable

-fighting value. They, however, differ

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>slightly from each other: D.1 has a

-submerged displacement of 595 tons;

-D.2 of 600 tons; and the remaining

-vessels of this class of 620 tons. They

-have an approximate length of 150 feet

-and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil

-engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at a

-maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on

-the surface, and electric motors of 550

-<span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a submerged speed of

-just over 10 knots an hour. All these

-vessels have twin-screws situated below

-the centre line. Their cruising range on

-the surface is 4,000 miles, and when

-submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an

-hour. These vessels were the first to

-be fitted with a special and more efficient

-pattern of electric storage battery and a

-safer type of electric motor. The armament

-of the “D’s” consists of two bow

-and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8

-are also fitted with a small quick-firing,

-high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.

-This gun is fixed on a disappearing

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>mounting, enabling it to be quickly and

-almost automatically lowered into a watertight

-cavity in the superstructure before

-the submarine dives below the surface.

-The complement of these vessels is

-twenty-one officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/072.jpg' alt='British Submarine C.34' />

- <div>

-<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c006'>

-    <div>Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9  knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo tubes.</div>

-    <div class='c001'>There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“E” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These fine ocean-going submarines are

-the latest additions to the British Flotillas.

-They have a submerged displacement of

-800 tons, are 176 feet long and 22 ½ feet

-in beam. The heavy-oil engines of

-nearly 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a surface

-speed of over 16 knots, while the

-electric engines of 800 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them

-at a maximum speed of 10 knots an

-hour when submerged. Their surface

-cruising range is 5,000 miles at

-economical speed, and the submerged

-endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an hour.

-In point of armament the “E’s” are far

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>more powerful than their predecessors,

-being fitted with four tubes and carrying

-six of the largest and most powerful

-Whitehead torpedoes. They are also

-equipped with two 3-inch quick-firing

-guns on high-angle disappearing mountings

-for defence against air-craft and

-hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers<a id='tn079'></a>.

-They have wireless telegraphic apparatus;

-and, like the vessels of the “B,” “C”

-and “D” classes, have armoured conning

-towers and decks. Three tall panoramic

-periscopes are fitted, and their high

-superstructures and increased buoyancy

-when travelling on the surface enable

-them to keep the sea in almost any

-weather.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Australian Submarines</span>:</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>A.E.1 and A.E.2.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These vessels are exactly the same

-as the “E” class. The fact that they

-both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage

-from Barrow to Sydney under their

-own power and without convoy is

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>practical proof of the wide range, seaworthiness

-and general efficiency of the

-latest British Naval Submarines. The

-A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in

-Australian waters in October, 1914, and

-has not been recovered.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>British Submarines Building<a id='tn080'></a>.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the great

-war there were 22 British submarines in

-course of construction at the various

-shipbuilding works and naval dockyards.

-Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had

-constructed all the British submarines,

-but in that year the vessels C.17 and

-C.18 were laid down at Chatham Dockyard.

-Since then several other boats

-have been constructed there, and of

-those now in hand some are being built

-by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow,

-others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding

-yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs.

-Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd.

-at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M.

-Dockyard at Chatham.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>Hitherto, British submarines, although

-divided into classes—each of which has

-shown a marked improvement on the

-preceding class—have been all of one

-type—the “Improved Holland.” Among

-the vessels being constructed at the

-opening of hostilities they were, however,

-no less than three different types.

-Those being built at Barrow and

-Chatham were of the original design

-with modern improvements, but the submarines

-under construction at Greenock

-were of the <i>Laurenti</i>, or Italian type,

-and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the

-<i>Laubeuf</i>, or French type. In addition

-to this wise departure from previous

-practice, two of the new vessels have

-been given the names of <i>Nautilus</i> and

-<i>Swordfish</i>.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The haze of war has obscured these

-vessels, and it is impossible to say definitely

-which of them have taken their

-place in the active flotillas, and further

-the necessity for observing the very

-strictest secrecy regarding new types of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>warships at a time like the present

-makes it advisable to give here only

-the briefest particulars and not to discuss

-too freely the peculiarities of their design

-or their probable capabilities.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“F” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<p class='c027'>There are several vessels of this class

-now being constructed. They are the

-latest improvement of the original Holland

-design and are sea-going submarines

-of wide range, high speed and great

-fighting power. The F.1, which was

-built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged

-displacement of 1,500 tons.

-Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-give her a maximum speed of 20 knots

-an hour on the surface, and electric

-motors of 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 12 knots

-when submerged. The armament consists

-of six torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and

-two quick-firing, high-angle guns.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“V” Class. &nbsp;“W” Class. &nbsp;“S” Class.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div><i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These three classes include the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>vessels of entirely different design to

-those now forming the British flotillas.

-The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of which

-four were under construction at the

-beginning of the war, are large sea-going

-submarines with a submerged

-displacement of over 1,000 tons, and a

-probable surface speed of 20 knots.

-The “W” Class, of which four are

-being built at Elswick, comprise vessels

-of the French <i>Laubeuf</i> type. The “S”

-Class, building at Greenock, and four

-in number, are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—<i>Laurenti</i>

-type. The two named

-vessels—<i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>—are

-large sea-going submarines of wide

-range and high speed. Their submerged

-displacement is about 1,000

-tons, and their speed 20 knots on the

-surface and 12 knots when submerged.

-The armament is six tubes, with eight

-torpedoes, and two quick-firing guns.

-The complement of all these large

-submarines is about 25 officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>

-  <h2 id='ch3' class='c014'>CHAPTER III <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>France possessed 92 submarines in

-active service when war was declared.

-In addition to these, nine large and

-powerful vessels were in various stages

-of construction. The flotillas of the

-French Navy are composed of two

-different types of vessels: <i>Submarines

-Defensive</i> and <i>Submersibles</i>. The former

-are intended, as their name implies,

-solely for coast and harbour defence;

-their radii of action is very small, and

-they are incapable of action independent

-of a naval base. The submersibles are

-like the large sea-going submarines of

-England and Germany, and have a

-wide radius of action, high speed, and

-great offensive power.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The first naval submarine (<i>Gymnôte</i>)

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>was launched in 1888, giving to France

-the honour of being the first Naval

-Power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat

-as a vessel of war. The pioneers

-of submarine construction in France

-were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun,

-M. Dupuy de Lome, M. Gustave Zédé,

-and Admiral Aube. The second submarine

-ordered for the French Navy

-was the <i>Gustave Zédé</i>, launched in 1893.

-So successful did this vessel prove that

-another of the same type, and named

-the <i>Morse</i>, was launched at Cherbourg

-Dockyard in 1899. In the same year

-four vessels of a new type were laid

-down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and

-named <i>Lutin</i>, <i>Farfâdet</i> (re-named <i>Follet</i>),

-<i>Korrigan</i>, and <i>Gnôme</i>. These, with the

-exception of the ill-fated <i>Lutin</i>, are still

-in the active flotillas.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lutin Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Follet</i>.</li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Korrigan</i>.</li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Gnôme</i>.</li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in

-the French Navy, and are all of the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>defensive type. They have a displacement

-of about 185 tons, with electric

-engines for propulsion both on the

-surface and when submerged. Their

-speed is 12 knots on the surface and

-8 knots when submerged. Their range

-of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots.

-The armament consists of one bow tube

-and two holders, with four 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes. The complement

-is nine officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/080.jpg' alt='Two French Submarines' />

- <div>

-<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photos, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)</div>

-    <div class='c001'>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Française Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Française.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Algérien.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the improved

-<i>Morse</i> type, and are intended solely

-for coast and harbour defence. Their

-surface displacement is 146 tons, and

-they have electric engines of 350 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-for both surface and submerged propulsion,

-giving them a speed of 12 knots

-and 8 knots an hour, respectively.

-Their surface radius is about 80 miles

-at 8 knots. They have one bow tube and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>two holders, with four torpedoes. The

-complement is nine officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Triton Class.</span><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c028'><sup>[3]</sup></a></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Triton.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Sirene.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Espadon.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Silure.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These four vessels were the first of

-the submersible type and were designed

-by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed

-many vessels for both France and other

-countries (<i>Laubeuf</i> type). They have

-a submerged displacement of 200 tons,

-and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in

-beam. Steam is used for surface

-propulsion (217 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>) and electricity

-when submerged. Their speed is 11

-knots on the surface and 8 knots

-when submerged, with a cruising radius

-of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are

-armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes, and have a

-complement of ten officers and men.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Naiade Class.</span></h3>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1902‒4.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Naiade.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Loutre.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Protée.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Lynx.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Perle.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Truite.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Castor.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Oursin.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Meduse.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Otarie.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Phoque.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ludion.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Alose.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Anguille.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Grondin.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Dorade.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Souffleur.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Thon.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Bonite.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Esturgeon.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Twenty small harbour defence submarines,

-having a displacement of

-about 67 tons. They have petrol and

-electric motors, giving them a speed of

-8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots

-when submerged. Their armament consists

-of one bow tube and two holders;

-four torpedoes are carried. Their complement

-is six officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Aigrette Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Aigrette.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Cicogne.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are submersibles

-of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type, and were great

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>improvements on their predecessors, the

-Triton Class. Their submerged displacement

-is 351 tons, and their

-dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A triple

-expansion steam engine of 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-is used for surface propulsion and

-an electric motor of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when

-submerged. Their speed is 10 knots

-and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface

-endurance is 700 miles at 8 knots, and

-submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their

-armament consists of one bow tube with

-four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement

-is about fifteen officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Argonaute.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>A submersible designed by M. Bertin

-(late Chief Constructor French Navy).

-This vessel, which was first named

-<i>Omega</i>, has a displacement of about

-300 tons. She is driven by steam and

-electricity, and has a speed of 11 knots

-and 9 knots. Her armament consists

-of two bow tubes and two holders,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.

-The complement is about seventeen officers

-and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Emeraude Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1906‒8.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Emeraude.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Saphir.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Opale.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Topaz.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Rubis.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Turquoise.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These six vessels are of the <i>Maugas</i>

-type and are sea-going submarines

-with a submerged displacement of over

-400 tons. They have petrol and electric

-motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and 450 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,

-respectively. Their surface speed is 12

-knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their

-surface cruising radius is just over

-1,000 miles at economical speed. Their

-armament consists of two tubes and four

-holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual

-pattern. Their complement is seventeen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Circe Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Circe.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Calypso.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Laubeuf</i>

-type, and are improvements on the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span><i>Aigrette</i> class. They have a submerged

-displacement of about 450 tons and are

-160 feet in length. They are driven by

-a steam engine of 440 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> (flash

-boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface,

-and by electric motors when submerged.

-Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots;

-and the range of action 1,000 miles.

-Their armament comprises two tubes and

-four holders with eight torpedoes. The

-complement is 21 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Pluviôse Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907‒12.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Pluviôse.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Nivôse.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ventôse.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Messidor.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Thermidor.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Fructidor.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Brumaire.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Frimaire.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Florèal.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Prairial.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Germinal.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Submarines of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type with

-a submerged displacement of nearly 600

-tons. All built at Cherbourg. The

-<i>Brumaire</i> and <i>Frimaire</i> are driven by

-petrol motors of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when

-cruising on the surface, but all the

-others have small steam turbines with

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>a special type of flash-boiler. Electric

-motors are used for submerged propulsion.

-Their speed is 12 knots above

-and 9 knots below. The armament is

-seven 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement

-is 22 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Fresnel Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1908‒12.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Fresnel.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Berthelot.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Papin.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Monge.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ampère.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Gay-Lussac.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Cagnot.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Faraday.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Giffard.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Montgolfier.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Newton.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Volta.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Watt.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Euler.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Faucault.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Franklin.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Arago.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Permouilli.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Joule.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Coulomb.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Curie.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Le Verrier.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Twenty-two submarines of the largest

-sea-going <i>Laubeuf</i> type. Only three of

-these are steam driven, the others using

-heavy-oil engines for surface propulsion.

-They are in all respects similar to

-vessels of the <i>Pluviôse</i> class, and have

-a displacement of about 600 tons. Their

-speed is 12 knots above, and 9 knots

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>below, and the armament seven 18-inch

-torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with

-stern as well as bow tubes. Their

-surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Amiral Bourgeoise.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>An experimental boat of the <i>Bourdelle</i>

-type, built at Cherbourg. The submerged

-displacement is just under 800

-tons and the length 190 feet. She is

-driven on the surface by heavy-oil

-engines of 1,600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give a

-speed of 15 knots. The electric motors

-for submerged propulsion are of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,

-giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament

-consists of seven 18-inch torpedoes,

-and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Archimède.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Another experimental boat built at

-Cherbourg. The submerged displacement

-is about 810 tons, and the length

-and beam 212 feet and 22 feet

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>respectively. Steam turbines are used for

-surface propulsion and electric motors

-when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots

-above and 10 knots below. The armament

-is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and

-the complement 24 officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/088.jpg' alt='Sea-Going French Submarine' />

- <div>

-<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mariotte.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>The third experimental boat, of the

-<i>Rodiquet</i> type, built at Cherbourg. The

-displacement when submerged is 650

-tons and the length about 200 feet.

-Petrol motors of 1,500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her

-at 15 knots an hour on the surface and

-electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots

-when submerged. Her radius of action

-is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven

-18-inch torpedoes, which can be fired

-from both bow and stern tubes. The

-complement is about 25 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Charles Brun.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>The fourth experimental vessel, built

-at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>submerged displacement is 450 tons and

-the length 145 feet. Steam turbines of

-1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 15 ½ knots an

-hour on the surface, and electric motors

-of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots when submerged.

-Her armament consists of six 18-inch

-torpedoes. The complement is 22 officers

-and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Clorinde Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Clorinde.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Cornélie.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Amphritrite.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Astree.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Artémis.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Aréthuse.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Atalante.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Amaranthe.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ariane.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Andromaque.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are the very latest

-additions to the French Submarine

-flotillas. They have a submerged displacement

-of about 550 tons, a length

-of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet.

-Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give

-them a speed of 15 knots on the surface,

-and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> enable

-them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when

-submerged. They carry eight torpedoes,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and have a complement of 25 officers and

-men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Gustave Zede Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Gustave Zede.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Néréide.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are the largest

-submarines in the French flotillas.

-They have a submerged displacement of

-1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, and a

-beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give

-them a surface speed of 16 knots and

-electric motors a submerged speed of

-10 knots. Their armament consists of

-two bow and two stern tubes with eight

-18-inch torpedoes. They are also equipped

-with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,

-disappearing mountings. The

-cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the

-complement 27 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Bellone Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1914.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Bellone.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Hermione.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Gorgone.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Fast sea-going submarines with a

-submerged displacement of 610 tons.

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>They have heavy-oil engines of about

-2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give them a surface

-speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of

-950 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 12 knots when

-submerged. Their surface cruising range

-is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists

-of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.

-quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement

-is 30 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>French Submarines Building.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>On the day when war was declared

-nine submarines were in the early stages

-of construction. The two most advanced

-of these were the <i>Diane</i> and <i>Daphne</i>.

-These vessels have a submerged displacement

-of about 800 tons, and the

-anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10

-knots. Their armament will consist of

-ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The

-complement will be 30 officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The other seven vessels are of the

-improved <i>Gustave Zede</i> Class. They

-will have a submerged displacement of

-over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 knots

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>on the surface and 12 knots when submerged.

-Their armament will consist of

-ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The

-complement will be about 35 officers and

-men.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>

-  <h2 id='ch4' class='c014'>CHAPTER IV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement

-of hostilities included 37

-submarines in active service, and 19 in

-various stages of construction. The

-composition and distribution of the

-submarine flotillas was as follows:—</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Baltic Flotilla</span>: 14 Submarines with

-depôt ships in commission, and 12 vessels

-building. <i>Bases</i>: Kronstadt, Port Peter

-the Great (Reval) and Port Alexander III.

-(Libau) (ice free).</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Black Sea Flotilla</span>: 11 Submarines

-with depôt ships in commission, and

-several new vessels building. <i>Bases</i>:

-Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Siberian Flotilla</span>: 12 Submarines

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>with depôt ships in commission, and 6

-vessels building. <i>Base</i>: Vladivostok.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The first Russian naval submarine was

-completed at Kronstadt in 1902, and

-named the <i>Petr Kochka</i>. She was built

-in sections to facilitate transport over the

-Siberian Railway, being intended for

-the defence of Port Arthur, and had a

-surface displacement of only 20 tons.

-Her armament consisted of two holders,

-or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, containing

-two small Whitehead torpedoes.

-The maximum speed was 8 knots on

-the surface and 4 knots when submerged.

-The second submarine ordered for the

-Russian Navy was the <i>Delphin</i>, which

-foundered off Kronstadt, but was subsequently

-raised and is now used as a

-training ship for the submarine service.

-These two vessels have been removed

-from the active flotillas, but the third

-vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the

-<i>Graf Cheremetieve</i>—is still in

-commission.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Graf Cheremetieve Class.</span></h3>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904‒5.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Graf Cheremetieve.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Kasatka.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Nalim.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Skat.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in

-the Russian Navy, and are small vessels

-of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have

-a submerged displacement of 200 tons.

-Petrol and electric engines drive them at

-9 knots on the surface and 6 knots when

-submerged. Their armament consists

-of one bow torpedo tube and two

-exterior holders, with four 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Ostr Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ostr.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Byts-chok.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Kefal.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Platus.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Plotva.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These five submarines are of the

-American Lake type. The <i>Ostr</i> was

-originally the American Lake Co.’s

-boat <i>Protector</i>. They have a submerged

-displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>in length and 11 feet in breadth. Have

-petrol engines of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> for surface

-propulsion and electric motors for use

-when submerged. Their speed is 11

-knots above and 7 knots below. The

-surface cruising radius is 450 knots at

-full speed. The armament consists of

-two bow and one stern tube with

-four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The

-<i>special</i> characteristics of the American

-Lake type will be seen on pages <a href='#Page_119'>119‒120</a>.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Som Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Som.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Shtshuka.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels, which are of the

-Holland-Bubnoff type, have a submerged

-displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol

-and electric motors are used for surface

-and submerged propulsion, and the speed

-is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above and below,

-respectively. Their armament consists

-of two bow tubes with four 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement

-is about fifteen officers and men.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sterliad Class.</span></h3>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1905‒6.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Sterliad.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Bialuga.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Peskar.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These three vessels are also of the

-Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a

-submerged displacement of 150 tons.

-The petrol motors for surface propulsion

-are of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed is 9 ½ knots

-and 7 knots, above and below, respectively.

-Their armament consist of two

-bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes. Their complement is eleven

-to fifteen officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sig.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>A submarine of the Lake type;

-similar in almost every respect to

-vessels of the <i>Ostr</i> class.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Makrel Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Makrel.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Okun.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Two vessels of the <i>Improved</i> Holland-Bubnoff

-type. They have a submerged

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>displacement of about 200 tons. The

-petrol motors are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and the

-electric engines of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their

-speed is 10 knots on the surface and

-8 knots when submerged. They are

-fitted with two bow tubes and two stern

-<i>holders</i>, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lossos Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Lossos.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Ludak.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Two somewhat smaller submarines of

-the Holland type. Intended either for

-the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla.

-Similar to those of the <i>Sterliad</i> class.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Karp Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Karp.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Karas.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two submarines are of the

-Germania, or Krupp type, and have a

-submerged displacement of 250 tons.

-They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors

-of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed on the surface

-is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged.

-The surface range of action is

-about 1,000 miles, and the submerged

-endurance about three hours at full

-speed. Their armament consists of two

-bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes

-are carried. Their complement is fifteen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Alligator Class.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1908‒9.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Alligator.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Kaiman.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Drakon.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Krokodil.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Four submarines of the improved

-Lake type. They have a submerged

-displacement of 500 tons. Their speed

-is 15 knots on the surface and 10 knots

-when submerged. They are fitted with

-two bow and two stern tubes, and carry

-six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their

-complement is seventeen officers and

-men. (See also page <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.)</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Minoga Class.</span></h3>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1908.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Minoga.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Potschovy.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff

-type, which were built in sections

-to facilitate transport by rail. They

-have a submerged displacement of about

-150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and

-9 knots, above and below, respectively.

-Their complement is eleven officers and

-men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Akula.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1909.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff

-type. Her displacement is about

-570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on

-the surface and 10 knots when submerged.

-The armament consists of two

-bow and one stern tube, with six 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes. The complement

-is 20 officers and men.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Kaschalot Class.</span></h3>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Kaschalot.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Kit.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Krab.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Morsh.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Narval.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Nerpa.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Tinlen.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These seven vessels are among the

-most modern submarines in the Russian

-flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff

-type, and have a submerged displacement

-of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil

-engines of over 1,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them

-at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots,

-and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them

-a submerged speed of just over 10 knots

-an hour. Their surface cruising range is

-about 3,000 miles. Their armament consists

-of two bow and one stern tube with

-six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. They

-are also fitted with a small, quick-firing,

-high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.

-Their complement is 21 officers

-and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Russian Submarines Building.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the war there

-were nineteen Russian submarines in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>course of construction. Very little information

-concerning these boats can be

-obtained, except that their submerged

-displacement ranges from 800 to 1,500

-tons, and their <i>anticipated</i> surface speed is

-20 knots. Some of the 800-ton vessels

-have already been completed, and the

-first twelve will be named: <i>Svitza</i>, <i>Leopard</i>,

-<i>Pantera</i>, <i>Ruis</i>, <i>Kaguar</i>, <i>Tiqr</i>,

-<i>Yaguar</i>, <i>Vepr</i>, <i>Wolk</i>, <i>Baro</i>, <i>Gepard</i>,

-and <i>Tur</i>. These vessels have a speed

-of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots

-when submerged. Their complement is

-25 officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>

-  <h2 id='ch5' class='c014'>CHAPTER V <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a

-submarine flotilla of seventeen vessels,

-all except two of which are of the British

-Holland or Vickers type. Japan commenced

-the construction of what is now

-a rapidly increasing and powerful flotilla

-in 1904 by the purchase of five elementary

-Holland boats. These, however, are still

-in the active flotilla and are designated

-Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement

-of 120 tons, and are 65 feet

-in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol

-motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 9 knots

-on the surface and electric motors of

-70 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 7 knots when submerged.

-Their armament consists of one bow

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>expulsion tube with three 18-inch

-Whitehead torpedoes.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 6 and 7.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels were the first submarine

-boats to be built in Japan, but are

-of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger

-and faster. They have a submerged

-displacement of 180 tons, a length of

-100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. The

-petrol engines are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and the

-electric motors of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface

-and submerged speed is 10 knots and

-8 knots an hour, respectively. Their

-armament consists of one torpedo tube with

-three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 8 and 9.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are very similar to

-the British “C” class, and were built by

-Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged

-displacement of 320 tons; petrol

-motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and a surface and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>submerged speed of 13 knots and 8 knots

-an hour, respectively. Their armament

-consists of two bow tubes with four to six

-18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their

-complement is sixteen officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 10‒15.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the same in

-almost every respect as the later “C”

-class of British submarines (pages <a href='#Page_70'>70‒71</a>).</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 16‒17<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c028'><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Schneider-Laubeuf</i>

-or French type. (British “W”

-class.) Their submerged displacement is

-about 500 tons, and the horse-power of

-their surface engines 2,500. The surface

-and submerged speed is 18 knots and

-9 knots respectively. Their armament

-consists of six torpedo tubes with eight

-<i>Schneider</i> torpedoes. The complement is

-about 30 officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>The natural adroitness with which

-Japanese sailors manipulate complicated

-machinery, combined with their absolute

-fearlessness, make them ideal for torpedo

-work.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>

-  <h2 id='ch6' class='c014'>CHAPTER VI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany

-possessed 30 submarine torpedo-boats<a id='tn117'></a>.

-These were divided into

-three flotillas, with their headquarters at

-Kiel, the largest and most modern

-vessels being attached to the Heligoland

-or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913,

-although 24 submarines were stated as

-being in commission, only about 15

-were actively employed, and these mostly

-in training reserves, the older boats

-being docked and modernized where

-possible. But during the year six new

-vessels were added to the flotilla and the

-<i>personnel</i> of the submarine service was

-largely increased. At the same time the

-inspection of submarines was separated

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>from that of the other torpedo-boats and

-a flag-officer was appointed as head of

-the submarine branch of the Naval

-Service, with headquarters at Kiel.

-Thus when the hour came for the great

-struggle which was to decide the mastery

-of the seas the whole German Flotilla of

-30 vessels, <i>with a reserve of six new boats

-which had been secretly hurried forward

-and were rapidly nearing completion</i>, was

-ready to put to sea.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The German Naval Law provided for

-the construction of 72 submarines by the

-end of 1917. All the vessels built up

-to the present time have been known as

-the “U” class and numbered in rotation.

-They are painted a brownish-grey colour

-and have high collier-like bows with

-massive armoured conning-towers and

-long superstructures amounting to narrow

-decks. They have all been built at

-either Kiel or Dantzig.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Although the first submarine boats

-built for the German Navy were two

-vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>in 1890, they were never actively employed

-with the fleet and have long since

-been reduced to scrap-iron, and the first

-vessel which can now be reckoned as a

-fighting unit of the German torpedo-boat

-flotilla was a vessel designated the

-“U.1.” This was built at the Germania

-Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on August

-30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of

-the “U” class, which in most of the

-essential features resembles the British

-Improved Holland type.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.1.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>This U.1 was built as an experimental

-boat by the famous firm of

-Krupps. She has a surface displacement

-of 197 tons, a submerged displacement

-of 236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface

-engines are of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The electric

-motors for submerged use develop just

-over 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed ranges from

-10 knots an hour on the surface to 7

-knots when submerged, and her surface

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>range of action is about 700 to 800 miles.

-The armament consists of one bow torpedo

-tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf

-torpedoes are carried. The complement

-is nine officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The trials of the U.1 extended over

-a period of a year and a half, and all

-proved remarkably satisfactory. During

-the tests which took place in Eckernforder

-Bay she succeeded, twice in

-succession, in torpedoing a moving target

-while travelling submerged at full speed.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The uncertainty displayed for some

-years previous by the German Naval

-Authorities regarding the value of submarine

-boats gave place to a thorough

-sense of the important part these

-“mighty atoms” would play in future

-naval warfare, and to a strong determination

-that the German Navy should

-include a powerful submarine flotilla.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.2-U.8.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1907‒10.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These seven vessels were great

-improvements on the U.1. Their

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>displacement is 210 tons on the surface

-and about 250 tons when submerged.

-They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg

-heavy-oil engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and

-electric motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their

-speed on the surface is 12 knots and

-8 knots when submerged. The surface

-range of action is 1,000 miles and the

-submerged endurance about three hours

-at full speed. Their armament consists

-of two bow torpedo tubes and four

-torpedoes are carried. The complement

-is eleven officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.9-U.18.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c028'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1910‒12.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are of increased

-size and power, their submerged displacement

-being 300 tons, and the horse-power

-of their heavy oil surface engines

-is 600. The electric motors develop

-200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface and submerged

-speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots

-respectively. The surface range of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>action is 1,500 miles, and the armament

-consists of two bow and one stern torpedo

-tube with five torpedoes. The U.13

-and subsequent vessels of this class are

-provided with a quick-firing, high-angle

-gun for defence against aircraft, and

-have sleeping accommodation for the

-crew. They may be termed the first

-German sea-going submarines. Their

-complement is twenty officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.19 <a id='tn122-2'></a>and U.20.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>There are only two vessels in this

-class owing to the adoption of certain

-improvements with the aid of which a

-partly new type has been evolved.

-These two vessels have a displacement

-when submerged of 450 tons. Their

-oil engines of 650 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give a speed

-of 13 ½ knots an hour on the surface,

-and their electric motors of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give

-8 knots an hour when submerged. Their

-surface range of action is 2,000 miles,

-and their armament consists of two bow

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>and one stern torpedo tube with six

-torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing,

-high-angle guns on disappearing mountings.

-The complement is seventeen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.21-U.24.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These four vessels are the first of the

-new type of large sea-going submarines

-for the German Navy. Their submerged

-displacement is 800 tons. They are

-propelled on the surface by heavy-oil

-engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged

-by electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-Their speed above water is 14 knots

-an hour and below the surface 9

-knots. The surface range of action

-is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance

-120 miles at economical speed.

-Their armament consists of two bow

-and two stern torpedo tubes with eight

-torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing

-gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,

-all on disappearing mountings, for

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>defence against hostile destroyers and

-aircraft. Their complement is twenty-five

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.25-U.30.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the latest additions

-to the German submarine flotilla.

-They are vessels of 900 tons submerged

-displacement with heavy-oil engines of

-2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors of 900 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-Their surface and submerged speed is

-18 knots and 10 knots, respectively.

-The surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.

-Their armament consists of two bow and

-two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large

-size torpedoes, and, in addition, two

-14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr.

-high-angle guns. They have wireless

-telegraphic apparatus on board, and are

-specially constructed with long superstructures

-and high <i>collier-like</i> bows to

-enable them to keep at sea in almost any

-weather. They are fitted with two or

-three periscopes, and also possess a small

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span><i>look-out</i> cap on the top of the lofty

-conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”

-attack in the half-lights of dawn and

-dusk, when the periscope is almost useless.

-The conning-towers and decks are

-armoured. Their complement is 30 to 35

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.31-U.36.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Building.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are the six vessels which are

-rapidly nearing completion, and which

-were in a much more advanced state,

-at the opening of hostilities, than was

-generally known in foreign naval circles.

-They are the same in almost every

-respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30.

-There is, however, another submarine

-being built for Germany of a totally

-different design. This is the F.I.A.T.

-or <i>Laurenti</i> boat (Italian), laid down at

-the beginning of 1914. This vessel is

-very similar to the four “S” boats being

-built at Greenock for the British Navy.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>No German submarines have in the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>past been sent to any Colonial or oversea

-station. Therefore, the whole flotilla

-of 30 to 36 vessels was immediately available

-for operations in the North Sea and

-Baltic when war began. The <i>personnel</i>

-of the whole torpedo service is very

-efficient, great attention having been

-paid to this branch of the Navy. The

-three German Submarine flotillas have

-their headquarters at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven,

-and Heligoland.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>

-  <h2 id='ch7' class='c014'>CHAPTER VII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>At the commencement of the War the

-Austro-Hungarian Navy included six

-submarines in the active flotilla and

-five others were being <a id='tn127'></a><i>completed</i> at the

-Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful

-if they had been delivered. In which

-event they must be added to the strength

-of the German flotilla. In addition to

-these, several larger vessels, mostly of

-the latest “U” or Krupp design, had

-been ordered, but were not expected to

-take their place in the active flotillas

-before the end of 1915.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Austria commenced the formation of a

-submarine flotilla in 1908 by the acquisition

-of two vessels of the <i>Improved Holland

-type</i> from Messrs. Vickers Ltd., and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>two others of the American <i>Lake type</i>.

-In the following year two more submarines

-were ordered, this time from

-Krupp’s Germania Yard. All these

-vessels were delivered during 1910, and

-Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into

-being.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.1 and U.2.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the American

-Lake type. They have a submerged

-displacement of 250 tons and petrol

-surface motors of 720 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed

-is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots

-when submerged. The armament consists

-of two bow and one stern torpedo

-tube. This type of submarine has three

-special features which distinguish it from

-all others. It is fitted with a kind of

-underframe and wheels, and is designed

-to travel in four different positions: (1) on

-the surface; (2) semi-submerged, with

-only a look-out cowl above water; (3)

-submerged, with nothing but the periscope

-showing; (4) totally submerged and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>running along the sea-bed on wheels,

-like a submarine motor car. It is drawn

-down from the surface to the sea-bed

-by an ingenious system of wire-hawsers

-and drop-weights, which can be released

-in the event of accident. A “diving

-chamber” enables members of the crew

-to don diving-dresses and leave the submarine

-when on the sea-bed, for the

-purpose of laying or destroying submerged

-mines. The Lake type of submarine is

-also used in the Russian Navy.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c028'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.3 and U.4.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the Krupp

-design, and have a submerged displacement

-of 300 tons. The horse-power of

-their heavy-oil surface engines is 600.

-The electric motors develop 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>

-The surface and submerged speeds are

-13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The

-surface range of action is 1,500 miles,

-and the armament consists of two bow

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and one stern tube with five 18-inch

-torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.5 and U.6.</span></h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the Improved

-Holland type. Their submerged displacement

-is about 316 tons; length

-135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The

-horse-power of the petrol engines is 600

-and that of the electric engines 189.

-The speed averages 12 knots on the

-surface and 8 knots when submerged.

-The surface cruising range is 1,300

-knots at 10 knots an hour. Their

-armament consists of two bow tubes with

-four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.

-Their complement is sixteen officers and

-men.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>U.7-U.11.</h3>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c031'>

-    <div>(Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania

-type, and are similar to those

-completed for the German Navy in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>1912‒13. They are large sea-going

-submarines with a submerged displacement

-of 800 tons. They are propelled

-on the surface by heavy-oil engines of

-1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged, by

-electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed

-is 14 knots and 9 knots, above and

-below, respectively. The surface range

-of action is 3,000 miles, and the submerged

-endurance 120 miles at economical

-speed.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Their armament consists of two bow

-and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight

-torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing

-gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,

-for defence against hostile destroyers and

-air-craft. Their complement is twenty-five

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>One or two Austrian submarines are

-supposed to have been sunk by the

-Allied Fleet during the first few weeks

-of the war, but exactly which vessels

-they were is not known.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Several other submarines have been

-ordered in foreign countries for the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered

-while the war lasts.</p>

-

-<h3 id='flotillas' class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotillas of Neutral European Powers.</span></h3>

-

-<table class='table1' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='20%' />

-<col width='40%' />

-<col width='40%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

- <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Country.</span></th>

- <th class='bbt blt brt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Built.</span></th>

- <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Building.</span></th>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Italy</td>

- <td class='blt brt c037'>20 (100‒300 tons)</td>

-    <td class='c038'>8 (large size)</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Denmark</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>9 (100‒300 tons)</td>

-    <td class='c038'>several</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Holland</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>6 (100‒300 tons)</td>

-    <td class='c038'>4 (large)</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Sweden</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>7 (150‒300 tons)</td>

-    <td class='c038'>3 (large)</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Greece</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>2 (Laubeuf)</td>

-    <td class='c039'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Norway</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>

-    <td class='c038'>4 (Germania)</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Portugal</td>

- <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>

-    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c037'>Turkey</td>

- <td class='blt brt c037'>――</td>

-    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

- <td class='bbt c037'>Spain</td>

- <td class='bbt blt brt c037'>――</td>

- <td class='bbt c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>

-  <h2 id='ch8' class='c014'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>Submarines have two great advantages

-over all types of surface warships; they

-can become invisible at will—or sufficiently

-invisible to make gun or torpedo-practice,

-except at very close quarters,

-almost entirely useless—and they can,

-by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate

-of sufficient thickness to be absolutely

-shell-proof. These are the two

-main points in favour of the submarine.

-There are, however, many minor features.

-Although submarines are known in the

-naval services as “daylight torpedo-boats,”

-for their <i>greatest</i> value lies in

-their ability to perform the same task in

-the “light” as the ordinary surface torpedo-boats

-and destroyers can do under

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>cover of darkness or fog—that of creeping

-up close to an enemy, and launching a

-torpedo unobserved—they have been

-given, during recent years, so much

-greater speed, armament, and range of

-action, that they can no longer be looked

-upon as small boats just suitable for daylight

-torpedo attack in favourable circumstances.

-Their surface speed has been

-increased from 10 to 20 knots, making

-them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.

-This, combined with <a id='tn134'></a>manœuvering

-powers and general above-water invisibility,

-has enabled them to take over the

-duty of the surface torpedo-boat—that

-of delivering night-attacks on the surface.

-After nightfall a submarine attack is

-almost impossible owing to the periscope—the

-eyes of the submarine—being

-useless in the dark.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The increase in the armament of the

-submarine—from the single bow torpedo

-tube with two torpedoes of short range

-and weak explosive charge, to the four

-bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>torpedoes of long range and high

-explosive charge—has greatly increased

-their chances of successful attack on

-surface warships, first, by giving them

-four or six shots ahead, then the possibility,

-in the event of all these

-torpedoes missing, of a dive under the

-object of attack, and two more shots

-at close range from the stern tubes

-(still retaining two torpedoes); and,

-secondly, by increasing the distance

-from which the first projectile can be

-launched, owing to the increased range

-of the modern torpedo. There are also

-the advantages derived from the battery

-of quick-firing guns installed on the

-decks of modern submarines. Although

-at the present time these guns are

-only of small power they nevertheless

-afford a means of defence—and even

-of attack under favourable circumstances—against

-hostile surface torpedo-boats,

-destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a

-flotilla of submarines could undoubtedly

-now give a very good account of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>itself if attacked either on the surface

-or when submerged by one or two

-prowling destroyers. The increase in

-the power of the guns carried by submarines,

-which will certainly come soon,

-will enable this type of craft to take

-up the additional duties of the destroyer—that

-of clearing the seas of hostile

-torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced

-scouting—for which work their ability

-to travel submerged and in a state of

-invisibility for distances of over 100

-miles makes them eminently suitable.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The enormous increase in the size

-and range of action of submarines,

-combined with the improvements effected

-in the surface cruising qualities, have

-enabled these vessels to be taken from

-the “nursery” of harbour and coast

-defence and placed with the sea-going

-flotillas and battle-fleets. In the short

-period of ten years the tonnage of

-submarines has risen from 100 to over

-1,000 tons, and the range of action

-from 400 miles at economical speed to

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>5,000 miles. Exactly what this means

-is more easily realized when it is

-stated that the earlier types of submarines

-could scarcely cross the English

-Channel and return without taking in

-supplies of fuel, and in rough weather

-were forced to remain in harbour,

-whereas the modern vessel can go

-from England to Newfoundland <i>and

-back</i> without assistance, and can remain

-at sea in almost any weather, as was

-first demonstrated by the successful

-voyage of the British submarines A.E.1

-and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since

-been proved by the operations of the

-British submarine flotilla in the North

-Sea.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>In addition to the cruising range

-there is, however, the question of

-habitability. In this respect the progress

-has been equally as rapid. In

-the older boats no sleeping accommodation

-was provided for the crew, and

-food supplies and fresh water sufficient

-only for a few days were carried. In the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>latest British, French and German

-vessels proper sleeping and messing

-accommodation is provided, and supplies

-of all kinds and in sufficient quantity

-to last a month are carried. Although

-work on these craft is still very

-cramping for the crew, the increase in

-the deck space and in the surface

-buoyancy has greatly minimised the

-discomforts of service in the submarine

-flotilla.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>With regard to safety, it has already

-been shown that a submarine is only held

-below the surface by the power of her

-engines and the action of the water on

-her diving-rudders. This means that in

-the event of anything going wrong

-<i>inside</i> the vessel she would automatically

-rise to the surface; but should the hull

-be pierced in any way, either by shot

-or by collision, and an overwhelming

-inrush of water result—overcoming the

-buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing

-out the water-ballast tanks—then the

-vessel must inevitably sink, and the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>question of whether or not the crew

-can save themselves becomes a problem

-to which no definite answer can be given,

-although a special means is provided in

-all modern vessels belonging to the British

-Navy. Speaking generally, it may, however,

-be said that if the disaster occurs

-suddenly, and the vessel sinks into very

-deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving

-are extremely small; but if the

-water is comparatively shallow, as along

-the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood

-of many of the crew being able to save

-themselves with the aid of the <i>special

-escape helmets and air-locks</i> is fairly good.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>We now come to the most important

-improvement made in the fighting qualities

-of these vessels since first they came into

-being, viz. the wonderful increase in the

-surface and submerged speed. In the

-older craft the surface speed did not

-exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it

-now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the

-submerged speed has risen from 5 knots

-to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>for any but a naval man to realize exactly

-what this increase in the speed of submarines

-really means, and it is equally as

-difficult to adequately describe it here in

-non-technical language. It is a mere

-platitude to say that in order to attack a

-surface warship the submarine must first

-get within torpedo range of it; and yet it

-is on this very point that the strategy and

-tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A

-clever naval tactician once described the

-submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.”

-The two points on which he

-based this opinion were—the (then) slow

-speed of these vessels compared with that

-of the surface warship, and its almost

-total blindness when submerged. These

-two defects were for some years the

-principal drawbacks of all the submarines

-afloat; but since that naval expert pronounced

-submarines to be “handicapped

-torpedo-boats,” great changes, great improvements

-have been made. The speed

-of the submarine has increased by over

-100 per cent., and they have been given

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>longer and wider range of vision by the

-introduction of two and three improved

-periscopes instead of one elementary

-instrument. Nevertheless, the speed

-difficulty is still a very real one, as

-will readily be seen when it is taken

-into consideration that the speed of a

-submarine when attacking submerged is

-frequently only half, or even a third,

-of that of her enemy. In order to

-more clearly illustrate this and lift for

-a moment the veil of secrecy which

-enshrouds the methods of attack adopted

-by this type of craft, it will be necessary

-to describe what is known as the<i> right-angle

-attack</i>.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Attacking at Right Angles.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>The difficulty of attacking a surface

-warship steaming at right angles to the

-course of the submarine will be clearly

-understood by referring to the following

-diagrams. The first shows an attack on

-a warship travelling at 20 miles an

-hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Any increase in the speed of the surface

-vessel not only adds to the difficulty of

-the attacking submarine, but also the

-direction from which the attack must be

-made. This feature is shown in the

-second diagram, which illustrates a submarine

-attack on a vessel steaming

-at 30 miles an hour, such as a fast

-destroyer or fleet scout. On the other

-hand, a decrease in the speed of the

-on-coming surface vessel tends to either

-make easier the task of the attacking

-submarine, or else to increase the

-distance from which the attack can be

-delivered. This is shown in the third

-diagram, which assumes the speed of the

-surface vessel to be only 15 miles an

-hour, such as a merchantman, troopship,

-food-ship, collier, or old warship.</p>

-

-<div id='tn142'  class='figcenter id002'>

-<img src='images/132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />

-<div class='ic002'>

-<p><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></p>

-</div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'><a id='tn142-2'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a submarine attacking

-a hostile warship (or fleet) steaming at

-20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the

-line of vision. The submarine sights the

-warship at a distance of just over 11 miles

-on her port bow. “B” shows the hostile

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to point

-marked “C,” and each division beyond

-equals 1 mile.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Directly the submarine, which is

-assumed to be lying in an <i>awash

-condition</i>, sights the object of attack,

-she totally submerges and steers forward

-at a speed of 10 miles an hour.

-The loss, and gain, of the submarine on

-the different courses, can be seen in the

-table above the chart.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c028'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The spaces between the black dots

-show the most favourable points of

-attack. It will be noticed in the table

-that both vessels are equal at point “C,”

-but for many reasons this is not the best

-point of attack. The gain of about six

-minutes on the longer course enables the

-submarine not only to manœuvre into the

-best possible position for the attack, but

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>also to discharge more than one torpedo

-if necessary.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><a id='tn144'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the extreme limit at

-which a submarine could, with reasonable

-chances of success, attack a destroyer, or

-other vessel, steaming at 30 (statute)

-miles an hour, having sighted her at a

-distance of 16 miles in the position

-shown by the line of vision “A.”</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The distance to “C” is 15 miles

-for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for

-the submarine. Here, again, the two

-vessels would be equal; but the most

-favourable point of attack is shown by

-the two black dots—where the submarine

-has gained two minutes.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Fig. 3.</span>—The submarine sights the

-object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼

-miles, in the position shown by the line

-of vision “A.” The surface vessel has

-a speed of only 15 miles an hour

-(merchantman). In this case the surface

-vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey

-along course “B”—arriving at point

-“C” 20 minutes in advance of the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>submarine. The table shows how the

-submarine, by changing her course and

-“throwing” the surface vessel on her

-beam, gradually reduces the loss, until,

-at the point marked with the two black

-dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At

-this distance she could fire her torpedoes at

-long range, with some likelihood of success.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Although these charts show approximately

-the extreme limits of the right-angle

-attack, a submarine could, of

-course, proceed for some distance on

-the surface at a much faster speed;

-but considering the rate at which the

-two vessels would be approaching each

-other, the submarine which attempted

-it would run considerable risk of being

-detected, and thus destroy her chances

-of a successful attack. Considering also

-the time lost in sinking from the “light”

-to the totally submerged condition, in

-coming to close quarters, the gain in

-speed would not amount to as much as

-may at first seem probable.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c028'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>These charts are drawn and calculations

-made assuming the following

-points:—</p>

-

-<div class='in1'>

-

-  <dl class='dl_1'>

-    <dt>(1)</dt>

-    <dd>The weather—fine and bright.

-    </dd>

-    <dt>(2)</dt>

-    <dd>Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.

-    </dd>

-    <dt>(3)</dt>

-    <dd>The enemy on the alert.

-    </dd>

-    <dt>(4)</dt>

-    <dd>Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.

-    </dd>

-    <dt>(5)</dt>

-    <dd>Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” in all courses in a

-    submerged condition.

-    </dd>

-    </dl>

-

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>The most favourable position for a

-submarine flotilla is to manœuvre close

-up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within

-1,000 yards of a fleet—steaming across

-its course; but both of these ideal

-positions for attack are extremely

-difficult to obtain, and consequently in

-all the less favourable positions speed

-is the deciding factor. Strategems will

-undoubtedly play an important part in

-submarine warfare. An example of this

-has already been afforded when the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>German submarines resorted to the

-dishonest trick of laying in wait behind

-a trawler engaged in laying mines, over

-which <i>the flag of a neutral state</i> had

-been hoisted as a blind. This resulted

-in the loss of three British cruisers with

-over 1,000 lives. It would, however,

-be quite in accord with the rules of

-<i>civilised</i> warfare for a submarine to

-shelter behind a “decoy”; to attack

-simultaneously with a seaplane; or to

-approach an enemy behind one of its

-own merchant ships.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Porpoise Dive.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise

-Dive” is merely the sudden rising of a

-submarine in order to enable her commander

-to get a better view of the surface

-than that afforded by the periscope. The

-submarine on approaching the object of

-attack rises quickly to the surface by the

-action of her horizontal rudders, then

-dives again, only remaining above water

-for a few seconds to enable her commander

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>to get a glimpse of the enemy,

-and to take bearings. The submarine

-can then get within torpedo-range, with

-simply the tiny periscope projecting from

-the surface. This manœuvre is now

-seldom necessary, owing to the long and

-wide range of vision of the two or three

-periscopes fitted in modern submarines.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Difficulty of the Fixed Torpedo Tube.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>With the exception of one or two

-vessels, which it would be unwise to

-specify, all the submarines engaged in

-the present war have what are called

-<i>fixed submerged tubes</i>. This means that

-the tubes from which the torpedoes are

-discharged are fitted <i>inside</i> the submarine

-<i>on a line with the centre of the boat</i>, and

-cannot be moved or aimed in any way

-apart from the boat itself. It therefore

-becomes necessary for the submarine to

-be <i>aligned</i> by the steering rudders on the

-object of attack before the torpedoes can

-be discharged. In simpler vein, torpedoes

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>can only be fired by a submarine straight

-ahead or straight astern. Hence a

-submarine, with a hostile warship coming

-up on its beam, is compelled to turn and

-face its opponent (or turn its stern towards

-her) before delivering an attack.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotilla</span> <i>v.</i> <span class='sc'>Surface Fleet.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>It is absolutely necessary for submarines

-acting in company to have each

-its allotted task; and for a wide space of

-water to be left between each boat; as it

-is impossible, at present, for one submarine

-to know the exact position of

-another when both vessels are submerged.

-Therefore, if each boat was not previously

-instructed how to act, there would not

-only be the likelihood of the greater

-portion of an attacking flotilla firing their

-torpedoes at one or two vessels of the

-hostile fleet and allowing the remainder

-either to escape or to keep up a heavy

-and dangerous fire unmolested, but also

-of collision and of torpedoeing each other

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>by accident. There is no means of

-inter-communication between submarines

-when submerged, and a battle between

-submarines is almost impossible.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Surprise Attack.</span></h3>

-

-<p class='c027'>In this case invisibility is the element

-of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge,

-G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once

-said: “When submerged the concealment

-of the submarine is practically perfect.

-If she has not been sighted up to the

-moment of diving, she will almost

-certainly reach, unobserved, the point at

-which she can make her attack.” And

-this opinion—shared for many years by

-all experts—has been amply proved in the

-present war.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>A submarine must, however, blend with

-the surrounding sea in its ever-varying

-colours, lights and shades, in order that

-she may be as invisible as possible when

-cruising on the surface. The French

-Naval Authorities experimented off

-Toulon with a luminous paint of a

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>sea-green colour; but this, although

-causing the hull to be almost totally

-invisible in certain weather, was found

-to be useless, as, on a bright day with

-a blue sky, the green showed up clear

-against the bluish tint of the surrounding

-sea. After many months of experimenting,

-a pale, sea-green, non-luminous

-paint was chosen as the best colour

-for French submarines. The British

-Admiralty also carried out a few experiments

-in this direction, and came to the

-conclusion that a dull grey was the most

-invisible shade. The German authorities

-decided in favour of a grey-brown.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>When travelling submerged, with only

-the thin periscopic tube above the surface,

-it is almost impossible to detect the

-approach of a submarine <i>before</i> she gets

-within torpedo range; and when cruising

-on the surface she is equally as invisible

-at a distance of a few miles. These

-qualities enable the submarine in nearly

-all cases where her speed permits, to

-effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>or cruiser <i>when not closely screened by

-fast destroyers</i>, whose duty it is to be ever

-on the watch for submarines.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>As to the tactics which would be

-employed by a submarine (or flotilla) in

-attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it

-is impossible to say, for, like the

-impromptu attacks of all “mosquito

-craft,” the exact method, or manœuvre<a id='tn152'></a>,

-is arranged to suit the circumstances,

-and it is very seldom that two such

-attacks are carried out alike. Generally

-speaking, however, a hostile warship

-could be easily sighted, on a fairly

-clear day, from the flying-bridge of a

-submarine at a distance of 10 miles; but

-it would be practically impossible to

-detect the submarine from the deck of

-a warship at that distance. On sighting

-her object of attack the submarine would

-sink to the “awash” condition, and

-proceed for from 2 ½ to 5 miles, as

-might be deemed expedient. She would

-then submerge and steer by her periscopes,

-each of which has a field of vision

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>of 60 degrees. He would be a very

-keen look-out who would be able to

-detect the few square inches of periscopic

-tube at a distance of three miles.

-As this distance lessened, it might be

-advisable, if the sea was <i>very</i> calm and

-if the object of attack was stationary,

-for the submarine to slacken speed, so as

-to prevent any spray being thrown off

-by the periscopic tube. Assuming, however,

-that the optical tube was seen by

-the enemy, it would be extremely difficult

-to hit it with gun-fire at a distance of one

-or two miles, or to damage the boat itself,

-which would probably be immersed to a

-depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of

-about 2,000 yards, or just over one mile,

-the submarine would discharge her first

-torpedo, following it up with another

-at closer range from the second bow

-tube. A rapid dive would then probably

-be necessary in order to avoid the hail

-of shot which would plough up the waters

-around her. If the first two torpedoes

-missed their mark the submarine might

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>either dive completely under the object

-of attack and then fire her stern tubes

-at close range, or else manœuvre below

-the surface for an attack from some

-other point.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>One of the effects produced on fleets

-or individual warships in war time by

-the ever present possibility of submarine

-attack is, however, that they never

-remain at anchor or even stationary in

-an exposed position, and seldom—if wise—proceed

-without destroyers as advance

-and flank guards. These precautions

-double the difficulties of a successful

-submarine attack.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>

-  <h2 id='ch9' class='c014'>CHAPTER IX <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>In all warfare, new weapons of attack

-are, sooner or later, met by new methods

-of defence. The submarine and the

-aeroplane are at present the only

-weapons against which there is no true

-means of defence, and yet one is being

-used as an antidote for the other without,

-however, any very striking success so far.

-The seaplane may be able to distinguish

-the dark patch in the sea caused by the

-hull of the submarine <i>in clear water</i>,

-but she cannot destroy it, neither can

-she signal the <i>exact</i> locality to an

-accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing

-to the speed with which seaplane and

-submarine pass over and under each

-other; furthermore, in rough weather or

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>in shallow muddy water no sign of the

-submarine when submerged is visible

-from above. The great value of the

-seaplane as an antidote for submarines

-lies, however, first in the fact that the

-water of the open sea is usually clear,

-and the <i>submarine shadow</i> is visible

-from above, and, secondly, in the great

-speed of these aircraft which enables

-them to quickly cover miles of sea in

-their search for hostile submarines and

-to report their presence in a given

-locality by wireless to all ships operating

-within range.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>When the enormous superficial area of

-a zone of war, such as the North Sea

-and English Channel, is duly considered,

-however, the difficulty in quickly and

-reliably locating from the air the

-few scattered “submarine shadows” will

-be easily realized. To make this

-method of locating submarines even

-fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes

-would be required. Again seaplanes

-do not, in themselves, constitute

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>a means of defence against submarine

-attack, they merely increase the likelihood

-of detection, but, in actual warfare,

-it has now been proved that for every

-submarine detected by seaplanes two

-others pass quite unobserved.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Many means of attack on submarines

-have been proposed; and no doubt some

-of these, in certain cases, would prove

-effective; but none can be relied upon.

-Therefore, one of the points in favour

-of the submarine still remains without

-its antidote. This is the <i>moral effect</i>;

-for if there is no absolutely reliable

-means of defence, there can be no

-feeling of security for surface warships

-or merchant vessels when anywhere

-within the danger zone of the submarine.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Let us now examine briefly what

-practical methods of defence a modern

-warship has against submarine attacks.

-Great speed is undoubtedly a surface

-ship’s most reliable defence; and when

-combined with a frequent change of

-course, would greatly reduce the chances

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>of a successful under-water attack.

-Should hostile submarines be on the

-line of advance they would not know

-whether to wait and chance the enemy

-approaching within torpedo range or

-whether to run to starboard or port.

-This is, if the surface warship was

-steaming in an erratic course—not a

-zigzag course, for then it might be

-possible to estimate, within torpedo

-range, the position of the ship at a

-given point if the “tacks” were regular.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Should submarines be seen approaching,

-a surface vessel would do well to turn

-her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting

-as small a target as possible,

-and deflecting the torpedoes by her

-propeller race.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The escape of the Battle Cruiser

-<i>Queen Mary</i> and the Light Cruiser

-<i>Lowestoft</i>, during the action in the

-Heligoland Bight, as described in the

-dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David

-Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what may

-be done by the skilful use of the helm

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>on surface warships to frustrate submarine

-attacks. So interesting, and informative

-as to the actual fighting

-between British warships and hostile

-submarines, in this dispatch that I give

-it here in full. It should, however, be

-studied in conjunction with the comprehensive

-report—the first in the

-history of Naval warfare detailing submarine

-attack and reconnaissance—from

-Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B.,

-of the British submarines, given on

-page 28.</p>

-

-<div class='c040'>“H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>

-<div class='c040'><i>1st September, 1914</i>.</div>

-

-<p class='c024'>“<span class='sc'>Sir</span>,—I have the honour to report

-that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 a.m.,

-I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser

-Squadron and First Light Cruiser

-Squadron in company, to rendezvous

-with the Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements

-of the Flotillas commenced as

-previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser

-Squadron and Light Cruiser Squadron

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>supporting. The Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>,

-with <i>New Zealand</i> and four

-Destroyers having joined my flag, the

-Squadron passed through the pre-arranged

-rendezvous.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal

-from the Commodore (T), informing me

-that the Flotilla was in action with the

-enemy. This was presumably in the

-vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous.

