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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d37e02e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51347 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51347) diff --git a/old/51347-0.txt b/old/51347-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b09d0dc..0000000 --- a/old/51347-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3980 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by -Charles William Domville-Fife - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War - -Author: Charles William Domville-Fife - -Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -Italic text enclosed with _underscores_. - -Small-caps replaced by ALL CAPS. - -Tables require a monospace font in order to align properly. - -More notes appear at the end of the file. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.” - - Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes - and 2 q.-f. guns. - - There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14. - -] - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR - - - - - BY - - CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE - - AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”, - “SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC. - - - - - ILLUSTRATED - - - - - HODDER AND STOUGHTON - - LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO - - MCMXIV - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE - - -Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to -arrive at an intelligent understanding of the _naval situation_ or of -the _military campaigns_ in the Great European War, a knowledge of the -scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And -in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting -underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to -the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I -venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the -prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances, -and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the -vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine -Phase” in naval warfare. - - C. W. D-F. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR 9 - - CHAPTER I - THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT 40 - - CHAPTER II - BRITISH SUBMARINES 60 - - CHAPTER III - FRENCH SUBMARINES 79 - - CHAPTER IV - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES 94 - - CHAPTER V - JAPANESE SUBMARINES 104 - - CHAPTER VI - GERMAN SUBMARINES 108 - - CHAPTER VII - AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES 118 - TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS 123 - - CHAPTER VIII - SUBMARINES IN ACTION 124 - - CHAPTER IX - ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS 146 - - CHAPTER X - THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO 160 - - CHAPTER XI - SUBMARINE MINES 168 - - CHAPTER XII - MINE-LAYING FLEETS 174 - - CHAPTER XIII - MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS 179 - - CHAPTER XIV - COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR 184 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR - - -In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less -than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine -fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the -highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies -comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the -grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and -their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in -its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications. -Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks, -ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval -construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the -1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion -of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering -submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging -tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German -and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept -clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained -observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the _dark -patches in the semi-transparent sea-green_ which denote the presence of -mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial -scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle -to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small -steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the -hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted -to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these -deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction -with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect -the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances -are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every -harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by -elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare -underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of -the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone -of war. - -Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine -attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and -describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is -necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this -new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its -influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to -survey _in their submarine aspect_ the naval operations in the opening -phase of this, the greatest war in history. - -In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered -conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and -sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and -even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land -forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid -burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with -difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the -powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. -and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy -of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the -reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets -by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive -engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening -phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in -numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for -their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in -conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North -Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of -the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive -actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be -frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies, -costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these -grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to -delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be -screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer -types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in -the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British -submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed -in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the -enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast -fortifications. Not content with this _rôle_, however, several British -submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the -Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering -distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk -their big ships. - -With what degree of success this new opening or _submarine phase_ in -naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the -first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser _Amphion_, a vessel -of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch -guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the -destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser -_Birmingham_; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off -Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. _Pathfinder_, a fleet scout of about -3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905‒6, by a German submarine; the -destruction of the Wilson liner _Runo_ by a mine; the sinking of the -German cruiser _Hela_, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in -1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British -armoured cruisers _Aboukir_, _Hogue_ and _Cressy_—vessels of 12,000 tons -displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides -twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German -submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over -which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind. - -This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and -property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German -floating mines on the trade-routes. - -To the Allies this _submarine phase_ did not come unexpected. The -British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and -engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness; -Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the -Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co. -Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., -as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been -engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems -continually arising in the practical application of all forms of -submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in -1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth -of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and -in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82 -vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been -evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American -inventor. - -[Illustration: North Sea Coastlines] - -To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the -submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the -_Gymnôte_, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the -Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine -flotilla, numbering 92 vessels. - -The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since -that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now -numbers 37 vessels. - -Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and -up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a -British-Holland boat in 1904. - -Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of -the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines, -but in 1905‒6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels -U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine -flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany -possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The -Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet -until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels. - -From this brief _resumé_ of the growth of the submarine fleets of the -six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers -as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great -Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must, -however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the -steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets -at war. - -The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the -British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with -submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction -caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine -mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored -to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on -contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking -of the Japanese battleships _Hatsuse_ and _Yashima_ as well as the -Russian battleship _Petropavlovsk_ and the cruiser _Boyarin_—the British -Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen -would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines -could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into -being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old -torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these, -however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing -trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made -arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the -disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new -mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a -new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is -known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 _skippers_ and 1,136 -men taken from the fishing fleet. - -Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British -Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven -old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and -provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid -over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly -laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is -a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to -its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of -second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although -much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was, -during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and -dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were -swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact -with each other during the progress of sweeping operations. - -What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines -in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the -German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France, -Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is -perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several -hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and -Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of -merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested -sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of -food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also -officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin -their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported -across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a -guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile -warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast -had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means -least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that -the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and -left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not -difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of -these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in -these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by -thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes, -many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy -themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept -clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there -blockaded with their cowardly fleet. - -The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of -naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is -essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface -vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary -for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of -the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with -an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel -can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking -the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the -submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and -approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel -the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to -its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like -an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night -owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater -fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea, -however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or -destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled, -and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day -and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often -attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw -attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine -attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain -imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war. - -Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day, -naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight -torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo -and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the _rôle_ -of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to -1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a -considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing -guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of -accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and -A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power -and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of -the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the -case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons, -the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four -12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean -cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing -wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British -submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by -numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which -indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may -be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future. - -The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself -a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it -sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own -engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of -attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in -the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range -and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45 -knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of -the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton -which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This -very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous -hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The -type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies -is the _Whitehead_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses -the _Schwartzkopf_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar -to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon. - -In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have -been sunk by submarine torpedoes. - -The activity of the British submarines _in the theatre of war_, from the -beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following -dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first -dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine -attack and reconnaissance:— - - H.M.S. _Maidstone_, - _17th October, 1914_. - - “Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the - honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the - Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:— - - “Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6 - (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander - Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a - reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned - with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers - on a service which is attended by some risk. - - “During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the _Lurcher_ - and _Firedrake_ and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine - Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the - High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our - transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief, - until the _personnel_ of our Army had been transported and all chance - of effective interference had disappeared. - - “These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s - Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much - valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his - patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his - anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and - well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by - Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes. - - “At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the _Lurcher_, and, in - company with _Firedrake_ and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, - E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part - in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th. - The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th, - when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions - from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the - following morning. - - “At daylight on August 28th the _Lurcher_ and _Firedrake_ searched the - area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile - Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of - Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the - object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward. - - “On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good - to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added - considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding - Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and - judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well - as foes. - - “Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions - under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of - closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range. - - “Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, - witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 - through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the _Stettin_ class - close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their - boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser, - but she altered course before he could get within range. After - covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon - their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and - nine men of _Defender_, who had been left behind. The boats also - contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and - eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the - latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six - unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before - leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a - compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war. - - “Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the - vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his - vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist, - was altogether admirable. - - “This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance - which supplied the information on which these operations were based, - and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot, - the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and - skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of - Their Lordships. - - “On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed - and sank the German Light Cruiser _Hela_ six miles South of - Heligoland. - - “A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9 - had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours. - - “On September 14th, in accordance with his orders, - Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of - Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk. - - “On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot), - while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On - rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was - securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately, - however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of - the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine - clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was - effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able - Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released - mine descended to its original depths. - - “On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when - patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer - S.126. - - “The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with - their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with - torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of - much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine - officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration. - - “Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is - also deserving of credit. - - “Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers - have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of - delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one - occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines - been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours. - - “During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between - the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee - shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one. - - “The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland - Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There - was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60 - feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—_i.e._ - vertically moving about twenty feet. - - “I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they - should have maintained their stations under such conditions. - - “Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the - Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have - all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties. - These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of - the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their - command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to - single out individuals when all have performed their duties so - admirably, and in this I concur. - - “The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during - these operations:— - - D.1 (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane). - - D.2 (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson). - - D.3 (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle). - - D.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert). - - E.4 (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir). - - E.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning). - - E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot). - - E.7 (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann). - - E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton). - - I have the honour to be, Sir, - Your obedient servant, - (Signed) ROGER KEYES, - Commodore (S).” - -In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase -in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack -and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen -sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp -engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction -with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of -its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the -forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering -rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness -while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the -flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the -seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean. - -The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German -Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a -hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in -the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the -great battle fleets of England. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT - - -The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and -before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets -at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal -features common to all types of submarine craft. - - - _Method of Submergence_ - -It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have -occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a -submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of -operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[1] - -It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the -surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action. -For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring -the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the -submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at -a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is -necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would, -in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the -destroyers. - -When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is -technically called the _light condition_, that is to say, with her water -ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only -the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface, -water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes -her to sink into the sea until her _back_ is almost flush with the -surface—this is known as the _awash condition_. - -It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might -at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine, -break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout -into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result, -for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little -additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the -surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when -proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the -mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine -hermetically closed, ready to sink. - -To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished -by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with -the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and -sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to -guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to -dive and rise. Two additional _fins_ are frequently placed on each side -of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising. - -In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal -rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The -action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced -down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is -much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the -force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to -right or left. - -From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the -surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the -propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down, -she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no -longer any effect. - -Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is -controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to -move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed -to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is -operated by electricity. - -In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was -required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the -ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now -obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to -carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they -were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode -too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with -the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the -ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of -water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to -enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal -fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome, -and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three -minutes. - -When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the -submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is -compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always -exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in. -Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface -again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the -compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered -that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to -bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker -accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this -case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash -condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the -light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at -the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a -submarine sink than it is to make her rise. - -It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the -other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so -delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may -have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So -steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially -those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies, -that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to -amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few -feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is -almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a -sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect -the firing of the torpedoes. - -The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or -_diving-trim_, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily -very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a -thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100 -gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability -of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known -as _positive-buoyancy_ must be accompanied by a corresponding increase -in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to -drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural -tendency to float on the surface. - -For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in -such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of -weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or -rise with dangerous rapidity. - -This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were -provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by -means of _compensating-tanks_, into which sufficient water is pumped to -compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of _each_ -torpedo. - -Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern _trimming-tanks_, -into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any -tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity. - - - _Propulsion._ - -Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction -the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are -still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity, -petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since -first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for -using these _prime movers_ in conjunction with each other and with -chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors. - -About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a -good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were -abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and -electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful -machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being -used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion. - -The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all -circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons -have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is -more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged -would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be -made. - -[Illustration: - - A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). _A._ Deck - superstructure. _B._ Scuppers for filling superstructure. _D._ External - connections. _E._ Conning-tower (4-inch armour). _F._ Periscope. _G._ - Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). _H._ Air cowls. _I._ Conning-tower - cap (opening sideways). _J._ Mast stays. _K._ Mast (not part of service - equipment). _L._ Torpedo-tube cap. _M._ Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes - in. _N._ Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). _O._ Hydroplane engines. - _X._ Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. _Y._ Spare - torpedoes. _Z._ Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal - pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s - platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering - submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol - engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. - 12. Petrol engines—exhaust. - -] - -It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol -engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with -its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the -submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in -almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs -in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is -extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the -storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities, -although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French -Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in -air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is -impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine -(compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius -of action are curtailed. - -If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines -could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful -set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and -when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be -simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of -action would naturally result. - -In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more -modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is -being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power -obtained with greater safety. - -Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the -vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the -electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored -in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three -separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which -drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a -suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the -electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives -the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the -batteries. - -It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources -of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of -power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The -only actual source being the oil or petrol. - -There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of -machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging -the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and -for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps, -steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this, -hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate -most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the -armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic -quick-firing guns. - -From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine -presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible. -Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed -up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and -with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their -backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and -nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in -front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of -the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in -the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the -arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that -trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping, -and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as -possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to -create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to -be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft. - - - _Vision When Submerged._ - -Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine -construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged. -This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up -from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the -surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a -picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors -inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope -can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when -the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be -easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by -gun-fire. - -The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern -submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of -vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting -only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly -clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at -night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would -be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an -enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight -torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by -ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to -discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed -to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a -surprise attack. - - - _Armament._ - -The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is -expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in -the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat, -so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts -can be made. - -About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they -now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future -chapter is devoted. - -The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for -use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are -arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to -disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of -guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of -defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat -destroyers, or by air-craft. - - - _Habitability._ - -Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold, -hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth. -The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room, -the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well -illuminated by electric lamps. - -The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel -cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks -of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same -time chemically absorbed. - -Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained -from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is -almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a -time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped -deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so -also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - BRITISH SUBMARINES - - -The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82 -submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were, -however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and -distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities -were as follows:— - - - SUBMARINES IN HOME WATERS. - - _Patrol Flotillas._ - - 1st Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Onyx_. - Submarines: A.8 and A.9. - - 2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ship: _Dolphin_. - Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1. - - 3rd Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Forth_. - Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14, - C.15 and C.16. - - 4th Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ships: _Arrogant_ and _Hazard_. - Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35. - - 5th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ship: _Thames_. - Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6. - - 6th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ships: _Bonaventure_ and _Hebe_. - Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13. - - 7th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ships: _Vulcan_ and _Alecto_. - Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, - C.28, C.29, C.30. - - 8th Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ships: _Maidstone_ and _Adamant_. - Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, - E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9. - - 9th Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Pactolus_. - Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12. - - - SUBMARINES ON FOREIGN STATIONS. - - Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11. - - At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8. - - Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38. - - With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[2] and A.E.2. - -The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas -in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be -taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast -protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the -_Patrol Flotillas_. The wide range of action of modern submarines -enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt, -and consequently Chatham becomes merely the _general store_, or -head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not -only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England -and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form -of _Depôt Ships_, which, with their attached submarines, are often at -Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely -the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover, -Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with -their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line -to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England, -Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however, -furthest removed from the zone of war. - -Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and -distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of -war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main -theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels -of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this -rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas -guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels -from overseas. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.” - - Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern - torpedo tube. - - There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12. - -] - -The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched -from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and -was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the -famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most -successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with -this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched -during 1901‒2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of -craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four -new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the -first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were -designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement -of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were -propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric -motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots -an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their -maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 -knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and -one bow tube. - -All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before -the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of -interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of -British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13, -launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the -table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine -flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All -the following British submarines are now in the fighting line. - - - “A” CLASS. - - (Completed 1904.) - - A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. - -These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were -built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged -displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled -on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of -100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots -and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface -endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the -endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists -of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: -Eleven officers and men. - -These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence, -can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and -single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914, -and was never raised. - - - “B” CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. - -These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way -superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the -sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135 -feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the -“A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when -submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the -electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for -driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged -by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running -on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these -storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the -surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 -knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80‒100 -knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with -4‒6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men. - -The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type -which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the -bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse -the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original -Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes, -each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels -three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed -below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper -water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them -better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are -liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed -of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in -this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages -derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The -speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit. - -The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the -forward superstructure, and the _two_ periscopes. The B.2 was run down -by the liner _Amerika_ in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was -never recovered. - - - “C” CLASS. - - (Completed 1906‒10.) - - C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, - 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38. - -This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B” -type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet -long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give -to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power -of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged -speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000 -knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100 -knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with -six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers -and men. - -In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of -petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative -additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of -both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and -safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event -of disaster while submerged. - -The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11 -collided with the steamer _Eddystone_ in the North Sea in 1909 and was -irretrievably lost. - - - “D” CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒11.) - - D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. - -These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of -considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each -other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons; -and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an -approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines -of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the -surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of -just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated -below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000 -miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels -were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of -electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The -armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with -a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This -gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and -almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the -superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The -complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.” - - Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo - tubes. - - There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12. - -] - - - “E” CLASS. - - (Completed 1912‒14.) - - E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. - -These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the -British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are -176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly -2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the -electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots -an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at -economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an -hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their -predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the -largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped -with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings -for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers. -They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the -“B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three -tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and -increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep -the sea in almost any weather. - - - AUSTRALIAN SUBMARINES: - - A.E.1 and A.E.2. - -These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they -both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under -their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range, -seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval -Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in -October, 1914, and has not been recovered. - - - BRITISH SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in -course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval -dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the -British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid -down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been -constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by -Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding -yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. -Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham. - -Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of -which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been -all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being -constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less -than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were -of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines -under construction at Greenock were of the _Laurenti_, or Italian type, -and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the _Laubeuf_, or French type. In -addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new -vessels have been given the names of _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_. - -The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say -definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas, -and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy -regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it -advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss -too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable -capabilities. - - - “F” CLASS. - -There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are -the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going -submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1, -which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of -1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum -speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000 -H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six -torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns. - - - “V” CLASS. “W” CLASS. “S” CLASS. - - _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_. - -These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to -those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of -which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are -large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000 -tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which -four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French -_Laubeuf_ type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number, -are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—_Laurenti_ type. The two named -vessels—_Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_—are large sea-going submarines of -wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000 -tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when -submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two -quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about -25 officers and men. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.) - -Footnote 2: - - Sunk October, 1914. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - FRENCH SUBMARINES - - -France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared. -In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various -stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of -two different types of vessels: _Submarines Defensive_ and -_Submersibles_. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely -for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and -they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The -submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and -Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great -offensive power. - -The first naval submarine (_Gymnôte_) was launched in 1888, giving to -France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine -torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction -in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M. -Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the -French Navy was the _Gustave Zédé_, launched in 1893. So successful did -this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the _Morse_, -was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four -vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and -named _Lutin_, _Farfâdet_ (re-named _Follet_), _Korrigan_, and _Gnôme_. -These, with the exception of the ill-fated _Lutin_, are still in the -active flotillas. - - - LUTIN CLASS. - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Follet_. _Korrigan_. _Gnôme_. - -These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the -defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with -electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged. -Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their -range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of -one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The -complement is nine officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photos, M. Bar._] - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top) - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE. (bottom) - -] - - - FRANÇAISE CLASS. - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Française._ _Algérien._ - -These two vessels are of the improved _Morse_ type, and are intended -solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146 -tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and -submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an -hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots. -They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The -complement is nine officers and men. - - - TRITON CLASS.