-From this time until 11 a.m. I remained

-about the vicinity ready to support as

-necessary, intercepting various signals,

-which contained no information on which

-I could act.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked

-by three Submarines. The attack

-was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and

-the four Destroyers were ordered to

-attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m.,

-various signals having been received

-indicating that the Commodore (T) and

-Commodore (S) were both in need of

-assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser

-Squadron to support the Torpedo Flotillas.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>“Later I received a signal from the

-Commodore (T), stating that he was

-being attacked by a large Cruiser, and

-a further signal informing me that he

-was being hard pressed and asking for

-assistance. The Captain (D), First

-Flotilla, also signalled that he was in

-need of help.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“From the foregoing the situation

-appeared to me critical. The Flotillas

-had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m.,

-and were only about twenty-five miles

-from two enemy bases on their flank and

-rear respectively. Commodore Goodenough

-had detached two of his Light

-Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier

-in the day, and these had not yet rejoined.

-(They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As

-the reports indicated the presence of many

-enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I

-considered that his force might not be

-strong enough to deal with the situation

-sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the

-Battle Cruisers turned to E.S.E., and

-worked up to full speed. It was evident

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>that to be of any value the support must

-be overwhelming and carried out at the

-highest speed possible.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“I had not lost sight of the risk of

-Submarines, and possible sortie in force

-from the enemy’s base, especially in view

-of the mist to the South-East.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Our high speed, however, made

-submarine attack difficult, and the

-smoothness of the sea made their detection

-comparatively easy. I considered

-that we were powerful enough to deal

-with any sortie except by a Battle

-Squadron, which was unlikely to come

-out in time, provided our stroke was

-sufficiently rapid.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 12.15 p.m. <i>Fearless</i> and First

-Flotilla were sighted retiring West. At

-the same time the Light Cruiser

-Squadron was observed to be engaging

-an enemy ship ahead. They appeared

-to have her beat.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“I then steered N.E. to sounds of

-firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. sighted

-<i>Arethusa</i> and Third Flotilla retiring to

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>the Westward engaging a Cruiser of the

-<i>Kolberg</i> class on our Port Bow. I

-steered to cut her off from Heligoland,

-and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At 12.42

-the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased

-at 27 knots.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged

-a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. <i>Lion</i>

-fired two salvoes at her, which took

-effect, and she disappeared into the mist,

-burning furiously and in a sinking condition.

-In view of the mist and that she

-was steering at high speed at right angles

-to <i>Lion</i>, who was herself steaming at

-28 knots, the <i>Lion’s</i> firing was very

-creditable.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“Our Destroyers had reported the

-presence of floating mines to the Eastward

-and I considered it inadvisable to

-pursue her. It was also essential that

-the Squadrons should remain concentrated,

-and I accordingly ordered a

-withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned

-North and circled to port to complete the

-destruction of the vessel first engaged.

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m.

-steaming S.E. with colours still flying.

-<i>Lion</i> opened fire with two turrets, and at

-1.35 p.m., after receiving two salvoes, she

-sank.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“The four attached Destroyers were

-sent to pick up survivors, but I deeply

-regret that they subsequently reported

-that they searched the area but found

-none.</p>

-

-<p class='c024'>“At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers

-turned to the Northward, and <i>Queen

-Mary</i> was again attacked by a Submarine.

-The attack was avoided by the use of

-the helm. <i>Lowestoft</i> was also unsuccessfully

-attacked. The Battle Cruisers

-covered the retirement until nightfall.

-By 6 p.m., the retirement having been

-well executed and all Destroyers accounted

-for, I altered course, spread the

-Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in

-accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s

-orders. At 7.45 p.m. I detached

-<i>Liverpool</i> to Rosyth with German

-prisoners, seven officers and 79 men,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>survivors from <i>Mainz</i>. No further incident

-occurred.—I have the honour to

-be, Sir, your obedient Servant.</p>

-

-<div class='c023'>“(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>

-<div class='c023'>“Vice-Admiral.</div>

-<div class='c023'>“The Secretary of the Admiralty.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and

-6-inch type are certainly the best weapons

-for an attack on submarines. In combination

-with “sharp look-outs,” they

-could be used with effect from the

-elevated positions on the fore part of

-warships. The periscopic-tube of the

-submarine always proves a target for

-gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches

-in diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards

-requires “excellent” marksmanship to

-hit. That it can be done is proved by

-the sinking of the German submarine

-U.15 by the British Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i>

-in the North Sea. The effect of a shot

-carrying away the periscope is to blind

-the submarine, at least in one eye, she

-can then be <i>run-down</i> by the surface

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>warship or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at

-close range.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Of course, if submarines were caught

-napping on the surface the guns of surface

-warships could quickly sink them; but

-another incident, similar to that which

-opened the naval engagements of the

-Russo-Japanese War, cannot be looked

-for in the naval engagements to come.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>For a fleet engaged in bombarding or

-blockading, one of the best methods of

-defence would be to lower the torpedo

-nets, not close round each vessel, but

-suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance

-from the bombarding or blockading

-fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a

-good defence during daylight, but

-neither of these methods are reliable.

-A submarine might be able to dive

-unobserved under, or past, the destroyers

-acting as pickets, and it is this

-chance which causes these under-water

-craft to be a source of constant anxiety.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The torpedo-boat destroyer should

-prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot

-vessels to look after their under-water

-opponents.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>It has been suggested that internal

-armour could be fitted to warships

-below the water-line, which would

-render the hulls able to withstand mine

-or torpedo explosions. At present this

-is practically impossible, as the great

-weight of this additional armour, combined

-with the ever-increasing size of

-guns and weight of above-water protection,

-would necessitate a vessel of

-such enormous displacement as to be

-quite impossible, if the important factor—high

-speed—has also to be maintained.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The defence of harbours against submarines

-is a problem which does not

-present nearly so many difficulties as

-the defence of moving ships. Portsmouth,

-for example, is closed by means

-of a submarine boom-defence, which is

-stretched across the mouth of the

-harbour. The entrance to the River

-Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>Canal) is effectively closed to British

-submarines by boom-defences, mines, and

-submerged wire entanglements. Narrow

-waterways, such as the Straits of Dover,

-can be closed by the laying of contact-mines,

-and even broader seas can be

-made dangerous to submarines by the

-same method. An example of this is

-afforded by the laying of a British

-mine-field somewhere between the

-Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to

-prevent German submarines from penetrating

-into the English Channel.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>There are so many reliable means

-of defending harbours and narrow

-waterways against submarines that it is

-unnecessary to say anything further

-here. But to protect moving ships at

-sea, under all conditions, certainly presents

-a most profound puzzle.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>

-  <h2 id='ch10' class='c014'>CHAPTER X <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo has become one

-of the principal naval arms. Not only

-does it supply the chief offensive power

-of the submarine, the torpedo-boat and

-the destroyer, but it is also carried as a

-separate arm, with a special highly-trained

-crew, by almost every warship afloat.

-At the beginning of hostilities the Naval

-Powers engaged owned considerably over

-80,000 of these weapons, and <i>one</i> factory

-in England alone can make them at the

-rate of two a day. During the first few

-weeks of the <i>Great War</i> the torpedo

-was responsible for the sinking of warships

-to the value of over one million sterling.

-Had the German Fleet been on the high

-seas instead of in harbour and protected

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>from torpedo raids by carefully-prepared

-submarine defences, there is little

-doubt but what several more of the

-enemy’s ships would have been sunk

-by this weapon. The fact that at first

-the British light cruisers suffered rather

-heavily—though in total loss of ships and

-men less than the German Navy—does

-not point to any advantage derived either

-from the type of torpedo used or from

-skill in this mode of warfare possessed by

-the Germans, but clearly to the timidity

-of the German main fleet, which was at

-the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn

-from the zone of war and placed behind

-fortifications, where it was safe from

-torpedo attack. The British Fleet, true

-to the policy of “attack and not defence,”

-began operations the moment war was

-declared, with results so brilliantly successful,

-and of such far-reaching and

-world-wide importance, that enumeration is

-well-nigh impossible. But while all these

-operations were in progress the British

-Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>attack by any hostile submarines or fast

-surface craft which might succeed in

-getting past the cordon of protecting

-destroyers, while the German Fleet was

-safe, but ignominiously impotent. That

-the naval losses of Great Britain, with

-all her fleets at sea, have not been far

-greater than they have is in itself a victory

-of the greatest magnitude—a victory due

-entirely to consummate naval skill.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The modern torpedo varies in length

-from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to

-half a ton. It has an extreme range

-of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ miles.

-There are three types of torpedoes in

-use by the fleets at war. The British

-use the <i>Whitehead Torpedo</i>, the French

-the Whitehead and the <i>Schneider</i>, the

-Russians and the Japanese use the

-Whitehead; the Germans have a type

-of their own, known as the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>,

-and the Austrian arm is principally the

-Whitehead. All these types are alike in

-their essential features, and therefore need

-not be described separately.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead

-torpedo is propelled by compressed air

-stored in that section of the weapon

-known as the <i>air-chamber</i> (see diagram).

-The air on being released is heated and

-expanded in a tiny three or four-cylinder

-engine which operates twin screws,

-moving “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”

-The “war-head” contains about

-200 pounds of wet gun-cotton which is

-exploded on the torpedo striking an

-object. The essential features of the

-Whitehead torpedo are shown in the

-diagram.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c028'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c022'>This torpedo maintains a speed of

-42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for

-2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards,

-and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. Thus, if

-discharged at a distance of half a mile

-it reaches its object in about 45 seconds.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c041'>

- <img src='images/164.jpg' alt='Whitehead Torpedo' />

- <div>

-

-<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead

-torpedo. <i>A.</i> Pistol, detonator, primer, which causes the

-explosion of “B” when the torpedo strikes an object. <i>B.</i>

-Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. (The “war-head”

-is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)

-<i>C.</i> Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of

-approximately 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The

-chamber is tested to stand a pressure of 1700 lbs. per square

-inch. <i>D.</i> Balance chamber, containing mechanism for

-regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo

-is adjusted to run. <i>E.</i> Engine-room, containing propelling

-machinery (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). <i>F.</i> Buoyancy

-chamber—a practically empty chamber—to give the

-necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. <i>G.</i> Gyroscope. An

-instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo

-from the line of fire. <i>H.</i> Rudders, and mechanism for

-operating. <i>I.</i> Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and

-“anti-clockwise.<a id='tn175'></a>”</span></p>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into

-the sea from surface or submerged

-tubes, and on striking the water are

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>propelled by their own engines in an

-absolutely straight course towards the

-target. The exact mechanism of the

-submerged tube—which is used in

-surface warships as well as in submarines—is

-a naval secret. When fired from

-a surface tube the torpedo sinks immediately

-to a depth of about 10 to 14

-feet, and maintains this depth until it

-strikes its object. When fired from a

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>submerged tube it rises—if necessary—to

-the same level. A torpedo always

-proceeds towards its object of attack at

-a depth of a few feet below the surface.

-This, combined with speed, renders

-it almost impossible to destroy an

-approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So

-marvellous is the mechanism of these

-little weapons that in anything like

-favourable circumstances they may be

-<i>depended upon</i>, if well aimed, to strike

-within a yard or two of the spot aimed

-at. This accuracy is due almost

-entirely to the gyroscope, which,

-briefly described, is a rotating wheel

-automatically controlling the torpedo’s

-course.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Although for many years torpedoes

-have been carried by nearly all types

-of service warships, none of them were

-really ideal for this kind of warfare. A

-new field for the torpedo was, however,

-opened out by the introduction of the

-submarine boat. In order to be effective

-the torpedo must be discharged from a

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>distance under 4,000 yards—preferably

-from a point less than half this distance

-from the object of attack. This means

-that the vessel carrying the torpedo

-would have to get within a mile, or at

-least a mile and a-half, of her object

-of attack before discharging a torpedo.

-For a surface vessel to accomplish this in

-the face of a heavy cannonade from quick-firing

-guns would be extremely risky.

-To make a quick rush to close quarters,

-if possible, by several vessels from

-different points, was the only chance of

-delivering a successful torpedo attack

-on a hostile warship; unless, of course,

-she was favoured by fog or darkness

-<i>at the right moment</i>—favourable conditions

-which would seldom obtain in

-actual warfare. Again, every increase in

-the speed of the big surface warship

-rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat

-and destroyer more difficult because

-in the event of a threatened attack the

-larger vessel would make use of her

-speed to keep out of torpedo range while

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>her powerful guns were repelling the

-attacking torpedo-boat.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The <i>hour</i> of the torpedo came with

-the <i>perfection</i> of the submarine. All the

-conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were

-fulfilled—<i>invisibility</i> rendering daylight

-attacks possible; <i>almost perfect immunity

-from gun-fire</i> enabling the torpedo to be

-discharged at closer range; <i>submerged

-discharge</i> removing the likelihood of

-the weapon being exploded by accurate

-gun-fire before being discharged; <i>speed on

-the surface</i> enabling the “carrying”

-vessel to manœuvre for position; <i>moderate

-speed when submerged</i> enabling an

-attack under all reasonably tactical

-conditions; and <i>comparatively large displacement</i>

-giving good cruising qualities,

-wide range of action, and enabling a

-large number of torpedoes and tubes

-being carried.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>

-  <h2 id='ch11' class='c014'>CHAPTER XI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINE MINES</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>If the Russo-Japanese war was the

-first to fully demonstrate the value of

-the explosive mine, the Great European

-Conflict has certainly brought this weapon

-to the forefront in the rapidly growing

-science of submarine warfare. During

-the first few weeks of the naval fighting

-several warships, beginning with H.M.S.

-<i>Amphion</i>, and many merchant vessels

-representing millions of pounds sterling,

-were destroyed by these weapons. Had

-it not been for the foresight of the

-British Admiralty in providing a very

-large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by

-seaplanes, there can be no doubt but

-what the shipping of all countries—neutrals

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>and belligerents alike—would

-have suffered far greater losses.</p>

-

-<div  class='figcenter id003'>

-<img src='images/168.jpg' alt='Launching Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />

-<div class='ic002'>

-<p>LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.</p>

-</div>

-</div>

-

-<div  class='figcenter id003'>

-<img src='images/169.jpg' alt='Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />

-<div class='ic002'>

-<p>A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.<br /><br /><span class='c006'>These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.</span></p>

-</div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>The indiscriminate scattering of mines

-across the trade routes, as carried on

-by Germany immediately on the outbreak

-of war, and before hardly any of the

-ships at sea belonging to neutral

-countries could be warned to avoid the

-zone of operations, has never before been

-so ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised

-power.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The system of defence consists of the

-mooring of these mines in such positions

-as to make it almost impossible for hostile

-ships to pass without either striking or

-coming within the destructive zone of one

-or more of them. What are known as

-<i>floating mines</i> are those set adrift to be

-washed about by the tide. They explode

-immediately on being struck by a passing

-vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate

-between friend and foe. The systems of

-destroying hostile mine-fields consist of

-<i>counter-mining</i>, or placing other mines in

-the enemy’s field and destroying it by

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>their explosion, and by <i>sweeping</i>. The

-latter method is the one mostly employed

-in modern warfare. The boats taking

-part in the <i>sweep</i> place themselves one

-on each side of the mine-field, and

-between them hangs a long wire rope,

-weighted in the centre to keep it well

-submerged. They then move forward,

-sweeping the mines to the surface or

-exploding them harmlessly. It is, however,

-very dangerous but highly necessary

-work.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>There are two kinds of submarine

-mines, one is designed to explode on

-being struck by a passing vessel, and is

-called a <i>contact mine</i>, and the other is

-fired from the shore by an electric

-current, and is known as an <i>observation

-mine</i>. The explosive principally used is

-wet gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only

-to the safety with which they can be

-stored and manipulated, but also to the

-fact that they seldom explode in sympathy

-with neighbouring mines, requiring to be

-actually fired. The importance of this will

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>be more fully realised when it is remembered

-that in warfare it is often necessary

-to explode certain mines over which hostile

-ships are endeavouring to pass, while

-leaving others in fairly close proximity

-intact, ready to repel a second invasion

-or to destroy ships nearer to them. The

-actual explosion is caused by an electric

-current, either from the shore or from a

-battery in the mine itself, causing the

-detonation of fulminate of mercury in

-conjunction with a small priming charge

-of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid

-in a series, connected to a battery on the

-sea-bed in the centre of the line of

-defence.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The <i>observation mine</i> is mostly used for

-defending the approaches to harbours, as

-an observer on shore can watch the movements

-of hostile warships and explode

-each mine when the vessel passes over

-it. <i>Contact mines</i>, on the other hand, are

-used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely

-to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed

-by means of a cable and heavy

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>weight, and are allowed to float a few

-feet below the surface. They explode

-immediately on contact. At times an

-unscrupulous or demoralised enemy will

-simply throw a number of these mines

-overboard and allow them to float at the

-mercy of wind and tide. They then

-become a terrible danger to the shipping

-of all nations, as once they are left

-unwatched it is extremely difficult to tell

-with any degree of certainty where they

-will eventually proclaim their presence

-by devastating explosions. Happily for

-the whole seafaring world, this method is

-seldom resorted to, as mines set adrift in

-this way become a danger to both friend

-and foe. In the Russo-Japanese war

-several ships were destroyed by their

-own mines.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>There are many different kinds of submarine

-mines, both of the observation

-and the contact type. Some are spherical

-in shape and others cylindrical. Some

-are moored close down to the sea-bed

-with a very heavy explosive charge

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>(200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have

-a small buoyant globe floating above

-them, which, when struck, fires the mine

-below. Others, known as secret-mines,

-are kept continually moored in the waterways

-leading to important naval harbours,

-and are only allowed to rise sufficiently

-high from the sea-bed to be struck by

-passing vessels in times of emergency.

-The type most generally used is, however,

-the ordinary <i>offensive contact mine</i>,

-which contains a powerful explosive

-charge and is anchored in the path of

-hostile warships. These mines are

-usually automatically sown in large

-numbers over a wide area of sea by the

-mine-laying fleets.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>

-  <h2 id='ch12' class='c014'>CHAPTER XII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>The <i>regular</i> mine-laying fleets of the

-powers at war are composed of the

-following vessels, all of which are fitted

-with special apparatus for the work.

-Submarine mines can, however, be laid

-by any vessel, and it is therefore almost

-impossible to say exactly what ships are

-engaged in this work. Both Germany

-and Austria have converted a large

-number of their merchantmen into mine-layers.

-England, in reply, has converted

-a large number of small steamers into

-<i>mine-sweepers</i>. Russia is a strong

-believer in explosive mines, and has

-strewn the gulfs of Finland and Riga

-with them. Japan, being on the

-offensive, is employing more mine-sweepers

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>than layers. France has an

-elaborate system of submarine mine

-defence for all her important harbours,

-and maintains a small fleet at each base,

-known as the “defence mobile.” These

-vessels are all capable of both mine-laying

-and sweeping.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The submarine mine is primarily the

-defence of the weaker naval power,

-and therefore a fleet acting on the

-defensive, either temporarily or permanently,

-requires more mine-layers than

-mine-sweepers, but the reverse is

-naturally the case with a fleet acting

-on the offensive. Although this may

-be taken as a general rule, it does not

-imply that a strong naval power like

-Great Britain, whose policy is attack

-and not defence, needs no mines or

-mine-layers. On the contrary, the

-laying of <i>counter</i> mines is one of the

-ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;

-and even the strongest fleet

-cannot guard every portion of a long

-coast line with many harbours exposed

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>to attack. The judicious laying of

-mine-fields will often prevent raids by

-hostile submarines and torpedo-boats;

-and will limit the theatre of operations,

-as was done by the British Navy in the

-southern portion of the North Sea in

-October, 1914. The axiom that a really

-strong navy needs to be strong in <i>every</i>

-branch, therefore holds good in this, as

-in all other respects.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mine-Laying Fleets.</span></h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Great Britain.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='c001'></div>

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Apollo.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Thetis.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Andromache.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Latona.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Naiad.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Intrepid.</i></li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Iphigenia.</i></li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>These are all second class cruisers of

-from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built about

-1891‒2, which have been converted

-into mine-layers. They are equipped

-with a very large number of submarine

-explosive mines, which can be automatically

-lowered into the water as the

-vessels steam along. Their speed is

-about 15 knots, and their armament

-consists of four 4·7-inch quick-firing

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>guns. Their complement is about 150

-officers and men.</p>

-

-<div class='myfigcenter c004'>

- <img src='images/176.jpg' alt='Iphigenia' />

- <div>

-<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c032'>

-    <div>THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. <i>IPHIGENIA</i>.</div>

-    <div class='c001'><span class='c006'>The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.</span></div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

- </div>

-</div>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Germany.</span></h4>

-

-<div class='c001'></div>

-<div class='center'>

-<ul class='ships'>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Pelikan</i> (1890).</li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Nautilus</i> (1906).</li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Albatross</i> (1907).</li>

-<li class='shipit'><i>Arkona</i> (1903).</li>

-</ul>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c022'>All these vessels, with the exception of

-the <i>Arkona</i>, which was a protected

-cruiser, have been specially built for

-mine-laying work. Their displacement

-is about 2,000 tons. The <i>Pelikan</i> has a

-speed of 15 knots, the <i>Albatross</i> and

-<i>Nautilus</i> of 20 knots, and the <i>Arkona</i> of

-21 ½ knots. They are all fitted with

-special gear for dropping the large

-number of mines carried, and their

-armament consists of from four to eight

-21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement

-is about 200 officers and men.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Austria.</span></h4>

-

-<p class='c027'>The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses

-only one regular mine-laying warship—the

-<i>Chamaleon</i>, which was being completed

-when war was declared. She is

-a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>with a speed of 20 knots. Her mine-launching

-gear is of the most modern

-and efficient type, and she is armed

-with several quick-firing guns.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Since the beginning of hostilities

-Austria has converted several old warships

-and merchantmen into mine-layers.</p>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>France and Russia.</span></h4>

-

-<p class='c027'>Neither of these powers possess

-proper mine-laying vessels, but on the

-outbreak of war several old warships

-and small merchant steamers were used

-for that purpose.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>

-  <h2 id='ch13' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>For clearing away the mines dropped

-by an enemy special vessels are employed.

-Each vessel is fitted on both

-sides with a curious contrivance known

-as the “picking-up gear.” This

-apparatus is lowered into the water,

-and “picks up” any mines which may

-lie in the path of an <a id='tn196'></a>on-coming fleet.

-When a mine-field is discovered by

-either destroyers or seaplanes these

-vessels are immediately dispatched to

-destroy it; and they are aided, in the

-case of the British Navy, by a large

-flotilla of steam trawlers. Many of

-these auxiliary vessels are not fitted

-with the <i>picking-up gear</i>, but go to work

-in pairs. Two vessels, connected together

-by a long wire rope weighted in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>the centre to keep it submerged, range

-themselves on each side of a mine-field,

-and by steaming ahead in a parallel line

-sweep up the mines floating between

-them. This process can be carried on

-simultaneously by a large number of

-trawlers, covering a very wide area of

-sea. In the meantime the attached

-destroyers and seaplanes can be

-searching for new fields. It often

-happens during sweeping operations

-that mines are brought into contact with

-each other and violent explosions occur.

-Sometimes the vessels engaged in this

-hazardous work will themselves strike

-one of the mines, but it is more often

-the <i>searching</i> flotillas which meet with

-sudden disaster in this way. Fully

-equipped mine-sweepers usually precede

-a fleet of battleships and big cruisers

-through dangerous and narrow seas,

-within the likely zone of hostile mines.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet

-comprises the following vessels:—<i>Circe</i>

-(810 tons), <i>Jason</i> (810 tons), <i>Speedy</i> (810

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>tons), <i>Leda</i> (810 tons), <i>Gossamer</i> (735

-tons), <i>Seagull</i> (735 tons), <i>Skipjack</i> (735

-tons), and <i>Speedwell</i> (735 tons).</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats

-which have been specially

-fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping.

-There is also a large flotilla of steam

-fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these

-vessels were purchased by the Admiralty

-before the war, and were also equipped

-for mine-sweeping; but many others were,

-by special arrangement, handed over to

-the Navy on the outbreak of war. The

-whole of the mine-sweeping fleet is

-manned by a special section of the Royal

-Naval Reserve, known as the “Trawler

-Section,” which consists of about 142

-<i>skippers</i> and 1,136 men. This is, of

-course, in addition to the several

-thousand naval sailors employed on the

-regular mine-sweepers, named above,

-and also to those employed on the large

-number of additional small steamers taken

-over for this work by the Admiralty at

-the commencement of hostilities. It is

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>estimated that the task of keeping the

-North Sea clear of mines during the first

-four weeks of the Great War required

-over 100 vessels and 5,000 sailors, in

-addition to the usual destroyer and submarine

-patrols with their crews, and also

-to the seaplanes with their pilots and

-observers.</p>

-

-<p class='c022'>Almost any steamship can be quickly

-converted into an effective mine-sweeper,

-and for this reason it is impossible to

-give here more than the very briefest

-information concerning the vessels

-employed in these operations by the

-other Naval Powers at war. Russia had

-fifteen special mine-sweeping vessels

-building when war broke out; but,

-doubtless, many small merchant ships

-have since been used for this purpose.

-France employed a number of mine-sweepers

-in the Adriatic; and Japan

-used some in clearing the approaches to

-Tsing-tau. Germany and Austria, of

-course, did not need many vessels of

-this kind, as the Allied Navies laid

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>comparatively few mines and German

-oversea commerce ceased to exist almost

-as soon as war was declared. It was

-in the North Sea, during the first phase

-of the naval war, that the value of a big

-British mine-sweeping fleet made itself

-so wonderfully apparent.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>

-  <h2 id='ch14' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c021'>Tempered and tried in the forge of

-war the submarine has at last been

-lifted from the experimental stage of

-naval construction to the fore-front of

-fleets in being. For over twenty years

-naval experts, marine engineers and

-scientists have been wrestling with the

-vast and complex problems of submarine

-construction, navigation and warfare, and

-have, at a cost of many lives and many

-millions sterling, produced submersible

-warships of steadily increasing size and

-power, until to-day 264 of these vessels,

-of over a dozen different and more or

-less secret designs, with displacements

-ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the fighting line of the Fleets at war.

-Thousands of sailors have been trained

-to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes,

-guns, engines, and even the air to breath,

-have been adapted for submarine work.

-A comparison, therefore, of the strength

-and fighting power of the submarine

-fleets engaged for the first time in this

-great struggle for the mastery of the

-seas is of more than passing interest.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>BRITISH NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table2' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (nearly completed)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>6</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>19</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>8</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>37</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>70</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table3' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>10</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>8</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>18</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in British Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>88</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<p class='c022'>It must, however, be pointed out that

-six vessels of the sea-going “F” class

-have not yet taken their place in the

-active flotillas; and that eight vessels

-of the “E” class were on duty on foreign

-stations when war commenced.</p>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>FRENCH NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table4' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (<i>Diane</i> class, <i>Bellone</i> class, and <i>Gustave Zede</i> class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: (completing)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>7</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Clorinde</i> class), range 3,500 miles, speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>10</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: <i>Mariotte</i>, <i>Archimède</i>, <i>Charles Brun</i>, and <i>Admiral Bourgeoise</i>), range 3,000‒3,500 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>4</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600 tons (<i>Fresnel</i> class), range 2,000 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>22</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Pluviôse</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>11</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>54</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table5' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 450 tons (<i>Circe</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400 tons (<i>Emeraude</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>6</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Argonaute</i> and <i>Aigrette</i> class), range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>3</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>11</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table6' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Triton</i> class, <i>Française</i> class, and <i>Lutin</i> class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>9</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Submarines of 50‒100 tons (<i>Naiade</i> class), range 100 miles, speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>20</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Harbour Defence Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>29</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in French Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>94</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>RUSSIAN NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table7' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (<i>Tigr</i> class), no particulars: (completing)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>12</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Kaschalot</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>7</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (<i>Alligator</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>4</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Akula</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>1</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (<i>Karp</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (<i>Makrel</i> class), range 800‒1,000 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>28</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table8' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Minoga</i> class, <i>Lossos</i> class, <i>Sig</i>, <i>Sterliad</i> class, <i>Som</i> class, <i>Ostr</i> class, and <i>Graf Cheremetieve</i> class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and holders: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>19</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>19</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>47</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>JAPANESE NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table9' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>6</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>6</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>14</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table10' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<table class='table11' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr><td class='c042' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span></td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>5</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>7</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>21</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>GERMAN NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table12' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>13</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>4</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>10</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>7</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'><a id='tn207'></a>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c018'>36</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table13' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>1</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in German Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>37</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<h3 class='c026'>AUSTRIAN NAVY.</h3>

-

-<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>

-

-<table class='table14' summary=''>

-<colgroup>

-<col width='97%' />

-<col width='2%' />

-</colgroup>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (completing—delivery doubtful)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>5</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>

-    <td class='c018'>2</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'></td>

-    <td class='c018'>――</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas</td>

-    <td class='c018'>6</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<p class='c022'>When war commenced all the vessels

-of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) were

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic.

-The Austrian Flotilla of six vessels was

-in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in

-home waters 74 submarines and 14 others

-on duty in the outer seas. France had

-several of the 92 vessels composing her

-powerful flotillas at her oversea colonial

-naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines

-in the Baltic, 11 in the Black Sea, and

-12 in the Far East. The Japanese

-Flotilla (17) was concentrated in Japanese

-waters.</p>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c0'>

-<div class='nf-center c043'>

-    <div><i>Printed in Great Britain by Wyman &amp; Sons Ltd., London and Reading.</i></div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<hr class='c044' />

-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.

-Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914.)</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Sunk October, 1914.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. The <i>Narval</i>, the first of this type, has been removed from

-the effective list.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered

-before the outbreak of war.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.

-Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally

-submerged, to steer a <i>perfectly</i> straight course, the table

-above each chart shows the approximate average loss and

-gain on each mile. It must also be remembered that the

-submarine in actual practice need only reach the torpedo

-firing line.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W.

-Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>

-<p class='c022'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W.

-Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <h2 class='c014'>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>

-</div>

-

-<table class='table15' summary=''>

-  <tr>

-    <th class='c045'>Printed</th>

-    <th class='c045'>Corrected</th>

-    <th class='c046'>Page</th>

-    <th class='c047'></th>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>guns</td>

-    <td class='c045'>guns.</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tnfrontis'>Frontispiece</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>and 2 q.-f. guns.</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>gunfire</td>

-    <td class='c045'>gun-fire</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn031'>30</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>attacked by gun-fire</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>),</td>

-    <td class='c045'>).</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn038'>37</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>E. B. Feilmann).</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>Submarines</td>

-    <td class='c045'>Submarines:</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn062'>61</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>Submarines: B.3, B.4,</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>destroyers·</td>

-    <td class='c045'>destroyers.</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn079'>74</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>and destroyers.</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building</span>:</td>

-    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building.</span></td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn080'>75</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Submarines Building.</span></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>topedo-boats</td>

-    <td class='c045'>torpedo-boats.</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn117'>108</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>torpedo-boats.</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>and</td>

-    <td class='c045'><span class='fss'>AND</span></td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn122-2'>113</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>U.19 and U.20.</span></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'><i>eompleted</i></td>

-    <td class='c045'><i>completed</i></td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn127'>118</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>were being <i>completed</i></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>manœvring</td>

-    <td class='c045'>manœuvering</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn134'>125</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>with manœuvering</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>Fig. 1</td>

-    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span></td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn142-2'>133</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>Fig. 2</td>

-    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span></td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn144'>135</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>manœuvre</td>

-    <td class='c045'>manœuvre,</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn152'>143</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>method, or manœuvre,</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.’</td>

-    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.”</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn175'>164</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>and “anti-clockwise.”</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c045'>oncoming</td>

-    <td class='c045'>on-coming</td>

-    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn196'>179</a></td>

-    <td class='c047'>path of an on-coming</td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<p class='c048'>On the <a href='#tntitle'>Title Page</a>, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”.</p>

-

-<p class='c048'>The image for <a href='#tn142'><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></a> appeared after Page <a href='#Page_160'>160</a> in the digitized source.</p>

-

-<p class='c048'>Under the <span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels</span> heading on Page <a href='#tn207'>190</a>, “Total Sea-going Submarines  | 36” was added for consistency.</p>

-

-<p class='c048'>Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.</p>

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-<pre>

-

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+  <body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 51347 ***</div>
+
+<div class='tnotes covernote'>
+
+<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+<div>
+  <h1 class='c002' title='Submarines, Mines and torpedoes in the War'></h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c003'></div>
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='British Submarine E.2' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c005'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns<a id='tnfrontis'></a>.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c007'>
+    <div><span class='c008'>SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR</span></div>
+    <div class='c009'>BY</div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c010'>CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'>AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”<a id='tntitle'></a>,</div>
+    <div>“SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.</div>
+    <div class='c011'><span class='c012'>ILLUSTRATED</span></div>
+    <div class='c011'><span class='c010'>HODDER AND STOUGHTON</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c012'>LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO</span></div>
+    <div class='c013'>MCMXIV</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>
+  <h2 class='c014'>PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Warfare has become so largely a matter
+of science that in order to arrive at an
+intelligent understanding of the <i>naval
+situation</i> or of the <i>military campaigns</i> in
+the Great European War, a knowledge
+of the scientific factors contributing to
+victory or defeat is essential. And in
+this volume it has been my aim not only
+to review the actual fighting underseas,
+but also to present a compendium of
+information relative to the submarine
+fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers
+engaged; which I venture to hope will
+prove of present interest on account of
+the prominent part played by the under-water
+fighting ships and appliances, and
+of permanent historic value as being the
+first work to describe the vast preparations
+and curious events leading to the new
+“Submarine Phase” in naval warfare.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'>C. W. D-F.</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>
+  <h2 class='c014'>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary=''>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c017'></th>
+    <th class='c018'>PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#intro'>9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch1'>40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch2'>60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch3'>79</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch4'>94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch5'>104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch6'>108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>CHAPTER VII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch7'>118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#flotillas'>123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch8'>124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch9'>146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER X</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch10'>160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINE MINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch11'>168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch12'>174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch13'>179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch14'>184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>
+  <h2 id='intro' class='c014'>INTRODUCTION <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>In the mist of war which envelops over
+half the entire world, no less than 264
+underwater fighting ships are engaged.
+They form the submarine fleets of
+England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany
+and Austria; and the highly-trained
+crews of these modern additions to the
+fighting navies comprise nearly 20,000
+men. But the conduct of submarine warfare
+on the grand scale requires far more
+than flotillas of submergible warships
+and their daring crews. This new branch
+of naval science is ever widening in its
+scope, its means of offence, and in its
+attendant ramifications. Every important
+naval base has its curious submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>floating docks, ready for crippled members
+of its attached flotilla; every naval construction
+department has its corps of
+submarine experts; each of the 1,500
+surface warships engaged in this titanic
+struggle for the dominion of Europe and
+the mastery of the seas carries the means
+for delivering submarine attacks in its
+torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging
+tubes. The oceans in the
+theatres of war have been strewn with
+German and Austrian mines; then they
+have been either counter-mined or swept
+clear and mined again. British seaplanes,
+with specially trained observers,
+are continually searching from high in
+the air for the <i>dark patches in the semi-transparent
+sea-green</i> which denote the
+presence of mines and submarines.
+Within signal-range or wireless call of
+the aërial scouts and their attendant ships
+are destroyer flotillas to give battle to
+the hostile submarines, while hundreds of
+trawlers and small steamers, fitted with
+special apparatus, are continually sweeping
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>up the hundreds of submarine mines laid
+by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted
+to enable them to sow like seeds over the
+pathways of the sea these deadly perils
+to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements
+in conjunction with boom-defences
+and observation and contact submarine
+mines protect the seaward approaches to
+harbours in the same way as similar
+appliances are used to protect the
+approaches to land fortifications; and
+every harbour, waterway and channel of
+strategic importance is protected by
+elaborate submarine mine defences. All
+this is part of the new warfare underseas—that
+science which is daily rendering
+hazardous the life of the greatest battleship
+and the smallest merchantman afloat
+in the zone of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Before placing in review order the vast
+preparations made for submarine attack
+and defence in the years which preceded
+the outbreak of war and describing in
+detail the powerful submarine fleets
+engaged, it is necessary to make clear
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>to the reader the wonderful change which
+this new mode of attack has made in all
+branches of naval warfare and its influence
+on sea power. As indicative of
+this change we have only to survey <i>in
+their submarine aspect</i> the naval operations
+in the opening phase of this, the
+greatest war in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the domain of naval strategy we
+find reflected the altered conditions caused
+by these invisible arms. Every battle
+on land and sea teaches its lesson of
+concealment and sudden stealthy attack;
+and even as the huge siege guns and
+devastating artillery fire of the land
+forces is causing the extension of the
+battle-front and the rapid burrowing
+under earth or entrenching of positions
+dearly won or with difficulty retained—“approximating
+to siege warfare”—so
+are the powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval
+guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. and
+1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with
+the rapidity and accuracy of the modern
+warship’s secondary armament, necessitating
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the reduction in numbers of the
+big surface ships of the opposing fleets
+by frequent submarine and torpedo
+attacks prior to the decisive engagements
+between the battle fleets. Hence
+we find, in the opening phase of the
+naval war, the German and Austrian
+fleets, inferior in numbers and gun
+power, skulking behind fortifications and
+waiting for their submarine and surface
+torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in conjunction
+with the hundreds of submerged
+mines strewn over the North Sea, Baltic,
+Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the
+number and power of the British, French,
+Russian and Japanese fleets before the
+decisive actions are fought; and in order
+that these tactics might be frustrated, and
+the big British ships, as well as those
+of her allies, costing several millions
+sterling each, should not be exposed
+to these grave risks when no good
+could result, they have been compelled
+to delay initiative, and meanwhile all
+their operations had to be screened by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and
+destroyer types, while they waited within
+call should the German Battle Fleet—in
+the case of the North Sea—dare to
+come out to fight. The British submarines
+of the large sea-going type were
+in the meantime employed in watching
+the Frisian coast with the object of
+attacking any of the enemy’s ships which
+ventured from behind the elaborate coast
+fortifications. Not content with this <i>rôle</i>,
+however, several British submarines made
+their way unseen through the dangerous
+waters of the Heligoland Bight and
+succeeded in getting within reconnoitering
+distance of the German submerged
+harbour defences, behind which lurk their
+big ships.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>With what degree of success this new
+opening or <i>submarine phase</i> in naval
+warfare has been attended is shown by
+the sinking, during the first few weeks
+of the war, of the British cruiser
+<i>Amphion</i>, a vessel of 3,440 tons displacement,
+completed in 1912, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>carrying ten 4-inch guns, with a loss of
+131 men, by contact with a German
+mine; the destruction of the German
+submarine U.15 by the British cruiser
+<i>Birmingham</i>; the sinking of an Austrian
+torpedo-boat by a mine off Pola; the
+torpedoing of H.M.S. <i>Pathfinder</i>, a
+fleet scout of about 3,000 tons displacement,
+completed in 1905‒6, by a
+German submarine; the destruction of
+the Wilson liner <i>Runo</i> by a mine; the
+sinking of the German cruiser <i>Hela</i>, a
+vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built
+in 1896, by the British submarine E 9,
+and the torpedoing of the British
+armoured cruisers <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Hogue</i> and
+<i>Cressy</i>—vessels of 12,000 tons displacement,
+carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve
+6-inch guns besides twelve 12-pounder
+quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by
+German submarines concealed behind
+a trawler engaged in laying mines,
+over which the Dutch flag had been
+hoisted as a blind.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This is in addition to the lamentable
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>destruction of much life and property
+belonging to neutral powers caused by
+the laying of German floating mines on
+the trade-routes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>To the Allies this <i>submarine phase</i>
+did not come unexpected. The British
+Naval yards in conjunction with the big
+shipbuilding and engineering firms, such
+as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;
+Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth
+and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the
+Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd.,
+Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and
+Co. Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’
+Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., as
+well as many other firms and individual
+submarine experts had been engaged for
+many years in solving one after another
+the problems continually arising in the
+practical application of all forms of
+submarine warfare. The first British
+naval submarines were launched in
+1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at
+Barrow, and the subsequent growth of
+our submarine flotillas has been rapid
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>both in number of vessels and in size
+and armament. The British submarine
+fleet now numbers 82 vessels. The
+original boats from which the British
+type has since been evolved were built
+from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland,
+an American inventor.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id001'>
+<img src='images/016.jpg' alt='North Sea Coastlines' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>To France belongs the honour of being
+the first naval power to adopt the submarine
+torpedo-boat as a vessel of war;
+and the first vessel, the <i>Gymnôte</i>, was
+launched in 1888, but it was not until
+1893 that the Republic commenced the
+construction of her now powerful submarine
+flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first Russian submarine was
+launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and
+since that date the Russian flotilla has
+steadily increased until it now numbers
+37 vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Japan commenced the construction of
+what is now a powerful and up-to-date
+flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition
+of a British-Holland boat in 1904.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Turning to Germany we find at first
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>a great reluctance on the part of the
+Ministry of Marine to provide for the
+construction of submarines, but in 1905‒6
+this initial hesitation was overcome and
+the two vessels U.1 and U.2 were
+launched. Since then the belief in a
+powerful submarine flotilla steadily grew
+until at the moment when war was
+declared Germany possessed no less than
+30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient
+type. The Austro-Hungarian Navy did
+not adopt submarines as units of the
+Fleet until 1909, and now possess only
+six small vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From this brief <i>resumé</i> of the growth
+of the submarine fleets of the six great
+naval Powers at war, it will be seen that
+in point of numbers as well as in priority,
+bringing with it practical experience,
+Great Britain and France have a very
+appreciable superiority. It must, however,
+be left for succeeding chapters to
+describe in detail the steady growth and
+present size and capabilities of the
+submarine fleets at war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese
+war were not lost on the
+British Admiralty, and special methods
+had been prepared to deal with submarine
+attack in its various forms.
+Having in mind the destruction caused
+to both Russian and Japanese warships
+by submarine mines—especially those
+of the “offensive contact” type, which
+are moored to the bottom, float just
+under the surface and explode immediately
+on contact; and in the Russo-Japanese
+War were responsible for
+the sinking of the Japanese battleships
+<i>Hatsuse</i> and <i>Yashima</i> as well
+as the Russian battleship <i>Petropavlovsk</i>
+and the cruiser <i>Boyarin</i>—the
+British Admiralty foresaw the danger to
+which both warships and merchantmen
+would be exposed in time of war if the
+seas strewn with these mines could not
+be quickly cleared, and a new type of
+auxiliary came into being. This was the
+mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old
+torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>the work. In addition to these, however,
+the Admiralty purchased a considerable
+number of steam fishing trawlers, and
+fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances,
+and made arrangements for a large fleet
+of similar vessels to be placed at the disposal
+of the navy in the event of war.
+In order to man this new mine-sweeping
+fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak
+of war, a new section of the Royal
+Naval Reserve was created in 1911.
+This is known as the “Trawler Section,”
+and consists of 142 <i>skippers</i> and 1,136
+men taken from the fishing fleet.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Realizing the value of the submarine
+mine in certain cases, the British
+Admiralty went further and created a
+small mine-laying fleet from seven old
+second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks
+cleared and provided with rails for
+a large number of mines to be run down
+and slid over the stern into the water as
+the vessels steamed along, thus quickly
+laying a mine-field. But as the laying
+of mines, speaking generally, is a defensive
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>mode of warfare and the policy of
+the British Navy—owing to its supremacy—is
+attack and not defence, the
+mine-laying fleet is of second importance
+to the sweeping fleet, the work of which,
+although much augmented by additional
+small steamers pressed into service, was,
+during the first few weeks of the war,
+of a nature more arduous and dangerous
+than will ever be realised. Hundreds of
+German mines were swept up, and
+hundreds more were exploded by being
+dragged into contact with each other during
+the progress of sweeping operations.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>What the clearance of these vast fields
+of floating and anchored mines in the
+North Sea meant to the British Navy,
+engaged in blockading the German
+Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not
+only of England, France, Russia and
+Belgium, but also to that of the neutral
+countries, it is perhaps a little difficult to
+realize until one remembers that several
+hundred British and French warships
+were patrolling the North Sea and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities,
+there were hundreds of merchantmen
+homeward bound whose course lay across
+this mine-infested sea. Many of these
+vessels had on board not only valuable
+cargoes of food, raw material for manufacture
+and gold and silver bullion, but
+also officers and men returning from
+various parts of the world to rejoin their
+regiments. Again, the Expeditionary
+Force had to be transported across the
+Channel to France. This could not be
+attempted until a guarantee had been
+given by the Navy that the seas were
+clear of hostile warships, submarines and
+mines. The fleet blockading the
+Frisian coast had to be supplied with
+coal and fresh food; and last but by no
+means least it was of vital importance
+to the Allied Armies in the Field that
+the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to
+Antwerp, forming the rear and left-flank,
+should be accessible to friendly shipping.
+It is not difficult to realize what would
+have been the effect had thousands of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>these deadly German contact mines been
+allowed to float unhindered in these
+narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the
+magnificent effort made by thousands of
+seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers
+assisted by seaplanes, many vessels—some
+belonging to neutral powers and
+others to the enemy themselves—were
+destroyed before the seas could be effectively
+swept clear, the hostile mine-layers
+destroyed or chased into port and there
+blockaded with their cowardly fleet.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo has long been recognised
+as one of the most effective of naval
+arms. It is carried by every modern
+warship afloat, but it is essentially the
+arm of the submarine and of the small
+and fast surface vessel. For a torpedo
+attack to be successful it is absolutely
+necessary for the vessel carrying the
+weapon to get within about 1,000 yards
+of the object of attack. The difficulty
+of accomplishing this manœuvre with an
+enemy on the alert is easily apparent,
+but if the attacking vessel can creep up
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>to within torpedo range unobserved her
+chances of sinking the enemy are decidedly
+good, and it is the quality
+possessed by the submarine of making
+herself invisible by sinking beneath the
+surface and approaching her enemy
+“seeing but unseen” that makes this
+type of vessel the ideal torpedo-boat.
+But, like everything else, there are limits
+to its use, for a submarine, although it can
+navigate on the surface like an ordinary
+torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged
+attack at night owing to the periscopes,
+which are the “eyes” of these underwater
+fighting ships, being useless in the dark.
+When night covers the sea, however, the
+chances of the fast grey-painted surface
+torpedo-boat or destroyer being able to
+approach the enemy unseen are more
+than doubled, and in this way fleets
+become exposed to submarine torpedo
+attack by day and surface torpedo attack
+by night. Further, a submarine will often
+attack while a seaplane hovers over the
+enemy in order to draw attention. It
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>is this constant exposure to sudden
+and unseen submarine attack which is
+primarily responsible for the terrible
+nerve strain imposed on the crews of
+modern surface warships in time of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Owing to the ability of submarines to
+deliver stealthy attacks by day, naval
+tacticians have designated this type of
+craft “Daylight torpedo-boats,” but they
+are rapidly passing beyond the purely
+torpedo and coastal defensive stage and
+are taking on to themselves the <i>rôle</i> of
+the ocean cruiser. The size of these
+vessels has increased from 50 to 1,000
+tons displacement in ten years. They
+now carry not only a considerable
+number of the largest size torpedo but
+also quick-firing guns for repelling attacks
+by small surface vessels, and are capable
+of accompanying fleets to sea. The
+Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and
+A.E.2 both made the voyage from
+Barrow to Sydney under their own
+power and without convoy. The radius
+of action of the latest vessels both of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>British and French Navies amounts to
+several thousand miles. In the case of
+the British “F” class the displacement
+has risen to 1,500 tons, the speed to 20
+knots and the armament to six torpedo
+tubes and four 12-pounder quick-firing
+guns, thus making them in every sense
+ocean cruisers capable of keeping the
+sea in almost any weather and possessing
+wide range of action and considerable
+offensive power. Hitherto British submarines,
+like the ordinary surface
+torpedo-boats, have been known by
+numbers only, but the latest vessels are
+to receive names which indicates the
+increase in size and importance of these
+craft. They may be termed the advance
+guards of the submarine battleships of
+the future.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo, which is the principal
+arm of the submarine boat, is itself a
+submarine projectile. After being discharged
+from the firing tube it sinks a
+short distance below the surface and is
+propelled by its own engines at a high
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>rate of speed in a straight line towards
+its object of attack. Great improvements
+have been made during the past
+ten years in the construction of these
+delicate weapons. The extreme effective
+range and speed has risen from 4,000
+yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45
+knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The
+“war-head” or front section of the
+torpedo contains a charge of about 200
+pounds of damp gun-cotton which is
+fired by a detonator on the torpedo
+striking an object. This very powerful
+explosive charge is capable of tearing
+open an enormous hole in the unprotected
+under-water skin of the surface
+warship. The type of weapon used in
+the British, French, Russian and
+Japanese Navies is the <i>Whitehead</i>
+torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The
+German Navy uses the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>
+torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is
+very similar to the Whitehead and is a
+very powerful weapon.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the first phase of the naval war no
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>less than eight warships have been sunk
+by submarine torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The activity of the British submarines
+<i>in the theatre of war</i>, from the beginning
+of hostilities, is admirably set forth in
+the following dispatch from Commodore
+Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the
+first dispatch in the history of naval
+warfare to describe in detail submarine
+attack and reconnaissance:—</p>
+
+<div class='c023'>H.M.S. <i>Maidstone</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c023'><i>17th October, 1914</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’
+directions, I have the honour to
+report as follows upon the services performed
+by the Submarines since the
+commencement of hostilities:—</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Three hours after the outbreak of war,
+Submarines E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Francis H. H. Goodhart),
+proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a
+reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight.
+These two vessels returned with useful
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>information, and had the privilege of
+being the pioneers on a service which is
+attended by some risk.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“During the transportation of the Expeditionary
+Force the <i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i>
+and all the Submarines of the
+Eighth Submarine Flotilla occupied
+positions from which they could have
+attacked the High Sea Fleet, had it
+emerged to dispute the passage of our
+transports. This patrol was maintained
+day and night without relief, until the
+<i>personnel</i> of our Army had been transported
+and all chance of effective
+interference had disappeared.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“These Submarines have since been
+incessantly employed on the Enemy’s
+Coast in the Heligoland Bight and
+elsewhere, and have obtained much
+valuable information regarding the composition
+and movement of his patrols.
+They have occupied his waters and
+reconnoitred his anchorages, and, while
+so engaged, have been subjected to
+skilful and well executed anti-submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>tactics; hunted for hours at a time by
+Torpedo Craft and attacked by <a id='tn031'></a>gun-fire
+and torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At midnight on August 26th, I
+embarked in the <i>Lurcher</i>, and, in company
+with <i>Firedrake</i> and Submarines
+D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, and
+E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla,
+proceeded to take part in the operations
+in the Heligoland Bight arranged for
+August 28th. The Destroyers scouted
+for the Submarines until nightfall on
+the 27th, when the latter proceeded independently
+to take up various positions from
+which they could co-operate with the Destroyer
+Flotillas on the following morning.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At daylight on August 28th the
+<i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i> searched the
+area, through which the Battle Cruisers
+were to advance, for hostile Submarines,
+and then proceeded towards Heligoland
+in the wake of Submarines E.6, E.7,
+and E.8, which were exposing themselves
+with the object of inducing the
+enemy to chase them to the westward.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>“On approaching Heligoland, the
+visibility, which had been very good
+to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000
+yards, and this added considerably to
+the anxieties and responsibilities of the
+Commanding Officers of Submarines,
+who handled their vessels with coolness
+and judgment in an area which was
+necessarily occupied by friends as well as
+foes.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Low visibility and calm sea are the
+most unfavourable conditions under which
+Submarines can operate, and no opportunity
+occurred of closing with the
+Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo
+range.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W.
+Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, witnessed
+the sinking of the German
+Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 through
+his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser
+of the <i>Stettin</i> class close, and open fire
+on the British Destroyers which had
+lowered their boats to pick up the survivors,
+he proceeded to attack the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Cruiser, but she altered course before
+he could get within range. After
+covering the retirement of our Destroyers,
+which had had to abandon their
+boats, he returned to the latter, and
+embarked a Lieutenant and nine men
+of <i>Defender</i>, who had been left behind.
+The boats also contained two Officers
+and eight men of V.187, who were
+unwounded, and eighteen men who were
+badly wounded. As he could not embark
+the latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir
+left one of the Officers and six unwounded
+men to navigate the British
+boats to Heligoland. Before leaving he
+saw that they were provided with water,
+biscuit, and a compass. One German
+Officer and two men were made prisoners
+of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action
+in remaining on the surface in the
+vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility
+which would have placed his vessel within
+easy gun range of an enemy appearing
+out of the mist, was altogether admirable.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>“This enterprising and gallant Officer
+took part in the reconnaissance which
+supplied the information on which these
+operations were based, and I beg to
+submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander
+Talbot, the Commanding
+Officer of E.6, who exercised patience,
+judgment, and skill in a dangerous
+position, for the favourable consideration
+of Their Lordships.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Max K. Horton) torpedoed
+and sank the German Light
+Cruiser <i>Hela</i> six miles South of Heligoland.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“A number of Destroyers were evidently
+called to the scene after E.9 had
+delivered her attack, and these hunted
+her for several hours.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 14th, in accordance
+with his orders, Lieutenant-Commander
+Horton examined the outer anchorage
+of Heligoland, a service attended by
+considerable risk.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 25th, Submarine E.6
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>(Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),
+while diving, fouled the moorings of a
+mine laid by the enemy. On rising to
+the surface she weighed the mine and
+sinker; the former was securely fixed
+between the hydroplane and its guard;
+fortunately, however, the horns of the
+mine were pointed outboard. The weight
+of the sinker made it a difficult and
+dangerous matter to lift the mine clear
+without exploding it. After half an
+hour’s patient work this was effected by
+Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman
+and Able Seaman Ernest
+Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235,
+and the released mine descended to its
+original depths.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Max K. Horton), when
+patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and
+sank the enemy’s Destroyer S.126.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue
+tactics which, in connection with their
+shallow draft, make them exceedingly
+difficult to attack with torpedo, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success
+was the result of much patient and
+skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising
+submarine officer, and I beg to submit
+his name for favourable consideration.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman,
+the Second in Command of E.9, is also
+deserving of credit.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Against an enemy whose capital
+vessels have never, and Light Cruisers
+have seldom, emerged from their fortified
+harbours, opportunities of delivering
+Submarine attacks have necessarily been
+few, and on one occasion only, prior to
+the 13th September, has one of our
+Submarines been within torpedo range
+of a Cruiser during daylight hours.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“During the exceptionally heavy westerly
+gales which prevailed between the
+14th and 21st September the position
+of the Submarines on a lee shore,
+within a few miles of the Enemy’s
+coast, was an unpleasant one.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The short steep seas which accompany
+westerly gales in the Heligoland Bight
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>make it difficult to keep the conning
+tower hatches open. There was no rest
+to be obtained, and even when cruising
+at a depth of 60 feet, the Submarines
+were rolling considerably, and pumping—<i>i.e.</i>
+vertically moving about twenty
+feet.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I submit that it was creditable to
+the Commanding Officers that they
+should have maintained their stations
+under such conditions.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Service in the Heligoland Bight is
+keenly sought after by the Commanding
+Officers of the Eighth Submarine
+Flotilla, and they have all shown daring
+and enterprise in the execution of their
+duties. These Officers have unanimously
+expressed to me their admiration of the
+cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers
+and men under their command. They
+are however, of the opinion that it is
+impossible to single out individuals when
+all have performed their duties so
+admirably, and in this I concur.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The following Submarines have been
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>in contact with the enemy during these
+operations:—</p>
+
+<div class='in2'>
+
+  <dl class='dl_1'>
+    <dt>D.1</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.2</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.3</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.5</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.4</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.5</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.6</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.7</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann)<a id='tn038'></a>.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.9</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).
+    </dd>
+    </dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class='lg-container-l c025'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line in1'>I have the honour to be, Sir,</div>
+      <div class='line in5'>Your obedient servant,</div>
+      <div class='line in7'>(Signed) ROGER KEYES,</div>
+      <div class='line in19'>Commodore (S).”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>In conclusion, it must therefore be set
+on record that the opening phase in the
+greatest naval war in history has been
+one of submarine attack and counter-attack,
+mine-laying and destroying, warships
+and merchantmen sunk in a few
+minutes by submarine torpedoes and
+mines, with sharp engagements between
+the cruisers and destroyers acting in
+conjunction with the under-water craft.
+The much-vaunted German Fleet, like
+that of its ally Austria-Hungary, has
+not dared to show itself from behind
+the forts and carefully-screened anchorages
+of the naval bases, suffering rather
+the everlasting disgrace of having stood
+in cowardly idleness while the 5,000
+merchant ships it was built to protect
+hauled down the flag of the “Fatherland”
+and German maritime commerce
+was swept from the seas while the Allied
+fleets hold undisputed command of every
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The First Lord of the British
+Admiralty has said that if the German
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>Fleet will not come out to fight it must
+be “dug out like rats in a hole.” This,
+then, may be the second phase in the
+naval war, and out in the grey mist of
+the North Sea, ready and eager for
+the work, lies the great battle fleets of
+England.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>
+  <h2 id='ch1' class='c014'>CHAPTER I <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo-boat is to most
+people a complete mystery, and before
+describing the composition and strength
+of the submarine fleets at war it may
+therefore be of interest to say something
+of the principal features common to all
+types of submarine craft.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Method of Submergence</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>It may sound ridiculous, in face of the
+many accidents which have occurred, to
+say that one of the greatest difficulties
+is to make a submarine sink sufficiently
+quickly, and one of the easiest of
+operations to make her rise, and yet
+such is undeniably the case.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c028'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>It will be readily understood that
+any delay in disappearing beneath the
+surface when attacking would be a
+great danger to a submarine in action.
+For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat
+destroyers are scouring the
+sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered
+at daybreak by the submarines,
+which are waiting to attack the fleet behind,
+approaching at a speed of 30 knots
+an hour. A hurried dive beneath the
+surface is necessary if the waiting submarines
+would avoid detection, which
+would, in all probability, mean destruction
+by the quick-firing guns of the destroyers.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When a submarine is travelling on the
+surface she is in what is technically called
+the <i>light condition</i>, that is to say, with her
+water ballast tanks empty, but when it is
+required to sink her so that only the tiny
+platform, or deck, and conning-tower are
+above the surface, water is let into these
+ballast tanks, and the additional weight
+causes her to sink into the sea until her
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span><i>back</i> is almost flush with the surface—this
+is known as the <i>awash condition</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It is not difficult to perceive that when
+travelling awash, a wave might at any
+moment roll along the tiny unprotected
+deck of the submarine, break over the
+mouth of the conning-tower, and descend
+like a waterspout into the interior. Were
+this to happen a terrible disaster might
+result, for it must be remembered that
+when travelling awash, a very little
+additional weight would cause the submarine
+to plunge beneath the surface.
+In order to obviate this risk it has
+become a rule that when proceeding
+with this small margin of buoyancy,
+the hatch covering the mouth of the
+conning-tower should be screwed down
+and the submarine hermetically closed,
+ready to sink.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>To many it may appear strange that
+total submergence is not accomplished
+by letting still more water into the
+ballast tanks, but entirely with the aid
+of the propellers and rudders. A submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>has two, and sometimes three,
+pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary
+vertical ones to guide her to port or
+starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause
+her to dive and rise. Two additional
+<i>fins</i> are frequently placed on each side of
+the forepart of the vessel to assist the
+diving and rising.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In order to make the submarine dive
+beneath the surface, the horizontal
+rudders are deflected when the boat is
+proceeding at full speed. The action of
+the water against the rudders is such
+that the bows are forced down and the
+whole vessel slides under the surface.
+The principle is much the same as that
+of steering an ordinary surface vessel,
+where the force of the water against the
+rudder causes the vessel to swing to
+right or left.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From this it will be seen that a submarine
+is only held below the surface
+by the action of her rudders on the
+passing water; should the propellers
+driving her along cease to revolve and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>the vessel slow down, she automatically
+rises to the surface because the rudders
+have no longer any effect.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although the steering both on the
+vertical and horizontal plane is controlled
+by hand, it would be quite beyond the
+strength of a man to move the various
+rudders as required, so electric motors
+are installed to perform the actual work.
+In fact, almost everything in a submarine
+is operated by electricity.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the earlier types of submarine
+boats, a considerable time was required
+to open the valves and allow sufficient
+water to enter the ballast tanks to make
+them sink to the awash condition. Some
+of the now obsolete French naval boats
+took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes
+to carry out this simple operation. The
+main reason for this was, that they
+were designed with too much surface
+buoyancy, that is to say, they rode too
+high in the water when floating in the
+light condition compared with the inadequate
+means then employed for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>inlet of water into the ballast tanks, and
+were thus forced to let in an enormous
+quantity of water at a very slow rate
+before they settled down sufficiently to
+enable total submergence to be accomplished
+by the use of the horizontal fins
+and rudders. This great drawback has
+now been completely overcome, and the
+modern submarine can sink below the
+surface in about three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When water is pumped into the ballast
+tanks in order to make the submarine
+settle down, the air which normally fills
+these tanks is compressed into a fraction
+of its proper space, and is therefore
+always exerting a downward pressure
+which increases as more water is pumped
+in. Therefore, when it is desired to
+bring the submarine to the surface again,
+all that is necessary is to open the
+valves and allow the compressed air to
+force the water out. It should, however,
+be remembered that there is really no
+need to “blow out” the ballast tanks
+in order to bring the submarine to the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>surface, for this can be much quicker
+accomplished by simply elevating the
+horizontal rudders; but in this case the
+submarine only rises just above the
+surface—to the awash condition—whereas
+if the tanks are emptied of water she
+rises to the light or cruising condition.
+This substantiates the assertion made
+at the beginning of this chapter—that it
+is far more difficult to make a submarine
+sink than it is to make her rise.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It has been said that a man walking
+from one end of a submarine to the other
+would, in all probability, cause her to
+plunge dangerously, so delicate is the
+state of equipoise when totally submerged.
+Whatever may have been the case in
+the early types it is certainly not so now.
+So steady are modern submarines when
+running below the surface, especially
+those of the British, Russian, French,
+and Japanese and German Navies, that
+the long up and down hill glides, which,
+with some boats, used to amount to
+yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>been reduced to a few feet in so many
+hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back
+motion is almost unnoticeable
+except when the submarine is being
+swung round at a sharp angle. In no
+case, however, is it sufficient materially
+to affect the firing of the torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in
+the awash condition—or <i>diving-trim</i>, as it
+is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily
+very small, amounting to little
+more than two or three pounds in a
+thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means
+a difference of only about 100 gallons of
+sea-water between the ability to float
+and the inevitability of sinking. Any
+material increase in the small margin of
+what is known as <i>positive-buoyancy</i> must
+be accompanied by a corresponding
+increase in the power of propulsion,
+otherwise it would be quite impossible to
+drive her under, or, in other words, to
+overcome the vessel’s natural tendency
+to float on the surface.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>For these and other reasons, a submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>when running submerged is in
+such a delicate state of equipoise that
+any sudden increase or loss of weight
+would upset the balance and so cause
+the vessel to either dive or rise with
+dangerous rapidity.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This would be the effect produced
+when a torpedo was discharged were
+provision not made to counter-balance
+this sudden loss of weight by means of
+<i>compensating-tanks</i>, into which sufficient
+water is pumped to compensate for the
+loss of weight incurred by the discharge
+of <i>each</i> torpedo.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Many submarines are also fitted with
+bow and stern <i>trimming-tanks</i>, into which
+water can be pumped in such a manner
+as to correct any tendency of the vessel
+to float too high or low at either
+extremity.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Propulsion.</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>Of the many complicated problems
+surrounding submarine boat construction
+the motive power and propelling engines
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>have been in the past, and are still, the
+most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed
+air, electricity, petrol, and heavy
+oil have all been used with varying
+results since first this type of vessel
+came into being; and many curious
+engines for using these <i>prime movers</i> in
+conjunction with each other and with
+chemical compounds have been evolved
+by ingenious inventors.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>About steam and compressed air little
+need be said, for although given a good
+trial, especially by the French naval
+authorities, they were abandoned some
+years ago in favour of a combination of
+petrol and electric engines, which in turn
+have given place to more powerful
+machines using heavy oil and electricity.
+Steam is, however, again being
+used in conjunction with turbine engines
+for surface propulsion.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The carrying of large quantities of
+petrol, or heavy oil, is under all circumstances
+attended with a certain
+amount of risk, and when many tons
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>have to be carried in a confined
+space, as in a submarine, this risk is
+more than doubled, as the slightest
+leakage when the vessel is submerged
+would mean that a powerful explosive
+mixture of petrol and air would be made.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c029'>
+ <img src='images/050.jpg' alt='British Type Torpedo Boat' />
+ <div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). <i>A.</i>
+Deck superstructure. <i>B.</i> Scuppers for filling superstructure.
+<i>D.</i> External connections. <i>E.</i> Conning-tower (4-inch
+armour). <i>F.</i> Periscope. <i>G.</i> Periscope motor (for turning,
+&amp;c.). <i>H.</i> Air cowls. <i>I.</i> Conning-tower cap (opening
+sideways). <i>J.</i> Mast stays. <i>K.</i> Mast (not part of service
+equipment). <i>L.</i> Torpedo-tube cap. <i>M.</i> Torpedo-tubes
+(twin), torpedoes in. <i>N.</i> Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes).
+<i>O.</i> Hydroplane engines. <i>X.</i> Double casing, with special
+vent for accumulators. <i>Y.</i> Spare torpedoes. <i>Z.</i> Petrol
+storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal pumps.
+3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s
+platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection
+indicator, registering submarine’s deflection from horizontal.
+7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol engines. 10. Electric engines.
+11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.</span></p>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>It being also quite impossible, for
+obvious reasons, to use a petrol engine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>when running submerged, a second
+motive power, an engine, with its additional
+space and weight, has to be
+carried to drive the submarine when
+under water. For this purpose electricity
+is used in almost all types. But
+electricity, again, has many drawbacks.
+It costs in weight nearly thirty times
+more than other motive powers, and is
+extremely dangerous, for should salt
+water in any way gain access to the
+storage batteries, chlorine gas would be
+given off in large quantities, although in
+the more recent vessels of the British,
+American, and French Navies this danger
+has been minimised by enclosing the
+batteries in air-tight cases. On account
+of the weight and the space required,
+it is impossible to install a very powerful
+electric engine in a submarine
+(compared with the size of the boat),
+and thus both the speed and radius of
+action are curtailed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>If this division of power between the
+surface and submerged engines could
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>be overcome, and the whole space made
+available for one powerful set of engines
+suitable for driving the vessel both on
+the surface and when submerged, not
+only would the mechanism of submarines
+be simplified, but a very considerable
+increase in both speed and range of
+action would naturally result.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes
+of British submarines, and in the more
+modern vessels of the French, Russian
+and German Navies, heavy oil is being
+used in place of petrol on account of the
+increase in power obtained with greater
+safety.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Arrangements are made in almost all
+modern submarines so that when the
+vessel is using the oil engines for running
+on the surface the electricity for use
+when submerged is being made by a
+dynamo and stored in batteries. From
+this it will be seen that there are really
+three separate engines in a submarine:—(1)
+the oil or petrol motor, which drives
+the vessel when on the surface, and, at
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>the same time, by a suitable arrangement
+of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2)
+which makes the electric current for
+storage, and (3) an electric engine which
+drives the vessel when submerged,
+obtaining the necessary power from the
+batteries.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It is, however, technically incorrect
+to say that there are two sources of
+power in a submarine, for electricity is
+not, in itself, a source of power, but
+merely a handy method of storing and
+transmitting it. The only actual source
+being the oil or petrol.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are also numerous small engines
+to add to the complexity of machinery
+in a submarine, such as the air compressors
+used for charging the torpedo
+tubes with compressed air for expelling
+the torpedoes and for other purposes,
+and electric motors for operating the
+pumps, steering mechanism, and periscopes.
+In addition to all this, hand-mechanism
+is provided for use in case
+of a breakdown to operate most of these
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>important appliances. Then again there
+is, of course, the armament mechanism
+for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic
+quick-firing guns.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From the foregoing it may appear that
+the interior of a submarine presents a
+picture of mechanical complexity utterly
+incomprehensible. Yet such is not the
+case. The fanciful belief that the crew
+stand, boxed up in these vessels, sweating
+with the heat, struggling for breath,
+and with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably
+close to the small of their backs,
+electric motors buzzing within a few
+inches of their ears, and nervous hands
+grasping one or other of the levers
+ranged in rows in front of them, is,
+doubtless, most romantic, but quite
+unreal. Much of the undoubtedly complicated
+machinery in a submarine is
+tucked away in the conical extremities,
+under the interior decking, and fixed
+to the arched steel sides. The centre
+is left almost entirely clear, so that
+trestle-tables may be erected for meals,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>hammocks swung for sleeping, and
+sufficient space allowed to make these
+small vessels as habitable as possible.
+Not the least difficulty of the submarine
+designer is to create order and leave
+space among the chaos of machinery
+which has to be installed in these peculiar
+and deadly little torpedo craft.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Vision When Submerged.</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>Perhaps the greatest difficulty which
+has beset both submarine construction and
+navigation is the puzzle how to see when
+submerged. This is now accomplished
+by means of periscopes, or tubes extending
+up from the roof of the submarine
+to a height of several feet above the
+surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a
+series of lenses and reflectors a picture of
+the surface is thrown down these tubes
+on to reflectors inside the submarine. A
+man with his eyes at the bottom of a
+periscope can see the surface clearly.
+Although it projects above the surface
+when the whole submarine is submerged,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>it is far too small an object to be easily
+seen moving through the water, and
+extremely difficult to hit by gun-fire.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The latest panoramic periscope—two of
+which are fitted in modern submarines—has
+a field of vision of about 60
+degrees. The range of vision is, however,
+very short, owing to the periscopic
+tube projecting only a few feet above the
+surface. On a moderately smooth and
+fairly clear day steering by periscope is
+not altogether difficult, but at night or
+in fog this instrument is useless, and for
+this reason it would be almost impossible
+for a submarine to effect a submerged
+attack on an enemy at night. Hence
+the name given to this type of craft—daylight
+torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant
+light of day, when any attempt by
+ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently
+close to hostile warships to discharge a
+torpedo with reasonable hope of success
+would be foredoomed to failure, there is
+every possibility that submarines would
+effect a surprise attack.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Armament.</i></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c027'>The chief armament of all naval submarines
+is the torpedo, which is expelled
+by a blast of compressed air from one of
+the tubes fitted in the bow and stern.
+Several torpedoes are usually carried by
+each boat, so that if one failed to strike
+the object of attack further attempts can
+be made.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>About the efficiency of torpedoes
+nothing need be said here, for they now
+form an important weapon in every navy,
+and to this subject a future chapter is
+devoted.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The latest submarines built are also
+fitted with quick-firing guns for use when
+these vessels are cruising on the surface.
+The guns are arranged so that when it is
+desired to sink they can be made to
+disappear beneath the narrow deck of the
+submarine. The provision of guns has
+been made with the object of giving
+these vessels a means of defence should
+they be discovered by prowling hostile
+torpedo-boat destroyers, or by air-craft.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Habitability.</i></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c027'>Many people imagine the interior of a
+submarine to resemble a stokehold, hot,
+stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact
+contrary is the truth. The temperature
+is but little above the normal for a ship’s
+engine-room, the air-supply is amply
+sufficient, and the whole interior is well
+illuminated by electric lamps.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The necessary supply of pure air is
+derived either from large steel cylinders
+containing the air in a highly compressed
+state or from flasks of oxylithe. The
+carbonic acid gas of the respired air
+being at the same time chemically
+absorbed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Food is cooked for the crew by
+electricity, and drinking water obtained
+from special tanks. Notwithstanding
+these arrangements, however, it is almost
+impossible for the crew to live on board
+for many weeks at a time, owing to the
+small free space in the interior and to the
+cramped deck; but as the size and radius
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>of action of these boats increase, so also
+does the space available for exercise, and
+thus the habitability.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>
+  <h2 id='ch2' class='c014'>CHAPTER II <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The British Fleet at the moment when
+war was declared possessed 82 submarine
+torpedo-boats built and 22 building.
+Some of these were, however, stationed
+at the oversea naval bases. The composition
+and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities were
+as follows:—</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines in Home Waters.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div><i>Patrol Flotillas.</i></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-l c032'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>1st Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Onyx</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.8 and A.9.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Dolphin</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>3rd Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Forth</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines<a id='tn062'></a>: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>C.15 and C.16.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Arrogant</i> and <i>Hazard</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>5th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Thames</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>6th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Bonaventure</i> and <i>Hebe</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>7th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Vulcan</i> and <i>Alecto</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Maidstone</i> and <i>Adamant</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>9th Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Pactolus</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines on Foreign Stations.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c033'>  Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines
+B.9, B.10, and B.11.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7,
+and B.8.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines
+C.36, C.37, and C.38.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  With Australian Fleet.—Submarines
+A.E.1<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c028'><sup>[2]</sup></a> and A.E.2.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The statement that the headquarters
+of the various submarine flotillas in home
+waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and
+Devonport, must not be taken as indicating
+that these are the only points
+along the coast protected by submarines.
+These places are merely the chief bases
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the <i>Patrol Flotillas</i>. The wide range
+of action of modern submarines enables
+them to operate several hundred miles
+from any base or depôt, and consequently
+Chatham becomes merely the
+<i>general store</i>, or head-depôt, of what
+should be termed the North Sea Flotillas,
+which not only patrol the whole East,
+North-East and South-East Coasts of
+England and Scotland, but also have
+their floating secondary bases in the
+form of <i>Depôt Ships</i>, which, with their
+attached submarines, are often at
+Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In
+the same way Portsmouth is merely the
+headquarters of the submarines patrolling
+the Channel; and Dover, Portland, etc.,
+are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines
+with their Depôt ships. The
+Devonport Flotillas have the longest
+coast-line to patrol, for their area covers
+not only the West Coast of England,
+Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish
+Coast. They are, however, furthest
+removed from the zone of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Considerable alterations have taken
+place in the composition and distribution
+of the British submarine flotillas since
+the outbreak of war, with the object of
+materially strengthening the Fleet in
+the main theatre of operations, but the
+addition to the flotillas of new vessels of
+the latest “E” type—nearly completed
+when war broke out—has made this
+rearrangement possible without materially
+weakening the flotillas guarding the more
+distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling
+vessels from overseas.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/064.jpg' alt='British Submarine D.7' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern torpedo tube.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first submarine torpedo-boat built
+for the British Navy was launched from
+the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness
+in 1901, and was designated
+the No. 1. It was constructed from the
+designs of the famous American inventor,
+Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the
+most successful boats afloat at that time.
+A series of exhaustive trials with this
+and the succeeding five vessels, all of the
+same type and launched during 1901‒2,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>proved conclusively the fighting value of
+this type of craft, and a further order was
+given by the British Admiralty for four
+new vessels embodying the improvements
+suggested by the trials of the
+first five. These vessels were the first
+of the “A” class, and were designated
+the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a
+submerged displacement of 180 tons, a
+length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet.
+They were propelled by petrol motors
+of 190 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> on the surface and by
+electric motors of about 80 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+submerged. Their speed ranged from 8
+knots an hour on the surface to 5 knots
+when travelling submerged, and their
+maximum surface endurance (or fuel
+capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 knots.
+Their armament consisted of three 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes and one bow tube.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>All these vessels were, however,
+obsolete and therefore scrapped before
+the opening of hostilities, hence information
+concerning them is only of
+interest as showing the rapid growth
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>in size, power and armament of British
+submarines. The next batch of vessels
+were the A’s 5 to 13, launched at
+Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have
+been seen from the table showing the
+composition and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of war,
+are still on the effective list. All the
+following British submarines are now in
+the fighting line.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“A” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels are the oldest British
+submarines in commission. They were
+built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at
+Barrow, and have a submerged displacement
+of 204 tons. Their length is
+150 feet. They are propelled on the
+surface by petrol motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+and by electric engines of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+when submerged. Their surface and
+submerged speed is 11 knots and
+7 knots respectively. The cruising
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>range, or maximum surface endurance
+on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10
+knots an hour, and the endurance submerged
+three hours at full speed. Their
+armament consists of two bow tubes with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:
+Eleven officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels, which are now used
+almost entirely for harbour defence, can
+be distinguished from later types by
+their high conning-towers and single
+short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off
+Plymouth early in 1914, and was never
+raised.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“B” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the improved
+Holland type, and are in every way
+superior to their predecessors. They
+may be considered the first of the sea-going
+type. Their submerged displacement
+is 316 tons; length 135 feet, and
+beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>same as in the “A’s”—petrol for surface
+propulsion and electricity for use when
+submerged. The horse-power of the
+petrol engines is 600, and that of the
+electric engines 189. As in most submarines
+the supply of current for driving
+the electric engines is derived from storage
+batteries charged by dynamos driven from
+the petrol engines while the vessels are
+running on the surface. In the “B”
+class a special system of encasing these
+storage batteries was introduced. Their
+speed averages 12 knots on the surface
+and 8 knots when submerged. The surface
+cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10
+knots per hour, and the maximum submerged
+endurance 80‒100 knots at 5
+knots per hour. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with 4‒6 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The “B” type are vessels about 50
+per cent. larger than the “A” type which
+preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures
+extending from the bow to the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>conning-tower, forming a narrow deck
+which tends to disperse the wave which
+heaped around the blunt noses of the
+“A’s” and original Hollands. Vision
+when submerged is obtained by two
+panoramic periscopes, each having an arc
+of vision of 60 degrees. In the more
+modern vessels three periscopes are fitted.
+The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed
+below the centre line of the vessel and
+consequently operate in deeper water
+when the vessels are cruising on the
+surface. This gives them better surface
+cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the
+propellers are liable to race if worked
+too near the surface. The increase in
+the speed of these vessels over that of the
+“A’s” was of great importance, as in
+this respect lies the weakness of the submarine.
+The tactical advantages derived
+from high speed in actual warfare cannot
+be over-estimated. The speed of a fleet
+is governed by that of its slowest unit.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “B”
+type is the straight bow, the forward
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>superstructure, and the <i>two</i> periscopes.
+The B.2 was run down by the liner
+<i>Amerika</i> in the Straits of Dover in
+October, 1912, and was never recovered.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“C” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906‒10.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>This class of submarines is composed
+of vessels of the improved “B” type.
+They have a submerged displacement
+of 320 tons and are 135 feet long and
+13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop
+600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and give to these vessels a
+speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface.
+The power of the electric engines was
+increased to 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, giving a submerged
+speed of just over 9 knots an
+hour. The surface cruising range is
+2,000 knots at the most economical speed,
+and the submerged endurance 100 knots
+at 5 knots an hour. Their armament
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>consists of two bow tubes with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their
+complement sixteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the later vessels of the “C” class
+heavy oil is used instead of petrol, giving
+a great increase in power without the
+comparative additional weight; enabling
+a wider radius of action. The vessels
+of both the “B” and “C” classes are
+fitted with air-traps and safety-helmets,
+giving the crew a possible means of
+escape in the event of disaster while
+submerged.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “C”
+class is the sloping bow. The C.11
+collided with the steamer <i>Eddystone</i>
+in the North Sea in 1909 and was
+irretrievably lost.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“D” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒11.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are all modern vessels of the
+sea-going type, and are of considerable
+fighting value. They, however, differ
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>slightly from each other: D.1 has a
+submerged displacement of 595 tons;
+D.2 of 600 tons; and the remaining
+vessels of this class of 620 tons. They
+have an approximate length of 150 feet
+and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil
+engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at a
+maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on
+the surface, and electric motors of 550
+<span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a submerged speed of
+just over 10 knots an hour. All these
+vessels have twin-screws situated below
+the centre line. Their cruising range on
+the surface is 4,000 miles, and when
+submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an
+hour. These vessels were the first to
+be fitted with a special and more efficient
+pattern of electric storage battery and a
+safer type of electric motor. The armament
+of the “D’s” consists of two bow
+and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
+are also fitted with a small quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.
+This gun is fixed on a disappearing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>mounting, enabling it to be quickly and
+almost automatically lowered into a watertight
+cavity in the superstructure before
+the submarine dives below the surface.
+The complement of these vessels is
+twenty-one officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/072.jpg' alt='British Submarine C.34' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9  knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo tubes.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“E” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These fine ocean-going submarines are
+the latest additions to the British Flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of
+800 tons, are 176 feet long and 22 ½ feet
+in beam. The heavy-oil engines of
+nearly 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a surface
+speed of over 16 knots, while the
+electric engines of 800 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them
+at a maximum speed of 10 knots an
+hour when submerged. Their surface
+cruising range is 5,000 miles at
+economical speed, and the submerged
+endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an hour.
+In point of armament the “E’s” are far
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>more powerful than their predecessors,
+being fitted with four tubes and carrying
+six of the largest and most powerful
+Whitehead torpedoes. They are also
+equipped with two 3-inch quick-firing
+guns on high-angle disappearing mountings
+for defence against air-craft and
+hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers<a id='tn079'></a>.
+They have wireless telegraphic apparatus;
+and, like the vessels of the “B,” “C”
+and “D” classes, have armoured conning
+towers and decks. Three tall panoramic
+periscopes are fitted, and their high
+superstructures and increased buoyancy
+when travelling on the surface enable
+them to keep the sea in almost any
+weather.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Australian Submarines</span>:</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>A.E.1 and A.E.2.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels are exactly the same
+as the “E” class. The fact that they
+both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage
+from Barrow to Sydney under their
+own power and without convoy is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>practical proof of the wide range, seaworthiness
+and general efficiency of the
+latest British Naval Submarines. The
+A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in
+Australian waters in October, 1914, and
+has not been recovered.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>British Submarines Building<a id='tn080'></a>.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the great
+war there were 22 British submarines in
+course of construction at the various
+shipbuilding works and naval dockyards.
+Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had
+constructed all the British submarines,
+but in that year the vessels C.17 and
+C.18 were laid down at Chatham Dockyard.
+Since then several other boats
+have been constructed there, and of
+those now in hand some are being built
+by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow,
+others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding
+yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs.
+Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd.
+at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M.
+Dockyard at Chatham.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>Hitherto, British submarines, although
+divided into classes—each of which has
+shown a marked improvement on the
+preceding class—have been all of one
+type—the “Improved Holland.” Among
+the vessels being constructed at the
+opening of hostilities they were, however,
+no less than three different types.
+Those being built at Barrow and
+Chatham were of the original design
+with modern improvements, but the submarines
+under construction at Greenock
+were of the <i>Laurenti</i>, or Italian type,
+and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the
+<i>Laubeuf</i>, or French type. In addition
+to this wise departure from previous
+practice, two of the new vessels have
+been given the names of <i>Nautilus</i> and
+<i>Swordfish</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The haze of war has obscured these
+vessels, and it is impossible to say definitely
+which of them have taken their
+place in the active flotillas, and further
+the necessity for observing the very
+strictest secrecy regarding new types of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>warships at a time like the present
+makes it advisable to give here only
+the briefest particulars and not to discuss
+too freely the peculiarities of their design
+or their probable capabilities.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“F” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>There are several vessels of this class
+now being constructed. They are the
+latest improvement of the original Holland
+design and are sea-going submarines
+of wide range, high speed and great
+fighting power. The F.1, which was
+built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged
+displacement of 1,500 tons.
+Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+give her a maximum speed of 20 knots
+an hour on the surface, and electric
+motors of 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 12 knots
+when submerged. The armament consists
+of six torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and
+two quick-firing, high-angle guns.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“V” Class. &nbsp;“W” Class. &nbsp;“S” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div><i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These three classes include the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>vessels of entirely different design to
+those now forming the British flotillas.
+The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of which
+four were under construction at the
+beginning of the war, are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged
+displacement of over 1,000 tons, and a
+probable surface speed of 20 knots.
+The “W” Class, of which four are
+being built at Elswick, comprise vessels
+of the French <i>Laubeuf</i> type. The “S”
+Class, building at Greenock, and four
+in number, are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—<i>Laurenti</i>
+type. The two named
+vessels—<i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>—are
+large sea-going submarines of wide
+range and high speed. Their submerged
+displacement is about 1,000
+tons, and their speed 20 knots on the
+surface and 12 knots when submerged.
+The armament is six tubes, with eight
+torpedoes, and two quick-firing guns.
+The complement of all these large
+submarines is about 25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>
+  <h2 id='ch3' class='c014'>CHAPTER III <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>France possessed 92 submarines in
+active service when war was declared.
+In addition to these, nine large and
+powerful vessels were in various stages
+of construction. The flotillas of the
+French Navy are composed of two
+different types of vessels: <i>Submarines
+Defensive</i> and <i>Submersibles</i>. The former
+are intended, as their name implies,
+solely for coast and harbour defence;
+their radii of action is very small, and
+they are incapable of action independent
+of a naval base. The submersibles are
+like the large sea-going submarines of
+England and Germany, and have a
+wide radius of action, high speed, and
+great offensive power.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first naval submarine (<i>Gymnôte</i>)
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>was launched in 1888, giving to France
+the honour of being the first Naval
+Power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat
+as a vessel of war. The pioneers
+of submarine construction in France
+were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun,
+M. Dupuy de Lome, M. Gustave Zédé,
+and Admiral Aube. The second submarine
+ordered for the French Navy
+was the <i>Gustave Zédé</i>, launched in 1893.
+So successful did this vessel prove that
+another of the same type, and named
+the <i>Morse</i>, was launched at Cherbourg
+Dockyard in 1899. In the same year
+four vessels of a new type were laid
+down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and
+named <i>Lutin</i>, <i>Farfâdet</i> (re-named <i>Follet</i>),
+<i>Korrigan</i>, and <i>Gnôme</i>. These, with the
+exception of the ill-fated <i>Lutin</i>, are still
+in the active flotillas.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lutin Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Follet</i>.</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Korrigan</i>.</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gnôme</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in
+the French Navy, and are all of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>defensive type. They have a displacement
+of about 185 tons, with electric
+engines for propulsion both on the
+surface and when submerged. Their
+speed is 12 knots on the surface and
+8 knots when submerged. Their range
+of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots.
+The armament consists of one bow tube
+and two holders, with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. The complement
+is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/080.jpg' alt='Two French Submarines' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photos, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)</div>
+    <div class='c001'>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Française Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Française.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Algérien.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the improved
+<i>Morse</i> type, and are intended solely
+for coast and harbour defence. Their
+surface displacement is 146 tons, and
+they have electric engines of 350 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+for both surface and submerged propulsion,
+giving them a speed of 12 knots
+and 8 knots an hour, respectively.
+Their surface radius is about 80 miles
+at 8 knots. They have one bow tube and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>two holders, with four torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Triton Class.</span><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c028'><sup>[3]</sup></a></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Triton.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Sirene.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Espadon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Silure.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These four vessels were the first of
+the submersible type and were designed
+by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed
+many vessels for both France and other
+countries (<i>Laubeuf</i> type). They have
+a submerged displacement of 200 tons,
+and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in
+beam. Steam is used for surface
+propulsion (217 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>) and electricity
+when submerged. Their speed is 11
+knots on the surface and 8 knots
+when submerged, with a cruising radius
+of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are
+armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes, and have a
+complement of ten officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Naiade Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1902‒4.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Naiade.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Loutre.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Protée.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Lynx.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Perle.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Truite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Castor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Oursin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Meduse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Otarie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Phoque.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ludion.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Alose.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Anguille.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Grondin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Dorade.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Souffleur.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bonite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Esturgeon.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Twenty small harbour defence submarines,
+having a displacement of
+about 67 tons. They have petrol and
+electric motors, giving them a speed of
+8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots
+when submerged. Their armament consists
+of one bow tube and two holders;
+four torpedoes are carried. Their complement
+is six officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Aigrette Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Aigrette.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cicogne.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are submersibles
+of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type, and were great
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>improvements on their predecessors, the
+Triton Class. Their submerged displacement
+is 351 tons, and their
+dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A triple
+expansion steam engine of 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+is used for surface propulsion and
+an electric motor of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+submerged. Their speed is 10 knots
+and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface
+endurance is 700 miles at 8 knots, and
+submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their
+armament consists of one bow tube with
+four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Argonaute.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submersible designed by M. Bertin
+(late Chief Constructor French Navy).
+This vessel, which was first named
+<i>Omega</i>, has a displacement of about
+300 tons. She is driven by steam and
+electricity, and has a speed of 11 knots
+and 9 knots. Her armament consists
+of two bow tubes and two holders,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+The complement is about seventeen officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Emeraude Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Emeraude.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Saphir.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Opale.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Topaz.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Rubis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Turquoise.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are of the <i>Maugas</i>
+type and are sea-going submarines
+with a submerged displacement of over
+400 tons. They have petrol and electric
+motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and 450 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,
+respectively. Their surface speed is 12
+knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their
+surface cruising radius is just over
+1,000 miles at economical speed. Their
+armament consists of two tubes and four
+holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual
+pattern. Their complement is seventeen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Circe Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Circe.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Calypso.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Laubeuf</i>
+type, and are improvements on the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span><i>Aigrette</i> class. They have a submerged
+displacement of about 450 tons and are
+160 feet in length. They are driven by
+a steam engine of 440 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> (flash
+boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface,
+and by electric motors when submerged.
+Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots;
+and the range of action 1,000 miles.
+Their armament comprises two tubes and
+four holders with eight torpedoes. The
+complement is 21 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Pluviôse Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Pluviôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nivôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ventôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Messidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thermidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Fructidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Brumaire.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Frimaire.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Florèal.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Prairial.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Germinal.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Submarines of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type with
+a submerged displacement of nearly 600
+tons. All built at Cherbourg. The
+<i>Brumaire</i> and <i>Frimaire</i> are driven by
+petrol motors of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+cruising on the surface, but all the
+others have small steam turbines with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>a special type of flash-boiler. Electric
+motors are used for submerged propulsion.
+Their speed is 12 knots above
+and 9 knots below. The armament is
+seven 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is 22 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Fresnel Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Fresnel.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Berthelot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Papin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Monge.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ampère.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gay-Lussac.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cagnot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Faraday.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Giffard.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Montgolfier.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Newton.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Volta.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Watt.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Euler.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Faucault.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Franklin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Arago.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Permouilli.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Joule.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Coulomb.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Curie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Le Verrier.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Twenty-two submarines of the largest
+sea-going <i>Laubeuf</i> type. Only three of
+these are steam driven, the others using
+heavy-oil engines for surface propulsion.
+They are in all respects similar to
+vessels of the <i>Pluviôse</i> class, and have
+a displacement of about 600 tons. Their
+speed is 12 knots above, and 9 knots
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>below, and the armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with
+stern as well as bow tubes. Their
+surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Amiral Bourgeoise.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>An experimental boat of the <i>Bourdelle</i>
+type, built at Cherbourg. The submerged
+displacement is just under 800
+tons and the length 190 feet. She is
+driven on the surface by heavy-oil
+engines of 1,600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give a
+speed of 15 knots. The electric motors
+for submerged propulsion are of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,
+giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament
+consists of seven 18-inch torpedoes,
+and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Archimède.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Another experimental boat built at
+Cherbourg. The submerged displacement
+is about 810 tons, and the length
+and beam 212 feet and 22 feet
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>respectively. Steam turbines are used for
+surface propulsion and electric motors
+when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots
+above and 10 knots below. The armament
+is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and
+the complement 24 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/088.jpg' alt='Sea-Going French Submarine' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mariotte.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The third experimental boat, of the
+<i>Rodiquet</i> type, built at Cherbourg. The
+displacement when submerged is 650
+tons and the length about 200 feet.
+Petrol motors of 1,500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her
+at 15 knots an hour on the surface and
+electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots
+when submerged. Her radius of action
+is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven
+18-inch torpedoes, which can be fired
+from both bow and stern tubes. The
+complement is about 25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Charles Brun.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The fourth experimental vessel, built
+at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>submerged displacement is 450 tons and
+the length 145 feet. Steam turbines of
+1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 15 ½ knots an
+hour on the surface, and electric motors
+of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots when submerged.
+Her armament consists of six 18-inch
+torpedoes. The complement is 22 officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Clorinde Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Clorinde.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cornélie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Amphritrite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Astree.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Artémis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Aréthuse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Atalante.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Amaranthe.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ariane.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Andromaque.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are the very latest
+additions to the French Submarine
+flotillas. They have a submerged displacement
+of about 550 tons, a length
+of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet.
+Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give
+them a speed of 15 knots on the surface,
+and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> enable
+them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when
+submerged. They carry eight torpedoes,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and have a complement of 25 officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Gustave Zede Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gustave Zede.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Néréide.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are the largest
+submarines in the French flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of
+1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, and a
+beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give
+them a surface speed of 16 knots and
+electric motors a submerged speed of
+10 knots. Their armament consists of
+two bow and two stern tubes with eight
+18-inch torpedoes. They are also equipped