[3] - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Triton._ _Sirene._ _Espadon._ _Silure._ - -These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were -designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both -France and other countries (_Laubeuf_ type). They have a submerged -displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam. -Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when -submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when -submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are -armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and -have a complement of ten officers and men. - - - NAIADE CLASS. - - (Completed 1902‒4.) - - _Naiade._ _Loutre._ _Protée._ _Lynx._ _Perle._ _Truite._ - _Castor._ _Oursin._ _Meduse._ _Otarie._ _Phoque._ _Ludion._ - _Alose._ _Anguille._ _Grondin._ _Dorade._ _Souffleur._ _Thon._ - _Bonite._ _Esturgeon._ - -Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about -67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of -8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament -consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried. -Their complement is six officers and men. - - - AIGRETTE CLASS. - - (Completed 1904.) - - _Aigrette._ _Cicogne._ - -These two vessels are submersibles of the _Laubeuf_ type, and were great -improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged -displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A -triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface -propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their -speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700 -miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament -consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement -is about fifteen officers and men. - - - ARGONAUTE. - - (Completed 1905.) - -A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French -Navy). This vessel, which was first named _Omega_, has a displacement of -about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed -of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two -holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about -seventeen officers and men. - - - EMERAUDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1906‒8.) - - _Emeraude._ _Saphir._ _Opale._ _Topaz._ _Rubis._ _Turquoise._ - -These six vessels are of the _Maugas_ type and are sea-going submarines -with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and -electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface -speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius -is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of -two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their -complement is seventeen officers and men. - - - CIRCE CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Circe._ _Calypso._ - -These two vessels are of the _Laubeuf_ type, and are improvements on the -_Aigrette_ class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons -and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440 -H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric -motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the -range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four -holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men. - - - PLUVIÔSE CLASS. - - (Completed 1907‒12.) - - _Pluviôse._ _Nivôse._ _Ventôse._ _Messidor._ _Thermidor._ - _Fructidor._ _Brumaire._ _Frimaire._ _Florèal._ _Prairial._ - _Germinal._ - -Submarines of the _Laubeuf_ type with a submerged displacement of nearly -600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The _Brumaire_ and _Frimaire_ are -driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but -all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of -flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their -speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch -torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men. - - - FRESNEL CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒12.) - - _Fresnel._ _Berthelot._ _Papin._ _Monge._ _Ampère._ _Gay-Lussac._ - _Cagnot._ _Faraday._ _Giffard._ _Montgolfier._ _Newton._ _Volta._ - _Watt._ _Euler._ _Faucault._ _Franklin._ _Arago._ _Permouilli._ - _Joule._ _Coulomb._ _Curie._ _Le Verrier._ - -Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going _Laubeuf_ type. Only -three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for -surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the -_Pluviôse_ class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed -is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch -torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes. -Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles. - - - AMIRAL BOURGEOISE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -An experimental boat of the _Bourdelle_ type, built at Cherbourg. The -submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet. -She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which -give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion -are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of -seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles. - - - ARCHIMÈDE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement -is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet -respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and -electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots -below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24 -officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, M. Bar._] - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE. - -] - - - MARIOTTE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -The third experimental boat, of the _Rodiquet_ type, built at Cherbourg. -The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200 -feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the -surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her -radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch -torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The -complement is about 25 officers and men. - - - CHARLES BRUN. - - (Completed 1912.) - -The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The -submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam -turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface, -and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her -armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22 -officers and men. - - - CLORINDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - - _Clorinde._ _Cornélie._ _Amphritrite._ _Astree._ _Artémis._ - _Aréthuse._ _Atalante._ _Amaranthe._ _Ariane._ _Andromaque._ - -These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine -flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a -length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 -H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors -of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged. -They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and -men. - - - GUSTAVE ZEDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - - _Gustave Zede._ _Néréide._ - -These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas. -They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, -and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16 -knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament -consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes. -They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle, -disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the -complement 27 officers and men. - - - BELLONE CLASS. - - (Completed 1914.) - - _Bellone._ _Hermione._ _Gorgone._ - -Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons. -They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a -surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at -12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. -Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr. -quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men. - - - FRENCH SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early -stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the _Diane_ -and _Daphne_. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800 -tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament -will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will -be 30 officers and men. - -The other seven vessels are of the improved _Gustave Zede_ Class. They -will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 -knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will -consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be -about 35 officers and men. - ------ - -Footnote 3: - - The _Narval_, the first of this type, has been removed from the - effective list. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES - - -The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37 -submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction. -The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as -follows:— - -BALTIC FLOTILLA: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12 -vessels building. _Bases_: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and -Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free). - -BLACK SEA FLOTILLA: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and -several new vessels building. _Bases_: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff. - -SIBERIAN FLOTILLA: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6 -vessels building. _Base_: Vladivostok. - -The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902, -and named the _Petr Kochka_. She was built in sections to facilitate -transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of -Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her -armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, -containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots -on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered -for the Russian Navy was the _Delphin_, which foundered off Kronstadt, -but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the -submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active -flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the -_Graf Cheremetieve_—is still in commission. - - - GRAF CHEREMETIEVE CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒5.) - - _Graf Cheremetieve._ _Kasatka._ _Nalim._ _Skat._ - -These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small -vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement -of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the -surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow -torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. - - - OSTR CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - _Ostr._ _Byts-chok._ _Kefal._ _Platus._ _Plotva._ - -These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The _Ostr_ was -originally the American Lake Co.’s boat _Protector_. They have a -submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in -breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and -electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above -and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full -speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The _special_ characteristics of the -American Lake type will be seen on pages 119‒120. - - - SOM CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - _Som._ _Shtshuka._ - -These two vessels, which are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, have a -submerged displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol and electric motors are -used for surface and submerged propulsion, and the speed is 9 ½ knots -and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. Their armament consists of -two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is -about fifteen officers and men. - - - STERLIAD CLASS. - - (Completed 1905‒6.) - - _Sterliad._ _Bialuga._ _Peskar._ - -These three vessels are also of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a -submerged displacement of 150 tons. The petrol motors for surface -propulsion are of 160 H.-P. The speed is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above -and below, respectively. Their armament consist of two bow tubes with -four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is eleven to fifteen -officers and men. - - - SIG. - - (Completed 1906.) - -A submarine of the Lake type; similar in almost every respect to vessels -of the _Ostr_ class. - - - MAKREL CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Makrel._ _Okun._ - -Two vessels of the _Improved_ Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a -submerged displacement of about 200 tons. The petrol motors are of 300 -H.-P., and the electric engines of 150 H.-P. Their speed is 10 knots on -the surface and 8 knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow -tubes and two stern _holders_, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen officers and men. - - - LOSSOS CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Lossos._ _Ludak._ - -Two somewhat smaller submarines of the Holland type. Intended either for -the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. Similar to those of the -_Sterliad_ class. - - - KARP CLASS. - - (Completed 1907‒8.) - - _Karp._ _Karas._ - -These two submarines are of the Germania, or Krupp type, and have a -submerged displacement of 250 tons. They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil -engines of 400 H.-P., and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on -the surface is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range -of action is about 1,000 miles, and the submerged endurance about three -hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes -and four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is fifteen officers and -men. - - - ALLIGATOR CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒9.) - - _Alligator._ _Kaiman._ _Drakon._ _Krokodil._ - -Four submarines of the improved Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 500 tons. Their speed is 15 knots on the surface and 10 -knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow and two stern tubes, -and carry six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is seventeen -officers and men. (See also page 96.) - - - MINOGA CLASS. - - (Completed 1908.) - - _Minoga._ _Potschovy._ - -Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff type, which were built in -sections to facilitate transport by rail. They have a submerged -displacement of about 150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and 9 knots, -above and below, respectively. Their complement is eleven officers and -men. - - - AKULA. - - (Completed 1909.) - -A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff type. Her displacement is about -570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when -submerged. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube, with six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is 20 officers and men. - - - KASCHALOT CLASS. - - (Completed 1909‒12.) - - _Kaschalot._ _Kit._ _Krab._ _Morsh._ _Narval._ _Nerpa._ _Tinlen._ - -These seven vessels are among the most modern submarines in the Russian -flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, and have a submerged -displacement of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of over 1,000 H.-P. -drive them at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, and electric motors -of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour. -Their surface cruising range is about 3,000 miles. Their armament -consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. They are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, high-angle -gun for defence against air-craft. Their complement is 21 officers and -men. - - - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -At the commencement of the war there were nineteen Russian submarines in -course of construction. Very little information concerning these boats -can be obtained, except that their submerged displacement ranges from -800 to 1,500 tons, and their _anticipated_ surface speed is 20 knots. -Some of the 800-ton vessels have already been completed, and the first -twelve will be named: _Svitza_, _Leopard_, _Pantera_, _Ruis_, _Kaguar_, -_Tiqr_, _Yaguar_, _Vepr_, _Wolk_, _Baro_, _Gepard_, and _Tur_. These -vessels have a speed of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when -submerged. Their complement is 25 officers and men. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - JAPANESE SUBMARINES - - -The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a submarine flotilla of seventeen -vessels, all except two of which are of the British Holland or Vickers -type. Japan commenced the construction of what is now a rapidly -increasing and powerful flotilla in 1904 by the purchase of five -elementary Holland boats. These, however, are still in the active -flotilla and are designated Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement -of 120 tons, and are 65 feet in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol -motors of 160 H.-P. drive them at 9 knots on the surface and electric -motors of 70 H.-P. at 7 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of -one bow expulsion tube with three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. - - - NOS. 6 AND 7. - - (Completed 1906.) - -These two vessels were the first submarine boats to be built in Japan, -but are of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger and faster. They have -a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of -10 feet. The petrol engines are of 300 H.-P. and the electric motors of -100 H.-P. The surface and submerged speed is 10 knots and 8 knots an -hour, respectively. Their armament consists of one torpedo tube with -three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. - - - NOS. 8 AND 9. - - (Completed 1907‒8.) - -These two vessels are very similar to the British “C” class, and were -built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged displacement of 320 -tons; petrol motors of 600 H.-P., and a surface and submerged speed of -13 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their armament consists of -two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their -complement is sixteen officers and men. - - - Nos. 10‒15. - - (Completed 1909‒12.) - -These six vessels are the same in almost every respect as the later “C” -class of British submarines (pages 70‒71). - - - Nos. 16‒17[4]. - - (Completed 1912‒14.) - -These two vessels are of the _Schneider-Laubeuf_ or French type. -(British “W” class.) Their submerged displacement is about 500 tons, and -the horse-power of their surface engines 2,500. The surface and -submerged speed is 18 knots and 9 knots respectively. Their armament -consists of six torpedo tubes with eight _Schneider_ torpedoes. The -complement is about 30 officers and men. - -The natural adroitness with which Japanese sailors manipulate -complicated machinery, combined with their absolute fearlessness, make -them ideal for torpedo work. - ------ - -Footnote 4: - - It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered before the - outbreak of war. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - GERMAN SUBMARINES - - -On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany possessed 30 submarine -torpedo-boats. These were divided into three flotillas, with their -headquarters at Kiel, the largest and most modern vessels being attached -to the Heligoland or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, although 24 -submarines were stated as being in commission, only about 15 were -actively employed, and these mostly in training reserves, the older -boats being docked and modernized where possible. But during the year -six new vessels were added to the flotilla and the _personnel_ of the -submarine service was largely increased. At the same time the inspection -of submarines was separated from that of the other torpedo-boats and a -flag-officer was appointed as head of the submarine branch of the Naval -Service, with headquarters at Kiel. Thus when the hour came for the -great struggle which was to decide the mastery of the seas the whole -German Flotilla of 30 vessels, _with a reserve of six new boats which -had been secretly hurried forward and were rapidly nearing completion_, -was ready to put to sea. - -The German Naval Law provided for the construction of 72 submarines by -the end of 1917. All the vessels built up to the present time have been -known as the “U” class and numbered in rotation. They are painted a -brownish-grey colour and have high collier-like bows with massive -armoured conning-towers and long superstructures amounting to narrow -decks. They have all been built at either Kiel or Dantzig. - -Although the first submarine boats built for the German Navy were two -vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched in 1890, they were never -actively employed with the fleet and have long since been reduced to -scrap-iron, and the first vessel which can now be reckoned as a fighting -unit of the German torpedo-boat flotilla was a vessel designated the -“U.1.” This was built at the Germania Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on -August 30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of the “U” class, which in -most of the essential features resembles the British Improved Holland -type. - - - U.1. - - (Completed 1905.) - -This U.1 was built as an experimental boat by the famous firm of Krupps. -She has a surface displacement of 197 tons, a submerged displacement of -236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface engines are of 250 H.-P. The -electric motors for submerged use develop just over 100 H.-P. The speed -ranges from 10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 knots when submerged, -and her surface range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. The armament -consists of one bow torpedo tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf torpedoes -are carried. The complement is nine officers and men. - -The trials of the U.1 extended over a period of a year and a half, and -all proved remarkably satisfactory. During the tests which took place in -Eckernforder Bay she succeeded, twice in succession, in torpedoing a -moving target while travelling submerged at full speed. - -The uncertainty displayed for some years previous by the German Naval -Authorities regarding the value of submarine boats gave place to a -thorough sense of the important part these “mighty atoms” would play in -future naval warfare, and to a strong determination that the German Navy -should include a powerful submarine flotilla. - - - U.2-U.8. - - (Completed 1907‒10.) - -These seven vessels were great improvements on the U.1. Their -displacement is 210 tons on the surface and about 250 tons when -submerged. They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil engines of 400 -H.-P. and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on the surface is 12 -knots and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range of action is 1,000 -miles and the submerged endurance about three hours at full speed. Their -armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes are -carried. The complement is eleven officers and men. - - - U.9-U.18.[5] - - (Completed 1910‒12.) - -These ten vessels are of increased size and power, their submerged -displacement being 300 tons, and the horse-power of their heavy oil -surface engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The -surface and submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The -surface range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two -bow and one stern torpedo tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 and -subsequent vessels of this class are provided with a quick-firing, -high-angle gun for defence against aircraft, and have sleeping -accommodation for the crew. They may be termed the first German -sea-going submarines. Their complement is twenty officers and men. - - - U.19 AND U.20. - - (Completed 1912‒13.) - -There are only two vessels in this class owing to the adoption of -certain improvements with the aid of which a partly new type has been -evolved. These two vessels have a displacement when submerged of 450 -tons. Their oil engines of 650 H.-P. give a speed of 13 ½ knots an hour -on the surface, and their electric motors of 300 H.-P. give 8 knots an -hour when submerged. Their surface range of action is 2,000 miles, and -their armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube with six -torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns on disappearing -mountings. The complement is seventeen officers and men. - - - U.21-U.24. - - (Completed 1912‒13.) - -These four vessels are the first of the new type of large sea-going -submarines for the German Navy. Their submerged displacement is 800 -tons. They are propelled on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 -H.-P., and when submerged by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed -above water is 14 knots an hour and below the surface 9 knots. The -surface range of action is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance 120 -miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two bow and two -stern torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing -gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, all on disappearing mountings, for -defence against hostile destroyers and aircraft. Their complement is -twenty-five officers and men. - - - U.25-U.30. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - -These six vessels are the latest additions to the German submarine -flotilla. They are vessels of 900 tons submerged displacement with -heavy-oil engines of 2,000 H.-P., and electric motors of 900 H.-P. Their -surface and submerged speed is 18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. The -surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of two -bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large size torpedoes, and, -in addition, two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. high-angle -guns. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus on board, and are -specially constructed with long superstructures and high _collier-like_ -bows to enable them to keep at sea in almost any weather. They are -fitted with two or three periscopes, and also possess a small _look-out_ -cap on the top of the lofty conning-tower to facilitate an “awash” -attack in the half-lights of dawn and dusk, when the periscope is almost -useless. The conning-towers and decks are armoured. Their complement is -30 to 35 officers and men. - - - U.31-U.36. - - (Building.) - -These are the six vessels which are rapidly nearing completion, and -which were in a much more advanced state, at the opening of hostilities, -than was generally known in foreign naval circles. They are the same in -almost every respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. There is, however, -another submarine being built for Germany of a totally different design. -This is the F.I.A.T. or _Laurenti_ boat (Italian), laid down at the -beginning of 1914. This vessel is very similar to the four “S” boats -being built at Greenock for the British Navy. - -No German submarines have in the past been sent to any Colonial or -oversea station. Therefore, the whole flotilla of 30 to 36 vessels was -immediately available for operations in the North Sea and Baltic when -war began. The _personnel_ of the whole torpedo service is very -efficient, great attention having been paid to this branch of the Navy. -The three German Submarine flotillas have their headquarters at Kiel, -Wilhelmshaven, and Heligoland. - ------ - -Footnote 5: - - The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES - - -At the commencement of the War the Austro-Hungarian Navy included six -submarines in the active flotilla and five others were being _completed_ -at the Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful if they had been -delivered. In which event they must be added to the strength of the -German flotilla. In addition to these, several larger vessels, mostly of -the latest “U” or Krupp design, had been ordered, but were not expected -to take their place in the active flotillas before the end of 1915. - -Austria commenced the formation of a submarine flotilla in 1908 by the -acquisition of two vessels of the _Improved Holland type_ from Messrs. -Vickers Ltd., and two others of the American _Lake type_. In the -following year two more submarines were ordered, this time from Krupp’s -Germania Yard. All these vessels were delivered during 1910, and -Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into being. - - - U.1 AND U.2. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These two vessels are of the American Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 250 tons and petrol surface motors of 720 H.-P. Their -speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The -armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube. This type of -submarine has three special features which distinguish it from all -others. It is fitted with a kind of underframe and wheels, and is -designed to travel in four different positions: (1) on the surface; (2) -semi-submerged, with only a look-out cowl above water; (3) submerged, -with nothing but the periscope showing; (4) totally submerged and -running along the sea-bed on wheels, like a submarine motor car. It is -drawn down from the surface to the sea-bed by an ingenious system of -wire-hawsers and drop-weights, which can be released in the event of -accident. A “diving chamber” enables members of the crew to don -diving-dresses and leave the submarine when on the sea-bed, for the -purpose of laying or destroying submerged mines. The Lake type of -submarine is also used in the Russian Navy.[6] - - - U.3 AND U.4. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These two vessels are of the Krupp design, and have a submerged -displacement of 300 tons. The horse-power of their heavy-oil surface -engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The surface and -submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The surface -range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two bow and -one stern tube with five 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen -officers and men. - - - U.5 AND U.6. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These are submarines of the Improved Holland type. Their submerged -displacement is about 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The -horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 and that of the electric -engines 189. The speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when -submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots an -hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is sixteen officers and men. - - - U.7-U.11. - - (Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.) - -These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania type, and are similar to -those completed for the German Navy in 1912‒13. They are large sea-going -submarines with a submerged displacement of 800 tons. They are propelled -on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P., and when submerged, -by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed is 14 knots and 9 knots, -above and below, respectively. The surface range of action is 3,000 -miles, and the submerged endurance 120 miles at economical speed. - -Their armament consists of two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with -eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing gun and two 1-pdr. -high-angle guns, for defence against hostile destroyers and air-craft. -Their complement is twenty-five officers and men. - -One or two Austrian submarines are supposed to have been sunk by the -Allied Fleet during the first few weeks of the war, but exactly which -vessels they were is not known. - -Several other submarines have been ordered in foreign countries for the -Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered while the war lasts. - - - SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS. - - COUNTRY. │ VESSELS BUILT. │ VESSELS BUILDING. - ──────────┬─────────────────────┬──────────────────── - Italy │ 20 (100‒300 tons) │ 8 (large size) - Denmark │ 9 (100‒300 tons) │ several - Holland │ 6 (100‒300 tons) │ 4 (large) - Sweden │ 7 (150‒300 tons) │ 3 (large) - Greece │ 2 (Laubeuf) │ ―― - Norway │ 1 ―― │ 4 (Germania) - Portugal │ 1 ―― │ 3 ―― - Turkey │ ―― │ 3 ―― - Spain │ ―― │ 3 ―― - ──────────┴─────────────────────┴──────────────────── - ------ - -Footnote 6: - - “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914). - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SUBMARINES IN ACTION - - -Submarines have two great advantages over all types of surface warships; -they can become invisible at will—or sufficiently invisible to make gun -or torpedo-practice, except at very close quarters, almost entirely -useless—and they can, by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate of -sufficient thickness to be absolutely shell-proof. These are the two -main points in favour of the submarine. There are, however, many minor -features. Although submarines are known in the naval services as -“daylight torpedo-boats,” for their _greatest_ value lies in their -ability to perform the same task in the “light” as the ordinary surface -torpedo-boats and destroyers can do under cover of darkness or fog—that -of creeping up close to an enemy, and launching a torpedo -unobserved—they have been given, during recent years, so much greater -speed, armament, and range of action, that they can no longer be looked -upon as small boats just suitable for daylight torpedo attack in -favourable circumstances. Their surface speed has been increased from 10 -to 20 knots, making them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat. -This, combined with manœuvering powers and general above-water -invisibility, has enabled them to take over the duty of the surface -torpedo-boat—that of delivering night-attacks on the surface. After -nightfall a submarine attack is almost impossible owing to the -periscope—the eyes of the submarine—being useless in the dark. - -The increase in the armament of the submarine—from the single bow -torpedo tube with two torpedoes of short range and weak explosive -charge, to the four bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten torpedoes -of long range and high explosive charge—has greatly increased their -chances of successful attack on surface warships, first, by giving them -four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, in the event of all these -torpedoes missing, of a dive under the object of attack, and two more -shots at close range from the stern tubes (still retaining two -torpedoes); and, secondly, by increasing the distance from which the -first projectile can be launched, owing to the increased range of the -modern torpedo. There are also the advantages derived from the battery -of quick-firing guns installed on the decks of modern submarines. -Although at the present time these guns are only of small power they -nevertheless afford a means of defence—and even of attack under -favourable circumstances—against hostile surface torpedo-boats, -destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a flotilla of submarines could -undoubtedly now give a very good account of itself if attacked either on -the surface or when submerged by one or two prowling destroyers. The -increase in the power of the guns carried by submarines, which will -certainly come soon, will enable this type of craft to take up the -additional duties of the destroyer—that of clearing the seas of hostile -torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced scouting—for which work their -ability to travel submerged and in a state of invisibility for distances -of over 100 miles makes them eminently suitable. - -The enormous increase in the size and range of action of submarines, -combined with the improvements effected in the surface cruising -qualities, have enabled these vessels to be taken from the “nursery” of -harbour and coast defence and placed with the sea-going flotillas and -battle-fleets. In the short period of ten years the tonnage of -submarines has risen from 100 to over 1,000 tons, and the range of -action from 400 miles at economical speed to 5,000 miles. Exactly what -this means is more easily realized when it is stated that the earlier -types of submarines could scarcely cross the English Channel and return -without taking in supplies of fuel, and in rough weather were forced to -remain in harbour, whereas the modern vessel can go from England to -Newfoundland _and back_ without assistance, and can remain at sea in -almost any weather, as was first demonstrated by the successful voyage -of the British submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since -been proved by the operations of the British submarine flotilla in the -North Sea. - -In addition to the cruising range there is, however, the question of -habitability. In this respect the progress has been equally as rapid. In -the older boats no sleeping accommodation was provided for the crew, and -food supplies and fresh water sufficient only for a few days were -carried. In the latest British, French and German vessels proper -sleeping and messing accommodation is provided, and supplies of all -kinds and in sufficient quantity to last a month are carried. Although -work on these craft is still very cramping for the crew, the increase in -the deck space and in the surface buoyancy has greatly minimised the -discomforts of service in the submarine flotilla. - -With regard to safety, it has already been shown that a submarine is -only held below the surface by the power of her engines and the action -of the water on her diving-rudders. This means that in the event of -anything going wrong _inside_ the vessel she would automatically rise to -the surface; but should the hull be pierced in any way, either by shot -or by collision, and an overwhelming inrush of water result—overcoming -the buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing out the water-ballast -tanks—then the vessel must inevitably sink, and the question of whether -or not the crew can save themselves becomes a problem to which no -definite answer can be given, although a special means is provided in -all modern vessels belonging to the British Navy. Speaking generally, it -may, however, be said that if the disaster occurs suddenly, and the -vessel sinks into very deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving -are extremely small; but if the water is comparatively shallow, as along -the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood of many of the crew being -able to save themselves with the aid of the _special escape helmets and -air-locks_ is fairly good. - -We now come to the most important improvement made in the fighting -qualities of these vessels since first they came into being, viz. the -wonderful increase in the surface and submerged speed. In the older -craft the surface speed did not exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it -now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the submerged speed has risen from 5 -knots to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult for any but a naval -man to realize exactly what this increase in the speed of submarines -really means, and it is equally as difficult to adequately describe it -here in non-technical language. It is a mere platitude to say that in -order to attack a surface warship the submarine must first get within -torpedo range of it; and yet it is on this very point that the strategy -and tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A clever naval tactician once -described the submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” The two points -on which he based this opinion were—the (then) slow speed of these -vessels compared with that of the surface warship, and its almost total -blindness when submerged. These two defects were for some years the -principal drawbacks of all the submarines afloat; but since that naval -expert pronounced submarines to be “handicapped torpedo-boats,” great -changes, great improvements have been made. The speed of the submarine -has increased by over 100 per cent., and they have been given longer and -wider range of vision by the introduction of two and three improved -periscopes instead of one elementary instrument. Nevertheless, the speed -difficulty is still a very real one, as will readily be seen when it is -taken into consideration that the speed of a submarine when attacking -submerged is frequently only half, or even a third, of that of her -enemy. In order to more clearly illustrate this and lift for a moment -the veil of secrecy which enshrouds the methods of attack adopted by -this type of craft, it will be necessary to describe what is known as -the_ right-angle attack_. - - - ATTACKING AT RIGHT ANGLES. - -The difficulty of attacking a surface warship steaming at right angles -to the course of the submarine will be clearly understood by referring -to the following diagrams. The first shows an attack on a warship -travelling at 20 miles an hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser -Any increase in the speed of the surface vessel not only adds to the -difficulty of the attacking submarine, but also the direction from which -the attack must be made. This feature is shown in the second diagram, -which illustrates a submarine attack on a vessel steaming at 30 miles an -hour, such as a fast destroyer or fleet scout. On the other hand, a -decrease in the speed of the on-coming surface vessel tends to either -make easier the task of the attacking submarine, or else to increase the -distance from which the attack can be delivered. This is shown in the -third diagram, which assumes the speed of the surface vessel to be only -15 miles an hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, food-ship, collier, -or old warship. - -[Illustration: - - RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. -] - -FIG. 1 represents a submarine attacking a hostile warship (or fleet) -steaming at 20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the line of vision. The -submarine sights the warship at a distance of just over 11 miles on her -port bow. “B” shows the hostile vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to -point marked “C,” and each division beyond equals 1 mile. - -Directly the submarine, which is assumed to be lying in an _awash -condition_, sights the object of attack, she totally submerges and -steers forward at a speed of 10 miles an hour. The loss, and gain, of -the submarine on the different courses, can be seen in the table above -the chart.[7] - -The spaces between the black dots show the most favourable points of -attack. It will be noticed in the table that both vessels are equal at -point “C,” but for many reasons this is not the best point of attack. -The gain of about six minutes on the longer course enables the submarine -not only to manœuvre into the best possible position for the attack, but -also to discharge more than one torpedo if necessary. - -FIG. 2 shows the extreme limit at which a submarine could, with -reasonable chances of success, attack a destroyer, or other vessel, -steaming at 30 (statute) miles an hour, having sighted her at a distance -of 16 miles in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” - -The distance to “C” is 15 miles for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for -the submarine. Here, again, the two vessels would be equal; but the most -favourable point of attack is shown by the two black dots—where the -submarine has gained two minutes. - -FIG. 3.—The submarine sights the object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼ -miles, in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” The surface -vessel has a speed of only 15 miles an hour (merchantman). In this case -the surface vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey along course -“B”—arriving at point “C” 20 minutes in advance of the submarine. The -table shows how the submarine, by changing her course and “throwing” the -surface vessel on her beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, at the -point marked with the two black dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At -this distance she could fire her torpedoes at long range, with some -likelihood of success. - -Although these charts show approximately the extreme limits of the -right-angle attack, a submarine could, of course, proceed for some -distance on the surface at a much faster speed; but considering the rate -at which the two vessels would be approaching each other, the submarine -which attempted it would run considerable risk of being detected, and -thus destroy her chances of a successful attack. Considering also the -time lost in sinking from the “light” to the totally submerged -condition, in coming to close quarters, the gain in speed would not -amount to as much as may at first seem probable.[8] - -These charts are drawn and calculations made assuming the following -points:— - - (1) The weather—fine and bright. - - (2) Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc. - - (3) The enemy on the alert. - - (4) Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition. - - (5) Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” - in all courses in a submerged condition. - -The most favourable position for a submarine flotilla is to manœuvre -close up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within 1,000 yards of a -fleet—steaming across its course; but both of these ideal positions for -attack are extremely difficult to obtain, and consequently in all the -less favourable positions speed is the deciding factor. Strategems will -undoubtedly play an important part in submarine warfare. An example of -this has already been afforded when the German submarines resorted to -the dishonest trick of laying in wait behind a trawler engaged in laying -mines, over which _the flag of a neutral state_ had been hoisted as a -blind. This resulted in the loss of three British cruisers with over -1,000 lives. It would, however, be quite in accord with the rules of -_civilised_ warfare for a submarine to shelter behind a “decoy”; to -attack simultaneously with a seaplane; or to approach an enemy behind -one of its own merchant ships. - - - THE PORPOISE DIVE. - -The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise Dive” is merely the sudden rising of -a submarine in order to enable her commander to get a better view of the -surface than that afforded by the periscope. The submarine on -approaching the object of attack rises quickly to the surface by the -action of her horizontal rudders, then dives again, only remaining above -water for a few seconds to enable her commander to get a glimpse of the -enemy, and to take bearings. The submarine can then get within -torpedo-range, with simply the tiny periscope projecting from the -surface. This manœuvre is now seldom necessary, owing to the long and -wide range of vision of the two or three periscopes fitted in modern -submarines. - - - DIFFICULTY OF THE FIXED TORPEDO TUBE. - -With the exception of one or two vessels, which it would be unwise to -specify, all the submarines engaged in the present war have what are -called _fixed submerged tubes_. This means that the tubes from which the -torpedoes are discharged are fitted _inside_ the submarine _on a line -with the centre of the boat_, and cannot be moved or aimed in any way -apart from the boat itself. It therefore becomes necessary for the -submarine to be _aligned_ by the steering rudders on the object of -attack before the torpedoes can be discharged. In simpler vein, -torpedoes can only be fired by a submarine straight ahead or straight -astern. Hence a submarine, with a hostile warship coming up on its beam, -is compelled to turn and face its opponent (or turn its stern towards -her) before delivering an attack. - - - SUBMARINE FLOTILLA _v._ SURFACE FLEET. - -It is absolutely necessary for submarines acting in company to have each -its allotted task; and for a wide space of water to be left between each -boat; as it is impossible, at present, for one submarine to know the -exact position of another when both vessels are submerged. Therefore, if -each boat was not previously instructed how to act, there would not only -be the likelihood of the greater portion of an attacking flotilla firing -their torpedoes at one or two vessels of the hostile fleet and allowing -the remainder either to escape or to keep up a heavy and dangerous fire -unmolested, but also of collision and of torpedoeing each other by -accident. There is no means of inter-communication between submarines -when submerged, and a battle between submarines is almost impossible. - - - SURPRISE ATTACK. - -In this case invisibility is the element of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian -Bridge, G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once said: “When submerged the -concealment of the submarine is practically perfect. If she has not been -sighted up to the moment of diving, she will almost certainly reach, -unobserved, the point at which she can make her attack.” And this -opinion—shared for many years by all experts—has been amply proved in -the present war. - -A submarine must, however, blend with the surrounding sea in its -ever-varying colours, lights and shades, in order that she may be as -invisible as possible when cruising on the surface. The French Naval -Authorities experimented off Toulon with a luminous paint of a sea-green -colour; but this, although causing the hull to be almost totally -invisible in certain weather, was found to be useless, as, on a bright -day with a blue sky, the green showed up clear against the bluish tint -of the surrounding sea. After many months of experimenting, a pale, -sea-green, non-luminous paint was chosen as the best colour for French -submarines. The British Admiralty also carried out a few experiments in -this direction, and came to the conclusion that a dull grey was the most -invisible shade. The German authorities decided in favour of a -grey-brown. - -When travelling submerged, with only the thin periscopic tube above the -surface, it is almost impossible to detect the approach of a submarine -_before_ she gets within torpedo range; and when cruising on the surface -she is equally as invisible at a distance of a few miles. These -qualities enable the submarine in nearly all cases where her speed -permits, to effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship or cruiser -_when not closely screened by fast destroyers_, whose duty it is to be -ever on the watch for submarines. - -As to the tactics which would be employed by a submarine (or flotilla) -in attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it is impossible to say, for, -like the impromptu attacks of all “mosquito craft,” the exact method, or -manœuvre, is arranged to suit the circumstances, and it is very seldom -that two such attacks are carried out alike. Generally speaking, -however, a hostile warship could be easily sighted, on a fairly clear -day, from the flying-bridge of a submarine at a distance of 10 miles; -but it would be practically impossible to detect the submarine from the -deck of a warship at that distance. On sighting her object of attack the -submarine would sink to the “awash” condition, and proceed for from 2 ½ -to 5 miles, as might be deemed expedient. She would then submerge and -steer by her periscopes, each of which has a field of vision of 60 -degrees. He would be a very keen look-out who would be able to detect -the few square inches of periscopic tube at a distance of three miles. -As this distance lessened, it might be advisable, if the sea was _very_ -calm and if the object of attack was stationary, for the submarine to -slacken speed, so as to prevent any spray being thrown off by the -periscopic tube. Assuming, however, that the optical tube was seen by -the enemy, it would be extremely difficult to hit it with gun-fire at a -distance of one or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, which would -probably be immersed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of about -2,000 yards, or just over one mile, the submarine would discharge her -first torpedo, following it up with another at closer range from the -second bow tube. A rapid dive would then probably be necessary in order -to avoid the hail of shot which would plough up the waters around her. -If the first two torpedoes missed their mark the submarine might either -dive completely under the object of attack and then fire her stern tubes -at close range, or else manœuvre below the surface for an attack from -some other point. - -One of the effects produced on fleets or individual warships in war time -by the ever present possibility of submarine attack is, however, that -they never remain at anchor or even stationary in an exposed position, -and seldom—if wise—proceed without destroyers as advance and flank -guards. These precautions double the difficulties of a successful -submarine attack. - ------ - -Footnote 7: - - As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally submerged, to - steer a _perfectly_ straight course, the table above each chart shows - the approximate average loss and gain on each mile. It must also be - remembered that the submarine in actual practice need only reach the - torpedo firing line. - -Footnote 8: - - “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Francis Griffiths.) - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS - - -In all warfare, new weapons of attack are, sooner or later, met by new -methods of defence. The submarine and the aeroplane are at present the -only weapons against which there is no true means of defence, and yet -one is being used as an antidote for the other without, however, any -very striking success so far. The seaplane may be able to distinguish -the dark patch in the sea caused by the hull of the submarine _in clear -water_, but she cannot destroy it, neither can she signal the _exact_ -locality to an accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing to the speed with -which seaplane and submarine pass over and under each other; -furthermore, in rough weather or in shallow muddy water no sign of the -submarine when submerged is visible from above. The great value of the -seaplane as an antidote for submarines lies, however, first in the fact -that the water of the open sea is usually clear, and the _submarine -shadow_ is visible from above, and, secondly, in the great speed of -these aircraft which enables them to quickly cover miles of sea in their -search for hostile submarines and to report their presence in a given -locality by wireless to all ships operating within range. - -When the enormous superficial area of a zone of war, such as the North -Sea and English Channel, is duly considered, however, the difficulty in -quickly and reliably locating from the air the few scattered “submarine -shadows” will be easily realized. To make this method of locating -submarines even fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes would be -required. Again seaplanes do not, in themselves, constitute a means of -defence against submarine attack, they merely increase the likelihood of -detection, but, in actual warfare, it has now been proved that for every -submarine detected by seaplanes two others pass quite unobserved. - -Many means of attack on submarines have been proposed; and no doubt some -of these, in certain cases, would prove effective; but none can be -relied upon. Therefore, one of the points in favour of the submarine -still remains without its antidote. This is the _moral effect_; for if -there is no absolutely reliable means of defence, there can be no -feeling of security for surface warships or merchant vessels when -anywhere within the danger zone of the submarine. - -Let us now examine briefly what practical methods of defence a modern -warship has against submarine attacks. Great speed is undoubtedly a -surface ship’s most reliable defence; and when combined with a frequent -change of course, would greatly reduce the chances of a successful -under-water attack. Should hostile submarines be on the line of advance -they would not know whether to wait and chance the enemy approaching -within torpedo range or whether to run to starboard or port. This is, if -the surface warship was steaming in an erratic course—not a zigzag -course, for then it might be possible to estimate, within torpedo range, -the position of the ship at a given point if the “tacks” were regular. - -Should submarines be seen approaching, a surface vessel would do well to -turn her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting as small a target -as possible, and deflecting the torpedoes by her propeller race. - -The escape of the Battle Cruiser _Queen Mary_ and the Light Cruiser -_Lowestoft_, during the action in the Heligoland Bight, as described in -the dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what -may be done by the skilful use of the helm on surface warships to -frustrate submarine attacks. So interesting, and informative as to the -actual fighting between British warships and hostile submarines, in this -dispatch that I give it here in full. It should, however, be studied in -conjunction with the comprehensive report—the first in the history of -Naval warfare detailing submarine attack and reconnaissance—from -Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., of the British submarines, given on -page 28. - - “H.M.S. _Lion_, - _1st September, 1914_. - - “SIR,—I have the honour to report that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 - a.m., I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser Squadron and First - Light Cruiser Squadron in company, to rendezvous with the - Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_. - - “At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements of the Flotillas commenced as - previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser Squadron and Light Cruiser - Squadron supporting. The Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_, with _New - Zealand_ and four Destroyers having joined my flag, the Squadron - passed through the pre-arranged rendezvous. - - “At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal from the Commodore (T), informing me - that the Flotilla was in action with the enemy. This was presumably in - the vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. From this time until 11 - a.m. I remained about the vicinity ready to support as necessary, - intercepting various signals, which contained no information on which - I could act. - - “At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked by three Submarines. The attack - was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and the four Destroyers were - ordered to attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., various signals having - been received indicating that the Commodore (T) and Commodore (S) were - both in need of assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser Squadron to - support the Torpedo Flotillas. - - “Later I received a signal from the Commodore (T), stating that he was - being attacked by a large Cruiser, and a further signal informing me - that he was being hard pressed and asking for assistance. The Captain - (D), First Flotilla, also signalled that he was in need of help. - - “From the foregoing the situation appeared to me critical. The - Flotillas had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., and were only - about twenty-five miles from two enemy bases on their flank and rear - respectively. Commodore Goodenough had detached two of his Light - Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier in the day, and these had - not yet rejoined. (They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As the reports - indicated the presence of many enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I - considered that his force might not be strong enough to deal with the - situation sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the Battle Cruisers - turned to E.S.E., and worked up to full speed. It was evident that to - be of any value the support must be overwhelming and carried out at - the highest speed possible. - - “I had not lost sight of the risk of Submarines, and possible sortie - in force from the enemy’s base, especially in view of the mist to the - South-East. - - “Our high speed, however, made submarine attack difficult, and the - smoothness of the sea made their detection comparatively easy. I - considered that we were powerful enough to deal with any sortie except - by a Battle Squadron, which was unlikely to come out in time, provided - our stroke was sufficiently rapid. - - “At 12.15 p.m. _Fearless_ and First Flotilla were sighted retiring - West. At the same time the Light Cruiser Squadron was observed to be - engaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beat. - - “I then steered N.E. to sounds of firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. - sighted _Arethusa_ and Third Flotilla retiring to the Westward - engaging a Cruiser of the _Kolberg_ class on our Port Bow. I steered - to cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At - 12.42 the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased at 27 knots. - - “At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. - _Lion_ fired two salvoes at her, which took effect, and she - disappeared into the mist, burning furiously and in a sinking - condition. In view of the mist and that she was steering at high speed - at right angles to _Lion_, who was herself steaming at 28 knots, the - _Lion’s_ firing was very creditable. - - “Our Destroyers had reported the presence of floating mines to the - Eastward and I considered it inadvisable to pursue her. It was also - essential that the Squadrons should remain concentrated, and I - accordingly ordered a withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned North and - circled to port to complete the destruction of the vessel first - engaged. She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. steaming S.E. with colours - still flying. _Lion_ opened fire with two turrets, and at 1.35 p.m., - after receiving two salvoes, she sank. - - “The four attached Destroyers were sent to pick up survivors, but I - deeply regret that they subsequently reported that they searched the - area but found none. - - “At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers turned to the Northward, and _Queen - Mary_ was again attacked by a Submarine. The attack was avoided by the - use of the helm. _Lowestoft_ was also unsuccessfully attacked. The - Battle Cruisers covered the retirement until nightfall. By 6 p.m., the - retirement having been well executed and all Destroyers accounted for, - I altered course, spread the Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in - accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s orders. At 7.45 p.m. I - detached _Liverpool_ to Rosyth with German prisoners, seven officers - and 79 men, survivors from _Mainz_. No further incident occurred.—I - have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant. - - “(Signed) DAVID BEATTY, - “Vice-Admiral. - “The Secretary of the Admiralty.” - -Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and 6-inch type are certainly the best -weapons for an attack on submarines. In combination with “sharp -look-outs,” they could be used with effect from the elevated positions -on the fore part of warships. The periscopic-tube of the submarine -always proves a target for gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches in -diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards requires “excellent” marksmanship -to hit. That it can be done is proved by the sinking of the German -submarine U.15 by the British Cruiser _Birmingham_ in the North Sea. The -effect of a shot carrying away the periscope is to blind the submarine, -at least in one eye, she can then be _run-down_ by the surface warship -or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at close range. - -Of course, if submarines were caught napping on the surface the guns of -surface warships could quickly sink them; but another incident, similar -to that which opened the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese War, -cannot be looked for in the naval engagements to come. - -For a fleet engaged in bombarding or blockading, one of the best methods -of defence would be to lower the torpedo nets, not close round each -vessel, but suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance from the -bombarding or blockading fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a good -defence during daylight, but neither of these methods are reliable. A -submarine might be able to dive unobserved under, or past, the -destroyers acting as pickets, and it is this chance which causes these -under-water craft to be a source of constant anxiety. - -The torpedo-boat destroyer should prove a nasty enemy to the submarine. -In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot vessels to look after their -under-water opponents. - -It has been suggested that internal armour could be fitted to warships -below the water-line, which would render the hulls able to withstand -mine or torpedo explosions. At present this is practically impossible, -as the great weight of this additional armour, combined with the -ever-increasing size of guns and weight of above-water protection, would -necessitate a vessel of such enormous displacement as to be quite -impossible, if the important factor—high speed—has also to be -maintained. - -The defence of harbours against submarines is a problem which does not -present nearly so many difficulties as the defence of moving ships. -Portsmouth, for example, is closed by means of a submarine boom-defence, -which is stretched across the mouth of the harbour. The entrance to the -River Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal) is effectively closed -to British submarines by boom-defences, mines, and submerged wire -entanglements. Narrow waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, can be -closed by the laying of contact-mines, and even broader seas can be made -dangerous to submarines by the same method. An example of this is -afforded by the laying of a British mine-field somewhere between the -Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to prevent German submarines from -penetrating into the English Channel. - -There are so many reliable means of defending harbours and narrow -waterways against submarines that it is unnecessary to say anything -further here. But to protect moving ships at sea, under all conditions, -certainly presents a most profound puzzle. - - - - - CHAPTER X - - THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO - - -The submarine torpedo has become one of the principal naval arms. Not -only does it supply the chief offensive power of the submarine, the -torpedo-boat and the destroyer, but it is also carried as a separate -arm, with a special highly-trained crew, by almost every warship afloat. -At the beginning of hostilities the Naval Powers engaged owned -considerably over 80,000 of these weapons, and _one_ factory in England -alone can make them at the rate of two a day. During the first few weeks -of the _Great War_ the torpedo was responsible for the sinking of -warships to the value of over one million sterling. Had the German Fleet -been on the high seas instead of in harbour and protected from torpedo -raids by carefully-prepared submarine defences, there is little doubt -but what several more of the enemy’s ships would have been sunk by this -weapon. The fact that at first the British light cruisers suffered -rather heavily—though in total loss of ships and men less than the -German Navy—does not point to any advantage derived either from the type -of torpedo used or from skill in this mode of warfare possessed by the -Germans, but clearly to the timidity of the German main fleet, which was -at the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn from the zone of war and -placed behind fortifications, where it was safe from torpedo attack. The -British Fleet, true to the policy of “attack and not defence,” began -operations the moment war was declared, with results so brilliantly -successful, and of such far-reaching and world-wide importance, that -enumeration is well-nigh impossible. But while all these operations were -in progress the British Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo attack -by any hostile submarines or fast surface craft which might succeed in -getting past the cordon of protecting destroyers, while the German Fleet -was safe, but ignominiously impotent. That the naval losses of Great -Britain, with all her fleets at sea, have not been far greater than they -have is in itself a victory of the greatest magnitude—a victory due -entirely to consummate naval skill. - -The modern torpedo varies in length from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to -half a ton. It has an extreme range of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ -miles. There are three types of torpedoes in use by the fleets at war. -The British use the _Whitehead Torpedo_, the French the Whitehead and -the _Schneider_, the Russians and the Japanese use the Whitehead; the -Germans have a type of their own, known as the _Schwartzkopf_, and the -Austrian arm is principally the Whitehead. All these types are alike in -their essential features, and therefore need not be described -separately. - -The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is propelled by compressed -air stored in that section of the weapon known as the _air-chamber_ (see -diagram). The air on being released is heated and expanded in a tiny -three or four-cylinder engine which operates twin screws, moving -“clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” The “war-head” contains about 200 -pounds of wet gun-cotton which is exploded on the torpedo striking an -object. The essential features of the Whitehead torpedo are shown in the -diagram.[9] - -This torpedo maintains a speed of 42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for -2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. -Thus, if discharged at a distance of half a mile it reaches its object -in about 45 seconds. - -[Illustration: - - Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead torpedo. _A._ Pistol, - detonator, primer, which causes the explosion of “B” when the torpedo - strikes an object. _B._ Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. - (The “war-head” is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.) - _C._ Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of approximately - 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The chamber is tested to stand a - pressure of 1700 lbs. per square inch. _D._ Balance chamber, containing - mechanism for regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo - is adjusted to run. _E._ Engine-room, containing propelling machinery - (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). _F._ Buoyancy chamber—a practically - empty chamber—to give the necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. _G._ - Gyroscope. An instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo - from the line of fire. _H._ Rudders, and mechanism for operating. _I._ - Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” - -] - -Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into the sea from surface or submerged -tubes, and on striking the water are propelled by their own engines in -an absolutely straight course towards the target. The exact mechanism of -the submerged tube—which is used in surface warships as well as in -submarines—is a naval secret. When fired from a surface tube the torpedo -sinks immediately to a depth of about 10 to 14 feet, and maintains this -depth until it strikes its object. When fired from a submerged tube it -rises—if necessary—to the same level. A torpedo always proceeds towards -its object of attack at a depth of a few feet below the surface. This, -combined with speed, renders it almost impossible to destroy an -approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So marvellous is the mechanism of these -little weapons that in anything like favourable circumstances they may -be _depended upon_, if well aimed, to strike within a yard or two of the -spot aimed at. This accuracy is due almost entirely to the gyroscope, -which, briefly described, is a rotating wheel automatically controlling -the torpedo’s course. - -Although for many years torpedoes have been carried by nearly all types -of service warships, none of them were really ideal for this kind of -warfare. A new field for the torpedo was, however, opened out by the -introduction of the submarine boat. In order to be effective the torpedo -must be discharged from a distance under 4,000 yards—preferably from a -point less than half this distance from the object of attack. This means -that the vessel carrying the torpedo would have to get within a mile, or -at least a mile and a-half, of her object of attack before discharging a -torpedo. For a surface vessel to accomplish this in the face of a heavy -cannonade from quick-firing guns would be extremely risky. To make a -quick rush to close quarters, if possible, by several vessels from -different points, was the only chance of delivering a successful torpedo -attack on a hostile warship; unless, of course, she was favoured by fog -or darkness _at the right moment_—favourable conditions which would -seldom obtain in actual warfare. Again, every increase in the speed of -the big surface warship rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat -and destroyer more difficult because in the event of a threatened attack -the larger vessel would make use of her speed to keep out of torpedo -range while her powerful guns were repelling the attacking torpedo-boat. - -The _hour_ of the torpedo came with the _perfection_ of the -submarine. All the conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were -fulfilled—_invisibility_ rendering daylight attacks possible; -_almost perfect immunity from gun-fire_ enabling the torpedo to be -discharged at closer range; _submerged discharge_ removing the -likelihood of the weapon being exploded by accurate gun-fire before -being discharged; _speed on the surface_ enabling the “carrying” -vessel to manœuvre for position; _moderate speed when submerged_ -enabling an attack under all reasonably tactical conditions; and -_comparatively large displacement_ giving good cruising qualities, -wide range of action, and enabling a large number of torpedoes and -tubes being carried. - ------ - -Footnote 9: - - “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Francis Griffiths.) - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - SUBMARINE MINES - - -If the Russo-Japanese war was the first to fully demonstrate the value -of the explosive mine, the Great European Conflict has certainly brought -this weapon to the forefront in the rapidly growing science of submarine -warfare. During the first few weeks of the naval fighting several -warships, beginning with H.M.S. _Amphion_, and many merchant vessels -representing millions of pounds sterling, were destroyed by these -weapons. Had it not been for the foresight of the British Admiralty in -providing a very large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by seaplanes, there -can be no doubt but what the shipping of all countries—neutrals and -belligerents alike—would have suffered far greater losses. - -[Illustration: LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.] - -[Illustration: - - A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER. - - These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive. -] - -The indiscriminate scattering of mines across the trade routes, as -carried on by Germany immediately on the outbreak of war, and before -hardly any of the ships at sea belonging to neutral countries could be -warned to avoid the zone of operations, has never before been so -ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised power. - -The system of defence consists of the mooring of these mines in such -positions as to make it almost impossible for hostile ships to pass -without either striking or coming within the destructive zone of one or -more of them. What are known as _floating mines_ are those set adrift to -be washed about by the tide. They explode immediately on being struck by -a passing vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate between friend and -foe. The systems of destroying hostile mine-fields consist of -_counter-mining_, or placing other mines in the enemy’s field and -destroying it by their explosion, and by _sweeping_. The latter method -is the one mostly employed in modern warfare. The boats taking part in -the _sweep_ place themselves one on each side of the mine-field, and -between them hangs a long wire rope, weighted in the centre to keep it -well submerged. They then move forward, sweeping the mines to the -surface or exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, very dangerous but -highly necessary work. - -There are two kinds of submarine mines, one is designed to explode on -being struck by a passing vessel, and is called a _contact mine_, and -the other is fired from the shore by an electric current, and is known -as an _observation mine_. The explosive principally used is wet -gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only to the safety with which they can -be stored and manipulated, but also to the fact that they seldom explode -in sympathy with neighbouring mines, requiring to be actually fired. The -importance of this will be more fully realised when it is remembered -that in warfare it is often necessary to explode certain mines over -which hostile ships are endeavouring to pass, while leaving others in -fairly close proximity intact, ready to repel a second invasion or to -destroy ships nearer to them. The actual explosion is caused by an -electric current, either from the shore or from a battery in the mine -itself, causing the detonation of fulminate of mercury in conjunction -with a small priming charge of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid in a -series, connected to a battery on the sea-bed in the centre of the line -of defence. - -The _observation mine_ is mostly used for defending the approaches to -harbours, as an observer on shore can watch the movements of hostile -warships and explode each mine when the vessel passes over it. _Contact -mines_, on the other hand, are used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely -to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed by means of a cable and heavy -weight, and are allowed to float a few feet below the surface. They -explode immediately on contact. At times an unscrupulous or demoralised -enemy will simply throw a number of these mines overboard and allow them -to float at the mercy of wind and tide. They then become a terrible -danger to the shipping of all nations, as once they are left unwatched -it is extremely difficult to tell with any degree of certainty where -they will eventually proclaim their presence by devastating explosions. -Happily for the whole seafaring world, this method is seldom resorted -to, as mines set adrift in this way become a danger to both friend and -foe. In the Russo-Japanese war several ships were destroyed by their own -mines. - -There are many different kinds of submarine mines, both of the -observation and the contact type. Some are spherical in shape and others -cylindrical. Some are moored close down to the sea-bed with a very heavy -explosive charge (200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have a small buoyant -globe floating above them, which, when struck, fires the mine below. -Others, known as secret-mines, are kept continually moored in the -waterways leading to important naval harbours, and are only allowed to -rise sufficiently high from the sea-bed to be struck by passing vessels -in times of emergency. The type most generally used is, however, the -ordinary _offensive contact mine_, which contains a powerful explosive -charge and is anchored in the path of hostile warships. These mines are -usually automatically sown in large numbers over a wide area of sea by -the mine-laying fleets. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - - MINE-LAYING FLEETS - - -The _regular_ mine-laying fleets of the powers at war are composed of -the following vessels, all of which are fitted with special apparatus -for the work. Submarine mines can, however, be laid by any vessel, and -it is therefore almost impossible to say exactly what ships are engaged -in this work. Both Germany and Austria have converted a large number of -their merchantmen into mine-layers. England, in reply, has converted a -large number of small steamers into _mine-sweepers_. Russia is a strong -believer in explosive mines, and has strewn the gulfs of Finland and -Riga with them. Japan, being on the offensive, is employing more -mine-sweepers than layers. France has an elaborate system of submarine -mine defence for all her important harbours, and maintains a small fleet -at each base, known as the “defence mobile.” These vessels are all -capable of both mine-laying and sweeping. - -The submarine mine is primarily the defence of the weaker naval power, -and therefore a fleet acting on the defensive, either temporarily or -permanently, requires more mine-layers than mine-sweepers, but the -reverse is naturally the case with a fleet acting on the offensive. -Although this may be taken as a general rule, it does not imply that a -strong naval power like Great Britain, whose policy is attack and not -defence, needs no mines or mine-layers. On the contrary, the laying of -_counter_ mines is one of the ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field; -and even the strongest fleet cannot guard every portion of a long coast -line with many harbours exposed to attack. The judicious laying of -mine-fields will often prevent raids by hostile submarines and -torpedo-boats; and will limit the theatre of operations, as was done by -the British Navy in the southern portion of the North Sea in October, -1914. The axiom that a really strong navy needs to be strong in _every_ -branch, therefore holds good in this, as in all other respects. - - - MINE-LAYING FLEETS. - - - GREAT BRITAIN. - - _Apollo._ _Thetis._ _Andromache._ _Latona._ _Naiad._ _Intrepid._ - _Iphigenia._ - -These are all second class cruisers of from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built -about 1891‒2, which have been converted into mine-layers. They are -equipped with a very large number of submarine explosive mines, which -can be automatically lowered into the water as the vessels steam along. -Their speed is about 15 knots, and their armament consists of four -4·7-inch quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 150 officers and -men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. _IPHIGENIA_. - - The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern. - -] - - - GERMANY. - - _Pelikan_ (1890). _Nautilus_ (1906). _Albatross_ (1907). _Arkona_ - (1903). - -All these vessels, with the exception of the _Arkona_, which was a -protected cruiser, have been specially built for mine-laying work. Their -displacement is about 2,000 tons. The _Pelikan_ has a speed of 15 knots, -the _Albatross_ and _Nautilus_ of 20 knots, and the _Arkona_ of 21 ½ -knots. They are all fitted with special gear for dropping the large -number of mines carried, and their armament consists of from four to -eight 21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 200 officers -and men. - - - AUSTRIA. - -The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses only one regular mine-laying -warship—the _Chamaleon_, which was being completed when war was -declared. She is a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, with a speed of 20 -knots. Her mine-launching gear is of the most modern and efficient type, -and she is armed with several quick-firing guns. - -Since the beginning of hostilities Austria has converted several old -warships and merchantmen into mine-layers. - - - FRANCE AND RUSSIA. - -Neither of these powers possess proper mine-laying vessels, but on the -outbreak of war several old warships and small merchant steamers were -used for that purpose. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - - MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS - - -For clearing away the mines dropped by an enemy special vessels are -employed. Each vessel is fitted on both sides with a curious contrivance -known as the “picking-up gear.” This apparatus is lowered into the -water, and “picks up” any mines which may lie in the path of an -on-coming fleet. When a mine-field is discovered by either destroyers or -seaplanes these vessels are immediately dispatched to destroy it; and -they are aided, in the case of the British Navy, by a large flotilla of -steam trawlers. Many of these auxiliary vessels are not fitted with the -_picking-up gear_, but go to work in pairs. Two vessels, connected -together by a long wire rope weighted in the centre to keep it -submerged, range themselves on each side of a mine-field, and by -steaming ahead in a parallel line sweep up the mines floating between -them. This process can be carried on simultaneously by a large number of -trawlers, covering a very wide area of sea. In the meantime the attached -destroyers and seaplanes can be searching for new fields. It often -happens during sweeping operations that mines are brought into contact -with each other and violent explosions occur. Sometimes the vessels -engaged in this hazardous work will themselves strike one of the mines, -but it is more often the _searching_ flotillas which meet with sudden -disaster in this way. Fully equipped mine-sweepers usually precede a -fleet of battleships and big cruisers through dangerous and narrow seas, -within the likely zone of hostile mines. - -The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet comprises the following vessels:—_Circe_ -(810 tons), _Jason_ (810 tons), _Speedy_ (810 tons), _Leda_ (810 tons), -_Gossamer_ (735 tons), _Seagull_ (735 tons), _Skipjack_ (735 tons), and -_Speedwell_ (735 tons). - -These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats which have been -specially fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. There is also a -large flotilla of steam fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these vessels -were purchased by the Admiralty before the war, and were also equipped -for mine-sweeping; but many others were, by special arrangement, handed -over to the Navy on the outbreak of war. The whole of the mine-sweeping -fleet is manned by a special section of the Royal Naval Reserve, known -as the “Trawler Section,” which consists of about 142 _skippers_ and -1,136 men. This is, of course, in addition to the several thousand naval -sailors employed on the regular mine-sweepers, named above, and also to -those employed on the large number of additional small steamers taken -over for this work by the Admiralty at the commencement of hostilities. -It is estimated that the task of keeping the North Sea clear of mines -during the first four weeks of the Great War required over 100 vessels -and 5,000 sailors, in addition to the usual destroyer and submarine -patrols with their crews, and also to the seaplanes with their pilots -and observers. - -Almost any steamship can be quickly converted into an effective -mine-sweeper, and for this reason it is impossible to give here more -than the very briefest information concerning the vessels employed in -these operations by the other Naval Powers at war. Russia had fifteen -special mine-sweeping vessels building when war broke out; but, -doubtless, many small merchant ships have since been used for this -purpose. France employed a number of mine-sweepers in the Adriatic; and -Japan used some in clearing the approaches to Tsing-tau. Germany and -Austria, of course, did not need many vessels of this kind, as the -Allied Navies laid comparatively few mines and German oversea commerce -ceased to exist almost as soon as war was declared. It was in the North -Sea, during the first phase of the naval war, that the value of a big -British mine-sweeping fleet made itself so wonderfully apparent. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - - COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR - - -Tempered and tried in the forge of war the submarine has at last been -lifted from the experimental stage of naval construction to the -fore-front of fleets in being. For over twenty years naval experts, -marine engineers and scientists have been wrestling with the vast and -complex problems of submarine construction, navigation and warfare, and -have, at a cost of many lives and many millions sterling, produced -submersible warships of steadily increasing size and power, until to-day -264 of these vessels, of over a dozen different and more or less secret -designs, with displacements ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in the -fighting line of the Fleets at war. Thousands of sailors have been -trained to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, guns, engines, and even -the air to breath, have been adapted for submarine work. A comparison, -therefore, of the strength and fighting power of the submarine fleets -engaged for the first time in this great struggle for the mastery of the -seas is of more than passing interest. - - - BRITISH NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, 6 - speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: - (nearly completed) - - Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 19 - 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 8 - 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 37 - 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 70 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 10 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 8 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 18 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in British Flotillas 88 - -It must, however, be pointed out that six vessels of the sea-going “F” -class have not yet taken their place in the active flotillas; and that -eight vessels of the “E” class were on duty on foreign stations when war -commenced. - - - FRENCH NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (_Diane_ class, _Bellone_ class, and 7 - _Gustave Zede_ class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 - knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: - (completing) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Clorinde_ class), range 3,500 miles, 10 - speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: _Mariotte_, _Archimède_, 4 - _Charles Brun_, and _Admiral Bourgeoise_), range 3,000‒3,500 - miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 600 tons (_Fresnel_ class), range 2,000 miles, 22 - speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Pluviôse_ class), range 2,500 miles, 11 - speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 54 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 450 tons (_Circe_ class), range 1,000 miles, speed 2 - 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in - holders: (in commission) - - Submarines of 400 tons (_Emeraude_ class), range 1,000 miles, 6 - speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Argonaute_ and _Aigrette_ class), 3 - range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo - tubes: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 11 - - - HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Triton_ class, _Française_ class, 9 - and _Lutin_ class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, - armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission) - - Submarines of 50‒100 tons (_Naiade_ class), range 100 miles, 20 - speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in - commission) - - Total Harbour Defence Submarines 29 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in French Flotillas 94 - - - RUSSIAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (_Tigr_ class), no particulars: 12 - (completing) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Kaschalot_ class), range 3,000 7 - miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. - gun: (in commission) - - Submarines of 400‒500 tons (_Alligator_ class), range 3,000 4 - miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Akula_ class), range 2,500 miles, 1 - speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (_Karp_ class), range 1,000 miles, 2 - speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200 tons (_Makrel_ class), range 800‒1,000 miles, 2 - speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in - commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 28 - - - COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Minoga_ class, _Lossos_ class, 19 - _Sig_, _Sterliad_ class, _Som_ class, _Ostr_ class, and _Graf - Cheremetieve_ class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on - surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and - holders: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 19 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas 47 - - - JAPANESE NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 6 - 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 6 - 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 2 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 14 - - - COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 2 - 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 5 - knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 7 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas 21 - - - GERMAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 13 - completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 - torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing) - - Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 4 - knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 2 - 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 10 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 7 - 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 36 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 1 - knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in German Flotillas 37 - - - AUSTRIAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 5 - knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: - (completing—delivery doubtful) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 2 - 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 2 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 2 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas 6 - -When war commenced all the vessels of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) -were concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. The Austrian Flotilla of -six vessels was in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in home waters 74 -submarines and 14 others on duty in the outer seas. France had several -of the 92 vessels composing her powerful flotillas at her oversea -colonial naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines in the Baltic, 11 in the -Black Sea, and 12 in the Far East. The Japanese Flotilla (17) was -concentrated in Japanese waters. - - - _Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading._ - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Printed Corrected Page - guns guns. Frontispiece and 2 q.-f. guns. - gunfire gun-fire 30 attacked by gun-fire - ), ). 37 E. B. Feilmann). - Submarines Submarines: 61 Submarines: B.3, B.4, - destroyers· destroyers. 74 and destroyers. - BUILDING: BUILDING. 75 SUBMARINES BUILDING. - topedo-boats torpedo-boats. 108 torpedo-boats. - and AND 113 U.19 AND U.20. - _eompleted_ _completed_ 118 were being _completed_ - manœvring manœuvering 125 with manœuvering - Fig. 1 FIG. 1 133 FIG. 1 represents a - Fig. 2 FIG. 2 135 FIG. 2 shows the - manœuvre manœuvre, 143 method, or manœuvre, - “anti-clockwise.’ “anti-clockwise.” 164 and “anti-clockwise.” - oncoming on-coming 179 path of an on-coming - -On the Title Page, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S -NAVIES”. - -The image for RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. appeared after Page 160 -in the digitized source. - -Under the SEA-GOING VESSELS heading on Page 190, “Total Sea-going -Submarines | 36” was added for consistency. - -Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the -War, by Charles William Domville-Fife - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - -***** This file should be named 51347-0.txt or 51347-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/4/51347/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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margin: 2em auto; text-align: center; - } - div.myfigcenter p { text-align: left; } - .myfigcenter img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } - .inlblk {display: inline-block;} - .ships {display:inline; font-size: 1em; list-style-type: none;} - .shipit {display:inline; padding: 1em;} - .center {text-align: center;} - </style> - </head> - <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War, by -Charles William Domville-Fife - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War - -Author: Charles William Domville-Fife - -Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c001' /> -</div> -<div> - <h1 class='c002' title='Submarines, Mines and torpedoes in the War'></h1> -</div> - -<div class='c003'></div> -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='British Submarine E.2' /> - <div> -<p class='c005'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c006'> - <div>Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns<a id='tnfrontis'></a>.</div> - <div class='c001'>There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14.</div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c007'> - <div><span class='c008'>SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR</span></div> - <div class='c009'>BY</div> - <div class='c001'><span class='c010'>CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE</span></div> - <div class='c001'>AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”<a id='tntitle'></a>,</div> - <div>“SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.</div> - <div class='c011'><span class='c012'>ILLUSTRATED</span></div> - <div class='c011'><span class='c010'>HODDER AND STOUGHTON</span></div> - <div class='c001'><span class='c012'>LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO</span></div> - <div class='c013'>MCMXIV</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> - <h2 class='c014'>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Warfare has become so largely a matter -of science that in order to arrive at an -intelligent understanding of the <i>naval -situation</i> or of the <i>military campaigns</i> in -the Great European War, a knowledge -of the scientific factors contributing to -victory or defeat is essential. And in -this volume it has been my aim not only -to review the actual fighting underseas, -but also to present a compendium of -information relative to the submarine -fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers -engaged; which I venture to hope will -prove of present interest on account of -the prominent part played by the under-water -fighting ships and appliances, and -of permanent historic value as being the -first work to describe the vast preparations -and curious events leading to the new -“Submarine Phase” in naval warfare.</p> - -<div class='c016'>C. W. D-F.