+with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,
+disappearing mountings. The
+cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the
+complement 27 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Bellone Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1914.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bellone.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Hermione.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gorgone.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Fast sea-going submarines with a
+submerged displacement of 610 tons.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>They have heavy-oil engines of about
+2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give them a surface
+speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of
+950 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 12 knots when
+submerged. Their surface cruising range
+is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists
+of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.
+quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement
+is 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>French Submarines Building.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>On the day when war was declared
+nine submarines were in the early stages
+of construction. The two most advanced
+of these were the <i>Diane</i> and <i>Daphne</i>.
+These vessels have a submerged displacement
+of about 800 tons, and the
+anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10
+knots. Their armament will consist of
+ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The
+complement will be 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The other seven vessels are of the
+improved <i>Gustave Zede</i> Class. They
+will have a submerged displacement of
+over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 knots
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>on the surface and 12 knots when submerged.
+Their armament will consist of
+ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The
+complement will be about 35 officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>
+  <h2 id='ch4' class='c014'>CHAPTER IV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement
+of hostilities included 37
+submarines in active service, and 19 in
+various stages of construction. The
+composition and distribution of the
+submarine flotillas was as follows:—</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Baltic Flotilla</span>: 14 Submarines with
+depôt ships in commission, and 12 vessels
+building. <i>Bases</i>: Kronstadt, Port Peter
+the Great (Reval) and Port Alexander III.
+(Libau) (ice free).</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Black Sea Flotilla</span>: 11 Submarines
+with depôt ships in commission, and
+several new vessels building. <i>Bases</i>:
+Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Siberian Flotilla</span>: 12 Submarines
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>with depôt ships in commission, and 6
+vessels building. <i>Base</i>: Vladivostok.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first Russian naval submarine was
+completed at Kronstadt in 1902, and
+named the <i>Petr Kochka</i>. She was built
+in sections to facilitate transport over the
+Siberian Railway, being intended for
+the defence of Port Arthur, and had a
+surface displacement of only 20 tons.
+Her armament consisted of two holders,
+or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, containing
+two small Whitehead torpedoes.
+The maximum speed was 8 knots on
+the surface and 4 knots when submerged.
+The second submarine ordered for the
+Russian Navy was the <i>Delphin</i>, which
+foundered off Kronstadt, but was subsequently
+raised and is now used as a
+training ship for the submarine service.
+These two vessels have been removed
+from the active flotillas, but the third
+vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the
+<i>Graf Cheremetieve</i>—is still in
+commission.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Graf Cheremetieve Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒5.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Graf Cheremetieve.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kasatka.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nalim.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Skat.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in
+the Russian Navy, and are small vessels
+of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have
+a submerged displacement of 200 tons.
+Petrol and electric engines drive them at
+9 knots on the surface and 6 knots when
+submerged. Their armament consists
+of one bow torpedo tube and two
+exterior holders, with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Ostr Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ostr.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Byts-chok.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kefal.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Platus.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Plotva.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These five submarines are of the
+American Lake type. The <i>Ostr</i> was
+originally the American Lake Co.’s
+boat <i>Protector</i>. They have a submerged
+displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>in length and 11 feet in breadth. Have
+petrol engines of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> for surface
+propulsion and electric motors for use
+when submerged. Their speed is 11
+knots above and 7 knots below. The
+surface cruising radius is 450 knots at
+full speed. The armament consists of
+two bow and one stern tube with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The
+<i>special</i> characteristics of the American
+Lake type will be seen on pages <a href='#Page_119'>119‒120</a>.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Som Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Som.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Shtshuka.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels, which are of the
+Holland-Bubnoff type, have a submerged
+displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol
+and electric motors are used for surface
+and submerged propulsion, and the speed
+is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above and below,
+respectively. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sterliad Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Sterliad.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bialuga.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Peskar.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These three vessels are also of the
+Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of 150 tons.
+The petrol motors for surface propulsion
+are of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed is 9 ½ knots
+and 7 knots, above and below, respectively.
+Their armament consist of two
+bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is eleven
+to fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sig.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submarine of the Lake type;
+similar in almost every respect to
+vessels of the <i>Ostr</i> class.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Makrel Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Makrel.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Okun.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two vessels of the <i>Improved</i> Holland-Bubnoff
+type. They have a submerged
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>displacement of about 200 tons. The
+petrol motors are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and the
+electric engines of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their
+speed is 10 knots on the surface and
+8 knots when submerged. They are
+fitted with two bow tubes and two stern
+<i>holders</i>, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lossos Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Lossos.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ludak.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two somewhat smaller submarines of
+the Holland type. Intended either for
+the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla.
+Similar to those of the <i>Sterliad</i> class.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Karp Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Karp.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Karas.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two submarines are of the
+Germania, or Krupp type, and have a
+submerged displacement of 250 tons.
+They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors
+of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed on the surface
+is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged.
+The surface range of action is
+about 1,000 miles, and the submerged
+endurance about three hours at full
+speed. Their armament consists of two
+bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes
+are carried. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Alligator Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒9.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Alligator.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kaiman.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Drakon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Krokodil.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Four submarines of the improved
+Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 500 tons. Their speed
+is 15 knots on the surface and 10 knots
+when submerged. They are fitted with
+two bow and two stern tubes, and carry
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is seventeen officers and
+men. (See also page <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.)</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Minoga Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Minoga.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Potschovy.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type, which were built in sections
+to facilitate transport by rail. They
+have a submerged displacement of about
+150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and
+9 knots, above and below, respectively.
+Their complement is eleven officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Akula.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type. Her displacement is about
+570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on
+the surface and 10 knots when submerged.
+The armament consists of two
+bow and one stern tube, with six 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. The complement
+is 20 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Kaschalot Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kaschalot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kit.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Krab.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Morsh.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Narval.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nerpa.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Tinlen.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These seven vessels are among the
+most modern submarines in the Russian
+flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type, and have a submerged displacement
+of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil
+engines of over 1,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them
+at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots,
+and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them
+a submerged speed of just over 10 knots
+an hour. Their surface cruising range is
+about 3,000 miles. Their armament consists
+of two bow and one stern tube with
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. They
+are also fitted with a small, quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.
+Their complement is 21 officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Russian Submarines Building.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the war there
+were nineteen Russian submarines in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>course of construction. Very little information
+concerning these boats can be
+obtained, except that their submerged
+displacement ranges from 800 to 1,500
+tons, and their <i>anticipated</i> surface speed is
+20 knots. Some of the 800-ton vessels
+have already been completed, and the
+first twelve will be named: <i>Svitza</i>, <i>Leopard</i>,
+<i>Pantera</i>, <i>Ruis</i>, <i>Kaguar</i>, <i>Tiqr</i>,
+<i>Yaguar</i>, <i>Vepr</i>, <i>Wolk</i>, <i>Baro</i>, <i>Gepard</i>,
+and <i>Tur</i>. These vessels have a speed
+of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots
+when submerged. Their complement is
+25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>
+  <h2 id='ch5' class='c014'>CHAPTER V <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a
+submarine flotilla of seventeen vessels,
+all except two of which are of the British
+Holland or Vickers type. Japan commenced
+the construction of what is now
+a rapidly increasing and powerful flotilla
+in 1904 by the purchase of five elementary
+Holland boats. These, however, are still
+in the active flotilla and are designated
+Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement
+of 120 tons, and are 65 feet
+in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol
+motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 9 knots
+on the surface and electric motors of
+70 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 7 knots when submerged.
+Their armament consists of one bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>expulsion tube with three 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 6 and 7.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels were the first submarine
+boats to be built in Japan, but are
+of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger
+and faster. They have a submerged
+displacement of 180 tons, a length of
+100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. The
+petrol engines are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and the
+electric motors of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface
+and submerged speed is 10 knots and
+8 knots an hour, respectively. Their
+armament consists of one torpedo tube with
+three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 8 and 9.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are very similar to
+the British “C” class, and were built by
+Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged
+displacement of 320 tons; petrol
+motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and a surface and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>submerged speed of 13 knots and 8 knots
+an hour, respectively. Their armament
+consists of two bow tubes with four to six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is sixteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 10‒15.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the same in
+almost every respect as the later “C”
+class of British submarines (pages <a href='#Page_70'>70‒71</a>).</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 16‒17<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c028'><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Schneider-Laubeuf</i>
+or French type. (British “W”
+class.) Their submerged displacement is
+about 500 tons, and the horse-power of
+their surface engines 2,500. The surface
+and submerged speed is 18 knots and
+9 knots respectively. Their armament
+consists of six torpedo tubes with eight
+<i>Schneider</i> torpedoes. The complement is
+about 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>The natural adroitness with which
+Japanese sailors manipulate complicated
+machinery, combined with their absolute
+fearlessness, make them ideal for torpedo
+work.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>
+  <h2 id='ch6' class='c014'>CHAPTER VI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany
+possessed 30 submarine torpedo-boats<a id='tn117'></a>.
+These were divided into
+three flotillas, with their headquarters at
+Kiel, the largest and most modern
+vessels being attached to the Heligoland
+or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913,
+although 24 submarines were stated as
+being in commission, only about 15
+were actively employed, and these mostly
+in training reserves, the older boats
+being docked and modernized where
+possible. But during the year six new
+vessels were added to the flotilla and the
+<i>personnel</i> of the submarine service was
+largely increased. At the same time the
+inspection of submarines was separated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>from that of the other torpedo-boats and
+a flag-officer was appointed as head of
+the submarine branch of the Naval
+Service, with headquarters at Kiel.
+Thus when the hour came for the great
+struggle which was to decide the mastery
+of the seas the whole German Flotilla of
+30 vessels, <i>with a reserve of six new boats
+which had been secretly hurried forward
+and were rapidly nearing completion</i>, was
+ready to put to sea.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The German Naval Law provided for
+the construction of 72 submarines by the
+end of 1917. All the vessels built up
+to the present time have been known as
+the “U” class and numbered in rotation.
+They are painted a brownish-grey colour
+and have high collier-like bows with
+massive armoured conning-towers and
+long superstructures amounting to narrow
+decks. They have all been built at
+either Kiel or Dantzig.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although the first submarine boats
+built for the German Navy were two
+vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>in 1890, they were never actively employed
+with the fleet and have long since
+been reduced to scrap-iron, and the first
+vessel which can now be reckoned as a
+fighting unit of the German torpedo-boat
+flotilla was a vessel designated the
+“U.1.” This was built at the Germania
+Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on August
+30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of
+the “U” class, which in most of the
+essential features resembles the British
+Improved Holland type.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.1.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>This U.1 was built as an experimental
+boat by the famous firm of
+Krupps. She has a surface displacement
+of 197 tons, a submerged displacement
+of 236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface
+engines are of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The electric
+motors for submerged use develop just
+over 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed ranges from
+10 knots an hour on the surface to 7
+knots when submerged, and her surface
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>range of action is about 700 to 800 miles.
+The armament consists of one bow torpedo
+tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf
+torpedoes are carried. The complement
+is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The trials of the U.1 extended over
+a period of a year and a half, and all
+proved remarkably satisfactory. During
+the tests which took place in Eckernforder
+Bay she succeeded, twice in
+succession, in torpedoing a moving target
+while travelling submerged at full speed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The uncertainty displayed for some
+years previous by the German Naval
+Authorities regarding the value of submarine
+boats gave place to a thorough
+sense of the important part these
+“mighty atoms” would play in future
+naval warfare, and to a strong determination
+that the German Navy should
+include a powerful submarine flotilla.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.2-U.8.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒10.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These seven vessels were great
+improvements on the U.1. Their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>displacement is 210 tons on the surface
+and about 250 tons when submerged.
+They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg
+heavy-oil engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and
+electric motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their
+speed on the surface is 12 knots and
+8 knots when submerged. The surface
+range of action is 1,000 miles and the
+submerged endurance about three hours
+at full speed. Their armament consists
+of two bow torpedo tubes and four
+torpedoes are carried. The complement
+is eleven officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.9-U.18.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c028'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are of increased
+size and power, their submerged displacement
+being 300 tons, and the horse-power
+of their heavy oil surface engines
+is 600. The electric motors develop
+200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface and submerged
+speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots
+respectively. The surface range of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>action is 1,500 miles, and the armament
+consists of two bow and one stern torpedo
+tube with five torpedoes. The U.13
+and subsequent vessels of this class are
+provided with a quick-firing, high-angle
+gun for defence against aircraft, and
+have sleeping accommodation for the
+crew. They may be termed the first
+German sea-going submarines. Their
+complement is twenty officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.19 <a id='tn122-2'></a>and U.20.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are only two vessels in this
+class owing to the adoption of certain
+improvements with the aid of which a
+partly new type has been evolved.
+These two vessels have a displacement
+when submerged of 450 tons. Their
+oil engines of 650 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give a speed
+of 13 ½ knots an hour on the surface,
+and their electric motors of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give
+8 knots an hour when submerged. Their
+surface range of action is 2,000 miles,
+and their armament consists of two bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>and one stern torpedo tube with six
+torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing,
+high-angle guns on disappearing mountings.
+The complement is seventeen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.21-U.24.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These four vessels are the first of the
+new type of large sea-going submarines
+for the German Navy. Their submerged
+displacement is 800 tons. They are
+propelled on the surface by heavy-oil
+engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged
+by electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+Their speed above water is 14 knots
+an hour and below the surface 9
+knots. The surface range of action
+is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance
+120 miles at economical speed.
+Their armament consists of two bow
+and two stern torpedo tubes with eight
+torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,
+all on disappearing mountings, for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>defence against hostile destroyers and
+aircraft. Their complement is twenty-five
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.25-U.30.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the latest additions
+to the German submarine flotilla.
+They are vessels of 900 tons submerged
+displacement with heavy-oil engines of
+2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors of 900 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+Their surface and submerged speed is
+18 knots and 10 knots, respectively.
+The surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.
+Their armament consists of two bow and
+two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large
+size torpedoes, and, in addition, two
+14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr.
+high-angle guns. They have wireless
+telegraphic apparatus on board, and are
+specially constructed with long superstructures
+and high <i>collier-like</i> bows to
+enable them to keep at sea in almost any
+weather. They are fitted with two or
+three periscopes, and also possess a small
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span><i>look-out</i> cap on the top of the lofty
+conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”
+attack in the half-lights of dawn and
+dusk, when the periscope is almost useless.
+The conning-towers and decks are
+armoured. Their complement is 30 to 35
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.31-U.36.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Building.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the six vessels which are
+rapidly nearing completion, and which
+were in a much more advanced state,
+at the opening of hostilities, than was
+generally known in foreign naval circles.
+They are the same in almost every
+respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30.
+There is, however, another submarine
+being built for Germany of a totally
+different design. This is the F.I.A.T.
+or <i>Laurenti</i> boat (Italian), laid down at
+the beginning of 1914. This vessel is
+very similar to the four “S” boats being
+built at Greenock for the British Navy.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>No German submarines have in the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>past been sent to any Colonial or oversea
+station. Therefore, the whole flotilla
+of 30 to 36 vessels was immediately available
+for operations in the North Sea and
+Baltic when war began. The <i>personnel</i>
+of the whole torpedo service is very
+efficient, great attention having been
+paid to this branch of the Navy. The
+three German Submarine flotillas have
+their headquarters at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven,
+and Heligoland.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>
+  <h2 id='ch7' class='c014'>CHAPTER VII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>At the commencement of the War the
+Austro-Hungarian Navy included six
+submarines in the active flotilla and
+five others were being <a id='tn127'></a><i>completed</i> at the
+Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful
+if they had been delivered. In which
+event they must be added to the strength
+of the German flotilla. In addition to
+these, several larger vessels, mostly of
+the latest “U” or Krupp design, had
+been ordered, but were not expected to
+take their place in the active flotillas
+before the end of 1915.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Austria commenced the formation of a
+submarine flotilla in 1908 by the acquisition
+of two vessels of the <i>Improved Holland
+type</i> from Messrs. Vickers Ltd., and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>two others of the American <i>Lake type</i>.
+In the following year two more submarines
+were ordered, this time from
+Krupp’s Germania Yard. All these
+vessels were delivered during 1910, and
+Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into
+being.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.1 and U.2.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the American
+Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 250 tons and petrol
+surface motors of 720 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed
+is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots
+when submerged. The armament consists
+of two bow and one stern torpedo
+tube. This type of submarine has three
+special features which distinguish it from
+all others. It is fitted with a kind of
+underframe and wheels, and is designed
+to travel in four different positions: (1) on
+the surface; (2) semi-submerged, with
+only a look-out cowl above water; (3)
+submerged, with nothing but the periscope
+showing; (4) totally submerged and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>running along the sea-bed on wheels,
+like a submarine motor car. It is drawn
+down from the surface to the sea-bed
+by an ingenious system of wire-hawsers
+and drop-weights, which can be released
+in the event of accident. A “diving
+chamber” enables members of the crew
+to don diving-dresses and leave the submarine
+when on the sea-bed, for the
+purpose of laying or destroying submerged
+mines. The Lake type of submarine is
+also used in the Russian Navy.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c028'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.3 and U.4.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the Krupp
+design, and have a submerged displacement
+of 300 tons. The horse-power of
+their heavy-oil surface engines is 600.
+The electric motors develop 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+The surface and submerged speeds are
+13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The
+surface range of action is 1,500 miles,
+and the armament consists of two bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and one stern tube with five 18-inch
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.5 and U.6.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the Improved
+Holland type. Their submerged displacement
+is about 316 tons; length
+135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The
+horse-power of the petrol engines is 600
+and that of the electric engines 189.
+The speed averages 12 knots on the
+surface and 8 knots when submerged.
+The surface cruising range is 1,300
+knots at 10 knots an hour. Their
+armament consists of two bow tubes with
+four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+Their complement is sixteen officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.7-U.11.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania
+type, and are similar to those
+completed for the German Navy in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>1912‒13. They are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged displacement
+of 800 tons. They are propelled
+on the surface by heavy-oil engines of
+1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged, by
+electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed
+is 14 knots and 9 knots, above and
+below, respectively. The surface range
+of action is 3,000 miles, and the submerged
+endurance 120 miles at economical
+speed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Their armament consists of two bow
+and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight
+torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,
+for defence against hostile destroyers and
+air-craft. Their complement is twenty-five
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>One or two Austrian submarines are
+supposed to have been sunk by the
+Allied Fleet during the first few weeks
+of the war, but exactly which vessels
+they were is not known.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Several other submarines have been
+ordered in foreign countries for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered
+while the war lasts.</p>
+
+<h3 id='flotillas' class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotillas of Neutral European Powers.</span></h3>
+
+<table class='table1' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='20%' />
+<col width='40%' />
+<col width='40%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+ <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Country.</span></th>
+ <th class='bbt blt brt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Built.</span></th>
+ <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Building.</span></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Italy</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c037'>20 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>8 (large size)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Denmark</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>9 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>several</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Holland</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>6 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>4 (large)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Sweden</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>7 (150‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3 (large)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Greece</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>2 (Laubeuf)</td>
+    <td class='c039'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Norway</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>4 (Germania)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Portugal</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Turkey</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c037'>――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+ <td class='bbt c037'>Spain</td>
+ <td class='bbt blt brt c037'>――</td>
+ <td class='bbt c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>
+  <h2 id='ch8' class='c014'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>Submarines have two great advantages
+over all types of surface warships; they
+can become invisible at will—or sufficiently
+invisible to make gun or torpedo-practice,
+except at very close quarters,
+almost entirely useless—and they can,
+by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate
+of sufficient thickness to be absolutely
+shell-proof. These are the two
+main points in favour of the submarine.
+There are, however, many minor features.
+Although submarines are known in the
+naval services as “daylight torpedo-boats,”
+for their <i>greatest</i> value lies in
+their ability to perform the same task in
+the “light” as the ordinary surface torpedo-boats
+and destroyers can do under
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>cover of darkness or fog—that of creeping
+up close to an enemy, and launching a
+torpedo unobserved—they have been
+given, during recent years, so much
+greater speed, armament, and range of
+action, that they can no longer be looked
+upon as small boats just suitable for daylight
+torpedo attack in favourable circumstances.
+Their surface speed has been
+increased from 10 to 20 knots, making
+them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.
+This, combined with <a id='tn134'></a>manœuvering
+powers and general above-water invisibility,
+has enabled them to take over the
+duty of the surface torpedo-boat—that
+of delivering night-attacks on the surface.
+After nightfall a submarine attack is
+almost impossible owing to the periscope—the
+eyes of the submarine—being
+useless in the dark.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The increase in the armament of the
+submarine—from the single bow torpedo
+tube with two torpedoes of short range
+and weak explosive charge, to the four
+bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>torpedoes of long range and high
+explosive charge—has greatly increased
+their chances of successful attack on
+surface warships, first, by giving them
+four or six shots ahead, then the possibility,
+in the event of all these
+torpedoes missing, of a dive under the
+object of attack, and two more shots
+at close range from the stern tubes
+(still retaining two torpedoes); and,
+secondly, by increasing the distance
+from which the first projectile can be
+launched, owing to the increased range
+of the modern torpedo. There are also
+the advantages derived from the battery
+of quick-firing guns installed on the
+decks of modern submarines. Although
+at the present time these guns are
+only of small power they nevertheless
+afford a means of defence—and even
+of attack under favourable circumstances—against
+hostile surface torpedo-boats,
+destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a
+flotilla of submarines could undoubtedly
+now give a very good account of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>itself if attacked either on the surface
+or when submerged by one or two
+prowling destroyers. The increase in
+the power of the guns carried by submarines,
+which will certainly come soon,
+will enable this type of craft to take
+up the additional duties of the destroyer—that
+of clearing the seas of hostile
+torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced
+scouting—for which work their ability
+to travel submerged and in a state of
+invisibility for distances of over 100
+miles makes them eminently suitable.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The enormous increase in the size
+and range of action of submarines,
+combined with the improvements effected
+in the surface cruising qualities, have
+enabled these vessels to be taken from
+the “nursery” of harbour and coast
+defence and placed with the sea-going
+flotillas and battle-fleets. In the short
+period of ten years the tonnage of
+submarines has risen from 100 to over
+1,000 tons, and the range of action
+from 400 miles at economical speed to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>5,000 miles. Exactly what this means
+is more easily realized when it is
+stated that the earlier types of submarines
+could scarcely cross the English
+Channel and return without taking in
+supplies of fuel, and in rough weather
+were forced to remain in harbour,
+whereas the modern vessel can go
+from England to Newfoundland <i>and
+back</i> without assistance, and can remain
+at sea in almost any weather, as was
+first demonstrated by the successful
+voyage of the British submarines A.E.1
+and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since
+been proved by the operations of the
+British submarine flotilla in the North
+Sea.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In addition to the cruising range
+there is, however, the question of
+habitability. In this respect the progress
+has been equally as rapid. In
+the older boats no sleeping accommodation
+was provided for the crew, and
+food supplies and fresh water sufficient
+only for a few days were carried. In the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>latest British, French and German
+vessels proper sleeping and messing
+accommodation is provided, and supplies
+of all kinds and in sufficient quantity
+to last a month are carried. Although
+work on these craft is still very
+cramping for the crew, the increase in
+the deck space and in the surface
+buoyancy has greatly minimised the
+discomforts of service in the submarine
+flotilla.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>With regard to safety, it has already
+been shown that a submarine is only held
+below the surface by the power of her
+engines and the action of the water on
+her diving-rudders. This means that in
+the event of anything going wrong
+<i>inside</i> the vessel she would automatically
+rise to the surface; but should the hull
+be pierced in any way, either by shot
+or by collision, and an overwhelming
+inrush of water result—overcoming the
+buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing
+out the water-ballast tanks—then the
+vessel must inevitably sink, and the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>question of whether or not the crew
+can save themselves becomes a problem
+to which no definite answer can be given,
+although a special means is provided in
+all modern vessels belonging to the British
+Navy. Speaking generally, it may, however,
+be said that if the disaster occurs
+suddenly, and the vessel sinks into very
+deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving
+are extremely small; but if the
+water is comparatively shallow, as along
+the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood
+of many of the crew being able to save
+themselves with the aid of the <i>special
+escape helmets and air-locks</i> is fairly good.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>We now come to the most important
+improvement made in the fighting qualities
+of these vessels since first they came into
+being, viz. the wonderful increase in the
+surface and submerged speed. In the
+older craft the surface speed did not
+exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it
+now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the
+submerged speed has risen from 5 knots
+to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>for any but a naval man to realize exactly
+what this increase in the speed of submarines
+really means, and it is equally as
+difficult to adequately describe it here in
+non-technical language. It is a mere
+platitude to say that in order to attack a
+surface warship the submarine must first
+get within torpedo range of it; and yet it
+is on this very point that the strategy and
+tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A
+clever naval tactician once described the
+submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.”
+The two points on which he
+based this opinion were—the (then) slow
+speed of these vessels compared with that
+of the surface warship, and its almost
+total blindness when submerged. These
+two defects were for some years the
+principal drawbacks of all the submarines
+afloat; but since that naval expert pronounced
+submarines to be “handicapped
+torpedo-boats,” great changes, great improvements
+have been made. The speed
+of the submarine has increased by over
+100 per cent., and they have been given
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>longer and wider range of vision by the
+introduction of two and three improved
+periscopes instead of one elementary
+instrument. Nevertheless, the speed
+difficulty is still a very real one, as
+will readily be seen when it is taken
+into consideration that the speed of a
+submarine when attacking submerged is
+frequently only half, or even a third,
+of that of her enemy. In order to
+more clearly illustrate this and lift for
+a moment the veil of secrecy which
+enshrouds the methods of attack adopted
+by this type of craft, it will be necessary
+to describe what is known as the<i> right-angle
+attack</i>.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Attacking at Right Angles.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>The difficulty of attacking a surface
+warship steaming at right angles to the
+course of the submarine will be clearly
+understood by referring to the following
+diagrams. The first shows an attack on
+a warship travelling at 20 miles an
+hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Any increase in the speed of the surface
+vessel not only adds to the difficulty of
+the attacking submarine, but also the
+direction from which the attack must be
+made. This feature is shown in the
+second diagram, which illustrates a submarine
+attack on a vessel steaming
+at 30 miles an hour, such as a fast
+destroyer or fleet scout. On the other
+hand, a decrease in the speed of the
+on-coming surface vessel tends to either
+make easier the task of the attacking
+submarine, or else to increase the
+distance from which the attack can be
+delivered. This is shown in the third
+diagram, which assumes the speed of the
+surface vessel to be only 15 miles an
+hour, such as a merchantman, troopship,
+food-ship, collier, or old warship.</p>
+
+<div id='tn142'  class='figcenter id002'>
+<img src='images/132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'><a id='tn142-2'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a submarine attacking
+a hostile warship (or fleet) steaming at
+20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the
+line of vision. The submarine sights the
+warship at a distance of just over 11 miles
+on her port bow. “B” shows the hostile
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to point
+marked “C,” and each division beyond
+equals 1 mile.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Directly the submarine, which is
+assumed to be lying in an <i>awash
+condition</i>, sights the object of attack,
+she totally submerges and steers forward
+at a speed of 10 miles an hour.
+The loss, and gain, of the submarine on
+the different courses, can be seen in the
+table above the chart.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c028'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The spaces between the black dots
+show the most favourable points of
+attack. It will be noticed in the table
+that both vessels are equal at point “C,”
+but for many reasons this is not the best
+point of attack. The gain of about six
+minutes on the longer course enables the
+submarine not only to manœuvre into the
+best possible position for the attack, but
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>also to discharge more than one torpedo
+if necessary.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><a id='tn144'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the extreme limit at
+which a submarine could, with reasonable
+chances of success, attack a destroyer, or
+other vessel, steaming at 30 (statute)
+miles an hour, having sighted her at a
+distance of 16 miles in the position
+shown by the line of vision “A.”</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distance to “C” is 15 miles
+for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for
+the submarine. Here, again, the two
+vessels would be equal; but the most
+favourable point of attack is shown by
+the two black dots—where the submarine
+has gained two minutes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Fig. 3.</span>—The submarine sights the
+object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼
+miles, in the position shown by the line
+of vision “A.” The surface vessel has
+a speed of only 15 miles an hour
+(merchantman). In this case the surface
+vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey
+along course “B”—arriving at point
+“C” 20 minutes in advance of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>submarine. The table shows how the
+submarine, by changing her course and
+“throwing” the surface vessel on her
+beam, gradually reduces the loss, until,
+at the point marked with the two black
+dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At
+this distance she could fire her torpedoes at
+long range, with some likelihood of success.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although these charts show approximately
+the extreme limits of the right-angle
+attack, a submarine could, of
+course, proceed for some distance on
+the surface at a much faster speed;
+but considering the rate at which the
+two vessels would be approaching each
+other, the submarine which attempted
+it would run considerable risk of being
+detected, and thus destroy her chances
+of a successful attack. Considering also
+the time lost in sinking from the “light”
+to the totally submerged condition, in
+coming to close quarters, the gain in
+speed would not amount to as much as
+may at first seem probable.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c028'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>These charts are drawn and calculations
+made assuming the following
+points:—</p>
+
+<div class='in1'>
+
+  <dl class='dl_1'>
+    <dt>(1)</dt>
+    <dd>The weather—fine and bright.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(2)</dt>
+    <dd>Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(3)</dt>
+    <dd>The enemy on the alert.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(4)</dt>
+    <dd>Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(5)</dt>
+    <dd>Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” in all courses in a
+    submerged condition.
+    </dd>
+    </dl>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The most favourable position for a
+submarine flotilla is to manœuvre close
+up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within
+1,000 yards of a fleet—steaming across
+its course; but both of these ideal
+positions for attack are extremely
+difficult to obtain, and consequently in
+all the less favourable positions speed
+is the deciding factor. Strategems will
+undoubtedly play an important part in
+submarine warfare. An example of this
+has already been afforded when the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>German submarines resorted to the
+dishonest trick of laying in wait behind
+a trawler engaged in laying mines, over
+which <i>the flag of a neutral state</i> had
+been hoisted as a blind. This resulted
+in the loss of three British cruisers with
+over 1,000 lives. It would, however,
+be quite in accord with the rules of
+<i>civilised</i> warfare for a submarine to
+shelter behind a “decoy”; to attack
+simultaneously with a seaplane; or to
+approach an enemy behind one of its
+own merchant ships.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Porpoise Dive.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise
+Dive” is merely the sudden rising of a
+submarine in order to enable her commander
+to get a better view of the surface
+than that afforded by the periscope. The
+submarine on approaching the object of
+attack rises quickly to the surface by the
+action of her horizontal rudders, then
+dives again, only remaining above water
+for a few seconds to enable her commander
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>to get a glimpse of the enemy,
+and to take bearings. The submarine
+can then get within torpedo-range, with
+simply the tiny periscope projecting from
+the surface. This manœuvre is now
+seldom necessary, owing to the long and
+wide range of vision of the two or three
+periscopes fitted in modern submarines.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Difficulty of the Fixed Torpedo Tube.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>With the exception of one or two
+vessels, which it would be unwise to
+specify, all the submarines engaged in
+the present war have what are called
+<i>fixed submerged tubes</i>. This means that
+the tubes from which the torpedoes are
+discharged are fitted <i>inside</i> the submarine
+<i>on a line with the centre of the boat</i>, and
+cannot be moved or aimed in any way
+apart from the boat itself. It therefore
+becomes necessary for the submarine to
+be <i>aligned</i> by the steering rudders on the
+object of attack before the torpedoes can
+be discharged. In simpler vein, torpedoes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>can only be fired by a submarine straight
+ahead or straight astern. Hence a
+submarine, with a hostile warship coming
+up on its beam, is compelled to turn and
+face its opponent (or turn its stern towards
+her) before delivering an attack.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotilla</span> <i>v.</i> <span class='sc'>Surface Fleet.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>It is absolutely necessary for submarines
+acting in company to have each
+its allotted task; and for a wide space of
+water to be left between each boat; as it
+is impossible, at present, for one submarine
+to know the exact position of
+another when both vessels are submerged.
+Therefore, if each boat was not previously
+instructed how to act, there would not
+only be the likelihood of the greater
+portion of an attacking flotilla firing their
+torpedoes at one or two vessels of the
+hostile fleet and allowing the remainder
+either to escape or to keep up a heavy
+and dangerous fire unmolested, but also
+of collision and of torpedoeing each other
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>by accident. There is no means of
+inter-communication between submarines
+when submerged, and a battle between
+submarines is almost impossible.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Surprise Attack.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>In this case invisibility is the element
+of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge,
+G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once
+said: “When submerged the concealment
+of the submarine is practically perfect.
+If she has not been sighted up to the
+moment of diving, she will almost
+certainly reach, unobserved, the point at
+which she can make her attack.” And
+this opinion—shared for many years by
+all experts—has been amply proved in the
+present war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submarine must, however, blend with
+the surrounding sea in its ever-varying
+colours, lights and shades, in order that
+she may be as invisible as possible when
+cruising on the surface. The French
+Naval Authorities experimented off
+Toulon with a luminous paint of a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>sea-green colour; but this, although
+causing the hull to be almost totally
+invisible in certain weather, was found
+to be useless, as, on a bright day with
+a blue sky, the green showed up clear
+against the bluish tint of the surrounding
+sea. After many months of experimenting,
+a pale, sea-green, non-luminous
+paint was chosen as the best colour
+for French submarines. The British
+Admiralty also carried out a few experiments
+in this direction, and came to the
+conclusion that a dull grey was the most
+invisible shade. The German authorities
+decided in favour of a grey-brown.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When travelling submerged, with only
+the thin periscopic tube above the surface,
+it is almost impossible to detect the
+approach of a submarine <i>before</i> she gets
+within torpedo range; and when cruising
+on the surface she is equally as invisible
+at a distance of a few miles. These
+qualities enable the submarine in nearly
+all cases where her speed permits, to
+effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>or cruiser <i>when not closely screened by
+fast destroyers</i>, whose duty it is to be ever
+on the watch for submarines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>As to the tactics which would be
+employed by a submarine (or flotilla) in
+attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it
+is impossible to say, for, like the
+impromptu attacks of all “mosquito
+craft,” the exact method, or manœuvre<a id='tn152'></a>,
+is arranged to suit the circumstances,
+and it is very seldom that two such
+attacks are carried out alike. Generally
+speaking, however, a hostile warship
+could be easily sighted, on a fairly
+clear day, from the flying-bridge of a
+submarine at a distance of 10 miles; but
+it would be practically impossible to
+detect the submarine from the deck of
+a warship at that distance. On sighting
+her object of attack the submarine would
+sink to the “awash” condition, and
+proceed for from 2 ½ to 5 miles, as
+might be deemed expedient. She would
+then submerge and steer by her periscopes,
+each of which has a field of vision
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>of 60 degrees. He would be a very
+keen look-out who would be able to
+detect the few square inches of periscopic
+tube at a distance of three miles.
+As this distance lessened, it might be
+advisable, if the sea was <i>very</i> calm and
+if the object of attack was stationary,
+for the submarine to slacken speed, so as
+to prevent any spray being thrown off
+by the periscopic tube. Assuming, however,
+that the optical tube was seen by
+the enemy, it would be extremely difficult
+to hit it with gun-fire at a distance of one
+or two miles, or to damage the boat itself,
+which would probably be immersed to a
+depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of
+about 2,000 yards, or just over one mile,
+the submarine would discharge her first
+torpedo, following it up with another
+at closer range from the second bow
+tube. A rapid dive would then probably
+be necessary in order to avoid the hail
+of shot which would plough up the waters
+around her. If the first two torpedoes
+missed their mark the submarine might
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>either dive completely under the object
+of attack and then fire her stern tubes
+at close range, or else manœuvre below
+the surface for an attack from some
+other point.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>One of the effects produced on fleets
+or individual warships in war time by
+the ever present possibility of submarine
+attack is, however, that they never
+remain at anchor or even stationary in
+an exposed position, and seldom—if wise—proceed
+without destroyers as advance
+and flank guards. These precautions
+double the difficulties of a successful
+submarine attack.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>
+  <h2 id='ch9' class='c014'>CHAPTER IX <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>In all warfare, new weapons of attack
+are, sooner or later, met by new methods
+of defence. The submarine and the
+aeroplane are at present the only
+weapons against which there is no true
+means of defence, and yet one is being
+used as an antidote for the other without,
+however, any very striking success so far.
+The seaplane may be able to distinguish
+the dark patch in the sea caused by the
+hull of the submarine <i>in clear water</i>,
+but she cannot destroy it, neither can
+she signal the <i>exact</i> locality to an
+accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing
+to the speed with which seaplane and
+submarine pass over and under each
+other; furthermore, in rough weather or
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>in shallow muddy water no sign of the
+submarine when submerged is visible
+from above. The great value of the
+seaplane as an antidote for submarines
+lies, however, first in the fact that the
+water of the open sea is usually clear,
+and the <i>submarine shadow</i> is visible
+from above, and, secondly, in the great
+speed of these aircraft which enables
+them to quickly cover miles of sea in
+their search for hostile submarines and
+to report their presence in a given
+locality by wireless to all ships operating
+within range.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When the enormous superficial area of
+a zone of war, such as the North Sea
+and English Channel, is duly considered,
+however, the difficulty in quickly and
+reliably locating from the air the
+few scattered “submarine shadows” will
+be easily realized. To make this
+method of locating submarines even
+fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes
+would be required. Again seaplanes
+do not, in themselves, constitute
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>a means of defence against submarine
+attack, they merely increase the likelihood
+of detection, but, in actual warfare,
+it has now been proved that for every
+submarine detected by seaplanes two
+others pass quite unobserved.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Many means of attack on submarines
+have been proposed; and no doubt some
+of these, in certain cases, would prove
+effective; but none can be relied upon.
+Therefore, one of the points in favour
+of the submarine still remains without
+its antidote. This is the <i>moral effect</i>;
+for if there is no absolutely reliable
+means of defence, there can be no
+feeling of security for surface warships
+or merchant vessels when anywhere
+within the danger zone of the submarine.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Let us now examine briefly what
+practical methods of defence a modern
+warship has against submarine attacks.
+Great speed is undoubtedly a surface
+ship’s most reliable defence; and when
+combined with a frequent change of
+course, would greatly reduce the chances
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>of a successful under-water attack.
+Should hostile submarines be on the
+line of advance they would not know
+whether to wait and chance the enemy
+approaching within torpedo range or
+whether to run to starboard or port.
+This is, if the surface warship was
+steaming in an erratic course—not a
+zigzag course, for then it might be
+possible to estimate, within torpedo
+range, the position of the ship at a
+given point if the “tacks” were regular.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Should submarines be seen approaching,
+a surface vessel would do well to turn
+her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting
+as small a target as possible,
+and deflecting the torpedoes by her
+propeller race.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The escape of the Battle Cruiser
+<i>Queen Mary</i> and the Light Cruiser
+<i>Lowestoft</i>, during the action in the
+Heligoland Bight, as described in the
+dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David
+Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what may
+be done by the skilful use of the helm
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>on surface warships to frustrate submarine
+attacks. So interesting, and informative
+as to the actual fighting
+between British warships and hostile
+submarines, in this dispatch that I give
+it here in full. It should, however, be
+studied in conjunction with the comprehensive
+report—the first in the
+history of Naval warfare detailing submarine
+attack and reconnaissance—from
+Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B.,
+of the British submarines, given on
+page 28.</p>
+
+<div class='c040'>“H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c040'><i>1st September, 1914</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c024'>“<span class='sc'>Sir</span>,—I have the honour to report
+that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 a.m.,
+I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser
+Squadron and First Light Cruiser
+Squadron in company, to rendezvous
+with the Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements
+of the Flotillas commenced as
+previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser
+Squadron and Light Cruiser Squadron
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>supporting. The Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>,
+with <i>New Zealand</i> and four
+Destroyers having joined my flag, the
+Squadron passed through the pre-arranged
+rendezvous.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal
+from the Commodore (T), informing me
+that the Flotilla was in action with the
+enemy. This was presumably in the
+vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous.
+From this time until 11 a.m. I remained
+about the vicinity ready to support as
+necessary, intercepting various signals,
+which contained no information on which
+I could act.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked
+by three Submarines. The attack
+was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and
+the four Destroyers were ordered to
+attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m.,
+various signals having been received
+indicating that the Commodore (T) and
+Commodore (S) were both in need of
+assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser
+Squadron to support the Torpedo Flotillas.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>“Later I received a signal from the
+Commodore (T), stating that he was
+being attacked by a large Cruiser, and
+a further signal informing me that he
+was being hard pressed and asking for
+assistance. The Captain (D), First
+Flotilla, also signalled that he was in
+need of help.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“From the foregoing the situation
+appeared to me critical. The Flotillas
+had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m.,
+and were only about twenty-five miles
+from two enemy bases on their flank and
+rear respectively. Commodore Goodenough
+had detached two of his Light
+Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier
+in the day, and these had not yet rejoined.
+(They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As
+the reports indicated the presence of many
+enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I
+considered that his force might not be
+strong enough to deal with the situation
+sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the
+Battle Cruisers turned to E.S.E., and
+worked up to full speed. It was evident
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>that to be of any value the support must
+be overwhelming and carried out at the
+highest speed possible.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I had not lost sight of the risk of
+Submarines, and possible sortie in force
+from the enemy’s base, especially in view
+of the mist to the South-East.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Our high speed, however, made
+submarine attack difficult, and the
+smoothness of the sea made their detection
+comparatively easy. I considered
+that we were powerful enough to deal
+with any sortie except by a Battle
+Squadron, which was unlikely to come
+out in time, provided our stroke was
+sufficiently rapid.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 12.15 p.m. <i>Fearless</i> and First
+Flotilla were sighted retiring West. At
+the same time the Light Cruiser
+Squadron was observed to be engaging
+an enemy ship ahead. They appeared
+to have her beat.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I then steered N.E. to sounds of
+firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. sighted
+<i>Arethusa</i> and Third Flotilla retiring to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>the Westward engaging a Cruiser of the
+<i>Kolberg</i> class on our Port Bow. I
+steered to cut her off from Heligoland,
+and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At 12.42
+the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased
+at 27 knots.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged
+a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. <i>Lion</i>
+fired two salvoes at her, which took
+effect, and she disappeared into the mist,
+burning furiously and in a sinking condition.
+In view of the mist and that she
+was steering at high speed at right angles
+to <i>Lion</i>, who was herself steaming at
+28 knots, the <i>Lion’s</i> firing was very
+creditable.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Our Destroyers had reported the
+presence of floating mines to the Eastward
+and I considered it inadvisable to
+pursue her. It was also essential that
+the Squadrons should remain concentrated,
+and I accordingly ordered a
+withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned
+North and circled to port to complete the
+destruction of the vessel first engaged.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m.
+steaming S.E. with colours still flying.
+<i>Lion</i> opened fire with two turrets, and at
+1.35 p.m., after receiving two salvoes, she
+sank.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The four attached Destroyers were
+sent to pick up survivors, but I deeply
+regret that they subsequently reported
+that they searched the area but found
+none.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers
+turned to the Northward, and <i>Queen
+Mary</i> was again attacked by a Submarine.
+The attack was avoided by the use of
+the helm. <i>Lowestoft</i> was also unsuccessfully
+attacked. The Battle Cruisers
+covered the retirement until nightfall.
+By 6 p.m., the retirement having been
+well executed and all Destroyers accounted
+for, I altered course, spread the
+Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in
+accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s
+orders. At 7.45 p.m. I detached
+<i>Liverpool</i> to Rosyth with German
+prisoners, seven officers and 79 men,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>survivors from <i>Mainz</i>. No further incident
+occurred.—I have the honour to
+be, Sir, your obedient Servant.</p>
+
+<div class='c023'>“(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c023'>“Vice-Admiral.</div>
+<div class='c023'>“The Secretary of the Admiralty.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and
+6-inch type are certainly the best weapons
+for an attack on submarines. In combination
+with “sharp look-outs,” they
+could be used with effect from the
+elevated positions on the fore part of
+warships. The periscopic-tube of the
+submarine always proves a target for
+gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches
+in diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards
+requires “excellent” marksmanship to
+hit. That it can be done is proved by
+the sinking of the German submarine
+U.15 by the British Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i>
+in the North Sea. The effect of a shot
+carrying away the periscope is to blind
+the submarine, at least in one eye, she
+can then be <i>run-down</i> by the surface
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>warship or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at
+close range.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Of course, if submarines were caught
+napping on the surface the guns of surface
+warships could quickly sink them; but
+another incident, similar to that which
+opened the naval engagements of the
+Russo-Japanese War, cannot be looked
+for in the naval engagements to come.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>For a fleet engaged in bombarding or
+blockading, one of the best methods of
+defence would be to lower the torpedo
+nets, not close round each vessel, but
+suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance
+from the bombarding or blockading
+fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a
+good defence during daylight, but
+neither of these methods are reliable.
+A submarine might be able to dive
+unobserved under, or past, the destroyers
+acting as pickets, and it is this
+chance which causes these under-water
+craft to be a source of constant anxiety.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo-boat destroyer should
+prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot
+vessels to look after their under-water
+opponents.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It has been suggested that internal
+armour could be fitted to warships
+below the water-line, which would
+render the hulls able to withstand mine
+or torpedo explosions. At present this
+is practically impossible, as the great
+weight of this additional armour, combined
+with the ever-increasing size of
+guns and weight of above-water protection,
+would necessitate a vessel of
+such enormous displacement as to be
+quite impossible, if the important factor—high
+speed—has also to be maintained.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The defence of harbours against submarines
+is a problem which does not
+present nearly so many difficulties as
+the defence of moving ships. Portsmouth,
+for example, is closed by means
+of a submarine boom-defence, which is
+stretched across the mouth of the
+harbour. The entrance to the River
+Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>Canal) is effectively closed to British
+submarines by boom-defences, mines, and
+submerged wire entanglements. Narrow
+waterways, such as the Straits of Dover,
+can be closed by the laying of contact-mines,
+and even broader seas can be
+made dangerous to submarines by the
+same method. An example of this is
+afforded by the laying of a British
+mine-field somewhere between the
+Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to
+prevent German submarines from penetrating
+into the English Channel.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are so many reliable means
+of defending harbours and narrow
+waterways against submarines that it is
+unnecessary to say anything further
+here. But to protect moving ships at
+sea, under all conditions, certainly presents
+a most profound puzzle.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>
+  <h2 id='ch10' class='c014'>CHAPTER X <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo has become one
+of the principal naval arms. Not only
+does it supply the chief offensive power
+of the submarine, the torpedo-boat and
+the destroyer, but it is also carried as a
+separate arm, with a special highly-trained
+crew, by almost every warship afloat.
+At the beginning of hostilities the Naval
+Powers engaged owned considerably over
+80,000 of these weapons, and <i>one</i> factory
+in England alone can make them at the
+rate of two a day. During the first few
+weeks of the <i>Great War</i> the torpedo
+was responsible for the sinking of warships
+to the value of over one million sterling.
+Had the German Fleet been on the high
+seas instead of in harbour and protected
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>from torpedo raids by carefully-prepared
+submarine defences, there is little
+doubt but what several more of the
+enemy’s ships would have been sunk
+by this weapon. The fact that at first
+the British light cruisers suffered rather
+heavily—though in total loss of ships and
+men less than the German Navy—does
+not point to any advantage derived either
+from the type of torpedo used or from
+skill in this mode of warfare possessed by
+the Germans, but clearly to the timidity
+of the German main fleet, which was at
+the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn
+from the zone of war and placed behind
+fortifications, where it was safe from
+torpedo attack. The British Fleet, true
+to the policy of “attack and not defence,”
+began operations the moment war was
+declared, with results so brilliantly successful,
+and of such far-reaching and
+world-wide importance, that enumeration is
+well-nigh impossible. But while all these
+operations were in progress the British
+Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>attack by any hostile submarines or fast
+surface craft which might succeed in
+getting past the cordon of protecting
+destroyers, while the German Fleet was
+safe, but ignominiously impotent. That
+the naval losses of Great Britain, with
+all her fleets at sea, have not been far
+greater than they have is in itself a victory
+of the greatest magnitude—a victory due
+entirely to consummate naval skill.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The modern torpedo varies in length
+from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to
+half a ton. It has an extreme range
+of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ miles.
+There are three types of torpedoes in
+use by the fleets at war. The British
+use the <i>Whitehead Torpedo</i>, the French
+the Whitehead and the <i>Schneider</i>, the
+Russians and the Japanese use the
+Whitehead; the Germans have a type
+of their own, known as the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>,
+and the Austrian arm is principally the
+Whitehead. All these types are alike in
+their essential features, and therefore need
+not be described separately.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedo is propelled by compressed air
+stored in that section of the weapon
+known as the <i>air-chamber</i> (see diagram).
+The air on being released is heated and
+expanded in a tiny three or four-cylinder
+engine which operates twin screws,
+moving “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”
+The “war-head” contains about
+200 pounds of wet gun-cotton which is
+exploded on the torpedo striking an
+object. The essential features of the
+Whitehead torpedo are shown in the
+diagram.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c028'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This torpedo maintains a speed of
+42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for
+2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards,
+and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. Thus, if
+discharged at a distance of half a mile
+it reaches its object in about 45 seconds.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c041'>
+ <img src='images/164.jpg' alt='Whitehead Torpedo' />
+ <div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead
+torpedo. <i>A.</i> Pistol, detonator, primer, which causes the
+explosion of “B” when the torpedo strikes an object. <i>B.</i>
+Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. (The “war-head”
+is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)
+<i>C.</i> Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of
+approximately 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The
+chamber is tested to stand a pressure of 1700 lbs. per square
+inch. <i>D.</i> Balance chamber, containing mechanism for
+regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo
+is adjusted to run. <i>E.</i> Engine-room, containing propelling
+machinery (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). <i>F.</i> Buoyancy
+chamber—a practically empty chamber—to give the
+necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. <i>G.</i> Gyroscope. An
+instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo
+from the line of fire. <i>H.</i> Rudders, and mechanism for
+operating. <i>I.</i> Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and
+“anti-clockwise.<a id='tn175'></a>”</span></p>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into
+the sea from surface or submerged
+tubes, and on striking the water are
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>propelled by their own engines in an
+absolutely straight course towards the
+target. The exact mechanism of the
+submerged tube—which is used in
+surface warships as well as in submarines—is
+a naval secret. When fired from
+a surface tube the torpedo sinks immediately
+to a depth of about 10 to 14
+feet, and maintains this depth until it
+strikes its object. When fired from a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>submerged tube it rises—if necessary—to
+the same level. A torpedo always
+proceeds towards its object of attack at
+a depth of a few feet below the surface.
+This, combined with speed, renders
+it almost impossible to destroy an
+approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So
+marvellous is the mechanism of these
+little weapons that in anything like
+favourable circumstances they may be
+<i>depended upon</i>, if well aimed, to strike
+within a yard or two of the spot aimed
+at. This accuracy is due almost
+entirely to the gyroscope, which,
+briefly described, is a rotating wheel
+automatically controlling the torpedo’s
+course.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although for many years torpedoes
+have been carried by nearly all types
+of service warships, none of them were
+really ideal for this kind of warfare. A
+new field for the torpedo was, however,
+opened out by the introduction of the
+submarine boat. In order to be effective
+the torpedo must be discharged from a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>distance under 4,000 yards—preferably
+from a point less than half this distance
+from the object of attack. This means
+that the vessel carrying the torpedo
+would have to get within a mile, or at
+least a mile and a-half, of her object
+of attack before discharging a torpedo.
+For a surface vessel to accomplish this in
+the face of a heavy cannonade from quick-firing
+guns would be extremely risky.
+To make a quick rush to close quarters,
+if possible, by several vessels from
+different points, was the only chance of
+delivering a successful torpedo attack
+on a hostile warship; unless, of course,
+she was favoured by fog or darkness
+<i>at the right moment</i>—favourable conditions
+which would seldom obtain in
+actual warfare. Again, every increase in
+the speed of the big surface warship
+rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat
+and destroyer more difficult because
+in the event of a threatened attack the
+larger vessel would make use of her
+speed to keep out of torpedo range while
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>her powerful guns were repelling the
+attacking torpedo-boat.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The <i>hour</i> of the torpedo came with
+the <i>perfection</i> of the submarine. All the
+conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were
+fulfilled—<i>invisibility</i> rendering daylight
+attacks possible; <i>almost perfect immunity
+from gun-fire</i> enabling the torpedo to be
+discharged at closer range; <i>submerged
+discharge</i> removing the likelihood of
+the weapon being exploded by accurate
+gun-fire before being discharged; <i>speed on
+the surface</i> enabling the “carrying”
+vessel to manœuvre for position; <i>moderate
+speed when submerged</i> enabling an
+attack under all reasonably tactical
+conditions; and <i>comparatively large displacement</i>
+giving good cruising qualities,
+wide range of action, and enabling a
+large number of torpedoes and tubes
+being carried.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>
+  <h2 id='ch11' class='c014'>CHAPTER XI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINE MINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>If the Russo-Japanese war was the
+first to fully demonstrate the value of
+the explosive mine, the Great European
+Conflict has certainly brought this weapon
+to the forefront in the rapidly growing
+science of submarine warfare. During
+the first few weeks of the naval fighting
+several warships, beginning with H.M.S.
+<i>Amphion</i>, and many merchant vessels
+representing millions of pounds sterling,
+were destroyed by these weapons. Had
+it not been for the foresight of the
+British Admiralty in providing a very
+large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by
+seaplanes, there can be no doubt but
+what the shipping of all countries—neutrals
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>and belligerents alike—would
+have suffered far greater losses.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id003'>
+<img src='images/168.jpg' alt='Launching Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p>LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id003'>
+<img src='images/169.jpg' alt='Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p>A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.<br /><br /><span class='c006'>These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The indiscriminate scattering of mines
+across the trade routes, as carried on
+by Germany immediately on the outbreak
+of war, and before hardly any of the
+ships at sea belonging to neutral
+countries could be warned to avoid the
+zone of operations, has never before been
+so ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised
+power.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The system of defence consists of the
+mooring of these mines in such positions
+as to make it almost impossible for hostile
+ships to pass without either striking or
+coming within the destructive zone of one
+or more of them. What are known as
+<i>floating mines</i> are those set adrift to be
+washed about by the tide. They explode
+immediately on being struck by a passing
+vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate
+between friend and foe. The systems of
+destroying hostile mine-fields consist of
+<i>counter-mining</i>, or placing other mines in
+the enemy’s field and destroying it by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>their explosion, and by <i>sweeping</i>. The
+latter method is the one mostly employed
+in modern warfare. The boats taking
+part in the <i>sweep</i> place themselves one
+on each side of the mine-field, and
+between them hangs a long wire rope,
+weighted in the centre to keep it well
+submerged. They then move forward,
+sweeping the mines to the surface or
+exploding them harmlessly. It is, however,
+very dangerous but highly necessary
+work.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are two kinds of submarine
+mines, one is designed to explode on
+being struck by a passing vessel, and is
+called a <i>contact mine</i>, and the other is
+fired from the shore by an electric
+current, and is known as an <i>observation
+mine</i>. The explosive principally used is
+wet gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only
+to the safety with which they can be
+stored and manipulated, but also to the
+fact that they seldom explode in sympathy
+with neighbouring mines, requiring to be
+actually fired. The importance of this will
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>be more fully realised when it is remembered
+that in warfare it is often necessary
+to explode certain mines over which hostile
+ships are endeavouring to pass, while
+leaving others in fairly close proximity
+intact, ready to repel a second invasion
+or to destroy ships nearer to them. The
+actual explosion is caused by an electric
+current, either from the shore or from a
+battery in the mine itself, causing the
+detonation of fulminate of mercury in
+conjunction with a small priming charge
+of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid
+in a series, connected to a battery on the
+sea-bed in the centre of the line of
+defence.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The <i>observation mine</i> is mostly used for
+defending the approaches to harbours, as
+an observer on shore can watch the movements
+of hostile warships and explode
+each mine when the vessel passes over
+it. <i>Contact mines</i>, on the other hand, are
+used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely
+to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed
+by means of a cable and heavy
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>weight, and are allowed to float a few
+feet below the surface. They explode
+immediately on contact. At times an
+unscrupulous or demoralised enemy will
+simply throw a number of these mines
+overboard and allow them to float at the
+mercy of wind and tide. They then
+become a terrible danger to the shipping
+of all nations, as once they are left
+unwatched it is extremely difficult to tell
+with any degree of certainty where they
+will eventually proclaim their presence
+by devastating explosions. Happily for
+the whole seafaring world, this method is
+seldom resorted to, as mines set adrift in
+this way become a danger to both friend
+and foe. In the Russo-Japanese war
+several ships were destroyed by their
+own mines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are many different kinds of submarine
+mines, both of the observation
+and the contact type. Some are spherical
+in shape and others cylindrical. Some
+are moored close down to the sea-bed
+with a very heavy explosive charge
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>(200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have
+a small buoyant globe floating above
+them, which, when struck, fires the mine
+below. Others, known as secret-mines,
+are kept continually moored in the waterways
+leading to important naval harbours,
+and are only allowed to rise sufficiently
+high from the sea-bed to be struck by
+passing vessels in times of emergency.
+The type most generally used is, however,
+the ordinary <i>offensive contact mine</i>,
+which contains a powerful explosive
+charge and is anchored in the path of
+hostile warships. These mines are
+usually automatically sown in large
+numbers over a wide area of sea by the
+mine-laying fleets.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>
+  <h2 id='ch12' class='c014'>CHAPTER XII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The <i>regular</i> mine-laying fleets of the
+powers at war are composed of the
+following vessels, all of which are fitted
+with special apparatus for the work.
+Submarine mines can, however, be laid
+by any vessel, and it is therefore almost
+impossible to say exactly what ships are
+engaged in this work. Both Germany
+and Austria have converted a large
+number of their merchantmen into mine-layers.
+England, in reply, has converted
+a large number of small steamers into
+<i>mine-sweepers</i>. Russia is a strong
+believer in explosive mines, and has
+strewn the gulfs of Finland and Riga
+with them. Japan, being on the
+offensive, is employing more mine-sweepers
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>than layers. France has an
+elaborate system of submarine mine
+defence for all her important harbours,
+and maintains a small fleet at each base,
+known as the “defence mobile.” These
+vessels are all capable of both mine-laying
+and sweeping.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The submarine mine is primarily the
+defence of the weaker naval power,
+and therefore a fleet acting on the
+defensive, either temporarily or permanently,
+requires more mine-layers than
+mine-sweepers, but the reverse is
+naturally the case with a fleet acting
+on the offensive. Although this may
+be taken as a general rule, it does not
+imply that a strong naval power like
+Great Britain, whose policy is attack
+and not defence, needs no mines or
+mine-layers. On the contrary, the
+laying of <i>counter</i> mines is one of the
+ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;
+and even the strongest fleet
+cannot guard every portion of a long
+coast line with many harbours exposed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>to attack. The judicious laying of
+mine-fields will often prevent raids by
+hostile submarines and torpedo-boats;
+and will limit the theatre of operations,
+as was done by the British Navy in the
+southern portion of the North Sea in
+October, 1914. The axiom that a really
+strong navy needs to be strong in <i>every</i>
+branch, therefore holds good in this, as
+in all other respects.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mine-Laying Fleets.</span></h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Great Britain.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='c001'></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Apollo.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thetis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Andromache.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Latona.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Naiad.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Intrepid.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Iphigenia.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are all second class cruisers of
+from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built about
+1891‒2, which have been converted
+into mine-layers. They are equipped
+with a very large number of submarine
+explosive mines, which can be automatically
+lowered into the water as the
+vessels steam along. Their speed is
+about 15 knots, and their armament
+consists of four 4·7-inch quick-firing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>guns. Their complement is about 150
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/176.jpg' alt='Iphigenia' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. <i>IPHIGENIA</i>.</div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c006'>The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Germany.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='c001'></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Pelikan</i> (1890).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nautilus</i> (1906).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Albatross</i> (1907).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Arkona</i> (1903).</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>All these vessels, with the exception of
+the <i>Arkona</i>, which was a protected
+cruiser, have been specially built for
+mine-laying work. Their displacement
+is about 2,000 tons. The <i>Pelikan</i> has a
+speed of 15 knots, the <i>Albatross</i> and
+<i>Nautilus</i> of 20 knots, and the <i>Arkona</i> of
+21 ½ knots. They are all fitted with
+special gear for dropping the large
+number of mines carried, and their
+armament consists of from four to eight
+21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement
+is about 200 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Austria.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses
+only one regular mine-laying warship—the
+<i>Chamaleon</i>, which was being completed
+when war was declared. She is
+a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>with a speed of 20 knots. Her mine-launching
+gear is of the most modern
+and efficient type, and she is armed
+with several quick-firing guns.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Since the beginning of hostilities
+Austria has converted several old warships
+and merchantmen into mine-layers.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>France and Russia.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>Neither of these powers possess
+proper mine-laying vessels, but on the
+outbreak of war several old warships
+and small merchant steamers were used
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>
+  <h2 id='ch13' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>For clearing away the mines dropped
+by an enemy special vessels are employed.
+Each vessel is fitted on both
+sides with a curious contrivance known
+as the “picking-up gear.” This
+apparatus is lowered into the water,
+and “picks up” any mines which may
+lie in the path of an <a id='tn196'></a>on-coming fleet.
+When a mine-field is discovered by
+either destroyers or seaplanes these
+vessels are immediately dispatched to
+destroy it; and they are aided, in the
+case of the British Navy, by a large
+flotilla of steam trawlers. Many of
+these auxiliary vessels are not fitted
+with the <i>picking-up gear</i>, but go to work
+in pairs. Two vessels, connected together
+by a long wire rope weighted in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>the centre to keep it submerged, range
+themselves on each side of a mine-field,
+and by steaming ahead in a parallel line
+sweep up the mines floating between
+them. This process can be carried on
+simultaneously by a large number of
+trawlers, covering a very wide area of
+sea. In the meantime the attached
+destroyers and seaplanes can be
+searching for new fields. It often
+happens during sweeping operations
+that mines are brought into contact with
+each other and violent explosions occur.
+Sometimes the vessels engaged in this
+hazardous work will themselves strike
+one of the mines, but it is more often
+the <i>searching</i> flotillas which meet with
+sudden disaster in this way. Fully
+equipped mine-sweepers usually precede
+a fleet of battleships and big cruisers
+through dangerous and narrow seas,
+within the likely zone of hostile mines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet
+comprises the following vessels:—<i>Circe</i>
+(810 tons), <i>Jason</i> (810 tons), <i>Speedy</i> (810
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>tons), <i>Leda</i> (810 tons), <i>Gossamer</i> (735
+tons), <i>Seagull</i> (735 tons), <i>Skipjack</i> (735
+tons), and <i>Speedwell</i> (735 tons).</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats
+which have been specially
+fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping.
+There is also a large flotilla of steam
+fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these
+vessels were purchased by the Admiralty
+before the war, and were also equipped
+for mine-sweeping; but many others were,
+by special arrangement, handed over to
+the Navy on the outbreak of war. The
+whole of the mine-sweeping fleet is
+manned by a special section of the Royal
+Naval Reserve, known as the “Trawler
+Section,” which consists of about 142
+<i>skippers</i> and 1,136 men. This is, of
+course, in addition to the several
+thousand naval sailors employed on the
+regular mine-sweepers, named above,
+and also to those employed on the large
+number of additional small steamers taken
+over for this work by the Admiralty at
+the commencement of hostilities. It is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>estimated that the task of keeping the
+North Sea clear of mines during the first
+four weeks of the Great War required
+over 100 vessels and 5,000 sailors, in
+addition to the usual destroyer and submarine
+patrols with their crews, and also
+to the seaplanes with their pilots and
+observers.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Almost any steamship can be quickly
+converted into an effective mine-sweeper,
+and for this reason it is impossible to
+give here more than the very briefest
+information concerning the vessels
+employed in these operations by the
+other Naval Powers at war. Russia had
+fifteen special mine-sweeping vessels
+building when war broke out; but,
+doubtless, many small merchant ships
+have since been used for this purpose.
+France employed a number of mine-sweepers
+in the Adriatic; and Japan
+used some in clearing the approaches to
+Tsing-tau. Germany and Austria, of
+course, did not need many vessels of
+this kind, as the Allied Navies laid
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>comparatively few mines and German
+oversea commerce ceased to exist almost
+as soon as war was declared. It was
+in the North Sea, during the first phase
+of the naval war, that the value of a big
+British mine-sweeping fleet made itself
+so wonderfully apparent.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>
+  <h2 id='ch14' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>Tempered and tried in the forge of
+war the submarine has at last been
+lifted from the experimental stage of
+naval construction to the fore-front of
+fleets in being. For over twenty years
+naval experts, marine engineers and
+scientists have been wrestling with the
+vast and complex problems of submarine
+construction, navigation and warfare, and
+have, at a cost of many lives and many
+millions sterling, produced submersible
+warships of steadily increasing size and
+power, until to-day 264 of these vessels,
+of over a dozen different and more or
+less secret designs, with displacements
+ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the fighting line of the Fleets at war.
+Thousands of sailors have been trained
+to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes,
+guns, engines, and even the air to breath,
+have been adapted for submarine work.
+A comparison, therefore, of the strength
+and fighting power of the submarine
+fleets engaged for the first time in this
+great struggle for the mastery of the
+seas is of more than passing interest.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>BRITISH NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table2' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (nearly completed)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>70</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table3' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in British Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>88</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c022'>It must, however, be pointed out that
+six vessels of the sea-going “F” class
+have not yet taken their place in the
+active flotillas; and that eight vessels
+of the “E” class were on duty on foreign
+stations when war commenced.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>FRENCH NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table4' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (<i>Diane</i> class, <i>Bellone</i> class, and <i>Gustave Zede</i> class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Clorinde</i> class), range 3,500 miles, speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: <i>Mariotte</i>, <i>Archimède</i>, <i>Charles Brun</i>, and <i>Admiral Bourgeoise</i>), range 3,000‒3,500 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600 tons (<i>Fresnel</i> class), range 2,000 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Pluviôse</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>11</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>54</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table5' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 450 tons (<i>Circe</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400 tons (<i>Emeraude</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Argonaute</i> and <i>Aigrette</i> class), range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>11</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table6' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Triton</i> class, <i>Française</i> class, and <i>Lutin</i> class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Submarines of 50‒100 tons (<i>Naiade</i> class), range 100 miles, speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>20</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Harbour Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in French Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>94</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>RUSSIAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table7' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (<i>Tigr</i> class), no particulars: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>12</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Kaschalot</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (<i>Alligator</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Akula</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (<i>Karp</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (<i>Makrel</i> class), range 800‒1,000 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>28</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table8' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Minoga</i> class, <i>Lossos</i> class, <i>Sig</i>, <i>Sterliad</i> class, <i>Som</i> class, <i>Ostr</i> class, and <i>Graf Cheremetieve</i> class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>47</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>JAPANESE NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table9' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>14</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table10' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class='table11' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr><td class='c042' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span></td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>21</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>GERMAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table12' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>13</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><a id='tn207'></a>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>36</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table13' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in German Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>37</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>AUSTRIAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table14' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (completing—delivery doubtful)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c022'>When war commenced all the vessels
+of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic.
+The Austrian Flotilla of six vessels was
+in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in
+home waters 74 submarines and 14 others
+on duty in the outer seas. France had
+several of the 92 vessels composing her
+powerful flotillas at her oversea colonial
+naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines
+in the Baltic, 11 in the Black Sea, and
+12 in the Far East. The Japanese
+Flotilla (17) was concentrated in Japanese
+waters.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c043'>
+    <div><i>Printed in Great Britain by Wyman &amp; Sons Ltd., London and Reading.</i></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c044' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Sunk October, 1914.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. The <i>Narval</i>, the first of this type, has been removed from
+the effective list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered
+before the outbreak of war.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally
+submerged, to steer a <i>perfectly</i> straight course, the table
+above each chart shows the approximate average loss and
+gain on each mile. It must also be remembered that the
+submarine in actual practice need only reach the torpedo
+firing line.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c014'>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table15' summary=''>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c045'>Printed</th>
+    <th class='c045'>Corrected</th>
+    <th class='c046'>Page</th>
+    <th class='c047'></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>guns</td>
+    <td class='c045'>guns.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tnfrontis'>Frontispiece</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and 2 q.-f. guns.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>gunfire</td>
+    <td class='c045'>gun-fire</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn031'>30</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>attacked by gun-fire</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>),</td>
+    <td class='c045'>).</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn038'>37</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>E. B. Feilmann).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c045'>Submarines:</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn062'>61</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>Submarines: B.3, B.4,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>destroyers·</td>
+    <td class='c045'>destroyers.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn079'>74</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and destroyers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building</span>:</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building.</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn080'>75</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Submarines Building.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>topedo-boats</td>
+    <td class='c045'>torpedo-boats.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn117'>108</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>torpedo-boats.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>and</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='fss'>AND</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn122-2'>113</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>U.19 and U.20.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'><i>eompleted</i></td>
+    <td class='c045'><i>completed</i></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn127'>118</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>were being <i>completed</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>manœvring</td>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvering</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn134'>125</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>with manœuvering</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Fig. 1</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn142-2'>133</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Fig. 2</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn144'>135</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvre</td>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvre,</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn152'>143</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>method, or manœuvre,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.’</td>
+    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.”</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn175'>164</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and “anti-clockwise.”</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>oncoming</td>
+    <td class='c045'>on-coming</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn196'>179</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>path of an on-coming</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c048'>On the <a href='#tntitle'>Title Page</a>, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>The image for <a href='#tn142'><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></a> appeared after Page <a href='#Page_160'>160</a> in the digitized source.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>Under the <span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels</span> heading on Page <a href='#tn207'>190</a>, “Total Sea-going Submarines  | 36” was added for consistency.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 51347 ***</div>
+  </body>
+  <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.54 on 2016-03-02 17:50:19 GMT -->
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by 
+Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War
+
+Author: Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+Italic text enclosed with _underscores_.
+
+Small-caps replaced by ALL CAPS.
+
+Tables require a monospace font in order to align properly.
+
+More notes appear at the end of the file.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”
+
+  Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes
+                            and 2 q.-f. guns.
+
+     There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.
+
+]
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+               SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR
+
+
+
+
+                                   BY
+
+                        CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE
+
+             AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”,
+                “SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.
+
+
+
+
+                              ILLUSTRATED
+
+
+
+
+                          HODDER AND STOUGHTON
+
+                        LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO
+
+                                 MCMXIV
+
+
+
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to
+arrive at an intelligent understanding of the _naval situation_ or of
+the _military campaigns_ in the Great European War, a knowledge of the
+scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And
+in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting
+underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to
+the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I
+venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the
+prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances,
+and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the
+vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine
+Phase” in naval warfare.
+
+                                                            C. W. D-F.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR                   9
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+ THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT                                  40
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+ BRITISH SUBMARINES                                                 60
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+ FRENCH SUBMARINES                                                  79
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+ RUSSIAN SUBMARINES                                                 94
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+ JAPANESE SUBMARINES                                               104
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+ GERMAN SUBMARINES                                                 108
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+ AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES                                               118
+ TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS  123
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+ SUBMARINES IN ACTION                                              124
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+ ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS                                            146
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+ THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO                                             160
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+ SUBMARINE MINES                                                   168
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+ MINE-LAYING FLEETS                                                174
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+ MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS                                              179
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+ COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR         184
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+                  THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR
+
+
+In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less
+than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine
+fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the
+highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies
+comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the
+grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and
+their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in
+its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications.
+Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks,
+ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval
+construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the
+1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion
+of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering
+submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging
+tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German
+and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept
+clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained
+observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the _dark
+patches in the semi-transparent sea-green_ which denote the presence of
+mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial
+scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle
+to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small
+steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the
+hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted
+to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these
+deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction
+with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect
+the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances
+are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every
+harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by
+elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare
+underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of
+the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone
+of war.
+
+Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine
+attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and
+describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is
+necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this
+new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its
+influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to
+survey _in their submarine aspect_ the naval operations in the opening
+phase of this, the greatest war in history.
+
+In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered
+conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and
+sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and
+even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land
+forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid
+burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with
+difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the
+powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs.
+and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy
+of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the
+reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets
+by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive
+engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening
+phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in
+numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for
+their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in
+conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North
+Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of
+the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive
+actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be
+frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies,
+costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these
+grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to
+delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be
+screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer
+types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in
+the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British
+submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed
+in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the
+enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast
+fortifications. Not content with this _rôle_, however, several British
+submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the
+Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering
+distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk
+their big ships.
+
+With what degree of success this new opening or _submarine phase_ in
+naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the
+first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser _Amphion_, a vessel
+of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch
+guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the
+destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser
+_Birmingham_; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off
+Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. _Pathfinder_, a fleet scout of about
+3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905‒6, by a German submarine; the
+destruction of the Wilson liner _Runo_ by a mine; the sinking of the
+German cruiser _Hela_, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in
+1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British
+armoured cruisers _Aboukir_, _Hogue_ and _Cressy_—vessels of 12,000 tons
+displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides
+twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German
+submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over
+which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind.
+
+This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and
+property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German
+floating mines on the trade-routes.
+
+To the Allies this _submarine phase_ did not come unexpected. The
+British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and
+engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;
+Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the
+Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co.
+Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd.,
+as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been
+engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems
+continually arising in the practical application of all forms of
+submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in
+1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth
+of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and
+in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82
+vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been
+evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American
+inventor.
+
+[Illustration: North Sea Coastlines]
+
+To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the
+submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the
+_Gymnôte_, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the
+Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine
+flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.
+
+The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since
+that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now
+numbers 37 vessels.
+
+Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and
+up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a
+British-Holland boat in 1904.
+
+Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of
+the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines,
+but in 1905‒6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels
+U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine
+flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany
+possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The
+Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet
+until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels.
+
+From this brief _resumé_ of the growth of the submarine fleets of the
+six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers
+as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great
+Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must,
+however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the
+steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets
+at war.
+
+The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the
+British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with
+submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction
+caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine
+mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored
+to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on
+contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking
+of the Japanese battleships _Hatsuse_ and _Yashima_ as well as the
+Russian battleship _Petropavlovsk_ and the cruiser _Boyarin_—the British
+Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen
+would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines
+could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into
+being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old
+torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these,
+however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing
+trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made
+arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the
+disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new
+mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a
+new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is
+known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 _skippers_ and 1,136
+men taken from the fishing fleet.
+
+Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British
+Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven
+old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and
+provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid
+over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly
+laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is
+a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to
+its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of
+second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although
+much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was,
+during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and
+dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were
+swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact
+with each other during the progress of sweeping operations.
+
+What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines
+in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the
+German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France,
+Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is
+perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several
+hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and
+Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of
+merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested
+sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of
+food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also
+officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin
+their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported
+across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a
+guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile
+warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast
+had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means
+least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that
+the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and
+left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not
+difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of
+these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in
+these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by
+thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes,
+many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy
+themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept
+clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there
+blockaded with their cowardly fleet.
+
+The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of
+naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is
+essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface
+vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary
+for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of
+the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with
+an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel
+can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking
+the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the
+submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and
+approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel
+the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to
+its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like
+an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night
+owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater
+fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea,
+however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or
+destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled,
+and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day
+and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often
+attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw
+attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine
+attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain
+imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war.
+
+Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day,
+naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight
+torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo
+and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the _rôle_
+of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to
+1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a
+considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing
+guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of
+accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and
+A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power
+and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of
+the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the
+case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons,
+the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four
+12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean
+cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing
+wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British
+submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by
+numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which
+indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may
+be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future.
+
+The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself
+a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it
+sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own
+engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of
+attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in
+the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range
+and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45
+knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of
+the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton
+which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This
+very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous
+hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The
+type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies
+is the _Whitehead_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses
+the _Schwartzkopf_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar
+to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon.
+
+In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have
+been sunk by submarine torpedoes.
+
+The activity of the British submarines _in the theatre of war_, from the
+beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following
+dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first
+dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine
+attack and reconnaissance:—
+
+                                                H.M.S. _Maidstone_,
+                                                  _17th October, 1914_.
+
+ “Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the
+ honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the
+ Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:—
+
+ “Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6
+ (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander
+ Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a
+ reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned
+ with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers
+ on a service which is attended by some risk.
+
+ “During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the _Lurcher_
+ and _Firedrake_ and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine
+ Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the
+ High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our
+ transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief,
+ until the _personnel_ of our Army had been transported and all chance
+ of effective interference had disappeared.
+
+ “These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s
+ Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much
+ valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his
+ patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his
+ anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and
+ well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by
+ Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes.
+
+ “At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the _Lurcher_, and, in
+ company with _Firedrake_ and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7,
+ E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part
+ in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th.
+ The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th,
+ when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions
+ from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the
+ following morning.
+
+ “At daylight on August 28th the _Lurcher_ and _Firedrake_ searched the
+ area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile
+ Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of
+ Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the
+ object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward.
+
+ “On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good
+ to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added
+ considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding
+ Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and
+ judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well
+ as foes.
+
+ “Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions
+ under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of
+ closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range.
+
+ “Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4,
+ witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187
+ through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the _Stettin_ class
+ close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their
+ boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser,
+ but she altered course before he could get within range. After
+ covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon
+ their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and
+ nine men of _Defender_, who had been left behind. The boats also
+ contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and
+ eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the
+ latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six
+ unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before
+ leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a
+ compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war.
+
+ “Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the
+ vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his
+ vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist,
+ was altogether admirable.
+
+ “This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance
+ which supplied the information on which these operations were based,
+ and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot,
+ the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and
+ skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of
+ Their Lordships.
+
+ “On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed
+ and sank the German Light Cruiser _Hela_ six miles South of
+ Heligoland.
+
+ “A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9
+ had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours.
+
+ “On September 14th, in accordance with his orders,
+ Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of
+ Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk.
+
+ “On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),
+ while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On
+ rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was
+ securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately,
+ however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of
+ the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine
+ clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was
+ effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able
+ Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released
+ mine descended to its original depths.
+
+ “On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when
+ patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer
+ S.126.
+
+ “The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with
+ their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with
+ torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of
+ much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine
+ officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration.
+
+ “Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is
+ also deserving of credit.
+
+ “Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers
+ have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of
+ delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one
+ occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines
+ been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours.
+
+ “During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between
+ the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee
+ shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one.
+
+ “The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland
+ Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There
+ was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60
+ feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—_i.e._
+ vertically moving about twenty feet.
+
+ “I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they
+ should have maintained their stations under such conditions.
+
+ “Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the
+ Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have
+ all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties.
+ These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of
+ the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their
+ command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to
+ single out individuals when all have performed their duties so
+ admirably, and in this I concur.
+
+ “The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during
+ these operations:—
+
+ D.1  (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).
+
+ D.2  (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).
+
+ D.3  (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).
+
+ D.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).
+
+ E.4  (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).
+
+ E.5  (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).
+
+ E.6  (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).
+
+ E.7  (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann).
+
+ E.9  (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).
+
+  I have the honour to be, Sir,
+      Your obedient servant,
+        (Signed) ROGER KEYES,
+                    Commodore (S).”
+
+In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase
+in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack
+and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen
+sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp
+engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction
+with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of
+its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the
+forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering
+rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness
+while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the
+flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the
+seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean.
+
+The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German
+Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a
+hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in
+the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the
+great battle fleets of England.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                   THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT
+
+
+The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and
+before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets
+at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal
+features common to all types of submarine craft.
+
+
+                        _Method of Submergence_
+
+It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have
+occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a
+submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of
+operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[1]
+
+It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the
+surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action.
+For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring
+the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the
+submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at
+a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is
+necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would,
+in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the
+destroyers.
+
+When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is
+technically called the _light condition_, that is to say, with her water
+ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only
+the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface,
+water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes
+her to sink into the sea until her _back_ is almost flush with the
+surface—this is known as the _awash condition_.
+
+It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might
+at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine,
+break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout
+into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result,
+for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little
+additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the
+surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when
+proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the
+mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine
+hermetically closed, ready to sink.
+
+To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished
+by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with
+the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and
+sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to
+guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to
+dive and rise. Two additional _fins_ are frequently placed on each side
+of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising.
+
+In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal
+rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The
+action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced
+down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is
+much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the
+force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to
+right or left.
+
+From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the
+surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the
+propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down,
+she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no
+longer any effect.
+
+Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is
+controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to
+move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed
+to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is
+operated by electricity.
+
+In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was
+required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the
+ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now
+obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to
+carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they
+were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode
+too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with
+the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the
+ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of
+water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to
+enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal
+fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome,
+and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three
+minutes.
+
+When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the
+submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is
+compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always
+exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in.
+Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface
+again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the
+compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered
+that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to
+bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker
+accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this
+case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash
+condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the
+light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at
+the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a
+submarine sink than it is to make her rise.
+
+It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the
+other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so
+delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may
+have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So
+steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially
+those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies,
+that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to
+amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few
+feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is
+almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a
+sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect
+the firing of the torpedoes.
+
+The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or
+_diving-trim_, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily
+very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a
+thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100
+gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability
+of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known
+as _positive-buoyancy_ must be accompanied by a corresponding increase
+in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to
+drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural
+tendency to float on the surface.
+
+For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in
+such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of
+weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or
+rise with dangerous rapidity.
+
+This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were
+provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by
+means of _compensating-tanks_, into which sufficient water is pumped to
+compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of _each_
+torpedo.
+
+Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern _trimming-tanks_,
+into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any
+tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity.
+
+
+                             _Propulsion._
+
+Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction
+the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are
+still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity,
+petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since
+first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for
+using these _prime movers_ in conjunction with each other and with
+chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors.
+
+About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a
+good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were
+abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and
+electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful
+machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being
+used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion.
+
+The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all
+circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons
+have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is
+more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged
+would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be
+made.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). _A._ Deck
+ superstructure. _B._ Scuppers for filling superstructure. _D._ External
+ connections. _E._ Conning-tower (4-inch armour). _F._ Periscope. _G._
+ Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). _H._ Air cowls. _I._ Conning-tower
+ cap (opening sideways). _J._ Mast stays. _K._ Mast (not part of service
+ equipment). _L._ Torpedo-tube cap. _M._ Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes
+ in. _N._ Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). _O._ Hydroplane engines.
+ _X._ Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. _Y._ Spare
+ torpedoes. _Z._ Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal
+ pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s
+ platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering
+ submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol
+ engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries.
+ 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.
+
+]
+
+It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol
+engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with
+its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the
+submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in
+almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs
+in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is
+extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the
+storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities,
+although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French
+Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in
+air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is
+impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine
+(compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius
+of action are curtailed.
+
+If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines
+could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful
+set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and
+when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be
+simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of
+action would naturally result.
+
+In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more
+modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is
+being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power
+obtained with greater safety.
+
+Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the
+vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the
+electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored
+in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three
+separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which
+drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a
+suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the
+electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives
+the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the
+batteries.
+
+It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources
+of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of
+power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The
+only actual source being the oil or petrol.
+
+There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of
+machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging
+the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and
+for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps,
+steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this,
+hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate
+most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the
+armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic
+quick-firing guns.
+
+From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine
+presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible.
+Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed
+up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and
+with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their
+backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and
+nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in
+front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of
+the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in
+the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the
+arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that
+trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping,
+and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as
+possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to
+create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to
+be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft.
+
+
+                        _Vision When Submerged._
+
+Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine
+construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged.
+This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up
+from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the
+surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a
+picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors
+inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope
+can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when
+the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be
+easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by
+gun-fire.
+
+The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern
+submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of
+vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting
+only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly
+clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at
+night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would
+be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an
+enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight
+torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by
+ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to
+discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed
+to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a
+surprise attack.
+
+
+                              _Armament._
+
+The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is
+expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in
+the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat,
+so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts
+can be made.
+
+About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they
+now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future
+chapter is devoted.
+
+The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for
+use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are
+arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to
+disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of
+guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of
+defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat
+destroyers, or by air-craft.
+
+
+                            _Habitability._
+
+Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold,
+hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth.
+The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room,
+the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well
+illuminated by electric lamps.
+
+The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel
+cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks
+of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same
+time chemically absorbed.
+
+Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained
+from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is
+almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a
+time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped
+deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so
+also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                           BRITISH SUBMARINES
+
+
+The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82
+submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were,
+however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and
+distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities
+were as follows:—
+
+
+                       SUBMARINES IN HOME WATERS.
+
+                          _Patrol Flotillas._
+
+ 1st Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Onyx_.
+   Submarines: A.8 and A.9.
+
+ 2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ship: _Dolphin_.
+   Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.
+
+ 3rd Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Forth_.
+   Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,
+     C.15 and C.16.
+
+ 4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ships: _Arrogant_ and _Hazard_.
+   Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.
+
+ 5th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ship: _Thames_.
+   Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.
+
+ 6th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ships: _Bonaventure_ and _Hebe_.
+   Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.
+
+ 7th Flotilla. Chatham.
+     Depôt ships: _Vulcan_ and _Alecto_.
+   Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27,
+      C.28, C.29, C.30.
+
+ 8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.
+     Depôt ships: _Maidstone_ and _Adamant_.
+   Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3,
+      E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.
+
+ 9th Flotilla. Devonport.
+     Depôt ship: _Pactolus_.
+   Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.
+
+
+                    SUBMARINES ON FOREIGN STATIONS.
+
+    Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11.
+
+    At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8.
+
+    Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38.
+
+    With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[2] and A.E.2.
+
+The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas
+in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be
+taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast
+protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the
+_Patrol Flotillas_. The wide range of action of modern submarines
+enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt,
+and consequently Chatham becomes merely the _general store_, or
+head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not
+only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England
+and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form
+of _Depôt Ships_, which, with their attached submarines, are often at
+Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely
+the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover,
+Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with
+their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line
+to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England,
+Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however,
+furthest removed from the zone of war.
+
+Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and
+distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of
+war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main
+theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels
+of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this
+rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas
+guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels
+from overseas.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”
+
+ Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern
+                              torpedo tube.
+
+      There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.
+
+]
+
+The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched
+from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and
+was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the
+famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most
+successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with
+this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched
+during 1901‒2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of
+craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four
+new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the
+first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were
+designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement
+of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were
+propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric
+motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots
+an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their
+maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8
+knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and
+one bow tube.
+
+All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before
+the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of
+interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of
+British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13,
+launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the
+table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All
+the following British submarines are now in the fighting line.
+
+
+                               “A” CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1904.)
+
+                    A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
+
+These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were
+built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged
+displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled
+on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of
+100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots
+and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface
+endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the
+endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:
+Eleven officers and men.
+
+These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence,
+can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and
+single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914,
+and was never raised.
+
+
+                               “B” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+                  B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.
+
+These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way
+superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the
+sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135
+feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the
+“A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when
+submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the
+electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for
+driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged
+by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running
+on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these
+storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the
+surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300
+knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80‒100
+knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with
+4‒6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men.
+
+The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type
+which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the
+bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse
+the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original
+Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes,
+each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels
+three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed
+below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper
+water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them
+better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are
+liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed
+of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in
+this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages
+derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The
+speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit.
+
+The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the
+forward superstructure, and the _two_ periscopes. The B.2 was run down
+by the liner _Amerika_ in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was
+never recovered.
+
+
+                               “C” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1906‒10.)
+
+  C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
+ 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.
+
+This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B”
+type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet
+long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give
+to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power
+of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged
+speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000
+knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100
+knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers
+and men.
+
+In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of
+petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative
+additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of
+both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and
+safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event
+of disaster while submerged.
+
+The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11
+collided with the steamer _Eddystone_ in the North Sea in 1909 and was
+irretrievably lost.
+
+
+                               “D” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒11.)
+
+                      D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
+
+These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of
+considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each
+other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons;
+and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an
+approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines
+of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the
+surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of
+just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated
+below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000
+miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels
+were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of
+electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The
+armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with
+a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This
+gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and
+almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the
+superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The
+complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+                      THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”
+
+   Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo
+                                 tubes.
+
+     There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.
+
+]
+
+
+                               “E” CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒14.)
+
+   E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.
+
+These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the
+British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are
+176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly
+2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the
+electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots
+an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at
+economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an
+hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their
+predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the
+largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped
+with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings
+for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers.
+They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the
+“B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three
+tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and
+increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep
+the sea in almost any weather.
+
+
+                         AUSTRALIAN SUBMARINES:
+
+                            A.E.1 and A.E.2.
+
+These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they
+both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under
+their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range,
+seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval
+Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in
+October, 1914, and has not been recovered.
+
+
+                      BRITISH SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in
+course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval
+dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the
+British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid
+down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been
+constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by
+Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding
+yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co.
+Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham.
+
+Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of
+which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been
+all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being
+constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less
+than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were
+of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines
+under construction at Greenock were of the _Laurenti_, or Italian type,
+and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the _Laubeuf_, or French type. In
+addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new
+vessels have been given the names of _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.
+
+The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say
+definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas,
+and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy
+regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it
+advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss
+too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable
+capabilities.
+
+
+                               “F” CLASS.
+
+There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are
+the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going
+submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1,
+which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of
+1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum
+speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000
+H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six
+torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns.
+
+
+                   “V” CLASS.  “W” CLASS.  “S” CLASS.
+
+                      _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_.
+
+These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to
+those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of
+which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are
+large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000
+tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which
+four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French
+_Laubeuf_ type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number,
+are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—_Laurenti_ type. The two named
+vessels—_Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_—are large sea-going submarines of
+wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000
+tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when
+submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two
+quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about
+25 officers and men.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.)
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+  Sunk October, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                           FRENCH SUBMARINES
+
+
+France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared.
+In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various
+stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of
+two different types of vessels: _Submarines Defensive_ and
+_Submersibles_. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely
+for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and
+they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The
+submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and
+Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great
+offensive power.
+
+The first naval submarine (_Gymnôte_) was launched in 1888, giving to
+France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine
+torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction
+in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M.
+Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the
+French Navy was the _Gustave Zédé_, launched in 1893. So successful did
+this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the _Morse_,
+was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four
+vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and
+named _Lutin_, _Farfâdet_ (re-named _Follet_), _Korrigan_, and _Gnôme_.
+These, with the exception of the ill-fated _Lutin_, are still in the
+active flotillas.
+
+
+                              LUTIN CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+                   _Follet_.  _Korrigan_.  _Gnôme_.
+
+These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the
+defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with
+electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged.
+Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their
+range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of
+one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photos, M. Bar._]
+
+          A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)
+
+         A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)
+
+]
+
+
+                            FRANÇAISE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+                       _Française._  _Algérien._
+
+These two vessels are of the improved _Morse_ type, and are intended
+solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146
+tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and
+submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an
+hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots.
+They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.
+
+
+                            TRITON CLASS.[3]
+
+                          (Completed 1901‒2.)
+
+              _Triton._  _Sirene._  _Espadon._  _Silure._
+
+These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were
+designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both
+France and other countries (_Laubeuf_ type). They have a submerged
+displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam.
+Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when
+submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when
+submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are
+armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and
+have a complement of ten officers and men.
+
+
+                             NAIADE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1902‒4.)
+
+     _Naiade._  _Loutre._  _Protée._  _Lynx._  _Perle._  _Truite._
+   _Castor._  _Oursin._  _Meduse._  _Otarie._  _Phoque._  _Ludion._
+  _Alose._  _Anguille._  _Grondin._  _Dorade._  _Souffleur._  _Thon._
+                        _Bonite._  _Esturgeon._
+
+Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about
+67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of
+8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament
+consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried.
+Their complement is six officers and men.
+
+
+                            AIGRETTE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1904.)
+
+                        _Aigrette._  _Cicogne._
+
+These two vessels are submersibles of the _Laubeuf_ type, and were great
+improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged
+displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A
+triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface
+propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their
+speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700
+miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament
+consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                               ARGONAUTE.
+
+                           (Completed 1905.)
+
+A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French
+Navy). This vessel, which was first named _Omega_, has a displacement of
+about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed
+of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two
+holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about
+seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                            EMERAUDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1906‒8.)
+
+  _Emeraude._  _Saphir._  _Opale._  _Topaz._  _Rubis._  _Turquoise._
+
+These six vessels are of the _Maugas_ type and are sea-going submarines
+with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and
+electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface
+speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius
+is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of
+two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their
+complement is seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                              CIRCE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                         _Circe._  _Calypso._
+
+These two vessels are of the _Laubeuf_ type, and are improvements on the
+_Aigrette_ class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons
+and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440
+H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric
+motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the
+range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four
+holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men.
+
+
+                            PLUVIÔSE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒12.)
+
+     _Pluviôse._  _Nivôse._  _Ventôse._  _Messidor._  _Thermidor._
+    _Fructidor._  _Brumaire._  _Frimaire._  _Florèal._  _Prairial._
+                              _Germinal._
+
+Submarines of the _Laubeuf_ type with a submerged displacement of nearly
+600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The _Brumaire_ and _Frimaire_ are
+driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but
+all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of
+flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their
+speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men.
+
+
+                             FRESNEL CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒12.)
+
+ _Fresnel._  _Berthelot._  _Papin._  _Monge._  _Ampère._  _Gay-Lussac._
+ _Cagnot._  _Faraday._  _Giffard._  _Montgolfier._  _Newton._  _Volta._
+  _Watt._  _Euler._  _Faucault._  _Franklin._  _Arago._  _Permouilli._
+              _Joule._  _Coulomb._  _Curie._  _Le Verrier._
+
+Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going _Laubeuf_ type. Only
+three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for
+surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the
+_Pluviôse_ class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed
+is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes.
+Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.
+
+
+                           AMIRAL BOURGEOISE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+An experimental boat of the _Bourdelle_ type, built at Cherbourg. The
+submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet.
+She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which
+give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion
+are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of
+seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.
+
+
+                               ARCHIMÈDE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement
+is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet
+respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and
+electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots
+below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24
+officers and men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, M. Bar._]
+
+                A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.
+
+]
+
+
+                               MARIOTTE.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+The third experimental boat, of the _Rodiquet_ type, built at Cherbourg.
+The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200
+feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the
+surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her
+radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The
+complement is about 25 officers and men.
+
+
+                             CHARLES BRUN.
+
+                           (Completed 1912.)
+
+The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The
+submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam
+turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface,
+and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her
+armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22
+officers and men.
+
+
+                            CLORINDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+    _Clorinde._  _Cornélie._  _Amphritrite._  _Astree._  _Artémis._
+   _Aréthuse._  _Atalante._  _Amaranthe._  _Ariane._  _Andromaque._
+
+These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine
+flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a
+length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300
+H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors
+of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged.
+They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and
+men.
+
+
+                          GUSTAVE ZEDE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+                      _Gustave Zede._  _Néréide._
+
+These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet,
+and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16
+knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament
+consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes.
+They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,
+disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the
+complement 27 officers and men.
+
+
+                             BELLONE CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1914.)
+
+                  _Bellone._  _Hermione._  _Gorgone._
+
+Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons.
+They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a
+surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at
+12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.
+Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.
+quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men.
+
+
+                      FRENCH SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early
+stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the _Diane_
+and _Daphne_. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800
+tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament
+will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will
+be 30 officers and men.
+
+The other seven vessels are of the improved _Gustave Zede_ Class. They
+will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20
+knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will
+consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be
+about 35 officers and men.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 3:
+
+  The _Narval_, the first of this type, has been removed from the
+  effective list.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                           RUSSIAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37
+submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction.
+The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as
+follows:—
+
+BALTIC FLOTILLA: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12
+vessels building. _Bases_: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and
+Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free).
+
+BLACK SEA FLOTILLA: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and
+several new vessels building. _Bases_: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.
+
+SIBERIAN FLOTILLA: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6
+vessels building. _Base_: Vladivostok.
+
+The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902,
+and named the _Petr Kochka_. She was built in sections to facilitate
+transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of
+Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her
+armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus,
+containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots
+on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered
+for the Russian Navy was the _Delphin_, which foundered off Kronstadt,
+but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the
+submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active
+flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the
+_Graf Cheremetieve_—is still in commission.
+
+
+                        GRAF CHEREMETIEVE CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒5.)
+
+          _Graf Cheremetieve._  _Kasatka._  _Nalim._  _Skat._
+
+These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small
+vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement
+of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the
+surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow
+torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes.
+
+
+                              OSTR CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+         _Ostr._  _Byts-chok._  _Kefal._  _Platus._  _Plotva._
+
+These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The _Ostr_ was
+originally the American Lake Co.’s boat _Protector_. They have a
+submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in
+breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and
+electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above
+and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full
+speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The _special_ characteristics of the
+American Lake type will be seen on pages 119‒120.
+
+
+                               SOM CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1904‒6.)
+
+                          _Som._  _Shtshuka._
+
+These two vessels, which are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, have a
+submerged displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol and electric motors are
+used for surface and submerged propulsion, and the speed is 9 ½ knots
+and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. Their armament consists of
+two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is
+about fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                            STERLIAD CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1905‒6.)
+
+                  _Sterliad._  _Bialuga._  _Peskar._
+
+These three vessels are also of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of 150 tons. The petrol motors for surface
+propulsion are of 160 H.-P. The speed is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above
+and below, respectively. Their armament consist of two bow tubes with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is eleven to fifteen
+officers and men.
+
+
+                                  SIG.
+
+                           (Completed 1906.)
+
+A submarine of the Lake type; similar in almost every respect to vessels
+of the _Ostr_ class.
+
+
+                             MAKREL CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                          _Makrel._  _Okun._
+
+Two vessels of the _Improved_ Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of about 200 tons. The petrol motors are of 300
+H.-P., and the electric engines of 150 H.-P. Their speed is 10 knots on
+the surface and 8 knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow
+tubes and two stern _holders_, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen officers and men.
+
+
+                             LOSSOS CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1907.)
+
+                          _Lossos._  _Ludak._
+
+Two somewhat smaller submarines of the Holland type. Intended either for
+the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. Similar to those of the
+_Sterliad_ class.
+
+
+                              KARP CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒8.)
+
+                           _Karp._  _Karas._
+
+These two submarines are of the Germania, or Krupp type, and have a
+submerged displacement of 250 tons. They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil
+engines of 400 H.-P., and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on
+the surface is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range
+of action is about 1,000 miles, and the submerged endurance about three
+hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes
+and four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is fifteen officers and
+men.
+
+
+                            ALLIGATOR CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1908‒9.)
+
+            _Alligator._  _Kaiman._  _Drakon._  _Krokodil._
+
+Four submarines of the improved Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 500 tons. Their speed is 15 knots on the surface and 10
+knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow and two stern tubes,
+and carry six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is seventeen
+officers and men. (See also page 96.)
+
+
+                             MINOGA CLASS.
+
+                           (Completed 1908.)
+
+                        _Minoga._  _Potschovy._
+
+Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff type, which were built in
+sections to facilitate transport by rail. They have a submerged
+displacement of about 150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and 9 knots,
+above and below, respectively. Their complement is eleven officers and
+men.
+
+
+                                 AKULA.
+
+                           (Completed 1909.)
+
+A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff type. Her displacement is about
+570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when
+submerged. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube, with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is 20 officers and men.
+
+
+                            KASCHALOT CLASS.
+
+                          (Completed 1909‒12.)
+
+ _Kaschalot._  _Kit._  _Krab._  _Morsh._  _Narval._  _Nerpa._  _Tinlen._
+
+These seven vessels are among the most modern submarines in the Russian
+flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, and have a submerged
+displacement of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of over 1,000 H.-P.
+drive them at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, and electric motors
+of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour.
+Their surface cruising range is about 3,000 miles. Their armament
+consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. They are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, high-angle
+gun for defence against air-craft. Their complement is 21 officers and
+men.
+
+
+                      RUSSIAN SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+
+At the commencement of the war there were nineteen Russian submarines in
+course of construction. Very little information concerning these boats
+can be obtained, except that their submerged displacement ranges from
+800 to 1,500 tons, and their _anticipated_ surface speed is 20 knots.
+Some of the 800-ton vessels have already been completed, and the first
+twelve will be named: _Svitza_, _Leopard_, _Pantera_, _Ruis_, _Kaguar_,
+_Tiqr_, _Yaguar_, _Vepr_, _Wolk_, _Baro_, _Gepard_, and _Tur_. These
+vessels have a speed of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when
+submerged. Their complement is 25 officers and men.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                          JAPANESE SUBMARINES
+
+
+The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a submarine flotilla of seventeen
+vessels, all except two of which are of the British Holland or Vickers
+type. Japan commenced the construction of what is now a rapidly
+increasing and powerful flotilla in 1904 by the purchase of five
+elementary Holland boats. These, however, are still in the active
+flotilla and are designated Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement
+of 120 tons, and are 65 feet in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol
+motors of 160 H.-P. drive them at 9 knots on the surface and electric
+motors of 70 H.-P. at 7 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of
+one bow expulsion tube with three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+
+
+                             NOS. 6 AND 7.
+
+                           (Completed 1906.)
+
+These two vessels were the first submarine boats to be built in Japan,
+but are of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger and faster. They have
+a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of
+10 feet. The petrol engines are of 300 H.-P. and the electric motors of
+100 H.-P. The surface and submerged speed is 10 knots and 8 knots an
+hour, respectively. Their armament consists of one torpedo tube with
+three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+
+
+                             NOS. 8 AND 9.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒8.)
+
+These two vessels are very similar to the British “C” class, and were
+built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged displacement of 320
+tons; petrol motors of 600 H.-P., and a surface and submerged speed of
+13 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their armament consists of
+two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is sixteen officers and men.