</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> - <h2 class='c014'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c017'></th> - <th class='c018'>PAGE</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#intro'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch1'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch2'>60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch3'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch4'>94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch5'>104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch6'>108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>CHAPTER VII</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch7'>118</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#flotillas'>123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch8'>124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IX</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch9'>146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER X</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch10'>160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>SUBMARINE MINES</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch11'>168</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch12'>174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch13'>179</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</td> - <td class='c018'><a href='#ch14'>184</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> - <h2 id='intro' class='c014'>INTRODUCTION <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>In the mist of war which envelops over -half the entire world, no less than 264 -underwater fighting ships are engaged. -They form the submarine fleets of -England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany -and Austria; and the highly-trained -crews of these modern additions to the -fighting navies comprise nearly 20,000 -men. But the conduct of submarine warfare -on the grand scale requires far more -than flotillas of submergible warships -and their daring crews. This new branch -of naval science is ever widening in its -scope, its means of offence, and in its -attendant ramifications. Every important -naval base has its curious submarine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>floating docks, ready for crippled members -of its attached flotilla; every naval construction -department has its corps of -submarine experts; each of the 1,500 -surface warships engaged in this titanic -struggle for the dominion of Europe and -the mastery of the seas carries the means -for delivering submarine attacks in its -torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging -tubes. The oceans in the -theatres of war have been strewn with -German and Austrian mines; then they -have been either counter-mined or swept -clear and mined again. British seaplanes, -with specially trained observers, -are continually searching from high in -the air for the <i>dark patches in the semi-transparent -sea-green</i> which denote the -presence of mines and submarines. -Within signal-range or wireless call of -the aërial scouts and their attendant ships -are destroyer flotillas to give battle to -the hostile submarines, while hundreds of -trawlers and small steamers, fitted with -special apparatus, are continually sweeping -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>up the hundreds of submarine mines laid -by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted -to enable them to sow like seeds over the -pathways of the sea these deadly perils -to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements -in conjunction with boom-defences -and observation and contact submarine -mines protect the seaward approaches to -harbours in the same way as similar -appliances are used to protect the -approaches to land fortifications; and -every harbour, waterway and channel of -strategic importance is protected by -elaborate submarine mine defences. All -this is part of the new warfare underseas—that -science which is daily rendering -hazardous the life of the greatest battleship -and the smallest merchantman afloat -in the zone of war.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Before placing in review order the vast -preparations made for submarine attack -and defence in the years which preceded -the outbreak of war and describing in -detail the powerful submarine fleets -engaged, it is necessary to make clear -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>to the reader the wonderful change which -this new mode of attack has made in all -branches of naval warfare and its influence -on sea power. As indicative of -this change we have only to survey <i>in -their submarine aspect</i> the naval operations -in the opening phase of this, the -greatest war in history.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In the domain of naval strategy we -find reflected the altered conditions caused -by these invisible arms. Every battle -on land and sea teaches its lesson of -concealment and sudden stealthy attack; -and even as the huge siege guns and -devastating artillery fire of the land -forces is causing the extension of the -battle-front and the rapid burrowing -under earth or entrenching of positions -dearly won or with difficulty retained—“approximating -to siege warfare”—so -are the powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval -guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. and -1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with -the rapidity and accuracy of the modern -warship’s secondary armament, necessitating -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the reduction in numbers of the -big surface ships of the opposing fleets -by frequent submarine and torpedo -attacks prior to the decisive engagements -between the battle fleets. Hence -we find, in the opening phase of the -naval war, the German and Austrian -fleets, inferior in numbers and gun -power, skulking behind fortifications and -waiting for their submarine and surface -torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in conjunction -with the hundreds of submerged -mines strewn over the North Sea, Baltic, -Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the -number and power of the British, French, -Russian and Japanese fleets before the -decisive actions are fought; and in order -that these tactics might be frustrated, and -the big British ships, as well as those -of her allies, costing several millions -sterling each, should not be exposed -to these grave risks when no good -could result, they have been compelled -to delay initiative, and meanwhile all -their operations had to be screened by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and -destroyer types, while they waited within -call should the German Battle Fleet—in -the case of the North Sea—dare to -come out to fight. The British submarines -of the large sea-going type were -in the meantime employed in watching -the Frisian coast with the object of -attacking any of the enemy’s ships which -ventured from behind the elaborate coast -fortifications. Not content with this <i>rôle</i>, -however, several British submarines made -their way unseen through the dangerous -waters of the Heligoland Bight and -succeeded in getting within reconnoitering -distance of the German submerged -harbour defences, behind which lurk their -big ships.</p> - -<p class='c022'>With what degree of success this new -opening or <i>submarine phase</i> in naval -warfare has been attended is shown by -the sinking, during the first few weeks -of the war, of the British cruiser -<i>Amphion</i>, a vessel of 3,440 tons displacement, -completed in 1912, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>carrying ten 4-inch guns, with a loss of -131 men, by contact with a German -mine; the destruction of the German -submarine U.15 by the British cruiser -<i>Birmingham</i>; the sinking of an Austrian -torpedo-boat by a mine off Pola; the -torpedoing of H.M.S. <i>Pathfinder</i>, a -fleet scout of about 3,000 tons displacement, -completed in 1905‒6, by a -German submarine; the destruction of -the Wilson liner <i>Runo</i> by a mine; the -sinking of the German cruiser <i>Hela</i>, a -vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built -in 1896, by the British submarine E 9, -and the torpedoing of the British -armoured cruisers <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Hogue</i> and -<i>Cressy</i>—vessels of 12,000 tons displacement, -carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve -6-inch guns besides twelve 12-pounder -quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by -German submarines concealed behind -a trawler engaged in laying mines, -over which the Dutch flag had been -hoisted as a blind.</p> - -<p class='c022'>This is in addition to the lamentable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>destruction of much life and property -belonging to neutral powers caused by -the laying of German floating mines on -the trade-routes.</p> - -<p class='c022'>To the Allies this <i>submarine phase</i> -did not come unexpected. The British -Naval yards in conjunction with the big -shipbuilding and engineering firms, such -as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness; -Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth -and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the -Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., -Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and -Co. Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ -Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., as -well as many other firms and individual -submarine experts had been engaged for -many years in solving one after another -the problems continually arising in the -practical application of all forms of -submarine warfare. The first British -naval submarines were launched in -1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at -Barrow, and the subsequent growth of -our submarine flotillas has been rapid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>both in number of vessels and in size -and armament. The British submarine -fleet now numbers 82 vessels. The -original boats from which the British -type has since been evolved were built -from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, -an American inventor.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/016.jpg' alt='North Sea Coastlines' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>To France belongs the honour of being -the first naval power to adopt the submarine -torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; -and the first vessel, the <i>Gymnôte</i>, was -launched in 1888, but it was not until -1893 that the Republic commenced the -construction of her now powerful submarine -flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The first Russian submarine was -launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and -since that date the Russian flotilla has -steadily increased until it now numbers -37 vessels.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Japan commenced the construction of -what is now a powerful and up-to-date -flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition -of a British-Holland boat in 1904.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Turning to Germany we find at first -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>a great reluctance on the part of the -Ministry of Marine to provide for the -construction of submarines, but in 1905‒6 -this initial hesitation was overcome and -the two vessels U.1 and U.2 were -launched. Since then the belief in a -powerful submarine flotilla steadily grew -until at the moment when war was -declared Germany possessed no less than -30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient -type. The Austro-Hungarian Navy did -not adopt submarines as units of the -Fleet until 1909, and now possess only -six small vessels.</p> - -<p class='c022'>From this brief <i>resumé</i> of the growth -of the submarine fleets of the six great -naval Powers at war, it will be seen that -in point of numbers as well as in priority, -bringing with it practical experience, -Great Britain and France have a very -appreciable superiority. It must, however, -be left for succeeding chapters to -describe in detail the steady growth and -present size and capabilities of the -submarine fleets at war.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese -war were not lost on the -British Admiralty, and special methods -had been prepared to deal with submarine -attack in its various forms. -Having in mind the destruction caused -to both Russian and Japanese warships -by submarine mines—especially those -of the “offensive contact” type, which -are moored to the bottom, float just -under the surface and explode immediately -on contact; and in the Russo-Japanese -War were responsible for -the sinking of the Japanese battleships -<i>Hatsuse</i> and <i>Yashima</i> as well -as the Russian battleship <i>Petropavlovsk</i> -and the cruiser <i>Boyarin</i>—the -British Admiralty foresaw the danger to -which both warships and merchantmen -would be exposed in time of war if the -seas strewn with these mines could not -be quickly cleared, and a new type of -auxiliary came into being. This was the -mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old -torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>the work. In addition to these, however, -the Admiralty purchased a considerable -number of steam fishing trawlers, and -fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, -and made arrangements for a large fleet -of similar vessels to be placed at the disposal -of the navy in the event of war. -In order to man this new mine-sweeping -fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak -of war, a new section of the Royal -Naval Reserve was created in 1911. -This is known as the “Trawler Section,” -and consists of 142 <i>skippers</i> and 1,136 -men taken from the fishing fleet.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Realizing the value of the submarine -mine in certain cases, the British -Admiralty went further and created a -small mine-laying fleet from seven old -second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks -cleared and provided with rails for -a large number of mines to be run down -and slid over the stern into the water as -the vessels steamed along, thus quickly -laying a mine-field. But as the laying -of mines, speaking generally, is a defensive -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>mode of warfare and the policy of -the British Navy—owing to its supremacy—is -attack and not defence, the -mine-laying fleet is of second importance -to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, -although much augmented by additional -small steamers pressed into service, was, -during the first few weeks of the war, -of a nature more arduous and dangerous -than will ever be realised. Hundreds of -German mines were swept up, and -hundreds more were exploded by being -dragged into contact with each other during -the progress of sweeping operations.</p> - -<p class='c022'>What the clearance of these vast fields -of floating and anchored mines in the -North Sea meant to the British Navy, -engaged in blockading the German -Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not -only of England, France, Russia and -Belgium, but also to that of the neutral -countries, it is perhaps a little difficult to -realize until one remembers that several -hundred British and French warships -were patrolling the North Sea and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, -there were hundreds of merchantmen -homeward bound whose course lay across -this mine-infested sea. Many of these -vessels had on board not only valuable -cargoes of food, raw material for manufacture -and gold and silver bullion, but -also officers and men returning from -various parts of the world to rejoin their -regiments. Again, the Expeditionary -Force had to be transported across the -Channel to France. This could not be -attempted until a guarantee had been -given by the Navy that the seas were -clear of hostile warships, submarines and -mines. The fleet blockading the -Frisian coast had to be supplied with -coal and fresh food; and last but by no -means least it was of vital importance -to the Allied Armies in the Field that -the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to -Antwerp, forming the rear and left-flank, -should be accessible to friendly shipping. -It is not difficult to realize what would -have been the effect had thousands of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>these deadly German contact mines been -allowed to float unhindered in these -narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the -magnificent effort made by thousands of -seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers -assisted by seaplanes, many vessels—some -belonging to neutral powers and -others to the enemy themselves—were -destroyed before the seas could be effectively -swept clear, the hostile mine-layers -destroyed or chased into port and there -blockaded with their cowardly fleet.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The torpedo has long been recognised -as one of the most effective of naval -arms. It is carried by every modern -warship afloat, but it is essentially the -arm of the submarine and of the small -and fast surface vessel. For a torpedo -attack to be successful it is absolutely -necessary for the vessel carrying the -weapon to get within about 1,000 yards -of the object of attack. The difficulty -of accomplishing this manœuvre with an -enemy on the alert is easily apparent, -but if the attacking vessel can creep up -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>to within torpedo range unobserved her -chances of sinking the enemy are decidedly -good, and it is the quality -possessed by the submarine of making -herself invisible by sinking beneath the -surface and approaching her enemy -“seeing but unseen” that makes this -type of vessel the ideal torpedo-boat. -But, like everything else, there are limits -to its use, for a submarine, although it can -navigate on the surface like an ordinary -torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged -attack at night owing to the periscopes, -which are the “eyes” of these underwater -fighting ships, being useless in the dark. -When night covers the sea, however, the -chances of the fast grey-painted surface -torpedo-boat or destroyer being able to -approach the enemy unseen are more -than doubled, and in this way fleets -become exposed to submarine torpedo -attack by day and surface torpedo attack -by night. Further, a submarine will often -attack while a seaplane hovers over the -enemy in order to draw attention. It -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>is this constant exposure to sudden -and unseen submarine attack which is -primarily responsible for the terrible -nerve strain imposed on the crews of -modern surface warships in time of war.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Owing to the ability of submarines to -deliver stealthy attacks by day, naval -tacticians have designated this type of -craft “Daylight torpedo-boats,” but they -are rapidly passing beyond the purely -torpedo and coastal defensive stage and -are taking on to themselves the <i>rôle</i> of -the ocean cruiser. The size of these -vessels has increased from 50 to 1,000 -tons displacement in ten years. They -now carry not only a considerable -number of the largest size torpedo but -also quick-firing guns for repelling attacks -by small surface vessels, and are capable -of accompanying fleets to sea. The -Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and -A.E.2 both made the voyage from -Barrow to Sydney under their own -power and without convoy. The radius -of action of the latest vessels both of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>British and French Navies amounts to -several thousand miles. In the case of -the British “F” class the displacement -has risen to 1,500 tons, the speed to 20 -knots and the armament to six torpedo -tubes and four 12-pounder quick-firing -guns, thus making them in every sense -ocean cruisers capable of keeping the -sea in almost any weather and possessing -wide range of action and considerable -offensive power. Hitherto British submarines, -like the ordinary surface -torpedo-boats, have been known by -numbers only, but the latest vessels are -to receive names which indicates the -increase in size and importance of these -craft. They may be termed the advance -guards of the submarine battleships of -the future.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The torpedo, which is the principal -arm of the submarine boat, is itself a -submarine projectile. After being discharged -from the firing tube it sinks a -short distance below the surface and is -propelled by its own engines at a high -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>rate of speed in a straight line towards -its object of attack. Great improvements -have been made during the past -ten years in the construction of these -delicate weapons. The extreme effective -range and speed has risen from 4,000 -yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45 -knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The -“war-head” or front section of the -torpedo contains a charge of about 200 -pounds of damp gun-cotton which is -fired by a detonator on the torpedo -striking an object. This very powerful -explosive charge is capable of tearing -open an enormous hole in the unprotected -under-water skin of the surface -warship. The type of weapon used in -the British, French, Russian and -Japanese Navies is the <i>Whitehead</i> -torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The -German Navy uses the <i>Schwartzkopf</i> -torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is -very similar to the Whitehead and is a -very powerful weapon.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In the first phase of the naval war no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>less than eight warships have been sunk -by submarine torpedoes.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The activity of the British submarines -<i>in the theatre of war</i>, from the beginning -of hostilities, is admirably set forth in -the following dispatch from Commodore -Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the -first dispatch in the history of naval -warfare to describe in detail submarine -attack and reconnaissance:—</p> - -<div class='c023'>H.M.S. <i>Maidstone</i>, </div> -<div class='c023'><i>17th October, 1914</i>.</div> - -<p class='c024'>“Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ -directions, I have the honour to -report as follows upon the services performed -by the Submarines since the -commencement of hostilities:—</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Three hours after the outbreak of war, -Submarines E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander -Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander -Francis H. H. Goodhart), -proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a -reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. -These two vessels returned with useful -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>information, and had the privilege of -being the pioneers on a service which is -attended by some risk.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“During the transportation of the Expeditionary -Force the <i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i> -and all the Submarines of the -Eighth Submarine Flotilla occupied -positions from which they could have -attacked the High Sea Fleet, had it -emerged to dispute the passage of our -transports. This patrol was maintained -day and night without relief, until the -<i>personnel</i> of our Army had been transported -and all chance of effective -interference had disappeared.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“These Submarines have since been -incessantly employed on the Enemy’s -Coast in the Heligoland Bight and -elsewhere, and have obtained much -valuable information regarding the composition -and movement of his patrols. -They have occupied his waters and -reconnoitred his anchorages, and, while -so engaged, have been subjected to -skilful and well executed anti-submarine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>tactics; hunted for hours at a time by -Torpedo Craft and attacked by <a id='tn031'></a>gun-fire -and torpedoes.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At midnight on August 26th, I -embarked in the <i>Lurcher</i>, and, in company -with <i>Firedrake</i> and Submarines -D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, and -E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, -proceeded to take part in the operations -in the Heligoland Bight arranged for -August 28th. The Destroyers scouted -for the Submarines until nightfall on -the 27th, when the latter proceeded independently -to take up various positions from -which they could co-operate with the Destroyer -Flotillas on the following morning.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At daylight on August 28th the -<i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i> searched the -area, through which the Battle Cruisers -were to advance, for hostile Submarines, -and then proceeded towards Heligoland -in the wake of Submarines E.6, E.7, -and E.8, which were exposing themselves -with the object of inducing the -enemy to chase them to the westward.</p> - -<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>“On approaching Heligoland, the -visibility, which had been very good -to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 -yards, and this added considerably to -the anxieties and responsibilities of the -Commanding Officers of Submarines, -who handled their vessels with coolness -and judgment in an area which was -necessarily occupied by friends as well as -foes.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Low visibility and calm sea are the -most unfavourable conditions under which -Submarines can operate, and no opportunity -occurred of closing with the -Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo -range.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. -Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, witnessed -the sinking of the German -Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 through -his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser -of the <i>Stettin</i> class close, and open fire -on the British Destroyers which had -lowered their boats to pick up the survivors, -he proceeded to attack the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Cruiser, but she altered course before -he could get within range. After -covering the retirement of our Destroyers, -which had had to abandon their -boats, he returned to the latter, and -embarked a Lieutenant and nine men -of <i>Defender</i>, who had been left behind. -The boats also contained two Officers -and eight men of V.187, who were -unwounded, and eighteen men who were -badly wounded. As he could not embark -the latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir -left one of the Officers and six unwounded -men to navigate the British -boats to Heligoland. Before leaving he -saw that they were provided with water, -biscuit, and a compass. One German -Officer and two men were made prisoners -of war.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action -in remaining on the surface in the -vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility -which would have placed his vessel within -easy gun range of an enemy appearing -out of the mist, was altogether admirable.</p> - -<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>“This enterprising and gallant Officer -took part in the reconnaissance which -supplied the information on which these -operations were based, and I beg to -submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander -Talbot, the Commanding -Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, -judgment, and skill in a dangerous -position, for the favourable consideration -of Their Lordships.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander -Max K. Horton) torpedoed -and sank the German Light -Cruiser <i>Hela</i> six miles South of Heligoland.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“A number of Destroyers were evidently -called to the scene after E.9 had -delivered her attack, and these hunted -her for several hours.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“On September 14th, in accordance -with his orders, Lieutenant-Commander -Horton examined the outer anchorage -of Heligoland, a service attended by -considerable risk.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“On September 25th, Submarine E.6 -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>(Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot), -while diving, fouled the moorings of a -mine laid by the enemy. On rising to -the surface she weighed the mine and -sinker; the former was securely fixed -between the hydroplane and its guard; -fortunately, however, the horns of the -mine were pointed outboard. The weight -of the sinker made it a difficult and -dangerous matter to lift the mine clear -without exploding it. After half an -hour’s patient work this was effected by -Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman -and Able Seaman Ernest -Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, -and the released mine descended to its -original depths.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander -Max K. Horton), when -patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and -sank the enemy’s Destroyer S.126.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue -tactics which, in connection with their -shallow draft, make them exceedingly -difficult to attack with torpedo, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success -was the result of much patient and -skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising -submarine officer, and I beg to submit -his name for favourable consideration.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, -the Second in Command of E.9, is also -deserving of credit.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Against an enemy whose capital -vessels have never, and Light Cruisers -have seldom, emerged from their fortified -harbours, opportunities of delivering -Submarine attacks have necessarily been -few, and on one occasion only, prior to -the 13th September, has one of our -Submarines been within torpedo range -of a Cruiser during daylight hours.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“During the exceptionally heavy westerly -gales which prevailed between the -14th and 21st September the position -of the Submarines on a lee shore, -within a few miles of the Enemy’s -coast, was an unpleasant one.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“The short steep seas which accompany -westerly gales in the Heligoland Bight -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>make it difficult to keep the conning -tower hatches open. There was no rest -to be obtained, and even when cruising -at a depth of 60 feet, the Submarines -were rolling considerably, and pumping—<i>i.e.</i> -vertically moving about twenty -feet.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“I submit that it was creditable to -the Commanding Officers that they -should have maintained their stations -under such conditions.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Service in the Heligoland Bight is -keenly sought after by the Commanding -Officers of the Eighth Submarine -Flotilla, and they have all shown daring -and enterprise in the execution of their -duties. These Officers have unanimously -expressed to me their admiration of the -cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers -and men under their command. They -are however, of the opinion that it is -impossible to single out individuals when -all have performed their duties so -admirably, and in this I concur.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“The following Submarines have been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>in contact with the enemy during these -operations:—</p> - -<div class='in2'> - - <dl class='dl_1'> - <dt>D.1</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane). - </dd> - <dt>D.2</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson). - </dd> - <dt>D.3</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle). - </dd> - <dt>D.5</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert). - </dd> - <dt>E.4</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir). - </dd> - <dt>E.5</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning). - </dd> - <dt>E.6</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot). - </dd> - <dt>E.7</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann)<a id='tn038'></a>. - </dd> - <dt>E.9</dt> - <dd>(Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton). - </dd> - </dl> - -</div> -<div class='lg-container-l c025'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in1'>I have the honour to be, Sir,</div> - <div class='line in5'>Your obedient servant,</div> - <div class='line in7'>(Signed) ROGER KEYES,</div> - <div class='line in19'>Commodore (S).”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>In conclusion, it must therefore be set -on record that the opening phase in the -greatest naval war in history has been -one of submarine attack and counter-attack, -mine-laying and destroying, warships -and merchantmen sunk in a few -minutes by submarine torpedoes and -mines, with sharp engagements between -the cruisers and destroyers acting in -conjunction with the under-water craft. -The much-vaunted German Fleet, like -that of its ally Austria-Hungary, has -not dared to show itself from behind -the forts and carefully-screened anchorages -of the naval bases, suffering rather -the everlasting disgrace of having stood -in cowardly idleness while the 5,000 -merchant ships it was built to protect -hauled down the flag of the “Fatherland” -and German maritime commerce -was swept from the seas while the Allied -fleets hold undisputed command of every -ocean.