+
+
+                              Nos. 10‒15.
+
+                          (Completed 1909‒12.)
+
+These six vessels are the same in almost every respect as the later “C”
+class of British submarines (pages 70‒71).
+
+
+                             Nos. 16‒17[4].
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒14.)
+
+These two vessels are of the _Schneider-Laubeuf_ or French type.
+(British “W” class.) Their submerged displacement is about 500 tons, and
+the horse-power of their surface engines 2,500. The surface and
+submerged speed is 18 knots and 9 knots respectively. Their armament
+consists of six torpedo tubes with eight _Schneider_ torpedoes. The
+complement is about 30 officers and men.
+
+The natural adroitness with which Japanese sailors manipulate
+complicated machinery, combined with their absolute fearlessness, make
+them ideal for torpedo work.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 4:
+
+  It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered before the
+  outbreak of war.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                           GERMAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany possessed 30 submarine
+torpedo-boats. These were divided into three flotillas, with their
+headquarters at Kiel, the largest and most modern vessels being attached
+to the Heligoland or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, although 24
+submarines were stated as being in commission, only about 15 were
+actively employed, and these mostly in training reserves, the older
+boats being docked and modernized where possible. But during the year
+six new vessels were added to the flotilla and the _personnel_ of the
+submarine service was largely increased. At the same time the inspection
+of submarines was separated from that of the other torpedo-boats and a
+flag-officer was appointed as head of the submarine branch of the Naval
+Service, with headquarters at Kiel. Thus when the hour came for the
+great struggle which was to decide the mastery of the seas the whole
+German Flotilla of 30 vessels, _with a reserve of six new boats which
+had been secretly hurried forward and were rapidly nearing completion_,
+was ready to put to sea.
+
+The German Naval Law provided for the construction of 72 submarines by
+the end of 1917. All the vessels built up to the present time have been
+known as the “U” class and numbered in rotation. They are painted a
+brownish-grey colour and have high collier-like bows with massive
+armoured conning-towers and long superstructures amounting to narrow
+decks. They have all been built at either Kiel or Dantzig.
+
+Although the first submarine boats built for the German Navy were two
+vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched in 1890, they were never
+actively employed with the fleet and have long since been reduced to
+scrap-iron, and the first vessel which can now be reckoned as a fighting
+unit of the German torpedo-boat flotilla was a vessel designated the
+“U.1.” This was built at the Germania Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on
+August 30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of the “U” class, which in
+most of the essential features resembles the British Improved Holland
+type.
+
+
+                                  U.1.
+
+                           (Completed 1905.)
+
+This U.1 was built as an experimental boat by the famous firm of Krupps.
+She has a surface displacement of 197 tons, a submerged displacement of
+236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface engines are of 250 H.-P. The
+electric motors for submerged use develop just over 100 H.-P. The speed
+ranges from 10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 knots when submerged,
+and her surface range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. The armament
+consists of one bow torpedo tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf torpedoes
+are carried. The complement is nine officers and men.
+
+The trials of the U.1 extended over a period of a year and a half, and
+all proved remarkably satisfactory. During the tests which took place in
+Eckernforder Bay she succeeded, twice in succession, in torpedoing a
+moving target while travelling submerged at full speed.
+
+The uncertainty displayed for some years previous by the German Naval
+Authorities regarding the value of submarine boats gave place to a
+thorough sense of the important part these “mighty atoms” would play in
+future naval warfare, and to a strong determination that the German Navy
+should include a powerful submarine flotilla.
+
+
+                                U.2-U.8.
+
+                          (Completed 1907‒10.)
+
+These seven vessels were great improvements on the U.1. Their
+displacement is 210 tons on the surface and about 250 tons when
+submerged. They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil engines of 400
+H.-P. and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on the surface is 12
+knots and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range of action is 1,000
+miles and the submerged endurance about three hours at full speed. Their
+armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes are
+carried. The complement is eleven officers and men.
+
+
+                              U.9-U.18.[5]
+
+                          (Completed 1910‒12.)
+
+These ten vessels are of increased size and power, their submerged
+displacement being 300 tons, and the horse-power of their heavy oil
+surface engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The
+surface and submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The
+surface range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two
+bow and one stern torpedo tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 and
+subsequent vessels of this class are provided with a quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against aircraft, and have sleeping
+accommodation for the crew. They may be termed the first German
+sea-going submarines. Their complement is twenty officers and men.
+
+
+                             U.19 AND U.20.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒13.)
+
+There are only two vessels in this class owing to the adoption of
+certain improvements with the aid of which a partly new type has been
+evolved. These two vessels have a displacement when submerged of 450
+tons. Their oil engines of 650 H.-P. give a speed of 13 ½ knots an hour
+on the surface, and their electric motors of 300 H.-P. give 8 knots an
+hour when submerged. Their surface range of action is 2,000 miles, and
+their armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube with six
+torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns on disappearing
+mountings. The complement is seventeen officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.21-U.24.
+
+                          (Completed 1912‒13.)
+
+These four vessels are the first of the new type of large sea-going
+submarines for the German Navy. Their submerged displacement is 800
+tons. They are propelled on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200
+H.-P., and when submerged by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed
+above water is 14 knots an hour and below the surface 9 knots. The
+surface range of action is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance 120
+miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two bow and two
+stern torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, all on disappearing mountings, for
+defence against hostile destroyers and aircraft. Their complement is
+twenty-five officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.25-U.30.
+
+                          (Completed 1913‒14.)
+
+These six vessels are the latest additions to the German submarine
+flotilla. They are vessels of 900 tons submerged displacement with
+heavy-oil engines of 2,000 H.-P., and electric motors of 900 H.-P. Their
+surface and submerged speed is 18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. The
+surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of two
+bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large size torpedoes, and,
+in addition, two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. high-angle
+guns. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus on board, and are
+specially constructed with long superstructures and high _collier-like_
+bows to enable them to keep at sea in almost any weather. They are
+fitted with two or three periscopes, and also possess a small _look-out_
+cap on the top of the lofty conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”
+attack in the half-lights of dawn and dusk, when the periscope is almost
+useless. The conning-towers and decks are armoured. Their complement is
+30 to 35 officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.31-U.36.
+
+                              (Building.)
+
+These are the six vessels which are rapidly nearing completion, and
+which were in a much more advanced state, at the opening of hostilities,
+than was generally known in foreign naval circles. They are the same in
+almost every respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. There is, however,
+another submarine being built for Germany of a totally different design.
+This is the F.I.A.T. or _Laurenti_ boat (Italian), laid down at the
+beginning of 1914. This vessel is very similar to the four “S” boats
+being built at Greenock for the British Navy.
+
+No German submarines have in the past been sent to any Colonial or
+oversea station. Therefore, the whole flotilla of 30 to 36 vessels was
+immediately available for operations in the North Sea and Baltic when
+war began. The _personnel_ of the whole torpedo service is very
+efficient, great attention having been paid to this branch of the Navy.
+The three German Submarine flotillas have their headquarters at Kiel,
+Wilhelmshaven, and Heligoland.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 5:
+
+  The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                          AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES
+
+
+At the commencement of the War the Austro-Hungarian Navy included six
+submarines in the active flotilla and five others were being _completed_
+at the Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful if they had been
+delivered. In which event they must be added to the strength of the
+German flotilla. In addition to these, several larger vessels, mostly of
+the latest “U” or Krupp design, had been ordered, but were not expected
+to take their place in the active flotillas before the end of 1915.
+
+Austria commenced the formation of a submarine flotilla in 1908 by the
+acquisition of two vessels of the _Improved Holland type_ from Messrs.
+Vickers Ltd., and two others of the American _Lake type_. In the
+following year two more submarines were ordered, this time from Krupp’s
+Germania Yard. All these vessels were delivered during 1910, and
+Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into being.
+
+
+                              U.1 AND U.2.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These two vessels are of the American Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 250 tons and petrol surface motors of 720 H.-P. Their
+speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The
+armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube. This type of
+submarine has three special features which distinguish it from all
+others. It is fitted with a kind of underframe and wheels, and is
+designed to travel in four different positions: (1) on the surface; (2)
+semi-submerged, with only a look-out cowl above water; (3) submerged,
+with nothing but the periscope showing; (4) totally submerged and
+running along the sea-bed on wheels, like a submarine motor car. It is
+drawn down from the surface to the sea-bed by an ingenious system of
+wire-hawsers and drop-weights, which can be released in the event of
+accident. A “diving chamber” enables members of the crew to don
+diving-dresses and leave the submarine when on the sea-bed, for the
+purpose of laying or destroying submerged mines. The Lake type of
+submarine is also used in the Russian Navy.[6]
+
+
+                              U.3 AND U.4.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These two vessels are of the Krupp design, and have a submerged
+displacement of 300 tons. The horse-power of their heavy-oil surface
+engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The surface and
+submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The surface
+range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two bow and
+one stern tube with five 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.
+
+
+                              U.5 AND U.6.
+
+                           (Completed 1910.)
+
+These are submarines of the Improved Holland type. Their submerged
+displacement is about 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The
+horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 and that of the electric
+engines 189. The speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when
+submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots an
+hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is sixteen officers and men.
+
+
+                               U.7-U.11.
+
+                  (Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)
+
+These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania type, and are similar to
+those completed for the German Navy in 1912‒13. They are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged displacement of 800 tons. They are propelled
+on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P., and when submerged,
+by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed is 14 knots and 9 knots,
+above and below, respectively. The surface range of action is 3,000
+miles, and the submerged endurance 120 miles at economical speed.
+
+Their armament consists of two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with
+eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing gun and two 1-pdr.
+high-angle guns, for defence against hostile destroyers and air-craft.
+Their complement is twenty-five officers and men.
+
+One or two Austrian submarines are supposed to have been sunk by the
+Allied Fleet during the first few weeks of the war, but exactly which
+vessels they were is not known.
+
+Several other submarines have been ordered in foreign countries for the
+Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered while the war lasts.
+
+
+            SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS.
+
+          COUNTRY. │    VESSELS BUILT.   │ VESSELS BUILDING.
+         ──────────┬─────────────────────┬────────────────────
+         Italy     │ 20 (100‒300 tons)   │ 8 (large size)
+         Denmark   │  9 (100‒300 tons)   │ several
+         Holland   │  6 (100‒300 tons)   │ 4 (large)
+         Sweden    │  7 (150‒300 tons)   │ 3 (large)
+         Greece    │  2 (Laubeuf)        │     ――
+         Norway    │  1    ――            │ 4 (Germania)
+         Portugal  │  1    ――            │ 3   ――
+         Turkey    │ ――                  │ 3   ――
+         Spain     │ ――                  │ 3   ――
+         ──────────┴─────────────────────┴────────────────────
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 6:
+
+  “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                          SUBMARINES IN ACTION
+
+
+Submarines have two great advantages over all types of surface warships;
+they can become invisible at will—or sufficiently invisible to make gun
+or torpedo-practice, except at very close quarters, almost entirely
+useless—and they can, by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate of
+sufficient thickness to be absolutely shell-proof. These are the two
+main points in favour of the submarine. There are, however, many minor
+features. Although submarines are known in the naval services as
+“daylight torpedo-boats,” for their _greatest_ value lies in their
+ability to perform the same task in the “light” as the ordinary surface
+torpedo-boats and destroyers can do under cover of darkness or fog—that
+of creeping up close to an enemy, and launching a torpedo
+unobserved—they have been given, during recent years, so much greater
+speed, armament, and range of action, that they can no longer be looked
+upon as small boats just suitable for daylight torpedo attack in
+favourable circumstances. Their surface speed has been increased from 10
+to 20 knots, making them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.
+This, combined with manœuvering powers and general above-water
+invisibility, has enabled them to take over the duty of the surface
+torpedo-boat—that of delivering night-attacks on the surface. After
+nightfall a submarine attack is almost impossible owing to the
+periscope—the eyes of the submarine—being useless in the dark.
+
+The increase in the armament of the submarine—from the single bow
+torpedo tube with two torpedoes of short range and weak explosive
+charge, to the four bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten torpedoes
+of long range and high explosive charge—has greatly increased their
+chances of successful attack on surface warships, first, by giving them
+four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, in the event of all these
+torpedoes missing, of a dive under the object of attack, and two more
+shots at close range from the stern tubes (still retaining two
+torpedoes); and, secondly, by increasing the distance from which the
+first projectile can be launched, owing to the increased range of the
+modern torpedo. There are also the advantages derived from the battery
+of quick-firing guns installed on the decks of modern submarines.
+Although at the present time these guns are only of small power they
+nevertheless afford a means of defence—and even of attack under
+favourable circumstances—against hostile surface torpedo-boats,
+destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a flotilla of submarines could
+undoubtedly now give a very good account of itself if attacked either on
+the surface or when submerged by one or two prowling destroyers. The
+increase in the power of the guns carried by submarines, which will
+certainly come soon, will enable this type of craft to take up the
+additional duties of the destroyer—that of clearing the seas of hostile
+torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced scouting—for which work their
+ability to travel submerged and in a state of invisibility for distances
+of over 100 miles makes them eminently suitable.
+
+The enormous increase in the size and range of action of submarines,
+combined with the improvements effected in the surface cruising
+qualities, have enabled these vessels to be taken from the “nursery” of
+harbour and coast defence and placed with the sea-going flotillas and
+battle-fleets. In the short period of ten years the tonnage of
+submarines has risen from 100 to over 1,000 tons, and the range of
+action from 400 miles at economical speed to 5,000 miles. Exactly what
+this means is more easily realized when it is stated that the earlier
+types of submarines could scarcely cross the English Channel and return
+without taking in supplies of fuel, and in rough weather were forced to
+remain in harbour, whereas the modern vessel can go from England to
+Newfoundland _and back_ without assistance, and can remain at sea in
+almost any weather, as was first demonstrated by the successful voyage
+of the British submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since
+been proved by the operations of the British submarine flotilla in the
+North Sea.
+
+In addition to the cruising range there is, however, the question of
+habitability. In this respect the progress has been equally as rapid. In
+the older boats no sleeping accommodation was provided for the crew, and
+food supplies and fresh water sufficient only for a few days were
+carried. In the latest British, French and German vessels proper
+sleeping and messing accommodation is provided, and supplies of all
+kinds and in sufficient quantity to last a month are carried. Although
+work on these craft is still very cramping for the crew, the increase in
+the deck space and in the surface buoyancy has greatly minimised the
+discomforts of service in the submarine flotilla.
+
+With regard to safety, it has already been shown that a submarine is
+only held below the surface by the power of her engines and the action
+of the water on her diving-rudders. This means that in the event of
+anything going wrong _inside_ the vessel she would automatically rise to
+the surface; but should the hull be pierced in any way, either by shot
+or by collision, and an overwhelming inrush of water result—overcoming
+the buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing out the water-ballast
+tanks—then the vessel must inevitably sink, and the question of whether
+or not the crew can save themselves becomes a problem to which no
+definite answer can be given, although a special means is provided in
+all modern vessels belonging to the British Navy. Speaking generally, it
+may, however, be said that if the disaster occurs suddenly, and the
+vessel sinks into very deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving
+are extremely small; but if the water is comparatively shallow, as along
+the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood of many of the crew being
+able to save themselves with the aid of the _special escape helmets and
+air-locks_ is fairly good.
+
+We now come to the most important improvement made in the fighting
+qualities of these vessels since first they came into being, viz. the
+wonderful increase in the surface and submerged speed. In the older
+craft the surface speed did not exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it
+now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the submerged speed has risen from 5
+knots to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult for any but a naval
+man to realize exactly what this increase in the speed of submarines
+really means, and it is equally as difficult to adequately describe it
+here in non-technical language. It is a mere platitude to say that in
+order to attack a surface warship the submarine must first get within
+torpedo range of it; and yet it is on this very point that the strategy
+and tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A clever naval tactician once
+described the submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” The two points
+on which he based this opinion were—the (then) slow speed of these
+vessels compared with that of the surface warship, and its almost total
+blindness when submerged. These two defects were for some years the
+principal drawbacks of all the submarines afloat; but since that naval
+expert pronounced submarines to be “handicapped torpedo-boats,” great
+changes, great improvements have been made. The speed of the submarine
+has increased by over 100 per cent., and they have been given longer and
+wider range of vision by the introduction of two and three improved
+periscopes instead of one elementary instrument. Nevertheless, the speed
+difficulty is still a very real one, as will readily be seen when it is
+taken into consideration that the speed of a submarine when attacking
+submerged is frequently only half, or even a third, of that of her
+enemy. In order to more clearly illustrate this and lift for a moment
+the veil of secrecy which enshrouds the methods of attack adopted by
+this type of craft, it will be necessary to describe what is known as
+the_ right-angle attack_.
+
+
+                       ATTACKING AT RIGHT ANGLES.
+
+The difficulty of attacking a surface warship steaming at right angles
+to the course of the submarine will be clearly understood by referring
+to the following diagrams. The first shows an attack on a warship
+travelling at 20 miles an hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser
+Any increase in the speed of the surface vessel not only adds to the
+difficulty of the attacking submarine, but also the direction from which
+the attack must be made. This feature is shown in the second diagram,
+which illustrates a submarine attack on a vessel steaming at 30 miles an
+hour, such as a fast destroyer or fleet scout. On the other hand, a
+decrease in the speed of the on-coming surface vessel tends to either
+make easier the task of the attacking submarine, or else to increase the
+distance from which the attack can be delivered. This is shown in the
+third diagram, which assumes the speed of the surface vessel to be only
+15 miles an hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, food-ship, collier,
+or old warship.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES.
+]
+
+FIG. 1 represents a submarine attacking a hostile warship (or fleet)
+steaming at 20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the line of vision. The
+submarine sights the warship at a distance of just over 11 miles on her
+port bow. “B” shows the hostile vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to
+point marked “C,” and each division beyond equals 1 mile.
+
+Directly the submarine, which is assumed to be lying in an _awash
+condition_, sights the object of attack, she totally submerges and
+steers forward at a speed of 10 miles an hour. The loss, and gain, of
+the submarine on the different courses, can be seen in the table above
+the chart.[7]
+
+The spaces between the black dots show the most favourable points of
+attack. It will be noticed in the table that both vessels are equal at
+point “C,” but for many reasons this is not the best point of attack.
+The gain of about six minutes on the longer course enables the submarine
+not only to manœuvre into the best possible position for the attack, but
+also to discharge more than one torpedo if necessary.
+
+FIG. 2 shows the extreme limit at which a submarine could, with
+reasonable chances of success, attack a destroyer, or other vessel,
+steaming at 30 (statute) miles an hour, having sighted her at a distance
+of 16 miles in the position shown by the line of vision “A.”
+
+The distance to “C” is 15 miles for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for
+the submarine. Here, again, the two vessels would be equal; but the most
+favourable point of attack is shown by the two black dots—where the
+submarine has gained two minutes.
+
+FIG. 3.—The submarine sights the object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼
+miles, in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” The surface
+vessel has a speed of only 15 miles an hour (merchantman). In this case
+the surface vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey along course
+“B”—arriving at point “C” 20 minutes in advance of the submarine. The
+table shows how the submarine, by changing her course and “throwing” the
+surface vessel on her beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, at the
+point marked with the two black dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At
+this distance she could fire her torpedoes at long range, with some
+likelihood of success.
+
+Although these charts show approximately the extreme limits of the
+right-angle attack, a submarine could, of course, proceed for some
+distance on the surface at a much faster speed; but considering the rate
+at which the two vessels would be approaching each other, the submarine
+which attempted it would run considerable risk of being detected, and
+thus destroy her chances of a successful attack. Considering also the
+time lost in sinking from the “light” to the totally submerged
+condition, in coming to close quarters, the gain in speed would not
+amount to as much as may at first seem probable.[8]
+
+These charts are drawn and calculations made assuming the following
+points:—
+
+ (1)  The weather—fine and bright.
+
+ (2)  Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.
+
+ (3)  The enemy on the alert.
+
+ (4)  Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.
+
+ (5)  Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D”
+        in all courses in a submerged condition.
+
+The most favourable position for a submarine flotilla is to manœuvre
+close up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within 1,000 yards of a
+fleet—steaming across its course; but both of these ideal positions for
+attack are extremely difficult to obtain, and consequently in all the
+less favourable positions speed is the deciding factor. Strategems will
+undoubtedly play an important part in submarine warfare. An example of
+this has already been afforded when the German submarines resorted to
+the dishonest trick of laying in wait behind a trawler engaged in laying
+mines, over which _the flag of a neutral state_ had been hoisted as a
+blind. This resulted in the loss of three British cruisers with over
+1,000 lives. It would, however, be quite in accord with the rules of
+_civilised_ warfare for a submarine to shelter behind a “decoy”; to
+attack simultaneously with a seaplane; or to approach an enemy behind
+one of its own merchant ships.
+
+
+                           THE PORPOISE DIVE.
+
+The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise Dive” is merely the sudden rising of
+a submarine in order to enable her commander to get a better view of the
+surface than that afforded by the periscope. The submarine on
+approaching the object of attack rises quickly to the surface by the
+action of her horizontal rudders, then dives again, only remaining above
+water for a few seconds to enable her commander to get a glimpse of the
+enemy, and to take bearings. The submarine can then get within
+torpedo-range, with simply the tiny periscope projecting from the
+surface. This manœuvre is now seldom necessary, owing to the long and
+wide range of vision of the two or three periscopes fitted in modern
+submarines.
+
+
+                 DIFFICULTY OF THE FIXED TORPEDO TUBE.
+
+With the exception of one or two vessels, which it would be unwise to
+specify, all the submarines engaged in the present war have what are
+called _fixed submerged tubes_. This means that the tubes from which the
+torpedoes are discharged are fitted _inside_ the submarine _on a line
+with the centre of the boat_, and cannot be moved or aimed in any way
+apart from the boat itself. It therefore becomes necessary for the
+submarine to be _aligned_ by the steering rudders on the object of
+attack before the torpedoes can be discharged. In simpler vein,
+torpedoes can only be fired by a submarine straight ahead or straight
+astern. Hence a submarine, with a hostile warship coming up on its beam,
+is compelled to turn and face its opponent (or turn its stern towards
+her) before delivering an attack.
+
+
+                 SUBMARINE FLOTILLA _v._ SURFACE FLEET.
+
+It is absolutely necessary for submarines acting in company to have each
+its allotted task; and for a wide space of water to be left between each
+boat; as it is impossible, at present, for one submarine to know the
+exact position of another when both vessels are submerged. Therefore, if
+each boat was not previously instructed how to act, there would not only
+be the likelihood of the greater portion of an attacking flotilla firing
+their torpedoes at one or two vessels of the hostile fleet and allowing
+the remainder either to escape or to keep up a heavy and dangerous fire
+unmolested, but also of collision and of torpedoeing each other by
+accident. There is no means of inter-communication between submarines
+when submerged, and a battle between submarines is almost impossible.
+
+
+                            SURPRISE ATTACK.
+
+In this case invisibility is the element of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian
+Bridge, G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once said: “When submerged the
+concealment of the submarine is practically perfect. If she has not been
+sighted up to the moment of diving, she will almost certainly reach,
+unobserved, the point at which she can make her attack.” And this
+opinion—shared for many years by all experts—has been amply proved in
+the present war.
+
+A submarine must, however, blend with the surrounding sea in its
+ever-varying colours, lights and shades, in order that she may be as
+invisible as possible when cruising on the surface. The French Naval
+Authorities experimented off Toulon with a luminous paint of a sea-green
+colour; but this, although causing the hull to be almost totally
+invisible in certain weather, was found to be useless, as, on a bright
+day with a blue sky, the green showed up clear against the bluish tint
+of the surrounding sea. After many months of experimenting, a pale,
+sea-green, non-luminous paint was chosen as the best colour for French
+submarines. The British Admiralty also carried out a few experiments in
+this direction, and came to the conclusion that a dull grey was the most
+invisible shade. The German authorities decided in favour of a
+grey-brown.
+
+When travelling submerged, with only the thin periscopic tube above the
+surface, it is almost impossible to detect the approach of a submarine
+_before_ she gets within torpedo range; and when cruising on the surface
+she is equally as invisible at a distance of a few miles. These
+qualities enable the submarine in nearly all cases where her speed
+permits, to effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship or cruiser
+_when not closely screened by fast destroyers_, whose duty it is to be
+ever on the watch for submarines.
+
+As to the tactics which would be employed by a submarine (or flotilla)
+in attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it is impossible to say, for,
+like the impromptu attacks of all “mosquito craft,” the exact method, or
+manœuvre, is arranged to suit the circumstances, and it is very seldom
+that two such attacks are carried out alike. Generally speaking,
+however, a hostile warship could be easily sighted, on a fairly clear
+day, from the flying-bridge of a submarine at a distance of 10 miles;
+but it would be practically impossible to detect the submarine from the
+deck of a warship at that distance. On sighting her object of attack the
+submarine would sink to the “awash” condition, and proceed for from 2 ½
+to 5 miles, as might be deemed expedient. She would then submerge and
+steer by her periscopes, each of which has a field of vision of 60
+degrees. He would be a very keen look-out who would be able to detect
+the few square inches of periscopic tube at a distance of three miles.
+As this distance lessened, it might be advisable, if the sea was _very_
+calm and if the object of attack was stationary, for the submarine to
+slacken speed, so as to prevent any spray being thrown off by the
+periscopic tube. Assuming, however, that the optical tube was seen by
+the enemy, it would be extremely difficult to hit it with gun-fire at a
+distance of one or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, which would
+probably be immersed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of about
+2,000 yards, or just over one mile, the submarine would discharge her
+first torpedo, following it up with another at closer range from the
+second bow tube. A rapid dive would then probably be necessary in order
+to avoid the hail of shot which would plough up the waters around her.
+If the first two torpedoes missed their mark the submarine might either
+dive completely under the object of attack and then fire her stern tubes
+at close range, or else manœuvre below the surface for an attack from
+some other point.
+
+One of the effects produced on fleets or individual warships in war time
+by the ever present possibility of submarine attack is, however, that
+they never remain at anchor or even stationary in an exposed position,
+and seldom—if wise—proceed without destroyers as advance and flank
+guards. These precautions double the difficulties of a successful
+submarine attack.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 7:
+
+  As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally submerged, to
+  steer a _perfectly_ straight course, the table above each chart shows
+  the approximate average loss and gain on each mile. It must also be
+  remembered that the submarine in actual practice need only reach the
+  torpedo firing line.
+
+Footnote 8:
+
+  “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Francis Griffiths.)
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+                         ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS
+
+
+In all warfare, new weapons of attack are, sooner or later, met by new
+methods of defence. The submarine and the aeroplane are at present the
+only weapons against which there is no true means of defence, and yet
+one is being used as an antidote for the other without, however, any
+very striking success so far. The seaplane may be able to distinguish
+the dark patch in the sea caused by the hull of the submarine _in clear
+water_, but she cannot destroy it, neither can she signal the _exact_
+locality to an accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing to the speed with
+which seaplane and submarine pass over and under each other;
+furthermore, in rough weather or in shallow muddy water no sign of the
+submarine when submerged is visible from above. The great value of the
+seaplane as an antidote for submarines lies, however, first in the fact
+that the water of the open sea is usually clear, and the _submarine
+shadow_ is visible from above, and, secondly, in the great speed of
+these aircraft which enables them to quickly cover miles of sea in their
+search for hostile submarines and to report their presence in a given
+locality by wireless to all ships operating within range.
+
+When the enormous superficial area of a zone of war, such as the North
+Sea and English Channel, is duly considered, however, the difficulty in
+quickly and reliably locating from the air the few scattered “submarine
+shadows” will be easily realized. To make this method of locating
+submarines even fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes would be
+required. Again seaplanes do not, in themselves, constitute a means of
+defence against submarine attack, they merely increase the likelihood of
+detection, but, in actual warfare, it has now been proved that for every
+submarine detected by seaplanes two others pass quite unobserved.
+
+Many means of attack on submarines have been proposed; and no doubt some
+of these, in certain cases, would prove effective; but none can be
+relied upon. Therefore, one of the points in favour of the submarine
+still remains without its antidote. This is the _moral effect_; for if
+there is no absolutely reliable means of defence, there can be no
+feeling of security for surface warships or merchant vessels when
+anywhere within the danger zone of the submarine.
+
+Let us now examine briefly what practical methods of defence a modern
+warship has against submarine attacks. Great speed is undoubtedly a
+surface ship’s most reliable defence; and when combined with a frequent
+change of course, would greatly reduce the chances of a successful
+under-water attack. Should hostile submarines be on the line of advance
+they would not know whether to wait and chance the enemy approaching
+within torpedo range or whether to run to starboard or port. This is, if
+the surface warship was steaming in an erratic course—not a zigzag
+course, for then it might be possible to estimate, within torpedo range,
+the position of the ship at a given point if the “tacks” were regular.
+
+Should submarines be seen approaching, a surface vessel would do well to
+turn her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting as small a target
+as possible, and deflecting the torpedoes by her propeller race.
+
+The escape of the Battle Cruiser _Queen Mary_ and the Light Cruiser
+_Lowestoft_, during the action in the Heligoland Bight, as described in
+the dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what
+may be done by the skilful use of the helm on surface warships to
+frustrate submarine attacks. So interesting, and informative as to the
+actual fighting between British warships and hostile submarines, in this
+dispatch that I give it here in full. It should, however, be studied in
+conjunction with the comprehensive report—the first in the history of
+Naval warfare detailing submarine attack and reconnaissance—from
+Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., of the British submarines, given on
+page 28.
+
+                                                   “H.M.S. _Lion_,
+                                                _1st September, 1914_.
+
+ “SIR,—I have the honour to report that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5
+ a.m., I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser Squadron and First
+ Light Cruiser Squadron in company, to rendezvous with the
+ Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_.
+
+ “At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements of the Flotillas commenced as
+ previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser Squadron and Light Cruiser
+ Squadron supporting. The Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_, with _New
+ Zealand_ and four Destroyers having joined my flag, the Squadron
+ passed through the pre-arranged rendezvous.
+
+ “At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal from the Commodore (T), informing me
+ that the Flotilla was in action with the enemy. This was presumably in
+ the vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. From this time until 11
+ a.m. I remained about the vicinity ready to support as necessary,
+ intercepting various signals, which contained no information on which
+ I could act.
+
+ “At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked by three Submarines. The attack
+ was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and the four Destroyers were
+ ordered to attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., various signals having
+ been received indicating that the Commodore (T) and Commodore (S) were
+ both in need of assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser Squadron to
+ support the Torpedo Flotillas.
+
+ “Later I received a signal from the Commodore (T), stating that he was
+ being attacked by a large Cruiser, and a further signal informing me
+ that he was being hard pressed and asking for assistance. The Captain
+ (D), First Flotilla, also signalled that he was in need of help.
+
+ “From the foregoing the situation appeared to me critical. The
+ Flotillas had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., and were only
+ about twenty-five miles from two enemy bases on their flank and rear
+ respectively. Commodore Goodenough had detached two of his Light
+ Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier in the day, and these had
+ not yet rejoined. (They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As the reports
+ indicated the presence of many enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I
+ considered that his force might not be strong enough to deal with the
+ situation sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the Battle Cruisers
+ turned to E.S.E., and worked up to full speed. It was evident that to
+ be of any value the support must be overwhelming and carried out at
+ the highest speed possible.
+
+ “I had not lost sight of the risk of Submarines, and possible sortie
+ in force from the enemy’s base, especially in view of the mist to the
+ South-East.
+
+ “Our high speed, however, made submarine attack difficult, and the
+ smoothness of the sea made their detection comparatively easy. I
+ considered that we were powerful enough to deal with any sortie except
+ by a Battle Squadron, which was unlikely to come out in time, provided
+ our stroke was sufficiently rapid.
+
+ “At 12.15 p.m. _Fearless_ and First Flotilla were sighted retiring
+ West. At the same time the Light Cruiser Squadron was observed to be
+ engaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beat.
+
+ “I then steered N.E. to sounds of firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m.
+ sighted _Arethusa_ and Third Flotilla retiring to the Westward
+ engaging a Cruiser of the _Kolberg_ class on our Port Bow. I steered
+ to cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At
+ 12.42 the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased at 27 knots.
+
+ “At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead.
+ _Lion_ fired two salvoes at her, which took effect, and she
+ disappeared into the mist, burning furiously and in a sinking
+ condition. In view of the mist and that she was steering at high speed
+ at right angles to _Lion_, who was herself steaming at 28 knots, the
+ _Lion’s_ firing was very creditable.
+
+ “Our Destroyers had reported the presence of floating mines to the
+ Eastward and I considered it inadvisable to pursue her. It was also
+ essential that the Squadrons should remain concentrated, and I
+ accordingly ordered a withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned North and
+ circled to port to complete the destruction of the vessel first
+ engaged. She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. steaming S.E. with colours
+ still flying. _Lion_ opened fire with two turrets, and at 1.35 p.m.,
+ after receiving two salvoes, she sank.
+
+ “The four attached Destroyers were sent to pick up survivors, but I
+ deeply regret that they subsequently reported that they searched the
+ area but found none.
+
+ “At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers turned to the Northward, and _Queen
+ Mary_ was again attacked by a Submarine. The attack was avoided by the
+ use of the helm. _Lowestoft_ was also unsuccessfully attacked. The
+ Battle Cruisers covered the retirement until nightfall. By 6 p.m., the
+ retirement having been well executed and all Destroyers accounted for,
+ I altered course, spread the Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in
+ accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s orders. At 7.45 p.m. I
+ detached _Liverpool_ to Rosyth with German prisoners, seven officers
+ and 79 men, survivors from _Mainz_. No further incident occurred.—I
+ have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant.
+
+                                            “(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,
+                                                         “Vice-Admiral.
+                                  “The Secretary of the Admiralty.”
+
+Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and 6-inch type are certainly the best
+weapons for an attack on submarines. In combination with “sharp
+look-outs,” they could be used with effect from the elevated positions
+on the fore part of warships. The periscopic-tube of the submarine
+always proves a target for gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches in
+diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards requires “excellent” marksmanship
+to hit. That it can be done is proved by the sinking of the German
+submarine U.15 by the British Cruiser _Birmingham_ in the North Sea. The
+effect of a shot carrying away the periscope is to blind the submarine,
+at least in one eye, she can then be _run-down_ by the surface warship
+or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at close range.
+
+Of course, if submarines were caught napping on the surface the guns of
+surface warships could quickly sink them; but another incident, similar
+to that which opened the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese War,
+cannot be looked for in the naval engagements to come.
+
+For a fleet engaged in bombarding or blockading, one of the best methods
+of defence would be to lower the torpedo nets, not close round each
+vessel, but suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance from the
+bombarding or blockading fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a good
+defence during daylight, but neither of these methods are reliable. A
+submarine might be able to dive unobserved under, or past, the
+destroyers acting as pickets, and it is this chance which causes these
+under-water craft to be a source of constant anxiety.
+
+The torpedo-boat destroyer should prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.
+In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot vessels to look after their
+under-water opponents.
+
+It has been suggested that internal armour could be fitted to warships
+below the water-line, which would render the hulls able to withstand
+mine or torpedo explosions. At present this is practically impossible,
+as the great weight of this additional armour, combined with the
+ever-increasing size of guns and weight of above-water protection, would
+necessitate a vessel of such enormous displacement as to be quite
+impossible, if the important factor—high speed—has also to be
+maintained.
+
+The defence of harbours against submarines is a problem which does not
+present nearly so many difficulties as the defence of moving ships.
+Portsmouth, for example, is closed by means of a submarine boom-defence,
+which is stretched across the mouth of the harbour. The entrance to the
+River Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal) is effectively closed
+to British submarines by boom-defences, mines, and submerged wire
+entanglements. Narrow waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, can be
+closed by the laying of contact-mines, and even broader seas can be made
+dangerous to submarines by the same method. An example of this is
+afforded by the laying of a British mine-field somewhere between the
+Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to prevent German submarines from
+penetrating into the English Channel.
+
+There are so many reliable means of defending harbours and narrow
+waterways against submarines that it is unnecessary to say anything
+further here. But to protect moving ships at sea, under all conditions,
+certainly presents a most profound puzzle.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                         THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO
+
+
+The submarine torpedo has become one of the principal naval arms. Not
+only does it supply the chief offensive power of the submarine, the
+torpedo-boat and the destroyer, but it is also carried as a separate
+arm, with a special highly-trained crew, by almost every warship afloat.
+At the beginning of hostilities the Naval Powers engaged owned
+considerably over 80,000 of these weapons, and _one_ factory in England
+alone can make them at the rate of two a day. During the first few weeks
+of the _Great War_ the torpedo was responsible for the sinking of
+warships to the value of over one million sterling. Had the German Fleet
+been on the high seas instead of in harbour and protected from torpedo
+raids by carefully-prepared submarine defences, there is little doubt
+but what several more of the enemy’s ships would have been sunk by this
+weapon. The fact that at first the British light cruisers suffered
+rather heavily—though in total loss of ships and men less than the
+German Navy—does not point to any advantage derived either from the type
+of torpedo used or from skill in this mode of warfare possessed by the
+Germans, but clearly to the timidity of the German main fleet, which was
+at the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn from the zone of war and
+placed behind fortifications, where it was safe from torpedo attack. The
+British Fleet, true to the policy of “attack and not defence,” began
+operations the moment war was declared, with results so brilliantly
+successful, and of such far-reaching and world-wide importance, that
+enumeration is well-nigh impossible. But while all these operations were
+in progress the British Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo attack
+by any hostile submarines or fast surface craft which might succeed in
+getting past the cordon of protecting destroyers, while the German Fleet
+was safe, but ignominiously impotent. That the naval losses of Great
+Britain, with all her fleets at sea, have not been far greater than they
+have is in itself a victory of the greatest magnitude—a victory due
+entirely to consummate naval skill.
+
+The modern torpedo varies in length from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to
+half a ton. It has an extreme range of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼
+miles. There are three types of torpedoes in use by the fleets at war.
+The British use the _Whitehead Torpedo_, the French the Whitehead and
+the _Schneider_, the Russians and the Japanese use the Whitehead; the
+Germans have a type of their own, known as the _Schwartzkopf_, and the
+Austrian arm is principally the Whitehead. All these types are alike in
+their essential features, and therefore need not be described
+separately.
+
+The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is propelled by compressed
+air stored in that section of the weapon known as the _air-chamber_ (see
+diagram). The air on being released is heated and expanded in a tiny
+three or four-cylinder engine which operates twin screws, moving
+“clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” The “war-head” contains about 200
+pounds of wet gun-cotton which is exploded on the torpedo striking an
+object. The essential features of the Whitehead torpedo are shown in the
+diagram.[9]
+
+This torpedo maintains a speed of 42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for
+2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, and 28 knots for 4,000 yards.
+Thus, if discharged at a distance of half a mile it reaches its object
+in about 45 seconds.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead torpedo. _A._ Pistol,
+ detonator, primer, which causes the explosion of “B” when the torpedo
+ strikes an object. _B._ Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton.
+ (The “war-head” is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)
+ _C._ Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of approximately
+ 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The chamber is tested to stand a
+ pressure of 1700 lbs. per square inch. _D._ Balance chamber, containing
+ mechanism for regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo
+ is adjusted to run. _E._ Engine-room, containing propelling machinery
+ (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). _F._ Buoyancy chamber—a practically
+ empty chamber—to give the necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. _G._
+ Gyroscope. An instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo
+ from the line of fire. _H._ Rudders, and mechanism for operating. _I._
+ Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”
+
+]
+
+Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into the sea from surface or submerged
+tubes, and on striking the water are propelled by their own engines in
+an absolutely straight course towards the target. The exact mechanism of
+the submerged tube—which is used in surface warships as well as in
+submarines—is a naval secret. When fired from a surface tube the torpedo
+sinks immediately to a depth of about 10 to 14 feet, and maintains this
+depth until it strikes its object. When fired from a submerged tube it
+rises—if necessary—to the same level. A torpedo always proceeds towards
+its object of attack at a depth of a few feet below the surface. This,
+combined with speed, renders it almost impossible to destroy an
+approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So marvellous is the mechanism of these
+little weapons that in anything like favourable circumstances they may
+be _depended upon_, if well aimed, to strike within a yard or two of the
+spot aimed at. This accuracy is due almost entirely to the gyroscope,
+which, briefly described, is a rotating wheel automatically controlling
+the torpedo’s course.
+
+Although for many years torpedoes have been carried by nearly all types
+of service warships, none of them were really ideal for this kind of
+warfare. A new field for the torpedo was, however, opened out by the
+introduction of the submarine boat. In order to be effective the torpedo
+must be discharged from a distance under 4,000 yards—preferably from a
+point less than half this distance from the object of attack. This means
+that the vessel carrying the torpedo would have to get within a mile, or
+at least a mile and a-half, of her object of attack before discharging a
+torpedo. For a surface vessel to accomplish this in the face of a heavy
+cannonade from quick-firing guns would be extremely risky. To make a
+quick rush to close quarters, if possible, by several vessels from
+different points, was the only chance of delivering a successful torpedo
+attack on a hostile warship; unless, of course, she was favoured by fog
+or darkness _at the right moment_—favourable conditions which would
+seldom obtain in actual warfare. Again, every increase in the speed of
+the big surface warship rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat
+and destroyer more difficult because in the event of a threatened attack
+the larger vessel would make use of her speed to keep out of torpedo
+range while her powerful guns were repelling the attacking torpedo-boat.
+
+The _hour_ of the torpedo came with the _perfection_ of the
+submarine. All the conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were
+fulfilled—_invisibility_ rendering daylight attacks possible;
+_almost perfect immunity from gun-fire_ enabling the torpedo to be
+discharged at closer range; _submerged discharge_ removing the
+likelihood of the weapon being exploded by accurate gun-fire before
+being discharged; _speed on the surface_ enabling the “carrying”
+vessel to manœuvre for position; _moderate speed when submerged_
+enabling an attack under all reasonably tactical conditions; and
+_comparatively large displacement_ giving good cruising qualities,
+wide range of action, and enabling a large number of torpedoes and
+tubes being carried.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 9:
+
+  “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. Domville-Fife.
+  (London: Francis Griffiths.)
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+                            SUBMARINE MINES
+
+
+If the Russo-Japanese war was the first to fully demonstrate the value
+of the explosive mine, the Great European Conflict has certainly brought
+this weapon to the forefront in the rapidly growing science of submarine
+warfare. During the first few weeks of the naval fighting several
+warships, beginning with H.M.S. _Amphion_, and many merchant vessels
+representing millions of pounds sterling, were destroyed by these
+weapons. Had it not been for the foresight of the British Admiralty in
+providing a very large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by seaplanes, there
+can be no doubt but what the shipping of all countries—neutrals and
+belligerents alike—would have suffered far greater losses.
+
+[Illustration: LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.
+
+  These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.
+]
+
+The indiscriminate scattering of mines across the trade routes, as
+carried on by Germany immediately on the outbreak of war, and before
+hardly any of the ships at sea belonging to neutral countries could be
+warned to avoid the zone of operations, has never before been so
+ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised power.
+
+The system of defence consists of the mooring of these mines in such
+positions as to make it almost impossible for hostile ships to pass
+without either striking or coming within the destructive zone of one or
+more of them. What are known as _floating mines_ are those set adrift to
+be washed about by the tide. They explode immediately on being struck by
+a passing vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate between friend and
+foe. The systems of destroying hostile mine-fields consist of
+_counter-mining_, or placing other mines in the enemy’s field and
+destroying it by their explosion, and by _sweeping_. The latter method
+is the one mostly employed in modern warfare. The boats taking part in
+the _sweep_ place themselves one on each side of the mine-field, and
+between them hangs a long wire rope, weighted in the centre to keep it
+well submerged. They then move forward, sweeping the mines to the
+surface or exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, very dangerous but
+highly necessary work.
+
+There are two kinds of submarine mines, one is designed to explode on
+being struck by a passing vessel, and is called a _contact mine_, and
+the other is fired from the shore by an electric current, and is known
+as an _observation mine_. The explosive principally used is wet
+gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only to the safety with which they can
+be stored and manipulated, but also to the fact that they seldom explode
+in sympathy with neighbouring mines, requiring to be actually fired. The
+importance of this will be more fully realised when it is remembered
+that in warfare it is often necessary to explode certain mines over
+which hostile ships are endeavouring to pass, while leaving others in
+fairly close proximity intact, ready to repel a second invasion or to
+destroy ships nearer to them. The actual explosion is caused by an
+electric current, either from the shore or from a battery in the mine
+itself, causing the detonation of fulminate of mercury in conjunction
+with a small priming charge of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid in a
+series, connected to a battery on the sea-bed in the centre of the line
+of defence.
+
+The _observation mine_ is mostly used for defending the approaches to
+harbours, as an observer on shore can watch the movements of hostile
+warships and explode each mine when the vessel passes over it. _Contact
+mines_, on the other hand, are used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely
+to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed by means of a cable and heavy
+weight, and are allowed to float a few feet below the surface. They
+explode immediately on contact. At times an unscrupulous or demoralised
+enemy will simply throw a number of these mines overboard and allow them
+to float at the mercy of wind and tide. They then become a terrible
+danger to the shipping of all nations, as once they are left unwatched
+it is extremely difficult to tell with any degree of certainty where
+they will eventually proclaim their presence by devastating explosions.
+Happily for the whole seafaring world, this method is seldom resorted
+to, as mines set adrift in this way become a danger to both friend and
+foe. In the Russo-Japanese war several ships were destroyed by their own
+mines.
+
+There are many different kinds of submarine mines, both of the
+observation and the contact type. Some are spherical in shape and others
+cylindrical. Some are moored close down to the sea-bed with a very heavy
+explosive charge (200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have a small buoyant
+globe floating above them, which, when struck, fires the mine below.
+Others, known as secret-mines, are kept continually moored in the
+waterways leading to important naval harbours, and are only allowed to
+rise sufficiently high from the sea-bed to be struck by passing vessels
+in times of emergency. The type most generally used is, however, the
+ordinary _offensive contact mine_, which contains a powerful explosive
+charge and is anchored in the path of hostile warships. These mines are
+usually automatically sown in large numbers over a wide area of sea by
+the mine-laying fleets.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                           MINE-LAYING FLEETS
+
+
+The _regular_ mine-laying fleets of the powers at war are composed of
+the following vessels, all of which are fitted with special apparatus
+for the work. Submarine mines can, however, be laid by any vessel, and
+it is therefore almost impossible to say exactly what ships are engaged
+in this work. Both Germany and Austria have converted a large number of
+their merchantmen into mine-layers. England, in reply, has converted a
+large number of small steamers into _mine-sweepers_. Russia is a strong
+believer in explosive mines, and has strewn the gulfs of Finland and
+Riga with them. Japan, being on the offensive, is employing more
+mine-sweepers than layers. France has an elaborate system of submarine
+mine defence for all her important harbours, and maintains a small fleet
+at each base, known as the “defence mobile.” These vessels are all
+capable of both mine-laying and sweeping.
+
+The submarine mine is primarily the defence of the weaker naval power,
+and therefore a fleet acting on the defensive, either temporarily or
+permanently, requires more mine-layers than mine-sweepers, but the
+reverse is naturally the case with a fleet acting on the offensive.
+Although this may be taken as a general rule, it does not imply that a
+strong naval power like Great Britain, whose policy is attack and not
+defence, needs no mines or mine-layers. On the contrary, the laying of
+_counter_ mines is one of the ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;
+and even the strongest fleet cannot guard every portion of a long coast
+line with many harbours exposed to attack. The judicious laying of
+mine-fields will often prevent raids by hostile submarines and
+torpedo-boats; and will limit the theatre of operations, as was done by
+the British Navy in the southern portion of the North Sea in October,
+1914. The axiom that a really strong navy needs to be strong in _every_
+branch, therefore holds good in this, as in all other respects.
+
+
+                          MINE-LAYING FLEETS.
+
+
+                             GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+ _Apollo._  _Thetis._  _Andromache._  _Latona._  _Naiad._  _Intrepid._
+                             _Iphigenia._
+
+These are all second class cruisers of from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built
+about 1891‒2, which have been converted into mine-layers. They are
+equipped with a very large number of submarine explosive mines, which
+can be automatically lowered into the water as the vessels steam along.
+Their speed is about 15 knots, and their armament consists of four
+4·7-inch quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 150 officers and
+men.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._]
+
+               THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. _IPHIGENIA_.
+
+            The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.
+
+]
+
+
+                                GERMANY.
+
+  _Pelikan_ (1890).  _Nautilus_ (1906).  _Albatross_ (1907).  _Arkona_
+                                (1903).
+
+All these vessels, with the exception of the _Arkona_, which was a
+protected cruiser, have been specially built for mine-laying work. Their
+displacement is about 2,000 tons. The _Pelikan_ has a speed of 15 knots,
+the _Albatross_ and _Nautilus_ of 20 knots, and the _Arkona_ of 21 ½
+knots. They are all fitted with special gear for dropping the large
+number of mines carried, and their armament consists of from four to
+eight 21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 200 officers
+and men.
+
+
+                                AUSTRIA.
+
+The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses only one regular mine-laying
+warship—the _Chamaleon_, which was being completed when war was
+declared. She is a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, with a speed of 20
+knots. Her mine-launching gear is of the most modern and efficient type,
+and she is armed with several quick-firing guns.
+
+Since the beginning of hostilities Austria has converted several old
+warships and merchantmen into mine-layers.
+
+
+                           FRANCE AND RUSSIA.
+
+Neither of these powers possess proper mine-laying vessels, but on the
+outbreak of war several old warships and small merchant steamers were
+used for that purpose.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+                          MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS
+
+
+For clearing away the mines dropped by an enemy special vessels are
+employed. Each vessel is fitted on both sides with a curious contrivance
+known as the “picking-up gear.” This apparatus is lowered into the
+water, and “picks up” any mines which may lie in the path of an
+on-coming fleet. When a mine-field is discovered by either destroyers or
+seaplanes these vessels are immediately dispatched to destroy it; and
+they are aided, in the case of the British Navy, by a large flotilla of
+steam trawlers. Many of these auxiliary vessels are not fitted with the
+_picking-up gear_, but go to work in pairs. Two vessels, connected
+together by a long wire rope weighted in the centre to keep it
+submerged, range themselves on each side of a mine-field, and by
+steaming ahead in a parallel line sweep up the mines floating between
+them. This process can be carried on simultaneously by a large number of
+trawlers, covering a very wide area of sea. In the meantime the attached
+destroyers and seaplanes can be searching for new fields. It often
+happens during sweeping operations that mines are brought into contact
+with each other and violent explosions occur. Sometimes the vessels
+engaged in this hazardous work will themselves strike one of the mines,
+but it is more often the _searching_ flotillas which meet with sudden
+disaster in this way. Fully equipped mine-sweepers usually precede a
+fleet of battleships and big cruisers through dangerous and narrow seas,
+within the likely zone of hostile mines.
+
+The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet comprises the following vessels:—_Circe_
+(810 tons), _Jason_ (810 tons), _Speedy_ (810 tons), _Leda_ (810 tons),
+_Gossamer_ (735 tons), _Seagull_ (735 tons), _Skipjack_ (735 tons), and
+_Speedwell_ (735 tons).
+
+These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats which have been
+specially fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. There is also a
+large flotilla of steam fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these vessels
+were purchased by the Admiralty before the war, and were also equipped
+for mine-sweeping; but many others were, by special arrangement, handed
+over to the Navy on the outbreak of war. The whole of the mine-sweeping
+fleet is manned by a special section of the Royal Naval Reserve, known
+as the “Trawler Section,” which consists of about 142 _skippers_ and
+1,136 men. This is, of course, in addition to the several thousand naval
+sailors employed on the regular mine-sweepers, named above, and also to
+those employed on the large number of additional small steamers taken
+over for this work by the Admiralty at the commencement of hostilities.
+It is estimated that the task of keeping the North Sea clear of mines
+during the first four weeks of the Great War required over 100 vessels
+and 5,000 sailors, in addition to the usual destroyer and submarine
+patrols with their crews, and also to the seaplanes with their pilots
+and observers.
+
+Almost any steamship can be quickly converted into an effective
+mine-sweeper, and for this reason it is impossible to give here more
+than the very briefest information concerning the vessels employed in
+these operations by the other Naval Powers at war. Russia had fifteen
+special mine-sweeping vessels building when war broke out; but,
+doubtless, many small merchant ships have since been used for this
+purpose. France employed a number of mine-sweepers in the Adriatic; and
+Japan used some in clearing the approaches to Tsing-tau. Germany and
+Austria, of course, did not need many vessels of this kind, as the
+Allied Navies laid comparatively few mines and German oversea commerce
+ceased to exist almost as soon as war was declared. It was in the North
+Sea, during the first phase of the naval war, that the value of a big
+British mine-sweeping fleet made itself so wonderfully apparent.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+       COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR
+
+
+Tempered and tried in the forge of war the submarine has at last been
+lifted from the experimental stage of naval construction to the
+fore-front of fleets in being. For over twenty years naval experts,
+marine engineers and scientists have been wrestling with the vast and
+complex problems of submarine construction, navigation and warfare, and
+have, at a cost of many lives and many millions sterling, produced
+submersible warships of steadily increasing size and power, until to-day
+264 of these vessels, of over a dozen different and more or less secret
+designs, with displacements ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in the
+fighting line of the Fleets at war. Thousands of sailors have been
+trained to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, guns, engines, and even
+the air to breath, have been adapted for submarine work. A comparison,
+therefore, of the strength and fighting power of the submarine fleets
+engaged for the first time in this great struggle for the mastery of the
+seas is of more than passing interest.
+
+
+                             BRITISH NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles,     6
+    speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns:
+    (nearly completed)
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed      19
+    16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed   8
+    16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed  37
+    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        70
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 10
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7    8
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    18
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in British Flotillas                      88
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that six vessels of the sea-going “F”
+class have not yet taken their place in the active flotillas; and that
+eight vessels of the “E” class were on duty on foreign stations when war
+commenced.
+
+
+                              FRENCH NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (_Diane_ class, _Bellone_ class, and  7
+    _Gustave Zede_ class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10
+    knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns:
+    (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Clorinde_ class), range 3,500 miles, 10
+    speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: _Mariotte_, _Archimède_,      4
+    _Charles Brun_, and _Admiral Bourgeoise_), range 3,000‒3,500
+    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 600 tons (_Fresnel_ class), range 2,000 miles,      22
+    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Pluviôse_ class), range 2,500 miles, 11
+    speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        54
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 450 tons (_Circe_ class), range 1,000 miles, speed   2
+    11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in
+    holders: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400 tons (_Emeraude_ class), range 1,000 miles,      6
+    speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Argonaute_ and _Aigrette_ class),     3
+    range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo
+    tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    11
+
+
+                        HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Triton_ class, _Française_ class,     9
+    and _Lutin_ class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots,
+    armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 50‒100 tons (_Naiade_ class), range 100 miles,      20
+    speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Total Harbour Defence Submarines                                  29
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in French Flotillas                       94
+
+
+                             RUSSIAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (_Tigr_ class), no particulars:      12
+    (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Kaschalot_ class), range 3,000        7
+    miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f.
+    gun: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (_Alligator_ class), range 3,000        4
+    miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Akula_ class), range 2,500 miles,     1
+    speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (_Karp_ class), range 1,000 miles,      2
+    speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (_Makrel_ class), range 800‒1,000 miles,    2
+    speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        28
+
+
+                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Minoga_ class, _Lossos_ class,       19
+    _Sig_, _Sterliad_ class, _Som_ class, _Ostr_ class, and _Graf
+    Cheremetieve_ class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on
+    surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and
+    holders: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                    19
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas                      47
+
+
+                             JAPANESE NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed      6
+    18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed  6
+    14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8   2
+    knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        14
+
+
+                   COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed      2
+    10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7  5
+    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+  Total Coast Defence Submarines                                     7
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas                     21
+
+
+                              GERMAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37        13
+    completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4
+    torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9  4
+    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed   2
+    13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8  10
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in
+    commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed    7
+    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Total Sea-going Submarines                                        36
+
+
+                         COAST DEFENCE VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7      1
+    knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in German Flotillas                       37
+
+
+                             AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+
+                           SEA-GOING VESSELS.
+
+  Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9   5
+    knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns:
+    (completing—delivery doubtful)
+
+  Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed     2
+    12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8    2
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+  Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8  2
+    knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)
+
+                                                                    ――
+
+  Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas                      6
+
+When war commenced all the vessels of the German Flotillas (30 to 37)
+were concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. The Austrian Flotilla of
+six vessels was in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in home waters 74
+submarines and 14 others on duty in the outer seas. France had several
+of the 92 vessels composing her powerful flotillas at her oversea
+colonial naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines in the Baltic, 11 in the
+Black Sea, and 12 in the Far East. The Japanese Flotilla (17) was
+concentrated in Japanese waters.
+
+
+  _Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading._
+
+
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+ Printed           Corrected                 Page
+ guns              guns.             Frontispiece and 2 q.-f. guns.
+ gunfire           gun-fire                    30 attacked by gun-fire
+ ),                ).                          37 E. B. Feilmann).
+ Submarines        Submarines:                 61 Submarines: B.3, B.4,
+ destroyers·       destroyers.                 74 and destroyers.
+ BUILDING:         BUILDING.                   75 SUBMARINES BUILDING.
+ topedo-boats      torpedo-boats.             108 torpedo-boats.
+ and               AND                        113 U.19 AND U.20.
+ _eompleted_       _completed_                118 were being _completed_
+ manœvring         manœuvering                125 with manœuvering
+ Fig. 1            FIG. 1                     133 FIG. 1 represents a
+ Fig. 2            FIG. 2                     135 FIG. 2 shows the
+ manœuvre          manœuvre,                  143 method, or manœuvre,
+ “anti-clockwise.’ “anti-clockwise.”          164 and “anti-clockwise.”
+ oncoming          on-coming                  179 path of an on-coming
+
+On the Title Page, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S
+NAVIES”.
+
+The image for RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. appeared after Page 160
+in the digitized source.
+
+Under the SEA-GOING VESSELS heading on Page 190, “Total Sea-going
+Submarines | 36” was added for consistency.
+
+Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the
+War, by Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR ***
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by 
+Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War
+
+Author: Charles William Domville-Fife
+
+Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class='tnotes covernote'>
+
+<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+<div>
+  <h1 class='c002' title='Submarines, Mines and torpedoes in the War'></h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c003'></div>
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='British Submarine E.2' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c005'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns<a id='tnfrontis'></a>.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c007'>
+    <div><span class='c008'>SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR</span></div>
+    <div class='c009'>BY</div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c010'>CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'>AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”<a id='tntitle'></a>,</div>
+    <div>“SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.</div>
+    <div class='c011'><span class='c012'>ILLUSTRATED</span></div>
+    <div class='c011'><span class='c010'>HODDER AND STOUGHTON</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c012'>LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO</span></div>
+    <div class='c013'>MCMXIV</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>
+  <h2 class='c014'>PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Warfare has become so largely a matter
+of science that in order to arrive at an
+intelligent understanding of the <i>naval
+situation</i> or of the <i>military campaigns</i> in
+the Great European War, a knowledge
+of the scientific factors contributing to
+victory or defeat is essential. And in
+this volume it has been my aim not only
+to review the actual fighting underseas,
+but also to present a compendium of
+information relative to the submarine
+fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers
+engaged; which I venture to hope will
+prove of present interest on account of
+the prominent part played by the under-water
+fighting ships and appliances, and
+of permanent historic value as being the
+first work to describe the vast preparations
+and curious events leading to the new
+“Submarine Phase” in naval warfare.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'>C. W. D-F.</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>
+  <h2 class='c014'>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary=''>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c017'></th>
+    <th class='c018'>PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#intro'>9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch1'>40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch2'>60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch3'>79</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch4'>94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch5'>104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch6'>108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>CHAPTER VII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch7'>118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#flotillas'>123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch8'>124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch9'>146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER X</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch10'>160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>SUBMARINE MINES</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch11'>168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch12'>174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch13'>179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</td>
+    <td class='c018'><a href='#ch14'>184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>
+  <h2 id='intro' class='c014'>INTRODUCTION <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>In the mist of war which envelops over
+half the entire world, no less than 264
+underwater fighting ships are engaged.
+They form the submarine fleets of
+England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany
+and Austria; and the highly-trained
+crews of these modern additions to the
+fighting navies comprise nearly 20,000
+men. But the conduct of submarine warfare
+on the grand scale requires far more
+than flotillas of submergible warships
+and their daring crews. This new branch
+of naval science is ever widening in its
+scope, its means of offence, and in its
+attendant ramifications. Every important
+naval base has its curious submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>floating docks, ready for crippled members
+of its attached flotilla; every naval construction
+department has its corps of
+submarine experts; each of the 1,500
+surface warships engaged in this titanic
+struggle for the dominion of Europe and
+the mastery of the seas carries the means
+for delivering submarine attacks in its
+torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging
+tubes. The oceans in the
+theatres of war have been strewn with
+German and Austrian mines; then they
+have been either counter-mined or swept
+clear and mined again. British seaplanes,
+with specially trained observers,
+are continually searching from high in
+the air for the <i>dark patches in the semi-transparent
+sea-green</i> which denote the
+presence of mines and submarines.
+Within signal-range or wireless call of
+the aërial scouts and their attendant ships
+are destroyer flotillas to give battle to
+the hostile submarines, while hundreds of
+trawlers and small steamers, fitted with
+special apparatus, are continually sweeping
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>up the hundreds of submarine mines laid
+by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted
+to enable them to sow like seeds over the
+pathways of the sea these deadly perils
+to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements
+in conjunction with boom-defences
+and observation and contact submarine
+mines protect the seaward approaches to
+harbours in the same way as similar
+appliances are used to protect the
+approaches to land fortifications; and
+every harbour, waterway and channel of
+strategic importance is protected by
+elaborate submarine mine defences. All
+this is part of the new warfare underseas—that
+science which is daily rendering
+hazardous the life of the greatest battleship
+and the smallest merchantman afloat
+in the zone of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Before placing in review order the vast
+preparations made for submarine attack
+and defence in the years which preceded
+the outbreak of war and describing in
+detail the powerful submarine fleets
+engaged, it is necessary to make clear
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>to the reader the wonderful change which
+this new mode of attack has made in all
+branches of naval warfare and its influence
+on sea power. As indicative of
+this change we have only to survey <i>in
+their submarine aspect</i> the naval operations
+in the opening phase of this, the
+greatest war in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the domain of naval strategy we
+find reflected the altered conditions caused
+by these invisible arms. Every battle
+on land and sea teaches its lesson of
+concealment and sudden stealthy attack;
+and even as the huge siege guns and
+devastating artillery fire of the land
+forces is causing the extension of the
+battle-front and the rapid burrowing
+under earth or entrenching of positions
+dearly won or with difficulty retained—“approximating
+to siege warfare”—so
+are the powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval
+guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. and
+1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with
+the rapidity and accuracy of the modern
+warship’s secondary armament, necessitating
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the reduction in numbers of the
+big surface ships of the opposing fleets
+by frequent submarine and torpedo
+attacks prior to the decisive engagements
+between the battle fleets. Hence
+we find, in the opening phase of the
+naval war, the German and Austrian
+fleets, inferior in numbers and gun
+power, skulking behind fortifications and
+waiting for their submarine and surface
+torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in conjunction
+with the hundreds of submerged
+mines strewn over the North Sea, Baltic,
+Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the
+number and power of the British, French,
+Russian and Japanese fleets before the
+decisive actions are fought; and in order
+that these tactics might be frustrated, and
+the big British ships, as well as those
+of her allies, costing several millions
+sterling each, should not be exposed
+to these grave risks when no good
+could result, they have been compelled
+to delay initiative, and meanwhile all
+their operations had to be screened by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and
+destroyer types, while they waited within
+call should the German Battle Fleet—in
+the case of the North Sea—dare to
+come out to fight. The British submarines
+of the large sea-going type were
+in the meantime employed in watching
+the Frisian coast with the object of
+attacking any of the enemy’s ships which
+ventured from behind the elaborate coast
+fortifications. Not content with this <i>rôle</i>,
+however, several British submarines made
+their way unseen through the dangerous
+waters of the Heligoland Bight and
+succeeded in getting within reconnoitering
+distance of the German submerged
+harbour defences, behind which lurk their
+big ships.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>With what degree of success this new
+opening or <i>submarine phase</i> in naval
+warfare has been attended is shown by
+the sinking, during the first few weeks
+of the war, of the British cruiser
+<i>Amphion</i>, a vessel of 3,440 tons displacement,
+completed in 1912, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>carrying ten 4-inch guns, with a loss of
+131 men, by contact with a German
+mine; the destruction of the German
+submarine U.15 by the British cruiser
+<i>Birmingham</i>; the sinking of an Austrian
+torpedo-boat by a mine off Pola; the
+torpedoing of H.M.S. <i>Pathfinder</i>, a
+fleet scout of about 3,000 tons displacement,
+completed in 1905‒6, by a
+German submarine; the destruction of
+the Wilson liner <i>Runo</i> by a mine; the
+sinking of the German cruiser <i>Hela</i>, a
+vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built
+in 1896, by the British submarine E 9,
+and the torpedoing of the British
+armoured cruisers <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Hogue</i> and
+<i>Cressy</i>—vessels of 12,000 tons displacement,
+carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve
+6-inch guns besides twelve 12-pounder
+quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by
+German submarines concealed behind
+a trawler engaged in laying mines,
+over which the Dutch flag had been
+hoisted as a blind.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This is in addition to the lamentable
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>destruction of much life and property
+belonging to neutral powers caused by
+the laying of German floating mines on
+the trade-routes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>To the Allies this <i>submarine phase</i>
+did not come unexpected. The British
+Naval yards in conjunction with the big
+shipbuilding and engineering firms, such
+as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness;
+Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth
+and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the
+Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd.,
+Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and
+Co. Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’
+Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., as
+well as many other firms and individual
+submarine experts had been engaged for
+many years in solving one after another
+the problems continually arising in the
+practical application of all forms of
+submarine warfare. The first British
+naval submarines were launched in
+1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at
+Barrow, and the subsequent growth of
+our submarine flotillas has been rapid
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>both in number of vessels and in size
+and armament. The British submarine
+fleet now numbers 82 vessels. The
+original boats from which the British
+type has since been evolved were built
+from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland,
+an American inventor.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id001'>
+<img src='images/016.jpg' alt='North Sea Coastlines' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>To France belongs the honour of being
+the first naval power to adopt the submarine
+torpedo-boat as a vessel of war;
+and the first vessel, the <i>Gymnôte</i>, was
+launched in 1888, but it was not until
+1893 that the Republic commenced the
+construction of her now powerful submarine
+flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first Russian submarine was
+launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and
+since that date the Russian flotilla has
+steadily increased until it now numbers
+37 vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Japan commenced the construction of
+what is now a powerful and up-to-date
+flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition
+of a British-Holland boat in 1904.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Turning to Germany we find at first
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>a great reluctance on the part of the
+Ministry of Marine to provide for the
+construction of submarines, but in 1905‒6
+this initial hesitation was overcome and
+the two vessels U.1 and U.2 were
+launched. Since then the belief in a
+powerful submarine flotilla steadily grew
+until at the moment when war was
+declared Germany possessed no less than
+30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient
+type. The Austro-Hungarian Navy did
+not adopt submarines as units of the
+Fleet until 1909, and now possess only