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The First Lord of the British -Admiralty has said that if the German -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>Fleet will not come out to fight it must -be “dug out like rats in a hole.” This, -then, may be the second phase in the -naval war, and out in the grey mist of -the North Sea, ready and eager for -the work, lies the great battle fleets of -England.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span> - <h2 id='ch1' class='c014'>CHAPTER I <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo-boat is to most -people a complete mystery, and before -describing the composition and strength -of the submarine fleets at war it may -therefore be of interest to say something -of the principal features common to all -types of submarine craft.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><i>Method of Submergence</i></h3> - -<p class='c027'>It may sound ridiculous, in face of the -many accidents which have occurred, to -say that one of the greatest difficulties -is to make a submarine sink sufficiently -quickly, and one of the easiest of -operations to make her rise, and yet -such is undeniably the case.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c028'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>It will be readily understood that -any delay in disappearing beneath the -surface when attacking would be a -great danger to a submarine in action. -For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat -destroyers are scouring the -sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered -at daybreak by the submarines, -which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, -approaching at a speed of 30 knots -an hour. A hurried dive beneath the -surface is necessary if the waiting submarines -would avoid detection, which -would, in all probability, mean destruction -by the quick-firing guns of the destroyers.</p> - -<p class='c022'>When a submarine is travelling on the -surface she is in what is technically called -the <i>light condition</i>, that is to say, with her -water ballast tanks empty, but when it is -required to sink her so that only the tiny -platform, or deck, and conning-tower are -above the surface, water is let into these -ballast tanks, and the additional weight -causes her to sink into the sea until her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span><i>back</i> is almost flush with the surface—this -is known as the <i>awash condition</i>.</p> - -<p class='c022'>It is not difficult to perceive that when -travelling awash, a wave might at any -moment roll along the tiny unprotected -deck of the submarine, break over the -mouth of the conning-tower, and descend -like a waterspout into the interior. Were -this to happen a terrible disaster might -result, for it must be remembered that -when travelling awash, a very little -additional weight would cause the submarine -to plunge beneath the surface. -In order to obviate this risk it has -become a rule that when proceeding -with this small margin of buoyancy, -the hatch covering the mouth of the -conning-tower should be screwed down -and the submarine hermetically closed, -ready to sink.</p> - -<p class='c022'>To many it may appear strange that -total submergence is not accomplished -by letting still more water into the -ballast tanks, but entirely with the aid -of the propellers and rudders. A submarine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>has two, and sometimes three, -pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary -vertical ones to guide her to port or -starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause -her to dive and rise. Two additional -<i>fins</i> are frequently placed on each side of -the forepart of the vessel to assist the -diving and rising.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In order to make the submarine dive -beneath the surface, the horizontal -rudders are deflected when the boat is -proceeding at full speed. The action of -the water against the rudders is such -that the bows are forced down and the -whole vessel slides under the surface. -The principle is much the same as that -of steering an ordinary surface vessel, -where the force of the water against the -rudder causes the vessel to swing to -right or left.</p> - -<p class='c022'>From this it will be seen that a submarine -is only held below the surface -by the action of her rudders on the -passing water; should the propellers -driving her along cease to revolve and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>the vessel slow down, she automatically -rises to the surface because the rudders -have no longer any effect.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Although the steering both on the -vertical and horizontal plane is controlled -by hand, it would be quite beyond the -strength of a man to move the various -rudders as required, so electric motors -are installed to perform the actual work. -In fact, almost everything in a submarine -is operated by electricity.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In the earlier types of submarine -boats, a considerable time was required -to open the valves and allow sufficient -water to enter the ballast tanks to make -them sink to the awash condition. Some -of the now obsolete French naval boats -took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes -to carry out this simple operation. The -main reason for this was, that they -were designed with too much surface -buoyancy, that is to say, they rode too -high in the water when floating in the -light condition compared with the inadequate -means then employed for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>inlet of water into the ballast tanks, and -were thus forced to let in an enormous -quantity of water at a very slow rate -before they settled down sufficiently to -enable total submergence to be accomplished -by the use of the horizontal fins -and rudders. This great drawback has -now been completely overcome, and the -modern submarine can sink below the -surface in about three minutes.</p> - -<p class='c022'>When water is pumped into the ballast -tanks in order to make the submarine -settle down, the air which normally fills -these tanks is compressed into a fraction -of its proper space, and is therefore -always exerting a downward pressure -which increases as more water is pumped -in. Therefore, when it is desired to -bring the submarine to the surface again, -all that is necessary is to open the -valves and allow the compressed air to -force the water out. It should, however, -be remembered that there is really no -need to “blow out” the ballast tanks -in order to bring the submarine to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>surface, for this can be much quicker -accomplished by simply elevating the -horizontal rudders; but in this case the -submarine only rises just above the -surface—to the awash condition—whereas -if the tanks are emptied of water she -rises to the light or cruising condition. -This substantiates the assertion made -at the beginning of this chapter—that it -is far more difficult to make a submarine -sink than it is to make her rise.</p> - -<p class='c022'>It has been said that a man walking -from one end of a submarine to the other -would, in all probability, cause her to -plunge dangerously, so delicate is the -state of equipoise when totally submerged. -Whatever may have been the case in -the early types it is certainly not so now. -So steady are modern submarines when -running below the surface, especially -those of the British, Russian, French, -and Japanese and German Navies, that -the long up and down hill glides, which, -with some boats, used to amount to -yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>been reduced to a few feet in so many -hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back -motion is almost unnoticeable -except when the submarine is being -swung round at a sharp angle. In no -case, however, is it sufficient materially -to affect the firing of the torpedoes.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in -the awash condition—or <i>diving-trim</i>, as it -is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily -very small, amounting to little -more than two or three pounds in a -thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means -a difference of only about 100 gallons of -sea-water between the ability to float -and the inevitability of sinking. Any -material increase in the small margin of -what is known as <i>positive-buoyancy</i> must -be accompanied by a corresponding -increase in the power of propulsion, -otherwise it would be quite impossible to -drive her under, or, in other words, to -overcome the vessel’s natural tendency -to float on the surface.</p> - -<p class='c022'>For these and other reasons, a submarine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>when running submerged is in -such a delicate state of equipoise that -any sudden increase or loss of weight -would upset the balance and so cause -the vessel to either dive or rise with -dangerous rapidity.</p> - -<p class='c022'>This would be the effect produced -when a torpedo was discharged were -provision not made to counter-balance -this sudden loss of weight by means of -<i>compensating-tanks</i>, into which sufficient -water is pumped to compensate for the -loss of weight incurred by the discharge -of <i>each</i> torpedo.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Many submarines are also fitted with -bow and stern <i>trimming-tanks</i>, into which -water can be pumped in such a manner -as to correct any tendency of the vessel -to float too high or low at either -extremity.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><i>Propulsion.</i></h3> - -<p class='c027'>Of the many complicated problems -surrounding submarine boat construction -the motive power and propelling engines -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>have been in the past, and are still, the -most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed -air, electricity, petrol, and heavy -oil have all been used with varying -results since first this type of vessel -came into being; and many curious -engines for using these <i>prime movers</i> in -conjunction with each other and with -chemical compounds have been evolved -by ingenious inventors.</p> - -<p class='c022'>About steam and compressed air little -need be said, for although given a good -trial, especially by the French naval -authorities, they were abandoned some -years ago in favour of a combination of -petrol and electric engines, which in turn -have given place to more powerful -machines using heavy oil and electricity. -Steam is, however, again being -used in conjunction with turbine engines -for surface propulsion.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The carrying of large quantities of -petrol, or heavy oil, is under all circumstances -attended with a certain -amount of risk, and when many tons -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>have to be carried in a confined -space, as in a submarine, this risk is -more than doubled, as the slightest -leakage when the vessel is submerged -would mean that a powerful explosive -mixture of petrol and air would be made.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c029'> - <img src='images/050.jpg' alt='British Type Torpedo Boat' /> - <div> - -<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). <i>A.</i> -Deck superstructure. <i>B.</i> Scuppers for filling superstructure. -<i>D.</i> External connections. <i>E.</i> Conning-tower (4-inch -armour). <i>F.</i> Periscope. <i>G.</i> Periscope motor (for turning, -&c.). <i>H.</i> Air cowls. <i>I.</i> Conning-tower cap (opening -sideways). <i>J.</i> Mast stays. <i>K.</i> Mast (not part of service -equipment). <i>L.</i> Torpedo-tube cap. <i>M.</i> Torpedo-tubes -(twin), torpedoes in. <i>N.</i> Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). -<i>O.</i> Hydroplane engines. <i>X.</i> Double casing, with special -vent for accumulators. <i>Y.</i> Spare torpedoes. <i>Z.</i> Petrol -storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal pumps. -3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s -platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection -indicator, registering submarine’s deflection from horizontal. -7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol engines. 10. Electric engines. -11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.</span></p> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>It being also quite impossible, for -obvious reasons, to use a petrol engine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>when running submerged, a second -motive power, an engine, with its additional -space and weight, has to be -carried to drive the submarine when -under water. For this purpose electricity -is used in almost all types. But -electricity, again, has many drawbacks. -It costs in weight nearly thirty times -more than other motive powers, and is -extremely dangerous, for should salt -water in any way gain access to the -storage batteries, chlorine gas would be -given off in large quantities, although in -the more recent vessels of the British, -American, and French Navies this danger -has been minimised by enclosing the -batteries in air-tight cases. On account -of the weight and the space required, -it is impossible to install a very powerful -electric engine in a submarine -(compared with the size of the boat), -and thus both the speed and radius of -action are curtailed.</p> - -<p class='c022'>If this division of power between the -surface and submerged engines could -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>be overcome, and the whole space made -available for one powerful set of engines -suitable for driving the vessel both on -the surface and when submerged, not -only would the mechanism of submarines -be simplified, but a very considerable -increase in both speed and range of -action would naturally result.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes -of British submarines, and in the more -modern vessels of the French, Russian -and German Navies, heavy oil is being -used in place of petrol on account of the -increase in power obtained with greater -safety.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Arrangements are made in almost all -modern submarines so that when the -vessel is using the oil engines for running -on the surface the electricity for use -when submerged is being made by a -dynamo and stored in batteries. From -this it will be seen that there are really -three separate engines in a submarine:—(1) -the oil or petrol motor, which drives -the vessel when on the surface, and, at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>the same time, by a suitable arrangement -of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) -which makes the electric current for -storage, and (3) an electric engine which -drives the vessel when submerged, -obtaining the necessary power from the -batteries.</p> - -<p class='c022'>It is, however, technically incorrect -to say that there are two sources of -power in a submarine, for electricity is -not, in itself, a source of power, but -merely a handy method of storing and -transmitting it. The only actual source -being the oil or petrol.</p> - -<p class='c022'>There are also numerous small engines -to add to the complexity of machinery -in a submarine, such as the air compressors -used for charging the torpedo -tubes with compressed air for expelling -the torpedoes and for other purposes, -and electric motors for operating the -pumps, steering mechanism, and periscopes. -In addition to all this, hand-mechanism -is provided for use in case -of a breakdown to operate most of these -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>important appliances. Then again there -is, of course, the armament mechanism -for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic -quick-firing guns.</p> - -<p class='c022'>From the foregoing it may appear that -the interior of a submarine presents a -picture of mechanical complexity utterly -incomprehensible. Yet such is not the -case. The fanciful belief that the crew -stand, boxed up in these vessels, sweating -with the heat, struggling for breath, -and with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably -close to the small of their backs, -electric motors buzzing within a few -inches of their ears, and nervous hands -grasping one or other of the levers -ranged in rows in front of them, is, -doubtless, most romantic, but quite -unreal. Much of the undoubtedly complicated -machinery in a submarine is -tucked away in the conical extremities, -under the interior decking, and fixed -to the arched steel sides. The centre -is left almost entirely clear, so that -trestle-tables may be erected for meals, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>hammocks swung for sleeping, and -sufficient space allowed to make these -small vessels as habitable as possible. -Not the least difficulty of the submarine -designer is to create order and leave -space among the chaos of machinery -which has to be installed in these peculiar -and deadly little torpedo craft.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><i>Vision When Submerged.</i></h3> - -<p class='c027'>Perhaps the greatest difficulty which -has beset both submarine construction and -navigation is the puzzle how to see when -submerged. This is now accomplished -by means of periscopes, or tubes extending -up from the roof of the submarine -to a height of several feet above the -surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a -series of lenses and reflectors a picture of -the surface is thrown down these tubes -on to reflectors inside the submarine. A -man with his eyes at the bottom of a -periscope can see the surface clearly. -Although it projects above the surface -when the whole submarine is submerged, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>it is far too small an object to be easily -seen moving through the water, and -extremely difficult to hit by gun-fire.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The latest panoramic periscope—two of -which are fitted in modern submarines—has -a field of vision of about 60 -degrees. The range of vision is, however, -very short, owing to the periscopic -tube projecting only a few feet above the -surface. On a moderately smooth and -fairly clear day steering by periscope is -not altogether difficult, but at night or -in fog this instrument is useless, and for -this reason it would be almost impossible -for a submarine to effect a submerged -attack on an enemy at night. Hence -the name given to this type of craft—daylight -torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant -light of day, when any attempt by -ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently -close to hostile warships to discharge a -torpedo with reasonable hope of success -would be foredoomed to failure, there is -every possibility that submarines would -effect a surprise attack.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span> -<h3 class='c026'><i>Armament.</i></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c027'>The chief armament of all naval submarines -is the torpedo, which is expelled -by a blast of compressed air from one of -the tubes fitted in the bow and stern. -Several torpedoes are usually carried by -each boat, so that if one failed to strike -the object of attack further attempts can -be made.</p> - -<p class='c022'>About the efficiency of torpedoes -nothing need be said here, for they now -form an important weapon in every navy, -and to this subject a future chapter is -devoted.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The latest submarines built are also -fitted with quick-firing guns for use when -these vessels are cruising on the surface. -The guns are arranged so that when it is -desired to sink they can be made to -disappear beneath the narrow deck of the -submarine. The provision of guns has -been made with the object of giving -these vessels a means of defence should -they be discovered by prowling hostile -torpedo-boat destroyers, or by air-craft.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span> -<h3 class='c026'><i>Habitability.</i></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c027'>Many people imagine the interior of a -submarine to resemble a stokehold, hot, -stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact -contrary is the truth. The temperature -is but little above the normal for a ship’s -engine-room, the air-supply is amply -sufficient, and the whole interior is well -illuminated by electric lamps.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The necessary supply of pure air is -derived either from large steel cylinders -containing the air in a highly compressed -state or from flasks of oxylithe. The -carbonic acid gas of the respired air -being at the same time chemically -absorbed.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Food is cooked for the crew by -electricity, and drinking water obtained -from special tanks. Notwithstanding -these arrangements, however, it is almost -impossible for the crew to live on board -for many weeks at a time, owing to the -small free space in the interior and to the -cramped deck; but as the size and radius -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>of action of these boats increase, so also -does the space available for exercise, and -thus the habitability.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span> - <h2 id='ch2' class='c014'>CHAPTER II <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>BRITISH SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The British Fleet at the moment when -war was declared possessed 82 submarine -torpedo-boats built and 22 building. -Some of these were, however, stationed -at the oversea naval bases. The composition -and distribution of the submarine -flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities were -as follows:—</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines in Home Waters.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div><i>Patrol Flotillas.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-l c032'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>1st Flotilla. Devonport.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Onyx</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.8 and A.9.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Dolphin</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>3rd Flotilla. Devonport.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Forth</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines<a id='tn062'></a>: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,</div> - <div class='line in4'>C.15 and C.16.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Arrogant</i> and <i>Hazard</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>5th Flotilla. Chatham.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Thames</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>6th Flotilla. Chatham.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Bonaventure</i> and <i>Hebe</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>7th Flotilla. Chatham.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Vulcan</i> and <i>Alecto</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ships: <i>Maidstone</i> and <i>Adamant</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>9th Flotilla. Devonport.</div> - <div class='line in4'>Depôt ship: <i>Pactolus</i>.</div> - <div class='line in2'>Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Submarines on Foreign Stations.</span></h4> - -<p class='c033'> Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines -B.9, B.10, and B.11.</p> - -<p class='c034'> At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, -and B.8.</p> - -<p class='c034'> Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines -C.36, C.37, and C.38.</p> - -<p class='c034'> With Australian Fleet.—Submarines -A.E.1<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c028'><sup>[2]</sup></a> and A.E.2.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The statement that the headquarters -of the various submarine flotillas in home -waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and -Devonport, must not be taken as indicating -that these are the only points -along the coast protected by submarines. -These places are merely the chief bases -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the <i>Patrol Flotillas</i>. The wide range -of action of modern submarines enables -them to operate several hundred miles -from any base or depôt, and consequently -Chatham becomes merely the -<i>general store</i>, or head-depôt, of what -should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, -which not only patrol the whole East, -North-East and South-East Coasts of -England and Scotland, but also have -their floating secondary bases in the -form of <i>Depôt Ships</i>, which, with their -attached submarines, are often at -Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In -the same way Portsmouth is merely the -headquarters of the submarines patrolling -the Channel; and Dover, Portland, etc., -are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines -with their Depôt ships. The -Devonport Flotillas have the longest -coast-line to patrol, for their area covers -not only the West Coast of England, -Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish -Coast. They are, however, furthest -removed from the zone of war.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Considerable alterations have taken -place in the composition and distribution -of the British submarine flotillas since -the outbreak of war, with the object of -materially strengthening the Fleet in -the main theatre of operations, but the -addition to the flotillas of new vessels of -the latest “E” type—nearly completed -when war broke out—has made this -rearrangement possible without materially -weakening the flotillas guarding the more -distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling -vessels from overseas.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/064.jpg' alt='British Submarine D.7' /> - <div> -<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c006'> - <div>Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern torpedo tube.</div> - <div class='c001'>There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12.</div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>The first submarine torpedo-boat built -for the British Navy was launched from -the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness -in 1901, and was designated -the No. 1. It was constructed from the -designs of the famous American inventor, -Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the -most successful boats afloat at that time. -A series of exhaustive trials with this -and the succeeding five vessels, all of the -same type and launched during 1901‒2, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>proved conclusively the fighting value of -this type of craft, and a further order was -given by the British Admiralty for four -new vessels embodying the improvements -suggested by the trials of the -first five. These vessels were the first -of the “A” class, and were designated -the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a -submerged displacement of 180 tons, a -length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. -They were propelled by petrol motors -of 190 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> on the surface and by -electric motors of about 80 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when -submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 -knots an hour on the surface to 5 knots -when travelling submerged, and their -maximum surface endurance (or fuel -capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 knots. -Their armament consisted of three 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes and one bow tube.</p> - -<p class='c022'>All these vessels were, however, -obsolete and therefore scrapped before -the opening of hostilities, hence information -concerning them is only of -interest as showing the rapid growth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>in size, power and armament of British -submarines. The next batch of vessels -were the A’s 5 to 13, launched at -Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have -been seen from the table showing the -composition and distribution of the submarine -flotillas at the outbreak of war, -are still on the effective list. All the -following British submarines are now in -the fighting line.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“A” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These vessels are the oldest British -submarines in commission. They were -built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at -Barrow, and have a submerged displacement -of 204 tons. Their length is -150 feet. They are propelled on the -surface by petrol motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -and by electric engines of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -when submerged. Their surface and -submerged speed is 11 knots and -7 knots respectively. The cruising -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>range, or maximum surface endurance -on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 -knots an hour, and the endurance submerged -three hours at full speed. Their -armament consists of two bow tubes with -four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: -Eleven officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>These vessels, which are now used -almost entirely for harbour defence, can -be distinguished from later types by -their high conning-towers and single -short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off -Plymouth early in 1914, and was never -raised.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“B” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the improved -Holland type, and are in every way -superior to their predecessors. They -may be considered the first of the sea-going -type. Their submerged displacement -is 316 tons; length 135 feet, and -beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>same as in the “A’s”—petrol for surface -propulsion and electricity for use when -submerged. The horse-power of the -petrol engines is 600, and that of the -electric engines 189. As in most submarines -the supply of current for driving -the electric engines is derived from storage -batteries charged by dynamos driven from -the petrol engines while the vessels are -running on the surface. In the “B” -class a special system of encasing these -storage batteries was introduced. Their -speed averages 12 knots on the surface -and 8 knots when submerged. The surface -cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 -knots per hour, and the maximum submerged -endurance 80‒100 knots at 5 -knots per hour. Their armament consists -of two bow tubes with 4‒6 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen -officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The “B” type are vessels about 50 -per cent. larger than the “A” type which -preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures -extending from the bow to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>conning-tower, forming a narrow deck -which tends to disperse the wave which -heaped around the blunt noses of the -“A’s” and original Hollands. Vision -when submerged is obtained by two -panoramic periscopes, each having an arc -of vision of 60 degrees. In the more -modern vessels three periscopes are fitted. -The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed -below the centre line of the vessel and -consequently operate in deeper water -when the vessels are cruising on the -surface. This gives them better surface -cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the -propellers are liable to race if worked -too near the surface. The increase in -the speed of these vessels over that of the -“A’s” was of great importance, as in -this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. -The tactical advantages derived -from high speed in actual warfare cannot -be over-estimated. The speed of a fleet -is governed by that of its slowest unit.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “B” -type is the straight bow, the forward -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>superstructure, and the <i>two</i> periscopes. -The B.2 was run down by the liner -<i>Amerika</i> in the Straits of Dover in -October, 1912, and was never recovered.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“C” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1906‒10.