+six small vessels.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From this brief <i>resumé</i> of the growth
+of the submarine fleets of the six great
+naval Powers at war, it will be seen that
+in point of numbers as well as in priority,
+bringing with it practical experience,
+Great Britain and France have a very
+appreciable superiority. It must, however,
+be left for succeeding chapters to
+describe in detail the steady growth and
+present size and capabilities of the
+submarine fleets at war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese
+war were not lost on the
+British Admiralty, and special methods
+had been prepared to deal with submarine
+attack in its various forms.
+Having in mind the destruction caused
+to both Russian and Japanese warships
+by submarine mines—especially those
+of the “offensive contact” type, which
+are moored to the bottom, float just
+under the surface and explode immediately
+on contact; and in the Russo-Japanese
+War were responsible for
+the sinking of the Japanese battleships
+<i>Hatsuse</i> and <i>Yashima</i> as well
+as the Russian battleship <i>Petropavlovsk</i>
+and the cruiser <i>Boyarin</i>—the
+British Admiralty foresaw the danger to
+which both warships and merchantmen
+would be exposed in time of war if the
+seas strewn with these mines could not
+be quickly cleared, and a new type of
+auxiliary came into being. This was the
+mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old
+torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>the work. In addition to these, however,
+the Admiralty purchased a considerable
+number of steam fishing trawlers, and
+fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances,
+and made arrangements for a large fleet
+of similar vessels to be placed at the disposal
+of the navy in the event of war.
+In order to man this new mine-sweeping
+fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak
+of war, a new section of the Royal
+Naval Reserve was created in 1911.
+This is known as the “Trawler Section,”
+and consists of 142 <i>skippers</i> and 1,136
+men taken from the fishing fleet.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Realizing the value of the submarine
+mine in certain cases, the British
+Admiralty went further and created a
+small mine-laying fleet from seven old
+second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks
+cleared and provided with rails for
+a large number of mines to be run down
+and slid over the stern into the water as
+the vessels steamed along, thus quickly
+laying a mine-field. But as the laying
+of mines, speaking generally, is a defensive
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>mode of warfare and the policy of
+the British Navy—owing to its supremacy—is
+attack and not defence, the
+mine-laying fleet is of second importance
+to the sweeping fleet, the work of which,
+although much augmented by additional
+small steamers pressed into service, was,
+during the first few weeks of the war,
+of a nature more arduous and dangerous
+than will ever be realised. Hundreds of
+German mines were swept up, and
+hundreds more were exploded by being
+dragged into contact with each other during
+the progress of sweeping operations.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>What the clearance of these vast fields
+of floating and anchored mines in the
+North Sea meant to the British Navy,
+engaged in blockading the German
+Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not
+only of England, France, Russia and
+Belgium, but also to that of the neutral
+countries, it is perhaps a little difficult to
+realize until one remembers that several
+hundred British and French warships
+were patrolling the North Sea and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities,
+there were hundreds of merchantmen
+homeward bound whose course lay across
+this mine-infested sea. Many of these
+vessels had on board not only valuable
+cargoes of food, raw material for manufacture
+and gold and silver bullion, but
+also officers and men returning from
+various parts of the world to rejoin their
+regiments. Again, the Expeditionary
+Force had to be transported across the
+Channel to France. This could not be
+attempted until a guarantee had been
+given by the Navy that the seas were
+clear of hostile warships, submarines and
+mines. The fleet blockading the
+Frisian coast had to be supplied with
+coal and fresh food; and last but by no
+means least it was of vital importance
+to the Allied Armies in the Field that
+the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to
+Antwerp, forming the rear and left-flank,
+should be accessible to friendly shipping.
+It is not difficult to realize what would
+have been the effect had thousands of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>these deadly German contact mines been
+allowed to float unhindered in these
+narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the
+magnificent effort made by thousands of
+seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers
+assisted by seaplanes, many vessels—some
+belonging to neutral powers and
+others to the enemy themselves—were
+destroyed before the seas could be effectively
+swept clear, the hostile mine-layers
+destroyed or chased into port and there
+blockaded with their cowardly fleet.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo has long been recognised
+as one of the most effective of naval
+arms. It is carried by every modern
+warship afloat, but it is essentially the
+arm of the submarine and of the small
+and fast surface vessel. For a torpedo
+attack to be successful it is absolutely
+necessary for the vessel carrying the
+weapon to get within about 1,000 yards
+of the object of attack. The difficulty
+of accomplishing this manœuvre with an
+enemy on the alert is easily apparent,
+but if the attacking vessel can creep up
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>to within torpedo range unobserved her
+chances of sinking the enemy are decidedly
+good, and it is the quality
+possessed by the submarine of making
+herself invisible by sinking beneath the
+surface and approaching her enemy
+“seeing but unseen” that makes this
+type of vessel the ideal torpedo-boat.
+But, like everything else, there are limits
+to its use, for a submarine, although it can
+navigate on the surface like an ordinary
+torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged
+attack at night owing to the periscopes,
+which are the “eyes” of these underwater
+fighting ships, being useless in the dark.
+When night covers the sea, however, the
+chances of the fast grey-painted surface
+torpedo-boat or destroyer being able to
+approach the enemy unseen are more
+than doubled, and in this way fleets
+become exposed to submarine torpedo
+attack by day and surface torpedo attack
+by night. Further, a submarine will often
+attack while a seaplane hovers over the
+enemy in order to draw attention. It
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>is this constant exposure to sudden
+and unseen submarine attack which is
+primarily responsible for the terrible
+nerve strain imposed on the crews of
+modern surface warships in time of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Owing to the ability of submarines to
+deliver stealthy attacks by day, naval
+tacticians have designated this type of
+craft “Daylight torpedo-boats,” but they
+are rapidly passing beyond the purely
+torpedo and coastal defensive stage and
+are taking on to themselves the <i>rôle</i> of
+the ocean cruiser. The size of these
+vessels has increased from 50 to 1,000
+tons displacement in ten years. They
+now carry not only a considerable
+number of the largest size torpedo but
+also quick-firing guns for repelling attacks
+by small surface vessels, and are capable
+of accompanying fleets to sea. The
+Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and
+A.E.2 both made the voyage from
+Barrow to Sydney under their own
+power and without convoy. The radius
+of action of the latest vessels both of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>British and French Navies amounts to
+several thousand miles. In the case of
+the British “F” class the displacement
+has risen to 1,500 tons, the speed to 20
+knots and the armament to six torpedo
+tubes and four 12-pounder quick-firing
+guns, thus making them in every sense
+ocean cruisers capable of keeping the
+sea in almost any weather and possessing
+wide range of action and considerable
+offensive power. Hitherto British submarines,
+like the ordinary surface
+torpedo-boats, have been known by
+numbers only, but the latest vessels are
+to receive names which indicates the
+increase in size and importance of these
+craft. They may be termed the advance
+guards of the submarine battleships of
+the future.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo, which is the principal
+arm of the submarine boat, is itself a
+submarine projectile. After being discharged
+from the firing tube it sinks a
+short distance below the surface and is
+propelled by its own engines at a high
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>rate of speed in a straight line towards
+its object of attack. Great improvements
+have been made during the past
+ten years in the construction of these
+delicate weapons. The extreme effective
+range and speed has risen from 4,000
+yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45
+knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The
+“war-head” or front section of the
+torpedo contains a charge of about 200
+pounds of damp gun-cotton which is
+fired by a detonator on the torpedo
+striking an object. This very powerful
+explosive charge is capable of tearing
+open an enormous hole in the unprotected
+under-water skin of the surface
+warship. The type of weapon used in
+the British, French, Russian and
+Japanese Navies is the <i>Whitehead</i>
+torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The
+German Navy uses the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>
+torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is
+very similar to the Whitehead and is a
+very powerful weapon.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the first phase of the naval war no
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>less than eight warships have been sunk
+by submarine torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The activity of the British submarines
+<i>in the theatre of war</i>, from the beginning
+of hostilities, is admirably set forth in
+the following dispatch from Commodore
+Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the
+first dispatch in the history of naval
+warfare to describe in detail submarine
+attack and reconnaissance:—</p>
+
+<div class='c023'>H.M.S. <i>Maidstone</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c023'><i>17th October, 1914</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’
+directions, I have the honour to
+report as follows upon the services performed
+by the Submarines since the
+commencement of hostilities:—</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Three hours after the outbreak of war,
+Submarines E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Francis H. H. Goodhart),
+proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a
+reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight.
+These two vessels returned with useful
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>information, and had the privilege of
+being the pioneers on a service which is
+attended by some risk.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“During the transportation of the Expeditionary
+Force the <i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i>
+and all the Submarines of the
+Eighth Submarine Flotilla occupied
+positions from which they could have
+attacked the High Sea Fleet, had it
+emerged to dispute the passage of our
+transports. This patrol was maintained
+day and night without relief, until the
+<i>personnel</i> of our Army had been transported
+and all chance of effective
+interference had disappeared.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“These Submarines have since been
+incessantly employed on the Enemy’s
+Coast in the Heligoland Bight and
+elsewhere, and have obtained much
+valuable information regarding the composition
+and movement of his patrols.
+They have occupied his waters and
+reconnoitred his anchorages, and, while
+so engaged, have been subjected to
+skilful and well executed anti-submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>tactics; hunted for hours at a time by
+Torpedo Craft and attacked by <a id='tn031'></a>gun-fire
+and torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At midnight on August 26th, I
+embarked in the <i>Lurcher</i>, and, in company
+with <i>Firedrake</i> and Submarines
+D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, and
+E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla,
+proceeded to take part in the operations
+in the Heligoland Bight arranged for
+August 28th. The Destroyers scouted
+for the Submarines until nightfall on
+the 27th, when the latter proceeded independently
+to take up various positions from
+which they could co-operate with the Destroyer
+Flotillas on the following morning.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At daylight on August 28th the
+<i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i> searched the
+area, through which the Battle Cruisers
+were to advance, for hostile Submarines,
+and then proceeded towards Heligoland
+in the wake of Submarines E.6, E.7,
+and E.8, which were exposing themselves
+with the object of inducing the
+enemy to chase them to the westward.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>“On approaching Heligoland, the
+visibility, which had been very good
+to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000
+yards, and this added considerably to
+the anxieties and responsibilities of the
+Commanding Officers of Submarines,
+who handled their vessels with coolness
+and judgment in an area which was
+necessarily occupied by friends as well as
+foes.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Low visibility and calm sea are the
+most unfavourable conditions under which
+Submarines can operate, and no opportunity
+occurred of closing with the
+Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo
+range.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W.
+Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, witnessed
+the sinking of the German
+Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 through
+his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser
+of the <i>Stettin</i> class close, and open fire
+on the British Destroyers which had
+lowered their boats to pick up the survivors,
+he proceeded to attack the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Cruiser, but she altered course before
+he could get within range. After
+covering the retirement of our Destroyers,
+which had had to abandon their
+boats, he returned to the latter, and
+embarked a Lieutenant and nine men
+of <i>Defender</i>, who had been left behind.
+The boats also contained two Officers
+and eight men of V.187, who were
+unwounded, and eighteen men who were
+badly wounded. As he could not embark
+the latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir
+left one of the Officers and six unwounded
+men to navigate the British
+boats to Heligoland. Before leaving he
+saw that they were provided with water,
+biscuit, and a compass. One German
+Officer and two men were made prisoners
+of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action
+in remaining on the surface in the
+vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility
+which would have placed his vessel within
+easy gun range of an enemy appearing
+out of the mist, was altogether admirable.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>“This enterprising and gallant Officer
+took part in the reconnaissance which
+supplied the information on which these
+operations were based, and I beg to
+submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander
+Talbot, the Commanding
+Officer of E.6, who exercised patience,
+judgment, and skill in a dangerous
+position, for the favourable consideration
+of Their Lordships.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Max K. Horton) torpedoed
+and sank the German Light
+Cruiser <i>Hela</i> six miles South of Heligoland.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“A number of Destroyers were evidently
+called to the scene after E.9 had
+delivered her attack, and these hunted
+her for several hours.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 14th, in accordance
+with his orders, Lieutenant-Commander
+Horton examined the outer anchorage
+of Heligoland, a service attended by
+considerable risk.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On September 25th, Submarine E.6
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>(Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot),
+while diving, fouled the moorings of a
+mine laid by the enemy. On rising to
+the surface she weighed the mine and
+sinker; the former was securely fixed
+between the hydroplane and its guard;
+fortunately, however, the horns of the
+mine were pointed outboard. The weight
+of the sinker made it a difficult and
+dangerous matter to lift the mine clear
+without exploding it. After half an
+hour’s patient work this was effected by
+Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman
+and Able Seaman Ernest
+Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235,
+and the released mine descended to its
+original depths.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander
+Max K. Horton), when
+patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and
+sank the enemy’s Destroyer S.126.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue
+tactics which, in connection with their
+shallow draft, make them exceedingly
+difficult to attack with torpedo, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success
+was the result of much patient and
+skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising
+submarine officer, and I beg to submit
+his name for favourable consideration.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman,
+the Second in Command of E.9, is also
+deserving of credit.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Against an enemy whose capital
+vessels have never, and Light Cruisers
+have seldom, emerged from their fortified
+harbours, opportunities of delivering
+Submarine attacks have necessarily been
+few, and on one occasion only, prior to
+the 13th September, has one of our
+Submarines been within torpedo range
+of a Cruiser during daylight hours.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“During the exceptionally heavy westerly
+gales which prevailed between the
+14th and 21st September the position
+of the Submarines on a lee shore,
+within a few miles of the Enemy’s
+coast, was an unpleasant one.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The short steep seas which accompany
+westerly gales in the Heligoland Bight
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>make it difficult to keep the conning
+tower hatches open. There was no rest
+to be obtained, and even when cruising
+at a depth of 60 feet, the Submarines
+were rolling considerably, and pumping—<i>i.e.</i>
+vertically moving about twenty
+feet.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I submit that it was creditable to
+the Commanding Officers that they
+should have maintained their stations
+under such conditions.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Service in the Heligoland Bight is
+keenly sought after by the Commanding
+Officers of the Eighth Submarine
+Flotilla, and they have all shown daring
+and enterprise in the execution of their
+duties. These Officers have unanimously
+expressed to me their admiration of the
+cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers
+and men under their command. They
+are however, of the opinion that it is
+impossible to single out individuals when
+all have performed their duties so
+admirably, and in this I concur.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The following Submarines have been
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>in contact with the enemy during these
+operations:—</p>
+
+<div class='in2'>
+
+  <dl class='dl_1'>
+    <dt>D.1</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.2</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.3</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>D.5</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.4</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.5</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.6</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot).
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.7</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann)<a id='tn038'></a>.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>E.9</dt>
+    <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).
+    </dd>
+    </dl>
+
+</div>
+<div class='lg-container-l c025'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line in1'>I have the honour to be, Sir,</div>
+      <div class='line in5'>Your obedient servant,</div>
+      <div class='line in7'>(Signed) ROGER KEYES,</div>
+      <div class='line in19'>Commodore (S).”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>In conclusion, it must therefore be set
+on record that the opening phase in the
+greatest naval war in history has been
+one of submarine attack and counter-attack,
+mine-laying and destroying, warships
+and merchantmen sunk in a few
+minutes by submarine torpedoes and
+mines, with sharp engagements between
+the cruisers and destroyers acting in
+conjunction with the under-water craft.
+The much-vaunted German Fleet, like
+that of its ally Austria-Hungary, has
+not dared to show itself from behind
+the forts and carefully-screened anchorages
+of the naval bases, suffering rather
+the everlasting disgrace of having stood
+in cowardly idleness while the 5,000
+merchant ships it was built to protect
+hauled down the flag of the “Fatherland”
+and German maritime commerce
+was swept from the seas while the Allied
+fleets hold undisputed command of every
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The First Lord of the British
+Admiralty has said that if the German
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>Fleet will not come out to fight it must
+be “dug out like rats in a hole.” This,
+then, may be the second phase in the
+naval war, and out in the grey mist of
+the North Sea, ready and eager for
+the work, lies the great battle fleets of
+England.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>
+  <h2 id='ch1' class='c014'>CHAPTER I <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo-boat is to most
+people a complete mystery, and before
+describing the composition and strength
+of the submarine fleets at war it may
+therefore be of interest to say something
+of the principal features common to all
+types of submarine craft.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Method of Submergence</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>It may sound ridiculous, in face of the
+many accidents which have occurred, to
+say that one of the greatest difficulties
+is to make a submarine sink sufficiently
+quickly, and one of the easiest of
+operations to make her rise, and yet
+such is undeniably the case.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c028'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>It will be readily understood that
+any delay in disappearing beneath the
+surface when attacking would be a
+great danger to a submarine in action.
+For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat
+destroyers are scouring the
+sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered
+at daybreak by the submarines,
+which are waiting to attack the fleet behind,
+approaching at a speed of 30 knots
+an hour. A hurried dive beneath the
+surface is necessary if the waiting submarines
+would avoid detection, which
+would, in all probability, mean destruction
+by the quick-firing guns of the destroyers.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When a submarine is travelling on the
+surface she is in what is technically called
+the <i>light condition</i>, that is to say, with her
+water ballast tanks empty, but when it is
+required to sink her so that only the tiny
+platform, or deck, and conning-tower are
+above the surface, water is let into these
+ballast tanks, and the additional weight
+causes her to sink into the sea until her
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span><i>back</i> is almost flush with the surface—this
+is known as the <i>awash condition</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It is not difficult to perceive that when
+travelling awash, a wave might at any
+moment roll along the tiny unprotected
+deck of the submarine, break over the
+mouth of the conning-tower, and descend
+like a waterspout into the interior. Were
+this to happen a terrible disaster might
+result, for it must be remembered that
+when travelling awash, a very little
+additional weight would cause the submarine
+to plunge beneath the surface.
+In order to obviate this risk it has
+become a rule that when proceeding
+with this small margin of buoyancy,
+the hatch covering the mouth of the
+conning-tower should be screwed down
+and the submarine hermetically closed,
+ready to sink.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>To many it may appear strange that
+total submergence is not accomplished
+by letting still more water into the
+ballast tanks, but entirely with the aid
+of the propellers and rudders. A submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>has two, and sometimes three,
+pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary
+vertical ones to guide her to port or
+starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause
+her to dive and rise. Two additional
+<i>fins</i> are frequently placed on each side of
+the forepart of the vessel to assist the
+diving and rising.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In order to make the submarine dive
+beneath the surface, the horizontal
+rudders are deflected when the boat is
+proceeding at full speed. The action of
+the water against the rudders is such
+that the bows are forced down and the
+whole vessel slides under the surface.
+The principle is much the same as that
+of steering an ordinary surface vessel,
+where the force of the water against the
+rudder causes the vessel to swing to
+right or left.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From this it will be seen that a submarine
+is only held below the surface
+by the action of her rudders on the
+passing water; should the propellers
+driving her along cease to revolve and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>the vessel slow down, she automatically
+rises to the surface because the rudders
+have no longer any effect.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although the steering both on the
+vertical and horizontal plane is controlled
+by hand, it would be quite beyond the
+strength of a man to move the various
+rudders as required, so electric motors
+are installed to perform the actual work.
+In fact, almost everything in a submarine
+is operated by electricity.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the earlier types of submarine
+boats, a considerable time was required
+to open the valves and allow sufficient
+water to enter the ballast tanks to make
+them sink to the awash condition. Some
+of the now obsolete French naval boats
+took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes
+to carry out this simple operation. The
+main reason for this was, that they
+were designed with too much surface
+buoyancy, that is to say, they rode too
+high in the water when floating in the
+light condition compared with the inadequate
+means then employed for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>inlet of water into the ballast tanks, and
+were thus forced to let in an enormous
+quantity of water at a very slow rate
+before they settled down sufficiently to
+enable total submergence to be accomplished
+by the use of the horizontal fins
+and rudders. This great drawback has
+now been completely overcome, and the
+modern submarine can sink below the
+surface in about three minutes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When water is pumped into the ballast
+tanks in order to make the submarine
+settle down, the air which normally fills
+these tanks is compressed into a fraction
+of its proper space, and is therefore
+always exerting a downward pressure
+which increases as more water is pumped
+in. Therefore, when it is desired to
+bring the submarine to the surface again,
+all that is necessary is to open the
+valves and allow the compressed air to
+force the water out. It should, however,
+be remembered that there is really no
+need to “blow out” the ballast tanks
+in order to bring the submarine to the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>surface, for this can be much quicker
+accomplished by simply elevating the
+horizontal rudders; but in this case the
+submarine only rises just above the
+surface—to the awash condition—whereas
+if the tanks are emptied of water she
+rises to the light or cruising condition.
+This substantiates the assertion made
+at the beginning of this chapter—that it
+is far more difficult to make a submarine
+sink than it is to make her rise.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It has been said that a man walking
+from one end of a submarine to the other
+would, in all probability, cause her to
+plunge dangerously, so delicate is the
+state of equipoise when totally submerged.
+Whatever may have been the case in
+the early types it is certainly not so now.
+So steady are modern submarines when
+running below the surface, especially
+those of the British, Russian, French,
+and Japanese and German Navies, that
+the long up and down hill glides, which,
+with some boats, used to amount to
+yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>been reduced to a few feet in so many
+hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back
+motion is almost unnoticeable
+except when the submarine is being
+swung round at a sharp angle. In no
+case, however, is it sufficient materially
+to affect the firing of the torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in
+the awash condition—or <i>diving-trim</i>, as it
+is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily
+very small, amounting to little
+more than two or three pounds in a
+thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means
+a difference of only about 100 gallons of
+sea-water between the ability to float
+and the inevitability of sinking. Any
+material increase in the small margin of
+what is known as <i>positive-buoyancy</i> must
+be accompanied by a corresponding
+increase in the power of propulsion,
+otherwise it would be quite impossible to
+drive her under, or, in other words, to
+overcome the vessel’s natural tendency
+to float on the surface.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>For these and other reasons, a submarine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>when running submerged is in
+such a delicate state of equipoise that
+any sudden increase or loss of weight
+would upset the balance and so cause
+the vessel to either dive or rise with
+dangerous rapidity.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This would be the effect produced
+when a torpedo was discharged were
+provision not made to counter-balance
+this sudden loss of weight by means of
+<i>compensating-tanks</i>, into which sufficient
+water is pumped to compensate for the
+loss of weight incurred by the discharge
+of <i>each</i> torpedo.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Many submarines are also fitted with
+bow and stern <i>trimming-tanks</i>, into which
+water can be pumped in such a manner
+as to correct any tendency of the vessel
+to float too high or low at either
+extremity.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Propulsion.</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>Of the many complicated problems
+surrounding submarine boat construction
+the motive power and propelling engines
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>have been in the past, and are still, the
+most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed
+air, electricity, petrol, and heavy
+oil have all been used with varying
+results since first this type of vessel
+came into being; and many curious
+engines for using these <i>prime movers</i> in
+conjunction with each other and with
+chemical compounds have been evolved
+by ingenious inventors.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>About steam and compressed air little
+need be said, for although given a good
+trial, especially by the French naval
+authorities, they were abandoned some
+years ago in favour of a combination of
+petrol and electric engines, which in turn
+have given place to more powerful
+machines using heavy oil and electricity.
+Steam is, however, again being
+used in conjunction with turbine engines
+for surface propulsion.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The carrying of large quantities of
+petrol, or heavy oil, is under all circumstances
+attended with a certain
+amount of risk, and when many tons
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>have to be carried in a confined
+space, as in a submarine, this risk is
+more than doubled, as the slightest
+leakage when the vessel is submerged
+would mean that a powerful explosive
+mixture of petrol and air would be made.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c029'>
+ <img src='images/050.jpg' alt='British Type Torpedo Boat' />
+ <div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). <i>A.</i>
+Deck superstructure. <i>B.</i> Scuppers for filling superstructure.
+<i>D.</i> External connections. <i>E.</i> Conning-tower (4-inch
+armour). <i>F.</i> Periscope. <i>G.</i> Periscope motor (for turning,
+&amp;c.). <i>H.</i> Air cowls. <i>I.</i> Conning-tower cap (opening
+sideways). <i>J.</i> Mast stays. <i>K.</i> Mast (not part of service
+equipment). <i>L.</i> Torpedo-tube cap. <i>M.</i> Torpedo-tubes
+(twin), torpedoes in. <i>N.</i> Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes).
+<i>O.</i> Hydroplane engines. <i>X.</i> Double casing, with special
+vent for accumulators. <i>Y.</i> Spare torpedoes. <i>Z.</i> Petrol
+storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal pumps.
+3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s
+platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection
+indicator, registering submarine’s deflection from horizontal.
+7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol engines. 10. Electric engines.
+11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.</span></p>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>It being also quite impossible, for
+obvious reasons, to use a petrol engine
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>when running submerged, a second
+motive power, an engine, with its additional
+space and weight, has to be
+carried to drive the submarine when
+under water. For this purpose electricity
+is used in almost all types. But
+electricity, again, has many drawbacks.
+It costs in weight nearly thirty times
+more than other motive powers, and is
+extremely dangerous, for should salt
+water in any way gain access to the
+storage batteries, chlorine gas would be
+given off in large quantities, although in
+the more recent vessels of the British,
+American, and French Navies this danger
+has been minimised by enclosing the
+batteries in air-tight cases. On account
+of the weight and the space required,
+it is impossible to install a very powerful
+electric engine in a submarine
+(compared with the size of the boat),
+and thus both the speed and radius of
+action are curtailed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>If this division of power between the
+surface and submerged engines could
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>be overcome, and the whole space made
+available for one powerful set of engines
+suitable for driving the vessel both on
+the surface and when submerged, not
+only would the mechanism of submarines
+be simplified, but a very considerable
+increase in both speed and range of
+action would naturally result.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes
+of British submarines, and in the more
+modern vessels of the French, Russian
+and German Navies, heavy oil is being
+used in place of petrol on account of the
+increase in power obtained with greater
+safety.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Arrangements are made in almost all
+modern submarines so that when the
+vessel is using the oil engines for running
+on the surface the electricity for use
+when submerged is being made by a
+dynamo and stored in batteries. From
+this it will be seen that there are really
+three separate engines in a submarine:—(1)
+the oil or petrol motor, which drives
+the vessel when on the surface, and, at
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>the same time, by a suitable arrangement
+of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2)
+which makes the electric current for
+storage, and (3) an electric engine which
+drives the vessel when submerged,
+obtaining the necessary power from the
+batteries.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It is, however, technically incorrect
+to say that there are two sources of
+power in a submarine, for electricity is
+not, in itself, a source of power, but
+merely a handy method of storing and
+transmitting it. The only actual source
+being the oil or petrol.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are also numerous small engines
+to add to the complexity of machinery
+in a submarine, such as the air compressors
+used for charging the torpedo
+tubes with compressed air for expelling
+the torpedoes and for other purposes,
+and electric motors for operating the
+pumps, steering mechanism, and periscopes.
+In addition to all this, hand-mechanism
+is provided for use in case
+of a breakdown to operate most of these
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>important appliances. Then again there
+is, of course, the armament mechanism
+for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic
+quick-firing guns.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>From the foregoing it may appear that
+the interior of a submarine presents a
+picture of mechanical complexity utterly
+incomprehensible. Yet such is not the
+case. The fanciful belief that the crew
+stand, boxed up in these vessels, sweating
+with the heat, struggling for breath,
+and with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably
+close to the small of their backs,
+electric motors buzzing within a few
+inches of their ears, and nervous hands
+grasping one or other of the levers
+ranged in rows in front of them, is,
+doubtless, most romantic, but quite
+unreal. Much of the undoubtedly complicated
+machinery in a submarine is
+tucked away in the conical extremities,
+under the interior decking, and fixed
+to the arched steel sides. The centre
+is left almost entirely clear, so that
+trestle-tables may be erected for meals,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>hammocks swung for sleeping, and
+sufficient space allowed to make these
+small vessels as habitable as possible.
+Not the least difficulty of the submarine
+designer is to create order and leave
+space among the chaos of machinery
+which has to be installed in these peculiar
+and deadly little torpedo craft.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Vision When Submerged.</i></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>Perhaps the greatest difficulty which
+has beset both submarine construction and
+navigation is the puzzle how to see when
+submerged. This is now accomplished
+by means of periscopes, or tubes extending
+up from the roof of the submarine
+to a height of several feet above the
+surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a
+series of lenses and reflectors a picture of
+the surface is thrown down these tubes
+on to reflectors inside the submarine. A
+man with his eyes at the bottom of a
+periscope can see the surface clearly.
+Although it projects above the surface
+when the whole submarine is submerged,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>it is far too small an object to be easily
+seen moving through the water, and
+extremely difficult to hit by gun-fire.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The latest panoramic periscope—two of
+which are fitted in modern submarines—has
+a field of vision of about 60
+degrees. The range of vision is, however,
+very short, owing to the periscopic
+tube projecting only a few feet above the
+surface. On a moderately smooth and
+fairly clear day steering by periscope is
+not altogether difficult, but at night or
+in fog this instrument is useless, and for
+this reason it would be almost impossible
+for a submarine to effect a submerged
+attack on an enemy at night. Hence
+the name given to this type of craft—daylight
+torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant
+light of day, when any attempt by
+ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently
+close to hostile warships to discharge a
+torpedo with reasonable hope of success
+would be foredoomed to failure, there is
+every possibility that submarines would
+effect a surprise attack.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Armament.</i></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c027'>The chief armament of all naval submarines
+is the torpedo, which is expelled
+by a blast of compressed air from one of
+the tubes fitted in the bow and stern.
+Several torpedoes are usually carried by
+each boat, so that if one failed to strike
+the object of attack further attempts can
+be made.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>About the efficiency of torpedoes
+nothing need be said here, for they now
+form an important weapon in every navy,
+and to this subject a future chapter is
+devoted.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The latest submarines built are also
+fitted with quick-firing guns for use when
+these vessels are cruising on the surface.
+The guns are arranged so that when it is
+desired to sink they can be made to
+disappear beneath the narrow deck of the
+submarine. The provision of guns has
+been made with the object of giving
+these vessels a means of defence should
+they be discovered by prowling hostile
+torpedo-boat destroyers, or by air-craft.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><i>Habitability.</i></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c027'>Many people imagine the interior of a
+submarine to resemble a stokehold, hot,
+stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact
+contrary is the truth. The temperature
+is but little above the normal for a ship’s
+engine-room, the air-supply is amply
+sufficient, and the whole interior is well
+illuminated by electric lamps.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The necessary supply of pure air is
+derived either from large steel cylinders
+containing the air in a highly compressed
+state or from flasks of oxylithe. The
+carbonic acid gas of the respired air
+being at the same time chemically
+absorbed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Food is cooked for the crew by
+electricity, and drinking water obtained
+from special tanks. Notwithstanding
+these arrangements, however, it is almost
+impossible for the crew to live on board
+for many weeks at a time, owing to the
+small free space in the interior and to the
+cramped deck; but as the size and radius
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>of action of these boats increase, so also
+does the space available for exercise, and
+thus the habitability.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>
+  <h2 id='ch2' class='c014'>CHAPTER II <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The British Fleet at the moment when
+war was declared possessed 82 submarine
+torpedo-boats built and 22 building.
+Some of these were, however, stationed
+at the oversea naval bases. The composition
+and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities were
+as follows:—</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines in Home Waters.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div><i>Patrol Flotillas.</i></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-l c032'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>1st Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Onyx</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.8 and A.9.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Dolphin</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>3rd Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Forth</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines<a id='tn062'></a>: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>C.15 and C.16.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Arrogant</i> and <i>Hazard</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>5th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Thames</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>6th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Bonaventure</i> and <i>Hebe</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>7th Flotilla. Chatham.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Vulcan</i> and <i>Alecto</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Maidstone</i> and <i>Adamant</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>9th Flotilla. Devonport.</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Pactolus</i>.</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines on Foreign Stations.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c033'>  Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines
+B.9, B.10, and B.11.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7,
+and B.8.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines
+C.36, C.37, and C.38.</p>
+
+<p class='c034'>  With Australian Fleet.—Submarines
+A.E.1<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c028'><sup>[2]</sup></a> and A.E.2.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The statement that the headquarters
+of the various submarine flotillas in home
+waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and
+Devonport, must not be taken as indicating
+that these are the only points
+along the coast protected by submarines.
+These places are merely the chief bases
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the <i>Patrol Flotillas</i>. The wide range
+of action of modern submarines enables
+them to operate several hundred miles
+from any base or depôt, and consequently
+Chatham becomes merely the
+<i>general store</i>, or head-depôt, of what
+should be termed the North Sea Flotillas,
+which not only patrol the whole East,
+North-East and South-East Coasts of
+England and Scotland, but also have
+their floating secondary bases in the
+form of <i>Depôt Ships</i>, which, with their
+attached submarines, are often at
+Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In
+the same way Portsmouth is merely the
+headquarters of the submarines patrolling
+the Channel; and Dover, Portland, etc.,
+are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines
+with their Depôt ships. The
+Devonport Flotillas have the longest
+coast-line to patrol, for their area covers
+not only the West Coast of England,
+Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish
+Coast. They are, however, furthest
+removed from the zone of war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Considerable alterations have taken
+place in the composition and distribution
+of the British submarine flotillas since
+the outbreak of war, with the object of
+materially strengthening the Fleet in
+the main theatre of operations, but the
+addition to the flotillas of new vessels of
+the latest “E” type—nearly completed
+when war broke out—has made this
+rearrangement possible without materially
+weakening the flotillas guarding the more
+distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling
+vessels from overseas.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/064.jpg' alt='British Submarine D.7' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern torpedo tube.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first submarine torpedo-boat built
+for the British Navy was launched from
+the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness
+in 1901, and was designated
+the No. 1. It was constructed from the
+designs of the famous American inventor,
+Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the
+most successful boats afloat at that time.
+A series of exhaustive trials with this
+and the succeeding five vessels, all of the
+same type and launched during 1901‒2,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>proved conclusively the fighting value of
+this type of craft, and a further order was
+given by the British Admiralty for four
+new vessels embodying the improvements
+suggested by the trials of the
+first five. These vessels were the first
+of the “A” class, and were designated
+the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a
+submerged displacement of 180 tons, a
+length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet.
+They were propelled by petrol motors
+of 190 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> on the surface and by
+electric motors of about 80 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+submerged. Their speed ranged from 8
+knots an hour on the surface to 5 knots
+when travelling submerged, and their
+maximum surface endurance (or fuel
+capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 knots.
+Their armament consisted of three 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes and one bow tube.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>All these vessels were, however,
+obsolete and therefore scrapped before
+the opening of hostilities, hence information
+concerning them is only of
+interest as showing the rapid growth
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>in size, power and armament of British
+submarines. The next batch of vessels
+were the A’s 5 to 13, launched at
+Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have
+been seen from the table showing the
+composition and distribution of the submarine
+flotillas at the outbreak of war,
+are still on the effective list. All the
+following British submarines are now in
+the fighting line.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“A” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels are the oldest British
+submarines in commission. They were
+built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at
+Barrow, and have a submerged displacement
+of 204 tons. Their length is
+150 feet. They are propelled on the
+surface by petrol motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+and by electric engines of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+when submerged. Their surface and
+submerged speed is 11 knots and
+7 knots respectively. The cruising
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>range, or maximum surface endurance
+on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10
+knots an hour, and the endurance submerged
+three hours at full speed. Their
+armament consists of two bow tubes with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement:
+Eleven officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels, which are now used
+almost entirely for harbour defence, can
+be distinguished from later types by
+their high conning-towers and single
+short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off
+Plymouth early in 1914, and was never
+raised.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“B” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the improved
+Holland type, and are in every way
+superior to their predecessors. They
+may be considered the first of the sea-going
+type. Their submerged displacement
+is 316 tons; length 135 feet, and
+beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>same as in the “A’s”—petrol for surface
+propulsion and electricity for use when
+submerged. The horse-power of the
+petrol engines is 600, and that of the
+electric engines 189. As in most submarines
+the supply of current for driving
+the electric engines is derived from storage
+batteries charged by dynamos driven from
+the petrol engines while the vessels are
+running on the surface. In the “B”
+class a special system of encasing these
+storage batteries was introduced. Their
+speed averages 12 knots on the surface
+and 8 knots when submerged. The surface
+cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10
+knots per hour, and the maximum submerged
+endurance 80‒100 knots at 5
+knots per hour. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with 4‒6 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The “B” type are vessels about 50
+per cent. larger than the “A” type which
+preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures
+extending from the bow to the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>conning-tower, forming a narrow deck
+which tends to disperse the wave which
+heaped around the blunt noses of the
+“A’s” and original Hollands. Vision
+when submerged is obtained by two
+panoramic periscopes, each having an arc
+of vision of 60 degrees. In the more
+modern vessels three periscopes are fitted.
+The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed
+below the centre line of the vessel and
+consequently operate in deeper water
+when the vessels are cruising on the
+surface. This gives them better surface
+cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the
+propellers are liable to race if worked
+too near the surface. The increase in
+the speed of these vessels over that of the
+“A’s” was of great importance, as in
+this respect lies the weakness of the submarine.
+The tactical advantages derived
+from high speed in actual warfare cannot
+be over-estimated. The speed of a fleet
+is governed by that of its slowest unit.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “B”
+type is the straight bow, the forward
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>superstructure, and the <i>two</i> periscopes.
+The B.2 was run down by the liner
+<i>Amerika</i> in the Straits of Dover in
+October, 1912, and was never recovered.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“C” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906‒10.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>This class of submarines is composed
+of vessels of the improved “B” type.
+They have a submerged displacement
+of 320 tons and are 135 feet long and
+13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop
+600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and give to these vessels a
+speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface.
+The power of the electric engines was
+increased to 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, giving a submerged
+speed of just over 9 knots an
+hour. The surface cruising range is
+2,000 knots at the most economical speed,
+and the submerged endurance 100 knots
+at 5 knots an hour. Their armament
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>consists of two bow tubes with six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their
+complement sixteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In the later vessels of the “C” class
+heavy oil is used instead of petrol, giving
+a great increase in power without the
+comparative additional weight; enabling
+a wider radius of action. The vessels
+of both the “B” and “C” classes are
+fitted with air-traps and safety-helmets,
+giving the crew a possible means of
+escape in the event of disaster while
+submerged.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “C”
+class is the sloping bow. The C.11
+collided with the steamer <i>Eddystone</i>
+in the North Sea in 1909 and was
+irretrievably lost.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“D” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒11.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are all modern vessels of the
+sea-going type, and are of considerable
+fighting value. They, however, differ
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>slightly from each other: D.1 has a
+submerged displacement of 595 tons;
+D.2 of 600 tons; and the remaining
+vessels of this class of 620 tons. They
+have an approximate length of 150 feet
+and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil
+engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at a
+maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on
+the surface, and electric motors of 550
+<span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a submerged speed of
+just over 10 knots an hour. All these
+vessels have twin-screws situated below
+the centre line. Their cruising range on
+the surface is 4,000 miles, and when
+submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an
+hour. These vessels were the first to
+be fitted with a special and more efficient
+pattern of electric storage battery and a
+safer type of electric motor. The armament
+of the “D’s” consists of two bow
+and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
+are also fitted with a small quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.
+This gun is fixed on a disappearing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>mounting, enabling it to be quickly and
+almost automatically lowered into a watertight
+cavity in the superstructure before
+the submarine dives below the surface.
+The complement of these vessels is
+twenty-one officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/072.jpg' alt='British Submarine C.34' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9  knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo tubes.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“E” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These fine ocean-going submarines are
+the latest additions to the British Flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of
+800 tons, are 176 feet long and 22 ½ feet
+in beam. The heavy-oil engines of
+nearly 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a surface
+speed of over 16 knots, while the
+electric engines of 800 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them
+at a maximum speed of 10 knots an
+hour when submerged. Their surface
+cruising range is 5,000 miles at
+economical speed, and the submerged
+endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an hour.
+In point of armament the “E’s” are far
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>more powerful than their predecessors,
+being fitted with four tubes and carrying
+six of the largest and most powerful
+Whitehead torpedoes. They are also
+equipped with two 3-inch quick-firing
+guns on high-angle disappearing mountings
+for defence against air-craft and
+hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers<a id='tn079'></a>.
+They have wireless telegraphic apparatus;
+and, like the vessels of the “B,” “C”
+and “D” classes, have armoured conning
+towers and decks. Three tall panoramic
+periscopes are fitted, and their high
+superstructures and increased buoyancy
+when travelling on the surface enable
+them to keep the sea in almost any
+weather.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Australian Submarines</span>:</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>A.E.1 and A.E.2.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These vessels are exactly the same
+as the “E” class. The fact that they
+both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage
+from Barrow to Sydney under their
+own power and without convoy is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>practical proof of the wide range, seaworthiness
+and general efficiency of the
+latest British Naval Submarines. The
+A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in
+Australian waters in October, 1914, and
+has not been recovered.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>British Submarines Building<a id='tn080'></a>.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the great
+war there were 22 British submarines in
+course of construction at the various
+shipbuilding works and naval dockyards.
+Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had
+constructed all the British submarines,
+but in that year the vessels C.17 and
+C.18 were laid down at Chatham Dockyard.
+Since then several other boats
+have been constructed there, and of
+those now in hand some are being built
+by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow,
+others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding
+yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs.
+Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd.
+at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M.
+Dockyard at Chatham.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>Hitherto, British submarines, although
+divided into classes—each of which has
+shown a marked improvement on the
+preceding class—have been all of one
+type—the “Improved Holland.” Among
+the vessels being constructed at the
+opening of hostilities they were, however,
+no less than three different types.
+Those being built at Barrow and
+Chatham were of the original design
+with modern improvements, but the submarines
+under construction at Greenock
+were of the <i>Laurenti</i>, or Italian type,
+and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the
+<i>Laubeuf</i>, or French type. In addition
+to this wise departure from previous
+practice, two of the new vessels have
+been given the names of <i>Nautilus</i> and
+<i>Swordfish</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The haze of war has obscured these
+vessels, and it is impossible to say definitely
+which of them have taken their
+place in the active flotillas, and further
+the necessity for observing the very
+strictest secrecy regarding new types of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>warships at a time like the present
+makes it advisable to give here only
+the briefest particulars and not to discuss
+too freely the peculiarities of their design
+or their probable capabilities.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“F” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>There are several vessels of this class
+now being constructed. They are the
+latest improvement of the original Holland
+design and are sea-going submarines
+of wide range, high speed and great
+fighting power. The F.1, which was
+built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged
+displacement of 1,500 tons.
+Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+give her a maximum speed of 20 knots
+an hour on the surface, and electric
+motors of 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 12 knots
+when submerged. The armament consists
+of six torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and
+two quick-firing, high-angle guns.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“V” Class. &nbsp;“W” Class. &nbsp;“S” Class.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div><i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These three classes include the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>vessels of entirely different design to
+those now forming the British flotillas.
+The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of which
+four were under construction at the
+beginning of the war, are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged
+displacement of over 1,000 tons, and a
+probable surface speed of 20 knots.
+The “W” Class, of which four are
+being built at Elswick, comprise vessels
+of the French <i>Laubeuf</i> type. The “S”
+Class, building at Greenock, and four
+in number, are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—<i>Laurenti</i>
+type. The two named
+vessels—<i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>—are
+large sea-going submarines of wide
+range and high speed. Their submerged
+displacement is about 1,000
+tons, and their speed 20 knots on the
+surface and 12 knots when submerged.
+The armament is six tubes, with eight
+torpedoes, and two quick-firing guns.
+The complement of all these large
+submarines is about 25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>
+  <h2 id='ch3' class='c014'>CHAPTER III <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>France possessed 92 submarines in
+active service when war was declared.
+In addition to these, nine large and
+powerful vessels were in various stages
+of construction. The flotillas of the
+French Navy are composed of two
+different types of vessels: <i>Submarines
+Defensive</i> and <i>Submersibles</i>. The former
+are intended, as their name implies,
+solely for coast and harbour defence;
+their radii of action is very small, and
+they are incapable of action independent
+of a naval base. The submersibles are
+like the large sea-going submarines of
+England and Germany, and have a
+wide radius of action, high speed, and
+great offensive power.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first naval submarine (<i>Gymnôte</i>)
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>was launched in 1888, giving to France
+the honour of being the first Naval
+Power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat
+as a vessel of war. The pioneers
+of submarine construction in France
+were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun,
+M. Dupuy de Lome, M. Gustave Zédé,
+and Admiral Aube. The second submarine
+ordered for the French Navy
+was the <i>Gustave Zédé</i>, launched in 1893.
+So successful did this vessel prove that
+another of the same type, and named
+the <i>Morse</i>, was launched at Cherbourg
+Dockyard in 1899. In the same year
+four vessels of a new type were laid
+down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and
+named <i>Lutin</i>, <i>Farfâdet</i> (re-named <i>Follet</i>),
+<i>Korrigan</i>, and <i>Gnôme</i>. These, with the
+exception of the ill-fated <i>Lutin</i>, are still
+in the active flotillas.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lutin Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Follet</i>.</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Korrigan</i>.</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gnôme</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in
+the French Navy, and are all of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>defensive type. They have a displacement
+of about 185 tons, with electric
+engines for propulsion both on the
+surface and when submerged. Their
+speed is 12 knots on the surface and
+8 knots when submerged. Their range
+of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots.
+The armament consists of one bow tube
+and two holders, with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. The complement
+is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/080.jpg' alt='Two French Submarines' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photos, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)</div>
+    <div class='c001'>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE.  (bottom)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Française Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Française.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Algérien.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the improved
+<i>Morse</i> type, and are intended solely
+for coast and harbour defence. Their
+surface displacement is 146 tons, and
+they have electric engines of 350 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+for both surface and submerged propulsion,
+giving them a speed of 12 knots
+and 8 knots an hour, respectively.
+Their surface radius is about 80 miles
+at 8 knots. They have one bow tube and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>two holders, with four torpedoes. The
+complement is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Triton Class.</span><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c028'><sup>[3]</sup></a></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Triton.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Sirene.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Espadon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Silure.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These four vessels were the first of
+the submersible type and were designed
+by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed
+many vessels for both France and other
+countries (<i>Laubeuf</i> type). They have
+a submerged displacement of 200 tons,
+and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in
+beam. Steam is used for surface
+propulsion (217 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>) and electricity
+when submerged. Their speed is 11
+knots on the surface and 8 knots
+when submerged, with a cruising radius
+of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are
+armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes, and have a
+complement of ten officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Naiade Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1902‒4.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Naiade.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Loutre.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Protée.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Lynx.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Perle.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Truite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Castor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Oursin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Meduse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Otarie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Phoque.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ludion.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Alose.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Anguille.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Grondin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Dorade.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Souffleur.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bonite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Esturgeon.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Twenty small harbour defence submarines,
+having a displacement of
+about 67 tons. They have petrol and
+electric motors, giving them a speed of
+8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots
+when submerged. Their armament consists
+of one bow tube and two holders;
+four torpedoes are carried. Their complement
+is six officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Aigrette Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Aigrette.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cicogne.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are submersibles
+of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type, and were great
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>improvements on their predecessors, the
+Triton Class. Their submerged displacement
+is 351 tons, and their
+dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A triple
+expansion steam engine of 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+is used for surface propulsion and
+an electric motor of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+submerged. Their speed is 10 knots
+and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface
+endurance is 700 miles at 8 knots, and
+submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their
+armament consists of one bow tube with
+four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Argonaute.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submersible designed by M. Bertin
+(late Chief Constructor French Navy).
+This vessel, which was first named
+<i>Omega</i>, has a displacement of about
+300 tons. She is driven by steam and
+electricity, and has a speed of 11 knots
+and 9 knots. Her armament consists
+of two bow tubes and two holders,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+The complement is about seventeen officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Emeraude Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Emeraude.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Saphir.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Opale.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Topaz.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Rubis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Turquoise.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are of the <i>Maugas</i>
+type and are sea-going submarines
+with a submerged displacement of over
+400 tons. They have petrol and electric
+motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and 450 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,
+respectively. Their surface speed is 12
+knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their
+surface cruising radius is just over
+1,000 miles at economical speed. Their
+armament consists of two tubes and four
+holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual
+pattern. Their complement is seventeen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Circe Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Circe.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Calypso.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Laubeuf</i>
+type, and are improvements on the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span><i>Aigrette</i> class. They have a submerged
+displacement of about 450 tons and are
+160 feet in length. They are driven by
+a steam engine of 440 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> (flash
+boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface,
+and by electric motors when submerged.
+Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots;
+and the range of action 1,000 miles.
+Their armament comprises two tubes and
+four holders with eight torpedoes. The
+complement is 21 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Pluviôse Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Pluviôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nivôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ventôse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Messidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thermidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Fructidor.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Brumaire.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Frimaire.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Florèal.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Prairial.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Germinal.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Submarines of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type with
+a submerged displacement of nearly 600
+tons. All built at Cherbourg. The
+<i>Brumaire</i> and <i>Frimaire</i> are driven by
+petrol motors of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when
+cruising on the surface, but all the
+others have small steam turbines with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>a special type of flash-boiler. Electric
+motors are used for submerged propulsion.
+Their speed is 12 knots above
+and 9 knots below. The armament is
+seven 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement
+is 22 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Fresnel Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Fresnel.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Berthelot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Papin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Monge.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ampère.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gay-Lussac.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cagnot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Faraday.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Giffard.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Montgolfier.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Newton.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Volta.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Watt.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Euler.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Faucault.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Franklin.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Arago.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Permouilli.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Joule.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Coulomb.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Curie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Le Verrier.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Twenty-two submarines of the largest
+sea-going <i>Laubeuf</i> type. Only three of
+these are steam driven, the others using
+heavy-oil engines for surface propulsion.
+They are in all respects similar to
+vessels of the <i>Pluviôse</i> class, and have
+a displacement of about 600 tons. Their
+speed is 12 knots above, and 9 knots
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>below, and the armament seven 18-inch
+torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with
+stern as well as bow tubes. Their
+surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Amiral Bourgeoise.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>An experimental boat of the <i>Bourdelle</i>
+type, built at Cherbourg. The submerged
+displacement is just under 800
+tons and the length 190 feet. She is
+driven on the surface by heavy-oil
+engines of 1,600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give a
+speed of 15 knots. The electric motors
+for submerged propulsion are of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>,
+giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament
+consists of seven 18-inch torpedoes,
+and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Archimède.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Another experimental boat built at
+Cherbourg. The submerged displacement
+is about 810 tons, and the length
+and beam 212 feet and 22 feet
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>respectively. Steam turbines are used for
+surface propulsion and electric motors
+when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots
+above and 10 knots below. The armament
+is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and
+the complement 24 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/088.jpg' alt='Sea-Going French Submarine' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mariotte.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The third experimental boat, of the
+<i>Rodiquet</i> type, built at Cherbourg. The
+displacement when submerged is 650
+tons and the length about 200 feet.
+Petrol motors of 1,500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her
+at 15 knots an hour on the surface and
+electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots
+when submerged. Her radius of action
+is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven
+18-inch torpedoes, which can be fired
+from both bow and stern tubes. The
+complement is about 25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Charles Brun.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The fourth experimental vessel, built
+at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>submerged displacement is 450 tons and
+the length 145 feet. Steam turbines of
+1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 15 ½ knots an
+hour on the surface, and electric motors
+of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots when submerged.
+Her armament consists of six 18-inch
+torpedoes. The complement is 22 officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Clorinde Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Clorinde.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Cornélie.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Amphritrite.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Astree.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Artémis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Aréthuse.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Atalante.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Amaranthe.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ariane.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Andromaque.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are the very latest
+additions to the French Submarine
+flotillas. They have a submerged displacement
+of about 550 tons, a length
+of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet.
+Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give
+them a speed of 15 knots on the surface,
+and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> enable
+them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when
+submerged. They carry eight torpedoes,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and have a complement of 25 officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Gustave Zede Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gustave Zede.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Néréide.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are the largest
+submarines in the French flotillas.
+They have a submerged displacement of
+1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, and a
+beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give
+them a surface speed of 16 knots and
+electric motors a submerged speed of
+10 knots. Their armament consists of
+two bow and two stern tubes with eight
+18-inch torpedoes. They are also equipped
+with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle,
+disappearing mountings. The
+cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the
+complement 27 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Bellone Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1914.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bellone.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Hermione.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Gorgone.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Fast sea-going submarines with a
+submerged displacement of 610 tons.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>They have heavy-oil engines of about
+2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give them a surface
+speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of
+950 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 12 knots when
+submerged. Their surface cruising range
+is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists
+of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr.
+quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement
+is 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>French Submarines Building.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>On the day when war was declared
+nine submarines were in the early stages
+of construction. The two most advanced
+of these were the <i>Diane</i> and <i>Daphne</i>.
+These vessels have a submerged displacement
+of about 800 tons, and the
+anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10
+knots. Their armament will consist of
+ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The
+complement will be 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The other seven vessels are of the
+improved <i>Gustave Zede</i> Class. They
+will have a submerged displacement of
+over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 knots
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>on the surface and 12 knots when submerged.
+Their armament will consist of
+ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The
+complement will be about 35 officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>
+  <h2 id='ch4' class='c014'>CHAPTER IV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement
+of hostilities included 37
+submarines in active service, and 19 in
+various stages of construction. The
+composition and distribution of the
+submarine flotillas was as follows:—</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Baltic Flotilla</span>: 14 Submarines with
+depôt ships in commission, and 12 vessels
+building. <i>Bases</i>: Kronstadt, Port Peter
+the Great (Reval) and Port Alexander III.
+(Libau) (ice free).</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Black Sea Flotilla</span>: 11 Submarines
+with depôt ships in commission, and
+several new vessels building. <i>Bases</i>:
+Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Siberian Flotilla</span>: 12 Submarines
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>with depôt ships in commission, and 6
+vessels building. <i>Base</i>: Vladivostok.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The first Russian naval submarine was
+completed at Kronstadt in 1902, and
+named the <i>Petr Kochka</i>. She was built
+in sections to facilitate transport over the
+Siberian Railway, being intended for
+the defence of Port Arthur, and had a
+surface displacement of only 20 tons.
+Her armament consisted of two holders,
+or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, containing
+two small Whitehead torpedoes.
+The maximum speed was 8 knots on
+the surface and 4 knots when submerged.
+The second submarine ordered for the
+Russian Navy was the <i>Delphin</i>, which
+foundered off Kronstadt, but was subsequently
+raised and is now used as a
+training ship for the submarine service.
+These two vessels have been removed
+from the active flotillas, but the third
+vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the
+<i>Graf Cheremetieve</i>—is still in
+commission.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Graf Cheremetieve Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒5.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Graf Cheremetieve.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kasatka.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nalim.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Skat.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in
+the Russian Navy, and are small vessels
+of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have
+a submerged displacement of 200 tons.
+Petrol and electric engines drive them at
+9 knots on the surface and 6 knots when
+submerged. Their armament consists
+of one bow torpedo tube and two
+exterior holders, with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Ostr Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ostr.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Byts-chok.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kefal.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Platus.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Plotva.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These five submarines are of the
+American Lake type. The <i>Ostr</i> was
+originally the American Lake Co.’s
+boat <i>Protector</i>. They have a submerged
+displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>in length and 11 feet in breadth. Have
+petrol engines of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> for surface
+propulsion and electric motors for use
+when submerged. Their speed is 11
+knots above and 7 knots below. The
+surface cruising radius is 450 knots at
+full speed. The armament consists of
+two bow and one stern tube with
+four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The
+<i>special</i> characteristics of the American
+Lake type will be seen on pages <a href='#Page_119'>119‒120</a>.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Som Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Som.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Shtshuka.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels, which are of the
+Holland-Bubnoff type, have a submerged
+displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol
+and electric motors are used for surface
+and submerged propulsion, and the speed
+is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above and below,
+respectively. Their armament consists
+of two bow tubes with four 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement
+is about fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sterliad Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905‒6.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Sterliad.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Bialuga.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Peskar.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These three vessels are also of the
+Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a
+submerged displacement of 150 tons.
+The petrol motors for surface propulsion
+are of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed is 9 ½ knots
+and 7 knots, above and below, respectively.
+Their armament consist of two
+bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is eleven
+to fifteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sig.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submarine of the Lake type;
+similar in almost every respect to
+vessels of the <i>Ostr</i> class.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Makrel Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Makrel.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Okun.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two vessels of the <i>Improved</i> Holland-Bubnoff
+type. They have a submerged
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>displacement of about 200 tons. The
+petrol motors are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and the
+electric engines of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their
+speed is 10 knots on the surface and
+8 knots when submerged. They are
+fitted with two bow tubes and two stern
+<i>holders</i>, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lossos Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Lossos.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Ludak.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two somewhat smaller submarines of
+the Holland type. Intended either for
+the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla.
+Similar to those of the <i>Sterliad</i> class.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Karp Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Karp.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Karas.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two submarines are of the
+Germania, or Krupp type, and have a
+submerged displacement of 250 tons.
+They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors
+of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed on the surface
+is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged.
+The surface range of action is
+about 1,000 miles, and the submerged
+endurance about three hours at full
+speed. Their armament consists of two
+bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes
+are carried. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Alligator Class.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908‒9.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Alligator.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kaiman.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Drakon.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Krokodil.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Four submarines of the improved
+Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 500 tons. Their speed
+is 15 knots on the surface and 10 knots
+when submerged. They are fitted with
+two bow and two stern tubes, and carry
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is seventeen officers and
+men. (See also page <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.)</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Minoga Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1908.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Minoga.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Potschovy.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type, which were built in sections
+to facilitate transport by rail. They
+have a submerged displacement of about
+150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and
+9 knots, above and below, respectively.
+Their complement is eleven officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Akula.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type. Her displacement is about
+570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on
+the surface and 10 knots when submerged.
+The armament consists of two
+bow and one stern tube, with six 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes. The complement
+is 20 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Kaschalot Class.</span></h3>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kaschalot.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Kit.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Krab.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Morsh.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Narval.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nerpa.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Tinlen.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These seven vessels are among the
+most modern submarines in the Russian
+flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff
+type, and have a submerged displacement
+of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil
+engines of over 1,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them
+at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots,
+and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them
+a submerged speed of just over 10 knots
+an hour. Their surface cruising range is
+about 3,000 miles. Their armament consists
+of two bow and one stern tube with
+six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. They
+are also fitted with a small, quick-firing,
+high-angle gun for defence against air-craft.
+Their complement is 21 officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Russian Submarines Building.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the war there
+were nineteen Russian submarines in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>course of construction. Very little information
+concerning these boats can be
+obtained, except that their submerged
+displacement ranges from 800 to 1,500
+tons, and their <i>anticipated</i> surface speed is
+20 knots. Some of the 800-ton vessels
+have already been completed, and the
+first twelve will be named: <i>Svitza</i>, <i>Leopard</i>,
+<i>Pantera</i>, <i>Ruis</i>, <i>Kaguar</i>, <i>Tiqr</i>,
+<i>Yaguar</i>, <i>Vepr</i>, <i>Wolk</i>, <i>Baro</i>, <i>Gepard</i>,
+and <i>Tur</i>. These vessels have a speed
+of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots
+when submerged. Their complement is
+25 officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>
+  <h2 id='ch5' class='c014'>CHAPTER V <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a
+submarine flotilla of seventeen vessels,
+all except two of which are of the British
+Holland or Vickers type. Japan commenced
+the construction of what is now
+a rapidly increasing and powerful flotilla
+in 1904 by the purchase of five elementary
+Holland boats. These, however, are still
+in the active flotilla and are designated
+Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement
+of 120 tons, and are 65 feet
+in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol
+motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 9 knots
+on the surface and electric motors of
+70 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 7 knots when submerged.
+Their armament consists of one bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>expulsion tube with three 18-inch
+Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 6 and 7.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1906.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels were the first submarine
+boats to be built in Japan, but are
+of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger
+and faster. They have a submerged
+displacement of 180 tons, a length of
+100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. The
+petrol engines are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and the
+electric motors of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface
+and submerged speed is 10 knots and
+8 knots an hour, respectively. Their
+armament consists of one torpedo tube with
+three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 8 and 9.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are very similar to
+the British “C” class, and were built by
+Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged
+displacement of 320 tons; petrol
+motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and a surface and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>submerged speed of 13 knots and 8 knots
+an hour, respectively. Their armament
+consists of two bow tubes with four to six
+18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their
+complement is sixteen officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 10‒15.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the same in
+almost every respect as the later “C”
+class of British submarines (pages <a href='#Page_70'>70‒71</a>).</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 16‒17<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c028'><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Schneider-Laubeuf</i>
+or French type. (British “W”
+class.) Their submerged displacement is
+about 500 tons, and the horse-power of
+their surface engines 2,500. The surface
+and submerged speed is 18 knots and
+9 knots respectively. Their armament
+consists of six torpedo tubes with eight
+<i>Schneider</i> torpedoes. The complement is
+about 30 officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>The natural adroitness with which
+Japanese sailors manipulate complicated
+machinery, combined with their absolute
+fearlessness, make them ideal for torpedo
+work.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>
+  <h2 id='ch6' class='c014'>CHAPTER VI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany
+possessed 30 submarine torpedo-boats<a id='tn117'></a>.
+These were divided into
+three flotillas, with their headquarters at
+Kiel, the largest and most modern
+vessels being attached to the Heligoland
+or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913,
+although 24 submarines were stated as
+being in commission, only about 15
+were actively employed, and these mostly
+in training reserves, the older boats
+being docked and modernized where
+possible. But during the year six new
+vessels were added to the flotilla and the
+<i>personnel</i> of the submarine service was
+largely increased. At the same time the
+inspection of submarines was separated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>from that of the other torpedo-boats and
+a flag-officer was appointed as head of
+the submarine branch of the Naval
+Service, with headquarters at Kiel.
+Thus when the hour came for the great
+struggle which was to decide the mastery
+of the seas the whole German Flotilla of
+30 vessels, <i>with a reserve of six new boats
+which had been secretly hurried forward
+and were rapidly nearing completion</i>, was
+ready to put to sea.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The German Naval Law provided for
+the construction of 72 submarines by the
+end of 1917. All the vessels built up
+to the present time have been known as
+the “U” class and numbered in rotation.
+They are painted a brownish-grey colour
+and have high collier-like bows with
+massive armoured conning-towers and
+long superstructures amounting to narrow
+decks. They have all been built at
+either Kiel or Dantzig.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although the first submarine boats
+built for the German Navy were two
+vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>in 1890, they were never actively employed
+with the fleet and have long since
+been reduced to scrap-iron, and the first
+vessel which can now be reckoned as a
+fighting unit of the German torpedo-boat
+flotilla was a vessel designated the
+“U.1.” This was built at the Germania
+Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on August
+30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of
+the “U” class, which in most of the
+essential features resembles the British
+Improved Holland type.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.1.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1905.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>This U.1 was built as an experimental
+boat by the famous firm of
+Krupps. She has a surface displacement
+of 197 tons, a submerged displacement
+of 236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface
+engines are of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The electric
+motors for submerged use develop just
+over 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed ranges from
+10 knots an hour on the surface to 7
+knots when submerged, and her surface
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>range of action is about 700 to 800 miles.
+The armament consists of one bow torpedo
+tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf
+torpedoes are carried. The complement
+is nine officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The trials of the U.1 extended over
+a period of a year and a half, and all
+proved remarkably satisfactory. During
+the tests which took place in Eckernforder
+Bay she succeeded, twice in
+succession, in torpedoing a moving target
+while travelling submerged at full speed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The uncertainty displayed for some
+years previous by the German Naval
+Authorities regarding the value of submarine
+boats gave place to a thorough
+sense of the important part these
+“mighty atoms” would play in future
+naval warfare, and to a strong determination
+that the German Navy should
+include a powerful submarine flotilla.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.2-U.8.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1907‒10.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These seven vessels were great
+improvements on the U.1. Their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>displacement is 210 tons on the surface
+and about 250 tons when submerged.
+They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg
+heavy-oil engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and
+electric motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their
+speed on the surface is 12 knots and
+8 knots when submerged. The surface
+range of action is 1,000 miles and the
+submerged endurance about three hours
+at full speed. Their armament consists
+of two bow torpedo tubes and four
+torpedoes are carried. The complement
+is eleven officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.9-U.18.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c028'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910‒12.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are of increased
+size and power, their submerged displacement
+being 300 tons, and the horse-power
+of their heavy oil surface engines
+is 600. The electric motors develop
+200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface and submerged
+speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots
+respectively. The surface range of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>action is 1,500 miles, and the armament
+consists of two bow and one stern torpedo
+tube with five torpedoes. The U.13
+and subsequent vessels of this class are
+provided with a quick-firing, high-angle
+gun for defence against aircraft, and
+have sleeping accommodation for the
+crew. They may be termed the first
+German sea-going submarines. Their
+complement is twenty officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.19 <a id='tn122-2'></a>and U.20.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are only two vessels in this
+class owing to the adoption of certain
+improvements with the aid of which a
+partly new type has been evolved.
+These two vessels have a displacement
+when submerged of 450 tons. Their
+oil engines of 650 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give a speed
+of 13 ½ knots an hour on the surface,
+and their electric motors of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give
+8 knots an hour when submerged. Their
+surface range of action is 2,000 miles,
+and their armament consists of two bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>and one stern torpedo tube with six
+torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing,
+high-angle guns on disappearing mountings.
+The complement is seventeen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.21-U.24.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These four vessels are the first of the
+new type of large sea-going submarines
+for the German Navy. Their submerged
+displacement is 800 tons. They are
+propelled on the surface by heavy-oil
+engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged
+by electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+Their speed above water is 14 knots
+an hour and below the surface 9
+knots. The surface range of action
+is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance
+120 miles at economical speed.
+Their armament consists of two bow
+and two stern torpedo tubes with eight
+torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,
+all on disappearing mountings, for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>defence against hostile destroyers and
+aircraft. Their complement is twenty-five
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.25-U.30.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the latest additions
+to the German submarine flotilla.
+They are vessels of 900 tons submerged
+displacement with heavy-oil engines of
+2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors of 900 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+Their surface and submerged speed is
+18 knots and 10 knots, respectively.
+The surface cruising range is 4,000 miles.
+Their armament consists of two bow and
+two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large
+size torpedoes, and, in addition, two
+14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr.
+high-angle guns. They have wireless
+telegraphic apparatus on board, and are
+specially constructed with long superstructures
+and high <i>collier-like</i> bows to
+enable them to keep at sea in almost any
+weather. They are fitted with two or
+three periscopes, and also possess a small
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span><i>look-out</i> cap on the top of the lofty
+conning-tower to facilitate an “awash”
+attack in the half-lights of dawn and
+dusk, when the periscope is almost useless.
+The conning-towers and decks are
+armoured. Their complement is 30 to 35
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.31-U.36.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Building.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are the six vessels which are
+rapidly nearing completion, and which
+were in a much more advanced state,
+at the opening of hostilities, than was
+generally known in foreign naval circles.
+They are the same in almost every
+respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30.
+There is, however, another submarine
+being built for Germany of a totally
+different design. This is the F.I.A.T.
+or <i>Laurenti</i> boat (Italian), laid down at
+the beginning of 1914. This vessel is
+very similar to the four “S” boats being
+built at Greenock for the British Navy.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>No German submarines have in the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>past been sent to any Colonial or oversea
+station. Therefore, the whole flotilla
+of 30 to 36 vessels was immediately available
+for operations in the North Sea and
+Baltic when war began. The <i>personnel</i>
+of the whole torpedo service is very
+efficient, great attention having been
+paid to this branch of the Navy. The
+three German Submarine flotillas have
+their headquarters at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven,
+and Heligoland.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>
+  <h2 id='ch7' class='c014'>CHAPTER VII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>At the commencement of the War the
+Austro-Hungarian Navy included six
+submarines in the active flotilla and
+five others were being <a id='tn127'></a><i>completed</i> at the
+Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful
+if they had been delivered. In which
+event they must be added to the strength
+of the German flotilla. In addition to
+these, several larger vessels, mostly of
+the latest “U” or Krupp design, had
+been ordered, but were not expected to
+take their place in the active flotillas
+before the end of 1915.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Austria commenced the formation of a
+submarine flotilla in 1908 by the acquisition
+of two vessels of the <i>Improved Holland
+type</i> from Messrs. Vickers Ltd., and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>two others of the American <i>Lake type</i>.
+In the following year two more submarines
+were ordered, this time from
+Krupp’s Germania Yard. All these
+vessels were delivered during 1910, and
+Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into
+being.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.1 and U.2.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the American
+Lake type. They have a submerged
+displacement of 250 tons and petrol
+surface motors of 720 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed
+is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots
+when submerged. The armament consists
+of two bow and one stern torpedo
+tube. This type of submarine has three
+special features which distinguish it from
+all others. It is fitted with a kind of
+underframe and wheels, and is designed
+to travel in four different positions: (1) on
+the surface; (2) semi-submerged, with
+only a look-out cowl above water; (3)
+submerged, with nothing but the periscope
+showing; (4) totally submerged and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>running along the sea-bed on wheels,
+like a submarine motor car. It is drawn
+down from the surface to the sea-bed
+by an ingenious system of wire-hawsers
+and drop-weights, which can be released
+in the event of accident. A “diving
+chamber” enables members of the crew
+to don diving-dresses and leave the submarine
+when on the sea-bed, for the
+purpose of laying or destroying submerged
+mines. The Lake type of submarine is
+also used in the Russian Navy.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c028'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.3 and U.4.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the Krupp
+design, and have a submerged displacement
+of 300 tons. The horse-power of
+their heavy-oil surface engines is 600.
+The electric motors develop 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>
+The surface and submerged speeds are
+13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The
+surface range of action is 1,500 miles,
+and the armament consists of two bow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and one stern tube with five 18-inch
+torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.5 and U.6.</span></h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1910.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the Improved
+Holland type. Their submerged displacement
+is about 316 tons; length
+135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The
+horse-power of the petrol engines is 600
+and that of the electric engines 189.
+The speed averages 12 knots on the
+surface and 8 knots when submerged.
+The surface cruising range is 1,300
+knots at 10 knots an hour. Their
+armament consists of two bow tubes with
+four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.
+Their complement is sixteen officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>U.7-U.11.</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c031'>
+    <div>(Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania
+type, and are similar to those
+completed for the German Navy in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>1912‒13. They are large sea-going
+submarines with a submerged displacement
+of 800 tons. They are propelled
+on the surface by heavy-oil engines of
+1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged, by
+electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed
+is 14 knots and 9 knots, above and
+below, respectively. The surface range
+of action is 3,000 miles, and the submerged
+endurance 120 miles at economical
+speed.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Their armament consists of two bow
+and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight
+torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing
+gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns,
+for defence against hostile destroyers and
+air-craft. Their complement is twenty-five
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>One or two Austrian submarines are
+supposed to have been sunk by the
+Allied Fleet during the first few weeks
+of the war, but exactly which vessels
+they were is not known.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Several other submarines have been
+ordered in foreign countries for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered
+while the war lasts.</p>
+
+<h3 id='flotillas' class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotillas of Neutral European Powers.</span></h3>
+
+<table class='table1' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='20%' />
+<col width='40%' />
+<col width='40%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+ <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Country.</span></th>
+ <th class='bbt blt brt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Built.</span></th>
+ <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Building.</span></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Italy</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c037'>20 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>8 (large size)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Denmark</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>9 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>several</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Holland</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>6 (100‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>4 (large)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Sweden</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>7 (150‒300 tons)</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3 (large)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Greece</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>2 (Laubeuf)</td>
+    <td class='c039'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Norway</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>4 (Germania)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Portugal</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c038'>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c037'>Turkey</td>
+ <td class='blt brt c037'>――</td>
+    <td class='c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+ <td class='bbt c037'>Spain</td>
+ <td class='bbt blt brt c037'>――</td>
+ <td class='bbt c038'>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;――</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>
+  <h2 id='ch8' class='c014'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>Submarines have two great advantages
+over all types of surface warships; they
+can become invisible at will—or sufficiently
+invisible to make gun or torpedo-practice,
+except at very close quarters,
+almost entirely useless—and they can,
+by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate
+of sufficient thickness to be absolutely
+shell-proof. These are the two
+main points in favour of the submarine.
+There are, however, many minor features.
+Although submarines are known in the
+naval services as “daylight torpedo-boats,”
+for their <i>greatest</i> value lies in
+their ability to perform the same task in
+the “light” as the ordinary surface torpedo-boats
+and destroyers can do under
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>cover of darkness or fog—that of creeping
+up close to an enemy, and launching a
+torpedo unobserved—they have been
+given, during recent years, so much
+greater speed, armament, and range of
+action, that they can no longer be looked
+upon as small boats just suitable for daylight
+torpedo attack in favourable circumstances.
+Their surface speed has been
+increased from 10 to 20 knots, making
+them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat.
+This, combined with <a id='tn134'></a>manœuvering
+powers and general above-water invisibility,
+has enabled them to take over the
+duty of the surface torpedo-boat—that
+of delivering night-attacks on the surface.
+After nightfall a submarine attack is
+almost impossible owing to the periscope—the
+eyes of the submarine—being
+useless in the dark.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The increase in the armament of the
+submarine—from the single bow torpedo
+tube with two torpedoes of short range
+and weak explosive charge, to the four
+bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>torpedoes of long range and high
+explosive charge—has greatly increased
+their chances of successful attack on
+surface warships, first, by giving them
+four or six shots ahead, then the possibility,
+in the event of all these
+torpedoes missing, of a dive under the
+object of attack, and two more shots
+at close range from the stern tubes
+(still retaining two torpedoes); and,
+secondly, by increasing the distance
+from which the first projectile can be
+launched, owing to the increased range
+of the modern torpedo. There are also
+the advantages derived from the battery
+of quick-firing guns installed on the
+decks of modern submarines. Although
+at the present time these guns are
+only of small power they nevertheless
+afford a means of defence—and even
+of attack under favourable circumstances—against
+hostile surface torpedo-boats,
+destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a
+flotilla of submarines could undoubtedly
+now give a very good account of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>itself if attacked either on the surface
+or when submerged by one or two
+prowling destroyers. The increase in
+the power of the guns carried by submarines,
+which will certainly come soon,
+will enable this type of craft to take
+up the additional duties of the destroyer—that
+of clearing the seas of hostile
+torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced
+scouting—for which work their ability
+to travel submerged and in a state of
+invisibility for distances of over 100
+miles makes them eminently suitable.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The enormous increase in the size
+and range of action of submarines,
+combined with the improvements effected
+in the surface cruising qualities, have
+enabled these vessels to be taken from
+the “nursery” of harbour and coast
+defence and placed with the sea-going
+flotillas and battle-fleets. In the short
+period of ten years the tonnage of
+submarines has risen from 100 to over
+1,000 tons, and the range of action
+from 400 miles at economical speed to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>5,000 miles. Exactly what this means
+is more easily realized when it is
+stated that the earlier types of submarines
+could scarcely cross the English
+Channel and return without taking in
+supplies of fuel, and in rough weather
+were forced to remain in harbour,
+whereas the modern vessel can go
+from England to Newfoundland <i>and
+back</i> without assistance, and can remain
+at sea in almost any weather, as was
+first demonstrated by the successful
+voyage of the British submarines A.E.1
+and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since
+been proved by the operations of the
+British submarine flotilla in the North
+Sea.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>In addition to the cruising range
+there is, however, the question of
+habitability. In this respect the progress
+has been equally as rapid. In
+the older boats no sleeping accommodation
+was provided for the crew, and
+food supplies and fresh water sufficient
+only for a few days were carried. In the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>latest British, French and German
+vessels proper sleeping and messing
+accommodation is provided, and supplies
+of all kinds and in sufficient quantity
+to last a month are carried. Although
+work on these craft is still very
+cramping for the crew, the increase in
+the deck space and in the surface
+buoyancy has greatly minimised the
+discomforts of service in the submarine
+flotilla.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>With regard to safety, it has already
+been shown that a submarine is only held
+below the surface by the power of her
+engines and the action of the water on
+her diving-rudders. This means that in
+the event of anything going wrong
+<i>inside</i> the vessel she would automatically
+rise to the surface; but should the hull
+be pierced in any way, either by shot
+or by collision, and an overwhelming
+inrush of water result—overcoming the
+buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing
+out the water-ballast tanks—then the
+vessel must inevitably sink, and the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>question of whether or not the crew
+can save themselves becomes a problem
+to which no definite answer can be given,
+although a special means is provided in
+all modern vessels belonging to the British
+Navy. Speaking generally, it may, however,
+be said that if the disaster occurs
+suddenly, and the vessel sinks into very
+deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving
+are extremely small; but if the
+water is comparatively shallow, as along
+the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood
+of many of the crew being able to save
+themselves with the aid of the <i>special
+escape helmets and air-locks</i> is fairly good.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>We now come to the most important
+improvement made in the fighting qualities
+of these vessels since first they came into
+being, viz. the wonderful increase in the
+surface and submerged speed. In the
+older craft the surface speed did not
+exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it
+now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the
+submerged speed has risen from 5 knots
+to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>for any but a naval man to realize exactly
+what this increase in the speed of submarines
+really means, and it is equally as
+difficult to adequately describe it here in
+non-technical language. It is a mere
+platitude to say that in order to attack a
+surface warship the submarine must first
+get within torpedo range of it; and yet it
+is on this very point that the strategy and
+tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A
+clever naval tactician once described the
+submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.”
+The two points on which he
+based this opinion were—the (then) slow
+speed of these vessels compared with that
+of the surface warship, and its almost
+total blindness when submerged. These
+two defects were for some years the
+principal drawbacks of all the submarines
+afloat; but since that naval expert pronounced
+submarines to be “handicapped
+torpedo-boats,” great changes, great improvements
+have been made. The speed
+of the submarine has increased by over
+100 per cent., and they have been given
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>longer and wider range of vision by the
+introduction of two and three improved
+periscopes instead of one elementary
+instrument. Nevertheless, the speed
+difficulty is still a very real one, as
+will readily be seen when it is taken
+into consideration that the speed of a
+submarine when attacking submerged is
+frequently only half, or even a third,
+of that of her enemy. In order to
+more clearly illustrate this and lift for
+a moment the veil of secrecy which
+enshrouds the methods of attack adopted
+by this type of craft, it will be necessary
+to describe what is known as the<i> right-angle
+attack</i>.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Attacking at Right Angles.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>The difficulty of attacking a surface
+warship steaming at right angles to the
+course of the submarine will be clearly
+understood by referring to the following
+diagrams. The first shows an attack on
+a warship travelling at 20 miles an
+hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Any increase in the speed of the surface
+vessel not only adds to the difficulty of
+the attacking submarine, but also the
+direction from which the attack must be
+made. This feature is shown in the
+second diagram, which illustrates a submarine
+attack on a vessel steaming
+at 30 miles an hour, such as a fast
+destroyer or fleet scout. On the other
+hand, a decrease in the speed of the
+on-coming surface vessel tends to either
+make easier the task of the attacking
+submarine, or else to increase the
+distance from which the attack can be
+delivered. This is shown in the third
+diagram, which assumes the speed of the
+surface vessel to be only 15 miles an
+hour, such as a merchantman, troopship,
+food-ship, collier, or old warship.</p>
+
+<div id='tn142'  class='figcenter id002'>
+<img src='images/132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'><a id='tn142-2'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a submarine attacking
+a hostile warship (or fleet) steaming at
+20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the
+line of vision. The submarine sights the
+warship at a distance of just over 11 miles
+on her port bow. “B” shows the hostile
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to point
+marked “C,” and each division beyond
+equals 1 mile.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Directly the submarine, which is
+assumed to be lying in an <i>awash
+condition</i>, sights the object of attack,
+she totally submerges and steers forward
+at a speed of 10 miles an hour.
+The loss, and gain, of the submarine on
+the different courses, can be seen in the
+table above the chart.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c028'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The spaces between the black dots
+show the most favourable points of
+attack. It will be noticed in the table
+that both vessels are equal at point “C,”
+but for many reasons this is not the best
+point of attack. The gain of about six
+minutes on the longer course enables the
+submarine not only to manœuvre into the
+best possible position for the attack, but
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>also to discharge more than one torpedo
+if necessary.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><a id='tn144'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the extreme limit at
+which a submarine could, with reasonable
+chances of success, attack a destroyer, or
+other vessel, steaming at 30 (statute)
+miles an hour, having sighted her at a
+distance of 16 miles in the position
+shown by the line of vision “A.”</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The distance to “C” is 15 miles
+for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for
+the submarine. Here, again, the two
+vessels would be equal; but the most
+favourable point of attack is shown by
+the two black dots—where the submarine
+has gained two minutes.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Fig. 3.</span>—The submarine sights the
+object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼
+miles, in the position shown by the line
+of vision “A.” The surface vessel has
+a speed of only 15 miles an hour
+(merchantman). In this case the surface
+vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey
+along course “B”—arriving at point
+“C” 20 minutes in advance of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>submarine. The table shows how the
+submarine, by changing her course and
+“throwing” the surface vessel on her
+beam, gradually reduces the loss, until,
+at the point marked with the two black
+dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At
+this distance she could fire her torpedoes at
+long range, with some likelihood of success.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although these charts show approximately
+the extreme limits of the right-angle
+attack, a submarine could, of
+course, proceed for some distance on
+the surface at a much faster speed;
+but considering the rate at which the
+two vessels would be approaching each
+other, the submarine which attempted
+it would run considerable risk of being
+detected, and thus destroy her chances
+of a successful attack. Considering also
+the time lost in sinking from the “light”
+to the totally submerged condition, in
+coming to close quarters, the gain in
+speed would not amount to as much as
+may at first seem probable.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c028'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>These charts are drawn and calculations
+made assuming the following
+points:—</p>
+
+<div class='in1'>
+
+  <dl class='dl_1'>
+    <dt>(1)</dt>
+    <dd>The weather—fine and bright.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(2)</dt>
+    <dd>Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(3)</dt>
+    <dd>The enemy on the alert.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(4)</dt>
+    <dd>Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition.
+    </dd>
+    <dt>(5)</dt>
+    <dd>Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” in all courses in a
+    submerged condition.
+    </dd>
+    </dl>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The most favourable position for a
+submarine flotilla is to manœuvre close
+up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within
+1,000 yards of a fleet—steaming across
+its course; but both of these ideal
+positions for attack are extremely
+difficult to obtain, and consequently in
+all the less favourable positions speed
+is the deciding factor. Strategems will
+undoubtedly play an important part in
+submarine warfare. An example of this
+has already been afforded when the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>German submarines resorted to the
+dishonest trick of laying in wait behind
+a trawler engaged in laying mines, over
+which <i>the flag of a neutral state</i> had
+been hoisted as a blind. This resulted
+in the loss of three British cruisers with
+over 1,000 lives. It would, however,
+be quite in accord with the rules of
+<i>civilised</i> warfare for a submarine to
+shelter behind a “decoy”; to attack
+simultaneously with a seaplane; or to
+approach an enemy behind one of its
+own merchant ships.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Porpoise Dive.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise
+Dive” is merely the sudden rising of a
+submarine in order to enable her commander
+to get a better view of the surface
+than that afforded by the periscope. The
+submarine on approaching the object of
+attack rises quickly to the surface by the
+action of her horizontal rudders, then
+dives again, only remaining above water
+for a few seconds to enable her commander
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>to get a glimpse of the enemy,
+and to take bearings. The submarine
+can then get within torpedo-range, with
+simply the tiny periscope projecting from
+the surface. This manœuvre is now
+seldom necessary, owing to the long and
+wide range of vision of the two or three
+periscopes fitted in modern submarines.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Difficulty of the Fixed Torpedo Tube.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>With the exception of one or two
+vessels, which it would be unwise to
+specify, all the submarines engaged in
+the present war have what are called
+<i>fixed submerged tubes</i>. This means that
+the tubes from which the torpedoes are
+discharged are fitted <i>inside</i> the submarine
+<i>on a line with the centre of the boat</i>, and
+cannot be moved or aimed in any way
+apart from the boat itself. It therefore
+becomes necessary for the submarine to
+be <i>aligned</i> by the steering rudders on the
+object of attack before the torpedoes can
+be discharged. In simpler vein, torpedoes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>can only be fired by a submarine straight
+ahead or straight astern. Hence a
+submarine, with a hostile warship coming
+up on its beam, is compelled to turn and
+face its opponent (or turn its stern towards
+her) before delivering an attack.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotilla</span> <i>v.</i> <span class='sc'>Surface Fleet.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>It is absolutely necessary for submarines
+acting in company to have each
+its allotted task; and for a wide space of
+water to be left between each boat; as it
+is impossible, at present, for one submarine
+to know the exact position of
+another when both vessels are submerged.
+Therefore, if each boat was not previously
+instructed how to act, there would not
+only be the likelihood of the greater
+portion of an attacking flotilla firing their
+torpedoes at one or two vessels of the
+hostile fleet and allowing the remainder
+either to escape or to keep up a heavy
+and dangerous fire unmolested, but also
+of collision and of torpedoeing each other
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>by accident. There is no means of
+inter-communication between submarines
+when submerged, and a battle between
+submarines is almost impossible.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Surprise Attack.</span></h3>
+
+<p class='c027'>In this case invisibility is the element
+of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge,
+G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once
+said: “When submerged the concealment
+of the submarine is practically perfect.
+If she has not been sighted up to the
+moment of diving, she will almost
+certainly reach, unobserved, the point at
+which she can make her attack.” And
+this opinion—shared for many years by
+all experts—has been amply proved in the
+present war.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>A submarine must, however, blend with
+the surrounding sea in its ever-varying
+colours, lights and shades, in order that
+she may be as invisible as possible when
+cruising on the surface. The French
+Naval Authorities experimented off
+Toulon with a luminous paint of a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>sea-green colour; but this, although
+causing the hull to be almost totally
+invisible in certain weather, was found
+to be useless, as, on a bright day with
+a blue sky, the green showed up clear
+against the bluish tint of the surrounding
+sea. After many months of experimenting,
+a pale, sea-green, non-luminous
+paint was chosen as the best colour
+for French submarines. The British
+Admiralty also carried out a few experiments
+in this direction, and came to the
+conclusion that a dull grey was the most
+invisible shade. The German authorities
+decided in favour of a grey-brown.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When travelling submerged, with only
+the thin periscopic tube above the surface,
+it is almost impossible to detect the
+approach of a submarine <i>before</i> she gets
+within torpedo range; and when cruising
+on the surface she is equally as invisible
+at a distance of a few miles. These
+qualities enable the submarine in nearly
+all cases where her speed permits, to
+effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>or cruiser <i>when not closely screened by
+fast destroyers</i>, whose duty it is to be ever
+on the watch for submarines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>As to the tactics which would be
+employed by a submarine (or flotilla) in
+attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it
+is impossible to say, for, like the
+impromptu attacks of all “mosquito
+craft,” the exact method, or manœuvre<a id='tn152'></a>,
+is arranged to suit the circumstances,
+and it is very seldom that two such
+attacks are carried out alike. Generally
+speaking, however, a hostile warship
+could be easily sighted, on a fairly
+clear day, from the flying-bridge of a
+submarine at a distance of 10 miles; but
+it would be practically impossible to
+detect the submarine from the deck of
+a warship at that distance. On sighting
+her object of attack the submarine would
+sink to the “awash” condition, and
+proceed for from 2 ½ to 5 miles, as
+might be deemed expedient. She would
+then submerge and steer by her periscopes,
+each of which has a field of vision
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>of 60 degrees. He would be a very
+keen look-out who would be able to
+detect the few square inches of periscopic
+tube at a distance of three miles.
+As this distance lessened, it might be
+advisable, if the sea was <i>very</i> calm and
+if the object of attack was stationary,
+for the submarine to slacken speed, so as
+to prevent any spray being thrown off
+by the periscopic tube. Assuming, however,
+that the optical tube was seen by
+the enemy, it would be extremely difficult
+to hit it with gun-fire at a distance of one
+or two miles, or to damage the boat itself,
+which would probably be immersed to a
+depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of
+about 2,000 yards, or just over one mile,
+the submarine would discharge her first
+torpedo, following it up with another
+at closer range from the second bow
+tube. A rapid dive would then probably
+be necessary in order to avoid the hail
+of shot which would plough up the waters
+around her. If the first two torpedoes
+missed their mark the submarine might
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>either dive completely under the object
+of attack and then fire her stern tubes
+at close range, or else manœuvre below
+the surface for an attack from some
+other point.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>One of the effects produced on fleets
+or individual warships in war time by
+the ever present possibility of submarine
+attack is, however, that they never
+remain at anchor or even stationary in
+an exposed position, and seldom—if wise—proceed
+without destroyers as advance
+and flank guards. These precautions
+double the difficulties of a successful
+submarine attack.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>
+  <h2 id='ch9' class='c014'>CHAPTER IX <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>In all warfare, new weapons of attack
+are, sooner or later, met by new methods
+of defence. The submarine and the
+aeroplane are at present the only
+weapons against which there is no true
+means of defence, and yet one is being
+used as an antidote for the other without,
+however, any very striking success so far.
+The seaplane may be able to distinguish
+the dark patch in the sea caused by the
+hull of the submarine <i>in clear water</i>,
+but she cannot destroy it, neither can
+she signal the <i>exact</i> locality to an
+accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing
+to the speed with which seaplane and
+submarine pass over and under each
+other; furthermore, in rough weather or
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>in shallow muddy water no sign of the
+submarine when submerged is visible
+from above. The great value of the
+seaplane as an antidote for submarines
+lies, however, first in the fact that the
+water of the open sea is usually clear,
+and the <i>submarine shadow</i> is visible
+from above, and, secondly, in the great
+speed of these aircraft which enables
+them to quickly cover miles of sea in
+their search for hostile submarines and
+to report their presence in a given
+locality by wireless to all ships operating
+within range.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>When the enormous superficial area of
+a zone of war, such as the North Sea
+and English Channel, is duly considered,
+however, the difficulty in quickly and
+reliably locating from the air the
+few scattered “submarine shadows” will
+be easily realized. To make this
+method of locating submarines even
+fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes
+would be required. Again seaplanes
+do not, in themselves, constitute
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>a means of defence against submarine
+attack, they merely increase the likelihood
+of detection, but, in actual warfare,
+it has now been proved that for every
+submarine detected by seaplanes two
+others pass quite unobserved.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Many means of attack on submarines
+have been proposed; and no doubt some
+of these, in certain cases, would prove
+effective; but none can be relied upon.
+Therefore, one of the points in favour
+of the submarine still remains without
+its antidote. This is the <i>moral effect</i>;
+for if there is no absolutely reliable
+means of defence, there can be no
+feeling of security for surface warships
+or merchant vessels when anywhere
+within the danger zone of the submarine.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Let us now examine briefly what
+practical methods of defence a modern
+warship has against submarine attacks.
+Great speed is undoubtedly a surface
+ship’s most reliable defence; and when
+combined with a frequent change of
+course, would greatly reduce the chances
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>of a successful under-water attack.
+Should hostile submarines be on the
+line of advance they would not know
+whether to wait and chance the enemy
+approaching within torpedo range or
+whether to run to starboard or port.
+This is, if the surface warship was
+steaming in an erratic course—not a
+zigzag course, for then it might be
+possible to estimate, within torpedo
+range, the position of the ship at a
+given point if the “tacks” were regular.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Should submarines be seen approaching,
+a surface vessel would do well to turn
+her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting
+as small a target as possible,
+and deflecting the torpedoes by her
+propeller race.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The escape of the Battle Cruiser
+<i>Queen Mary</i> and the Light Cruiser
+<i>Lowestoft</i>, during the action in the
+Heligoland Bight, as described in the
+dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David
+Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what may
+be done by the skilful use of the helm
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>on surface warships to frustrate submarine
+attacks. So interesting, and informative
+as to the actual fighting
+between British warships and hostile
+submarines, in this dispatch that I give
+it here in full. It should, however, be
+studied in conjunction with the comprehensive
+report—the first in the
+history of Naval warfare detailing submarine
+attack and reconnaissance—from
+Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B.,
+of the British submarines, given on
+page 28.</p>
+
+<div class='c040'>“H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c040'><i>1st September, 1914</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c024'>“<span class='sc'>Sir</span>,—I have the honour to report
+that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 a.m.,
+I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser
+Squadron and First Light Cruiser
+Squadron in company, to rendezvous
+with the Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements
+of the Flotillas commenced as
+previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser
+Squadron and Light Cruiser Squadron
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>supporting. The Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>,
+with <i>New Zealand</i> and four
+Destroyers having joined my flag, the
+Squadron passed through the pre-arranged
+rendezvous.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal
+from the Commodore (T), informing me
+that the Flotilla was in action with the
+enemy. This was presumably in the
+vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous.
+From this time until 11 a.m. I remained
+about the vicinity ready to support as
+necessary, intercepting various signals,
+which contained no information on which
+I could act.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked
+by three Submarines. The attack
+was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and
+the four Destroyers were ordered to
+attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m.,
+various signals having been received
+indicating that the Commodore (T) and
+Commodore (S) were both in need of
+assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser
+Squadron to support the Torpedo Flotillas.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>“Later I received a signal from the
+Commodore (T), stating that he was
+being attacked by a large Cruiser, and
+a further signal informing me that he
+was being hard pressed and asking for
+assistance. The Captain (D), First
+Flotilla, also signalled that he was in
+need of help.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“From the foregoing the situation
+appeared to me critical. The Flotillas
+had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m.,
+and were only about twenty-five miles
+from two enemy bases on their flank and
+rear respectively. Commodore Goodenough
+had detached two of his Light
+Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier
+in the day, and these had not yet rejoined.
+(They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As
+the reports indicated the presence of many
+enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I
+considered that his force might not be
+strong enough to deal with the situation
+sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the
+Battle Cruisers turned to E.S.E., and
+worked up to full speed. It was evident
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>that to be of any value the support must
+be overwhelming and carried out at the
+highest speed possible.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I had not lost sight of the risk of
+Submarines, and possible sortie in force
+from the enemy’s base, especially in view
+of the mist to the South-East.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Our high speed, however, made
+submarine attack difficult, and the
+smoothness of the sea made their detection
+comparatively easy. I considered
+that we were powerful enough to deal
+with any sortie except by a Battle
+Squadron, which was unlikely to come
+out in time, provided our stroke was
+sufficiently rapid.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 12.15 p.m. <i>Fearless</i> and First
+Flotilla were sighted retiring West. At
+the same time the Light Cruiser
+Squadron was observed to be engaging
+an enemy ship ahead. They appeared
+to have her beat.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“I then steered N.E. to sounds of
+firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. sighted
+<i>Arethusa</i> and Third Flotilla retiring to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>the Westward engaging a Cruiser of the
+<i>Kolberg</i> class on our Port Bow. I
+steered to cut her off from Heligoland,
+and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At 12.42
+the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased
+at 27 knots.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged
+a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. <i>Lion</i>
+fired two salvoes at her, which took
+effect, and she disappeared into the mist,
+burning furiously and in a sinking condition.
+In view of the mist and that she
+was steering at high speed at right angles
+to <i>Lion</i>, who was herself steaming at
+28 knots, the <i>Lion’s</i> firing was very
+creditable.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“Our Destroyers had reported the
+presence of floating mines to the Eastward
+and I considered it inadvisable to
+pursue her. It was also essential that
+the Squadrons should remain concentrated,
+and I accordingly ordered a
+withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned
+North and circled to port to complete the
+destruction of the vessel first engaged.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m.
+steaming S.E. with colours still flying.
+<i>Lion</i> opened fire with two turrets, and at
+1.35 p.m., after receiving two salvoes, she
+sank.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“The four attached Destroyers were
+sent to pick up survivors, but I deeply
+regret that they subsequently reported
+that they searched the area but found
+none.</p>
+
+<p class='c024'>“At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers
+turned to the Northward, and <i>Queen
+Mary</i> was again attacked by a Submarine.
+The attack was avoided by the use of
+the helm. <i>Lowestoft</i> was also unsuccessfully
+attacked. The Battle Cruisers
+covered the retirement until nightfall.
+By 6 p.m., the retirement having been
+well executed and all Destroyers accounted
+for, I altered course, spread the
+Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in
+accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s
+orders. At 7.45 p.m. I detached
+<i>Liverpool</i> to Rosyth with German
+prisoners, seven officers and 79 men,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>survivors from <i>Mainz</i>. No further incident
+occurred.—I have the honour to
+be, Sir, your obedient Servant.</p>
+
+<div class='c023'>“(Signed) DAVID BEATTY,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<div class='c023'>“Vice-Admiral.</div>
+<div class='c023'>“The Secretary of the Admiralty.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and
+6-inch type are certainly the best weapons
+for an attack on submarines. In combination
+with “sharp look-outs,” they
+could be used with effect from the
+elevated positions on the fore part of
+warships. The periscopic-tube of the
+submarine always proves a target for
+gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches
+in diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards
+requires “excellent” marksmanship to
+hit. That it can be done is proved by
+the sinking of the German submarine
+U.15 by the British Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i>
+in the North Sea. The effect of a shot
+carrying away the periscope is to blind
+the submarine, at least in one eye, she
+can then be <i>run-down</i> by the surface
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>warship or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at
+close range.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Of course, if submarines were caught
+napping on the surface the guns of surface
+warships could quickly sink them; but
+another incident, similar to that which
+opened the naval engagements of the
+Russo-Japanese War, cannot be looked
+for in the naval engagements to come.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>For a fleet engaged in bombarding or
+blockading, one of the best methods of
+defence would be to lower the torpedo
+nets, not close round each vessel, but
+suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance
+from the bombarding or blockading
+fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a
+good defence during daylight, but
+neither of these methods are reliable.
+A submarine might be able to dive
+unobserved under, or past, the destroyers
+acting as pickets, and it is this
+chance which causes these under-water
+craft to be a source of constant anxiety.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The torpedo-boat destroyer should
+prove a nasty enemy to the submarine.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot
+vessels to look after their under-water
+opponents.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>It has been suggested that internal
+armour could be fitted to warships
+below the water-line, which would
+render the hulls able to withstand mine
+or torpedo explosions. At present this
+is practically impossible, as the great
+weight of this additional armour, combined
+with the ever-increasing size of
+guns and weight of above-water protection,
+would necessitate a vessel of
+such enormous displacement as to be
+quite impossible, if the important factor—high
+speed—has also to be maintained.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The defence of harbours against submarines
+is a problem which does not
+present nearly so many difficulties as
+the defence of moving ships. Portsmouth,
+for example, is closed by means
+of a submarine boom-defence, which is
+stretched across the mouth of the
+harbour. The entrance to the River
+Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>Canal) is effectively closed to British
+submarines by boom-defences, mines, and
+submerged wire entanglements. Narrow
+waterways, such as the Straits of Dover,
+can be closed by the laying of contact-mines,
+and even broader seas can be
+made dangerous to submarines by the
+same method. An example of this is
+afforded by the laying of a British
+mine-field somewhere between the
+Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to
+prevent German submarines from penetrating
+into the English Channel.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are so many reliable means
+of defending harbours and narrow
+waterways against submarines that it is
+unnecessary to say anything further
+here. But to protect moving ships at
+sea, under all conditions, certainly presents
+a most profound puzzle.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>
+  <h2 id='ch10' class='c014'>CHAPTER X <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo has become one
+of the principal naval arms. Not only
+does it supply the chief offensive power
+of the submarine, the torpedo-boat and
+the destroyer, but it is also carried as a
+separate arm, with a special highly-trained
+crew, by almost every warship afloat.
+At the beginning of hostilities the Naval
+Powers engaged owned considerably over
+80,000 of these weapons, and <i>one</i> factory
+in England alone can make them at the
+rate of two a day. During the first few
+weeks of the <i>Great War</i> the torpedo
+was responsible for the sinking of warships
+to the value of over one million sterling.
+Had the German Fleet been on the high
+seas instead of in harbour and protected
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>from torpedo raids by carefully-prepared
+submarine defences, there is little
+doubt but what several more of the
+enemy’s ships would have been sunk
+by this weapon. The fact that at first
+the British light cruisers suffered rather
+heavily—though in total loss of ships and
+men less than the German Navy—does
+not point to any advantage derived either
+from the type of torpedo used or from
+skill in this mode of warfare possessed by
+the Germans, but clearly to the timidity
+of the German main fleet, which was at
+the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn
+from the zone of war and placed behind
+fortifications, where it was safe from
+torpedo attack. The British Fleet, true
+to the policy of “attack and not defence,”
+began operations the moment war was
+declared, with results so brilliantly successful,
+and of such far-reaching and
+world-wide importance, that enumeration is
+well-nigh impossible. But while all these
+operations were in progress the British
+Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>attack by any hostile submarines or fast
+surface craft which might succeed in
+getting past the cordon of protecting
+destroyers, while the German Fleet was
+safe, but ignominiously impotent. That
+the naval losses of Great Britain, with
+all her fleets at sea, have not been far
+greater than they have is in itself a victory
+of the greatest magnitude—a victory due
+entirely to consummate naval skill.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The modern torpedo varies in length
+from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to
+half a ton. It has an extreme range
+of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ miles.
+There are three types of torpedoes in
+use by the fleets at war. The British
+use the <i>Whitehead Torpedo</i>, the French
+the Whitehead and the <i>Schneider</i>, the
+Russians and the Japanese use the
+Whitehead; the Germans have a type
+of their own, known as the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>,
+and the Austrian arm is principally the
+Whitehead. All these types are alike in
+their essential features, and therefore need
+not be described separately.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead
+torpedo is propelled by compressed air
+stored in that section of the weapon
+known as the <i>air-chamber</i> (see diagram).
+The air on being released is heated and
+expanded in a tiny three or four-cylinder
+engine which operates twin screws,
+moving “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.”
+The “war-head” contains about
+200 pounds of wet gun-cotton which is
+exploded on the torpedo striking an
+object. The essential features of the
+Whitehead torpedo are shown in the
+diagram.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c028'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c022'>This torpedo maintains a speed of
+42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for
+2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards,
+and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. Thus, if
+discharged at a distance of half a mile
+it reaches its object in about 45 seconds.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c041'>
+ <img src='images/164.jpg' alt='Whitehead Torpedo' />
+ <div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead
+torpedo. <i>A.</i> Pistol, detonator, primer, which causes the
+explosion of “B” when the torpedo strikes an object. <i>B.</i>
+Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. (The “war-head”
+is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.)
+<i>C.</i> Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of
+approximately 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The
+chamber is tested to stand a pressure of 1700 lbs. per square
+inch. <i>D.</i> Balance chamber, containing mechanism for
+regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo
+is adjusted to run. <i>E.</i> Engine-room, containing propelling
+machinery (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). <i>F.</i> Buoyancy
+chamber—a practically empty chamber—to give the
+necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. <i>G.</i> Gyroscope. An
+instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo
+from the line of fire. <i>H.</i> Rudders, and mechanism for
+operating. <i>I.</i> Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and
+“anti-clockwise.<a id='tn175'></a>”</span></p>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into
+the sea from surface or submerged
+tubes, and on striking the water are
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>propelled by their own engines in an
+absolutely straight course towards the
+target. The exact mechanism of the
+submerged tube—which is used in
+surface warships as well as in submarines—is
+a naval secret. When fired from
+a surface tube the torpedo sinks immediately
+to a depth of about 10 to 14
+feet, and maintains this depth until it
+strikes its object. When fired from a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>submerged tube it rises—if necessary—to
+the same level. A torpedo always
+proceeds towards its object of attack at
+a depth of a few feet below the surface.
+This, combined with speed, renders
+it almost impossible to destroy an
+approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So
+marvellous is the mechanism of these
+little weapons that in anything like
+favourable circumstances they may be
+<i>depended upon</i>, if well aimed, to strike
+within a yard or two of the spot aimed
+at. This accuracy is due almost
+entirely to the gyroscope, which,
+briefly described, is a rotating wheel
+automatically controlling the torpedo’s
+course.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Although for many years torpedoes
+have been carried by nearly all types
+of service warships, none of them were
+really ideal for this kind of warfare. A
+new field for the torpedo was, however,
+opened out by the introduction of the
+submarine boat. In order to be effective
+the torpedo must be discharged from a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>distance under 4,000 yards—preferably
+from a point less than half this distance
+from the object of attack. This means
+that the vessel carrying the torpedo
+would have to get within a mile, or at
+least a mile and a-half, of her object
+of attack before discharging a torpedo.
+For a surface vessel to accomplish this in
+the face of a heavy cannonade from quick-firing
+guns would be extremely risky.
+To make a quick rush to close quarters,
+if possible, by several vessels from
+different points, was the only chance of
+delivering a successful torpedo attack
+on a hostile warship; unless, of course,
+she was favoured by fog or darkness
+<i>at the right moment</i>—favourable conditions
+which would seldom obtain in
+actual warfare. Again, every increase in
+the speed of the big surface warship
+rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat
+and destroyer more difficult because
+in the event of a threatened attack the
+larger vessel would make use of her
+speed to keep out of torpedo range while
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>her powerful guns were repelling the
+attacking torpedo-boat.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The <i>hour</i> of the torpedo came with
+the <i>perfection</i> of the submarine. All the
+conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were
+fulfilled—<i>invisibility</i> rendering daylight
+attacks possible; <i>almost perfect immunity
+from gun-fire</i> enabling the torpedo to be
+discharged at closer range; <i>submerged
+discharge</i> removing the likelihood of
+the weapon being exploded by accurate
+gun-fire before being discharged; <i>speed on
+the surface</i> enabling the “carrying”
+vessel to manœuvre for position; <i>moderate
+speed when submerged</i> enabling an
+attack under all reasonably tactical
+conditions; and <i>comparatively large displacement</i>
+giving good cruising qualities,
+wide range of action, and enabling a
+large number of torpedoes and tubes
+being carried.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>
+  <h2 id='ch11' class='c014'>CHAPTER XI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINE MINES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>If the Russo-Japanese war was the
+first to fully demonstrate the value of
+the explosive mine, the Great European
+Conflict has certainly brought this weapon
+to the forefront in the rapidly growing
+science of submarine warfare. During
+the first few weeks of the naval fighting
+several warships, beginning with H.M.S.
+<i>Amphion</i>, and many merchant vessels
+representing millions of pounds sterling,
+were destroyed by these weapons. Had
+it not been for the foresight of the
+British Admiralty in providing a very
+large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by
+seaplanes, there can be no doubt but
+what the shipping of all countries—neutrals
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>and belligerents alike—would
+have suffered far greater losses.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id003'>
+<img src='images/168.jpg' alt='Launching Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p>LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id003'>
+<img src='images/169.jpg' alt='Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic002'>
+<p>A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.<br /><br /><span class='c006'>These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>The indiscriminate scattering of mines
+across the trade routes, as carried on
+by Germany immediately on the outbreak
+of war, and before hardly any of the
+ships at sea belonging to neutral
+countries could be warned to avoid the
+zone of operations, has never before been
+so ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised
+power.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The system of defence consists of the
+mooring of these mines in such positions
+as to make it almost impossible for hostile
+ships to pass without either striking or
+coming within the destructive zone of one
+or more of them. What are known as
+<i>floating mines</i> are those set adrift to be
+washed about by the tide. They explode
+immediately on being struck by a passing
+vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate
+between friend and foe. The systems of
+destroying hostile mine-fields consist of
+<i>counter-mining</i>, or placing other mines in
+the enemy’s field and destroying it by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>their explosion, and by <i>sweeping</i>. The
+latter method is the one mostly employed
+in modern warfare. The boats taking
+part in the <i>sweep</i> place themselves one
+on each side of the mine-field, and
+between them hangs a long wire rope,
+weighted in the centre to keep it well
+submerged. They then move forward,
+sweeping the mines to the surface or
+exploding them harmlessly. It is, however,
+very dangerous but highly necessary
+work.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are two kinds of submarine
+mines, one is designed to explode on
+being struck by a passing vessel, and is
+called a <i>contact mine</i>, and the other is
+fired from the shore by an electric
+current, and is known as an <i>observation
+mine</i>. The explosive principally used is
+wet gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only
+to the safety with which they can be
+stored and manipulated, but also to the
+fact that they seldom explode in sympathy
+with neighbouring mines, requiring to be
+actually fired. The importance of this will
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>be more fully realised when it is remembered
+that in warfare it is often necessary
+to explode certain mines over which hostile
+ships are endeavouring to pass, while
+leaving others in fairly close proximity
+intact, ready to repel a second invasion
+or to destroy ships nearer to them. The
+actual explosion is caused by an electric
+current, either from the shore or from a
+battery in the mine itself, causing the
+detonation of fulminate of mercury in
+conjunction with a small priming charge
+of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid
+in a series, connected to a battery on the
+sea-bed in the centre of the line of
+defence.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The <i>observation mine</i> is mostly used for
+defending the approaches to harbours, as
+an observer on shore can watch the movements
+of hostile warships and explode
+each mine when the vessel passes over
+it. <i>Contact mines</i>, on the other hand, are
+used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely
+to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed
+by means of a cable and heavy
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>weight, and are allowed to float a few
+feet below the surface. They explode
+immediately on contact. At times an
+unscrupulous or demoralised enemy will
+simply throw a number of these mines
+overboard and allow them to float at the
+mercy of wind and tide. They then
+become a terrible danger to the shipping
+of all nations, as once they are left
+unwatched it is extremely difficult to tell
+with any degree of certainty where they
+will eventually proclaim their presence
+by devastating explosions. Happily for
+the whole seafaring world, this method is
+seldom resorted to, as mines set adrift in
+this way become a danger to both friend
+and foe. In the Russo-Japanese war
+several ships were destroyed by their
+own mines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>There are many different kinds of submarine
+mines, both of the observation
+and the contact type. Some are spherical
+in shape and others cylindrical. Some
+are moored close down to the sea-bed
+with a very heavy explosive charge
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>(200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have
+a small buoyant globe floating above
+them, which, when struck, fires the mine
+below. Others, known as secret-mines,
+are kept continually moored in the waterways
+leading to important naval harbours,
+and are only allowed to rise sufficiently
+high from the sea-bed to be struck by
+passing vessels in times of emergency.
+The type most generally used is, however,
+the ordinary <i>offensive contact mine</i>,
+which contains a powerful explosive
+charge and is anchored in the path of
+hostile warships. These mines are
+usually automatically sown in large
+numbers over a wide area of sea by the
+mine-laying fleets.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>
+  <h2 id='ch12' class='c014'>CHAPTER XII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>The <i>regular</i> mine-laying fleets of the
+powers at war are composed of the
+following vessels, all of which are fitted
+with special apparatus for the work.
+Submarine mines can, however, be laid
+by any vessel, and it is therefore almost
+impossible to say exactly what ships are
+engaged in this work. Both Germany
+and Austria have converted a large
+number of their merchantmen into mine-layers.
+England, in reply, has converted
+a large number of small steamers into
+<i>mine-sweepers</i>. Russia is a strong
+believer in explosive mines, and has
+strewn the gulfs of Finland and Riga
+with them. Japan, being on the
+offensive, is employing more mine-sweepers
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>than layers. France has an
+elaborate system of submarine mine
+defence for all her important harbours,
+and maintains a small fleet at each base,
+known as the “defence mobile.” These
+vessels are all capable of both mine-laying
+and sweeping.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The submarine mine is primarily the
+defence of the weaker naval power,
+and therefore a fleet acting on the
+defensive, either temporarily or permanently,
+requires more mine-layers than
+mine-sweepers, but the reverse is
+naturally the case with a fleet acting
+on the offensive. Although this may
+be taken as a general rule, it does not
+imply that a strong naval power like
+Great Britain, whose policy is attack
+and not defence, needs no mines or
+mine-layers. On the contrary, the
+laying of <i>counter</i> mines is one of the
+ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field;
+and even the strongest fleet
+cannot guard every portion of a long
+coast line with many harbours exposed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>to attack. The judicious laying of
+mine-fields will often prevent raids by
+hostile submarines and torpedo-boats;
+and will limit the theatre of operations,
+as was done by the British Navy in the
+southern portion of the North Sea in
+October, 1914. The axiom that a really
+strong navy needs to be strong in <i>every</i>
+branch, therefore holds good in this, as
+in all other respects.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mine-Laying Fleets.</span></h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Great Britain.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='c001'></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Apollo.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Thetis.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Andromache.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Latona.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Naiad.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Intrepid.</i></li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Iphigenia.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>These are all second class cruisers of
+from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built about
+1891‒2, which have been converted
+into mine-layers. They are equipped
+with a very large number of submarine
+explosive mines, which can be automatically
+lowered into the water as the
+vessels steam along. Their speed is
+about 15 knots, and their armament
+consists of four 4·7-inch quick-firing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>guns. Their complement is about 150
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<div class='myfigcenter c004'>
+ <img src='images/176.jpg' alt='Iphigenia' />
+ <div>
+<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c032'>
+    <div>THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. <i>IPHIGENIA</i>.</div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='c006'>The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Germany.</span></h4>
+
+<div class='c001'></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<ul class='ships'>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Pelikan</i> (1890).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Nautilus</i> (1906).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Albatross</i> (1907).</li>
+<li class='shipit'><i>Arkona</i> (1903).</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>All these vessels, with the exception of
+the <i>Arkona</i>, which was a protected
+cruiser, have been specially built for
+mine-laying work. Their displacement
+is about 2,000 tons. The <i>Pelikan</i> has a
+speed of 15 knots, the <i>Albatross</i> and
+<i>Nautilus</i> of 20 knots, and the <i>Arkona</i> of
+21 ½ knots. They are all fitted with
+special gear for dropping the large
+number of mines carried, and their
+armament consists of from four to eight
+21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement
+is about 200 officers and men.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Austria.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses
+only one regular mine-laying warship—the
+<i>Chamaleon</i>, which was being completed
+when war was declared. She is
+a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>with a speed of 20 knots. Her mine-launching
+gear is of the most modern
+and efficient type, and she is armed
+with several quick-firing guns.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Since the beginning of hostilities
+Austria has converted several old warships
+and merchantmen into mine-layers.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>France and Russia.</span></h4>
+
+<p class='c027'>Neither of these powers possess
+proper mine-laying vessels, but on the
+outbreak of war several old warships
+and small merchant steamers were used
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>
+  <h2 id='ch13' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>For clearing away the mines dropped
+by an enemy special vessels are employed.
+Each vessel is fitted on both
+sides with a curious contrivance known
+as the “picking-up gear.” This
+apparatus is lowered into the water,
+and “picks up” any mines which may
+lie in the path of an <a id='tn196'></a>on-coming fleet.
+When a mine-field is discovered by
+either destroyers or seaplanes these
+vessels are immediately dispatched to
+destroy it; and they are aided, in the
+case of the British Navy, by a large
+flotilla of steam trawlers. Many of
+these auxiliary vessels are not fitted
+with the <i>picking-up gear</i>, but go to work
+in pairs. Two vessels, connected together
+by a long wire rope weighted in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>the centre to keep it submerged, range
+themselves on each side of a mine-field,
+and by steaming ahead in a parallel line
+sweep up the mines floating between
+them. This process can be carried on
+simultaneously by a large number of
+trawlers, covering a very wide area of
+sea. In the meantime the attached
+destroyers and seaplanes can be
+searching for new fields. It often
+happens during sweeping operations
+that mines are brought into contact with
+each other and violent explosions occur.
+Sometimes the vessels engaged in this
+hazardous work will themselves strike
+one of the mines, but it is more often
+the <i>searching</i> flotillas which meet with
+sudden disaster in this way. Fully
+equipped mine-sweepers usually precede
+a fleet of battleships and big cruisers
+through dangerous and narrow seas,
+within the likely zone of hostile mines.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet
+comprises the following vessels:—<i>Circe</i>
+(810 tons), <i>Jason</i> (810 tons), <i>Speedy</i> (810
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>tons), <i>Leda</i> (810 tons), <i>Gossamer</i> (735
+tons), <i>Seagull</i> (735 tons), <i>Skipjack</i> (735
+tons), and <i>Speedwell</i> (735 tons).</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats
+which have been specially
+fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping.
+There is also a large flotilla of steam
+fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these
+vessels were purchased by the Admiralty
+before the war, and were also equipped
+for mine-sweeping; but many others were,
+by special arrangement, handed over to
+the Navy on the outbreak of war. The
+whole of the mine-sweeping fleet is
+manned by a special section of the Royal
+Naval Reserve, known as the “Trawler
+Section,” which consists of about 142
+<i>skippers</i> and 1,136 men. This is, of
+course, in addition to the several
+thousand naval sailors employed on the
+regular mine-sweepers, named above,
+and also to those employed on the large
+number of additional small steamers taken
+over for this work by the Admiralty at
+the commencement of hostilities. It is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>estimated that the task of keeping the
+North Sea clear of mines during the first
+four weeks of the Great War required
+over 100 vessels and 5,000 sailors, in
+addition to the usual destroyer and submarine
+patrols with their crews, and also
+to the seaplanes with their pilots and
+observers.</p>
+
+<p class='c022'>Almost any steamship can be quickly
+converted into an effective mine-sweeper,
+and for this reason it is impossible to
+give here more than the very briefest
+information concerning the vessels
+employed in these operations by the
+other Naval Powers at war. Russia had
+fifteen special mine-sweeping vessels
+building when war broke out; but,
+doubtless, many small merchant ships
+have since been used for this purpose.
+France employed a number of mine-sweepers
+in the Adriatic; and Japan
+used some in clearing the approaches to
+Tsing-tau. Germany and Austria, of
+course, did not need many vessels of
+this kind, as the Allied Navies laid
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>comparatively few mines and German
+oversea commerce ceased to exist almost
+as soon as war was declared. It was
+in the North Sea, during the first phase
+of the naval war, that the value of a big
+British mine-sweeping fleet made itself
+so wonderfully apparent.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>
+  <h2 id='ch14' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c021'>Tempered and tried in the forge of
+war the submarine has at last been
+lifted from the experimental stage of
+naval construction to the fore-front of
+fleets in being. For over twenty years
+naval experts, marine engineers and
+scientists have been wrestling with the
+vast and complex problems of submarine
+construction, navigation and warfare, and
+have, at a cost of many lives and many
+millions sterling, produced submersible
+warships of steadily increasing size and
+power, until to-day 264 of these vessels,
+of over a dozen different and more or
+less secret designs, with displacements
+ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the fighting line of the Fleets at war.
+Thousands of sailors have been trained
+to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes,
+guns, engines, and even the air to breath,
+have been adapted for submarine work.
+A comparison, therefore, of the strength
+and fighting power of the submarine
+fleets engaged for the first time in this
+great struggle for the mastery of the
+seas is of more than passing interest.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>BRITISH NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table2' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (nearly completed)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>70</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table3' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in British Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>88</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c022'>It must, however, be pointed out that
+six vessels of the sea-going “F” class
+have not yet taken their place in the
+active flotillas; and that eight vessels
+of the “E” class were on duty on foreign
+stations when war commenced.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>FRENCH NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table4' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (<i>Diane</i> class, <i>Bellone</i> class, and <i>Gustave Zede</i> class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Clorinde</i> class), range 3,500 miles, speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: <i>Mariotte</i>, <i>Archimède</i>, <i>Charles Brun</i>, and <i>Admiral Bourgeoise</i>), range 3,000‒3,500 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600 tons (<i>Fresnel</i> class), range 2,000 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Pluviôse</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>11</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>54</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table5' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 450 tons (<i>Circe</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400 tons (<i>Emeraude</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Argonaute</i> and <i>Aigrette</i> class), range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>11</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table6' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Triton</i> class, <i>Française</i> class, and <i>Lutin</i> class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Submarines of 50‒100 tons (<i>Naiade</i> class), range 100 miles, speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>20</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Harbour Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in French Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>94</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>RUSSIAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table7' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (<i>Tigr</i> class), no particulars: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>12</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Kaschalot</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (<i>Alligator</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Akula</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (<i>Karp</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (<i>Makrel</i> class), range 800‒1,000 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>28</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table8' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Minoga</i> class, <i>Lossos</i> class, <i>Sig</i>, <i>Sterliad</i> class, <i>Som</i> class, <i>Ostr</i> class, and <i>Graf Cheremetieve</i> class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and holders: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>47</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>JAPANESE NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table9' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>14</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table10' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class='table11' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr><td class='c042' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span></td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>21</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>GERMAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table12' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>13</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'><a id='tn207'></a>Total Sea-going Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c018'>36</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table13' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in German Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>37</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3 class='c026'>AUSTRIAN NAVY.</h3>
+
+<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4>
+
+<table class='table14' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='97%' />
+<col width='2%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (completing—delivery doubtful)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td>
+    <td class='c018'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'></td>
+    <td class='c018'>――</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas</td>
+    <td class='c018'>6</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c022'>When war commenced all the vessels
+of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic.
+The Austrian Flotilla of six vessels was
+in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in
+home waters 74 submarines and 14 others
+on duty in the outer seas. France had
+several of the 92 vessels composing her
+powerful flotillas at her oversea colonial
+naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines
+in the Baltic, 11 in the Black Sea, and
+12 in the Far East. The Japanese
+Flotilla (17) was concentrated in Japanese
+waters.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c043'>
+    <div><i>Printed in Great Britain by Wyman &amp; Sons Ltd., London and Reading.</i></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c044' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Sunk October, 1914.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. The <i>Narval</i>, the first of this type, has been removed from
+the effective list.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered
+before the outbreak of war.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service &amp; Co. Ltd. 1914).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally
+submerged, to steer a <i>perfectly</i> straight course, the table
+above each chart shows the approximate average loss and
+gain on each mile. It must also be remembered that the
+submarine in actual practice need only reach the torpedo
+firing line.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c022'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W.
+Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c014'>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table15' summary=''>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c045'>Printed</th>
+    <th class='c045'>Corrected</th>
+    <th class='c046'>Page</th>
+    <th class='c047'></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>guns</td>
+    <td class='c045'>guns.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tnfrontis'>Frontispiece</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and 2 q.-f. guns.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>gunfire</td>
+    <td class='c045'>gun-fire</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn031'>30</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>attacked by gun-fire</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>),</td>
+    <td class='c045'>).</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn038'>37</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>E. B. Feilmann).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Submarines</td>
+    <td class='c045'>Submarines:</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn062'>61</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>Submarines: B.3, B.4,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>destroyers·</td>
+    <td class='c045'>destroyers.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn079'>74</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and destroyers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building</span>:</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building.</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn080'>75</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Submarines Building.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>topedo-boats</td>
+    <td class='c045'>torpedo-boats.</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn117'>108</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>torpedo-boats.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>and</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='fss'>AND</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn122-2'>113</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>U.19 and U.20.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'><i>eompleted</i></td>
+    <td class='c045'><i>completed</i></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn127'>118</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>were being <i>completed</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>manœvring</td>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvering</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn134'>125</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>with manœuvering</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Fig. 1</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn142-2'>133</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>Fig. 2</td>
+    <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span></td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn144'>135</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvre</td>
+    <td class='c045'>manœuvre,</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn152'>143</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>method, or manœuvre,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.’</td>
+    <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.”</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn175'>164</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>and “anti-clockwise.”</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c045'>oncoming</td>
+    <td class='c045'>on-coming</td>
+    <td class='c046'><a href='#tn196'>179</a></td>
+    <td class='c047'>path of an on-coming</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c048'>On the <a href='#tntitle'>Title Page</a>, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>The image for <a href='#tn142'><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></a> appeared after Page <a href='#Page_160'>160</a> in the digitized source.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>Under the <span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels</span> heading on Page <a href='#tn207'>190</a>, “Total Sea-going Submarines  | 36” was added for consistency.</p>
+
+<p class='c048'>Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the
+War, by Charles William Domville-Fife
+
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+</pre>
+
+  </body>
+  <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.54 on 2016-03-02 17:50:19 GMT -->
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