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>This class of submarines is composed -of vessels of the improved “B” type. -They have a submerged displacement -of 320 tons and are 135 feet long and -13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop -600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and give to these vessels a -speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. -The power of the electric engines was -increased to 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, giving a submerged -speed of just over 9 knots an -hour. The surface cruising range is -2,000 knots at the most economical speed, -and the submerged endurance 100 knots -at 5 knots an hour. Their armament -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>consists of two bow tubes with six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their -complement sixteen officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In the later vessels of the “C” class -heavy oil is used instead of petrol, giving -a great increase in power without the -comparative additional weight; enabling -a wider radius of action. The vessels -of both the “B” and “C” classes are -fitted with air-traps and safety-helmets, -giving the crew a possible means of -escape in the event of disaster while -submerged.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The distinguishing feature of the “C” -class is the sloping bow. The C.11 -collided with the steamer <i>Eddystone</i> -in the North Sea in 1909 and was -irretrievably lost.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“D” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1908‒11.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are all modern vessels of the -sea-going type, and are of considerable -fighting value. They, however, differ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>slightly from each other: D.1 has a -submerged displacement of 595 tons; -D.2 of 600 tons; and the remaining -vessels of this class of 620 tons. They -have an approximate length of 150 feet -and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil -engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at a -maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on -the surface, and electric motors of 550 -<span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a submerged speed of -just over 10 knots an hour. All these -vessels have twin-screws situated below -the centre line. Their cruising range on -the surface is 4,000 miles, and when -submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an -hour. These vessels were the first to -be fitted with a special and more efficient -pattern of electric storage battery and a -safer type of electric motor. The armament -of the “D’s” consists of two bow -and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 -are also fitted with a small quick-firing, -high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. -This gun is fixed on a disappearing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>mounting, enabling it to be quickly and -almost automatically lowered into a watertight -cavity in the superstructure before -the submarine dives below the surface. -The complement of these vessels is -twenty-one officers and men.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/072.jpg' alt='British Submarine C.34' /> - <div> -<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c006'> - <div>Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo tubes.</div> - <div class='c001'>There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12.</div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“E” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These fine ocean-going submarines are -the latest additions to the British Flotillas. -They have a submerged displacement of -800 tons, are 176 feet long and 22 ½ feet -in beam. The heavy-oil engines of -nearly 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them a surface -speed of over 16 knots, while the -electric engines of 800 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them -at a maximum speed of 10 knots an -hour when submerged. Their surface -cruising range is 5,000 miles at -economical speed, and the submerged -endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an hour. -In point of armament the “E’s” are far -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>more powerful than their predecessors, -being fitted with four tubes and carrying -six of the largest and most powerful -Whitehead torpedoes. They are also -equipped with two 3-inch quick-firing -guns on high-angle disappearing mountings -for defence against air-craft and -hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers<a id='tn079'></a>. -They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; -and, like the vessels of the “B,” “C” -and “D” classes, have armoured conning -towers and decks. Three tall panoramic -periscopes are fitted, and their high -superstructures and increased buoyancy -when travelling on the surface enable -them to keep the sea in almost any -weather.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Australian Submarines</span>:</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>A.E.1 and A.E.2.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These vessels are exactly the same -as the “E” class. The fact that they -both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage -from Barrow to Sydney under their -own power and without convoy is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>practical proof of the wide range, seaworthiness -and general efficiency of the -latest British Naval Submarines. The -A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in -Australian waters in October, 1914, and -has not been recovered.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>British Submarines Building<a id='tn080'></a>.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the great -war there were 22 British submarines in -course of construction at the various -shipbuilding works and naval dockyards. -Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had -constructed all the British submarines, -but in that year the vessels C.17 and -C.18 were laid down at Chatham Dockyard. -Since then several other boats -have been constructed there, and of -those now in hand some are being built -by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, -others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding -yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. -Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd. -at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. -Dockyard at Chatham.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>Hitherto, British submarines, although -divided into classes—each of which has -shown a marked improvement on the -preceding class—have been all of one -type—the “Improved Holland.” Among -the vessels being constructed at the -opening of hostilities they were, however, -no less than three different types. -Those being built at Barrow and -Chatham were of the original design -with modern improvements, but the submarines -under construction at Greenock -were of the <i>Laurenti</i>, or Italian type, -and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the -<i>Laubeuf</i>, or French type. In addition -to this wise departure from previous -practice, two of the new vessels have -been given the names of <i>Nautilus</i> and -<i>Swordfish</i>.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The haze of war has obscured these -vessels, and it is impossible to say definitely -which of them have taken their -place in the active flotillas, and further -the necessity for observing the very -strictest secrecy regarding new types of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>warships at a time like the present -makes it advisable to give here only -the briefest particulars and not to discuss -too freely the peculiarities of their design -or their probable capabilities.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“F” Class.</span></h4> - -<p class='c027'>There are several vessels of this class -now being constructed. They are the -latest improvement of the original Holland -design and are sea-going submarines -of wide range, high speed and great -fighting power. The F.1, which was -built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged -displacement of 1,500 tons. -Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -give her a maximum speed of 20 knots -an hour on the surface, and electric -motors of 2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 12 knots -when submerged. The armament consists -of six torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and -two quick-firing, high-angle guns.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>“V” Class. “W” Class. “S” Class.</span></h4> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div><i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These three classes include the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>vessels of entirely different design to -those now forming the British flotillas. -The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of which -four were under construction at the -beginning of the war, are large sea-going -submarines with a submerged -displacement of over 1,000 tons, and a -probable surface speed of 20 knots. -The “W” Class, of which four are -being built at Elswick, comprise vessels -of the French <i>Laubeuf</i> type. The “S” -Class, building at Greenock, and four -in number, are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—<i>Laurenti</i> -type. The two named -vessels—<i>Nautilus</i> and <i>Swordfish</i>—are -large sea-going submarines of wide -range and high speed. Their submerged -displacement is about 1,000 -tons, and their speed 20 knots on the -surface and 12 knots when submerged. -The armament is six tubes, with eight -torpedoes, and two quick-firing guns. -The complement of all these large -submarines is about 25 officers and men.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span> - <h2 id='ch3' class='c014'>CHAPTER III <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>FRENCH SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>France possessed 92 submarines in -active service when war was declared. -In addition to these, nine large and -powerful vessels were in various stages -of construction. The flotillas of the -French Navy are composed of two -different types of vessels: <i>Submarines -Defensive</i> and <i>Submersibles</i>. The former -are intended, as their name implies, -solely for coast and harbour defence; -their radii of action is very small, and -they are incapable of action independent -of a naval base. The submersibles are -like the large sea-going submarines of -England and Germany, and have a -wide radius of action, high speed, and -great offensive power.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The first naval submarine (<i>Gymnôte</i>) -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>was launched in 1888, giving to France -the honour of being the first Naval -Power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat -as a vessel of war. The pioneers -of submarine construction in France -were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, -M. Dupuy de Lome, M. Gustave Zédé, -and Admiral Aube. The second submarine -ordered for the French Navy -was the <i>Gustave Zédé</i>, launched in 1893. -So successful did this vessel prove that -another of the same type, and named -the <i>Morse</i>, was launched at Cherbourg -Dockyard in 1899. In the same year -four vessels of a new type were laid -down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and -named <i>Lutin</i>, <i>Farfâdet</i> (re-named <i>Follet</i>), -<i>Korrigan</i>, and <i>Gnôme</i>. These, with the -exception of the ill-fated <i>Lutin</i>, are still -in the active flotillas.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lutin Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Follet</i>.</li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Korrigan</i>.</li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Gnôme</i>.</li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in -the French Navy, and are all of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>defensive type. They have a displacement -of about 185 tons, with electric -engines for propulsion both on the -surface and when submerged. Their -speed is 12 knots on the surface and -8 knots when submerged. Their range -of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. -The armament consists of one bow tube -and two holders, with four 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. The complement -is nine officers and men.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/080.jpg' alt='Two French Submarines' /> - <div> -<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photos, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)</div> - <div class='c001'>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE. (bottom)</div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Française Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Française.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Algérien.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the improved -<i>Morse</i> type, and are intended solely -for coast and harbour defence. Their -surface displacement is 146 tons, and -they have electric engines of 350 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -for both surface and submerged propulsion, -giving them a speed of 12 knots -and 8 knots an hour, respectively. -Their surface radius is about 80 miles -at 8 knots. They have one bow tube and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>two holders, with four torpedoes. The -complement is nine officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Triton Class.</span><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c028'><sup>[3]</sup></a></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1901‒2.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Triton.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Sirene.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Espadon.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Silure.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These four vessels were the first of -the submersible type and were designed -by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed -many vessels for both France and other -countries (<i>Laubeuf</i> type). They have -a submerged displacement of 200 tons, -and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in -beam. Steam is used for surface -propulsion (217 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>) and electricity -when submerged. Their speed is 11 -knots on the surface and 8 knots -when submerged, with a cruising radius -of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are -armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes, and have a -complement of ten officers and men.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Naiade Class.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1902‒4.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Naiade.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Loutre.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Protée.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Lynx.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Perle.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Truite.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Castor.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Oursin.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Meduse.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Otarie.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Phoque.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ludion.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Alose.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Anguille.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Grondin.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Dorade.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Souffleur.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Thon.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Bonite.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Esturgeon.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Twenty small harbour defence submarines, -having a displacement of -about 67 tons. They have petrol and -electric motors, giving them a speed of -8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots -when submerged. Their armament consists -of one bow tube and two holders; -four torpedoes are carried. Their complement -is six officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Aigrette Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Aigrette.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Cicogne.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are submersibles -of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type, and were great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>improvements on their predecessors, the -Triton Class. Their submerged displacement -is 351 tons, and their -dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A triple -expansion steam engine of 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -is used for surface propulsion and -an electric motor of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when -submerged. Their speed is 10 knots -and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface -endurance is 700 miles at 8 knots, and -submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their -armament consists of one bow tube with -four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement -is about fifteen officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Argonaute.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1905.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>A submersible designed by M. Bertin -(late Chief Constructor French Navy). -This vessel, which was first named -<i>Omega</i>, has a displacement of about -300 tons. She is driven by steam and -electricity, and has a speed of 11 knots -and 9 knots. Her armament consists -of two bow tubes and two holders, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. -The complement is about seventeen officers -and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Emeraude Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1906‒8.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Emeraude.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Saphir.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Opale.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Topaz.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Rubis.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Turquoise.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These six vessels are of the <i>Maugas</i> -type and are sea-going submarines -with a submerged displacement of over -400 tons. They have petrol and electric -motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and 450 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, -respectively. Their surface speed is 12 -knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their -surface cruising radius is just over -1,000 miles at economical speed. Their -armament consists of two tubes and four -holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual -pattern. Their complement is seventeen -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Circe Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Circe.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Calypso.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Laubeuf</i> -type, and are improvements on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span><i>Aigrette</i> class. They have a submerged -displacement of about 450 tons and are -160 feet in length. They are driven by -a steam engine of 440 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> (flash -boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, -and by electric motors when submerged. -Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; -and the range of action 1,000 miles. -Their armament comprises two tubes and -four holders with eight torpedoes. The -complement is 21 officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Pluviôse Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907‒12.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Pluviôse.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Nivôse.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ventôse.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Messidor.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Thermidor.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Fructidor.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Brumaire.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Frimaire.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Florèal.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Prairial.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Germinal.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Submarines of the <i>Laubeuf</i> type with -a submerged displacement of nearly 600 -tons. All built at Cherbourg. The -<i>Brumaire</i> and <i>Frimaire</i> are driven by -petrol motors of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> when -cruising on the surface, but all the -others have small steam turbines with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>a special type of flash-boiler. Electric -motors are used for submerged propulsion. -Their speed is 12 knots above -and 9 knots below. The armament is -seven 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement -is 22 officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Fresnel Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1908‒12.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Fresnel.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Berthelot.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Papin.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Monge.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ampère.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Gay-Lussac.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Cagnot.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Faraday.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Giffard.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Montgolfier.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Newton.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Volta.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Watt.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Euler.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Faucault.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Franklin.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Arago.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Permouilli.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Joule.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Coulomb.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Curie.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Le Verrier.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Twenty-two submarines of the largest -sea-going <i>Laubeuf</i> type. Only three of -these are steam driven, the others using -heavy-oil engines for surface propulsion. -They are in all respects similar to -vessels of the <i>Pluviôse</i> class, and have -a displacement of about 600 tons. Their -speed is 12 knots above, and 9 knots -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>below, and the armament seven 18-inch -torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with -stern as well as bow tubes. Their -surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Amiral Bourgeoise.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>An experimental boat of the <i>Bourdelle</i> -type, built at Cherbourg. The submerged -displacement is just under 800 -tons and the length 190 feet. She is -driven on the surface by heavy-oil -engines of 1,600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give a -speed of 15 knots. The electric motors -for submerged propulsion are of 700 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, -giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament -consists of seven 18-inch torpedoes, -and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Archimède.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Another experimental boat built at -Cherbourg. The submerged displacement -is about 810 tons, and the length -and beam 212 feet and 22 feet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>respectively. Steam turbines are used for -surface propulsion and electric motors -when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots -above and 10 knots below. The armament -is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and -the complement 24 officers and men.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/088.jpg' alt='Sea-Going French Submarine' /> - <div> -<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, M. Bar.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.</div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mariotte.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>The third experimental boat, of the -<i>Rodiquet</i> type, built at Cherbourg. The -displacement when submerged is 650 -tons and the length about 200 feet. -Petrol motors of 1,500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her -at 15 knots an hour on the surface and -electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots -when submerged. Her radius of action -is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven -18-inch torpedoes, which can be fired -from both bow and stern tubes. The -complement is about 25 officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Charles Brun.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>The fourth experimental vessel, built -at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>submerged displacement is 450 tons and -the length 145 feet. Steam turbines of -1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive her at 15 ½ knots an -hour on the surface, and electric motors -of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 10 knots when submerged. -Her armament consists of six 18-inch -torpedoes. The complement is 22 officers -and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Clorinde Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Clorinde.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Cornélie.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Amphritrite.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Astree.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Artémis.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Aréthuse.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Atalante.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Amaranthe.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ariane.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Andromaque.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are the very latest -additions to the French Submarine -flotillas. They have a submerged displacement -of about 550 tons, a length -of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. -Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give -them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, -and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> enable -them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when -submerged. They carry eight torpedoes, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>and have a complement of 25 officers and -men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Gustave Zede Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Gustave Zede.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Néréide.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are the largest -submarines in the French flotillas. -They have a submerged displacement of -1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, and a -beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give -them a surface speed of 16 knots and -electric motors a submerged speed of -10 knots. Their armament consists of -two bow and two stern tubes with eight -18-inch torpedoes. They are also equipped -with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle, -disappearing mountings. The -cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the -complement 27 officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Bellone Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1914.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Bellone.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Hermione.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Gorgone.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Fast sea-going submarines with a -submerged displacement of 610 tons. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>They have heavy-oil engines of about -2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, which give them a surface -speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of -950 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 12 knots when -submerged. Their surface cruising range -is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists -of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr. -quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement -is 30 officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>French Submarines Building.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>On the day when war was declared -nine submarines were in the early stages -of construction. The two most advanced -of these were the <i>Diane</i> and <i>Daphne</i>. -These vessels have a submerged displacement -of about 800 tons, and the -anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 -knots. Their armament will consist of -ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The -complement will be 30 officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The other seven vessels are of the -improved <i>Gustave Zede</i> Class. They -will have a submerged displacement of -over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 knots -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. -Their armament will consist of -ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The -complement will be about 35 officers and -men.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span> - <h2 id='ch4' class='c014'>CHAPTER IV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>RUSSIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement -of hostilities included 37 -submarines in active service, and 19 in -various stages of construction. The -composition and distribution of the -submarine flotillas was as follows:—</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Baltic Flotilla</span>: 14 Submarines with -depôt ships in commission, and 12 vessels -building. <i>Bases</i>: Kronstadt, Port Peter -the Great (Reval) and Port Alexander III. -(Libau) (ice free).</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Black Sea Flotilla</span>: 11 Submarines -with depôt ships in commission, and -several new vessels building. <i>Bases</i>: -Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Siberian Flotilla</span>: 12 Submarines -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>with depôt ships in commission, and 6 -vessels building. <i>Base</i>: Vladivostok.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The first Russian naval submarine was -completed at Kronstadt in 1902, and -named the <i>Petr Kochka</i>. She was built -in sections to facilitate transport over the -Siberian Railway, being intended for -the defence of Port Arthur, and had a -surface displacement of only 20 tons. -Her armament consisted of two holders, -or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, containing -two small Whitehead torpedoes. -The maximum speed was 8 knots on -the surface and 4 knots when submerged. -The second submarine ordered for the -Russian Navy was the <i>Delphin</i>, which -foundered off Kronstadt, but was subsequently -raised and is now used as a -training ship for the submarine service. -These two vessels have been removed -from the active flotillas, but the third -vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the -<i>Graf Cheremetieve</i>—is still in -commission.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span> -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Graf Cheremetieve Class.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904‒5.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Graf Cheremetieve.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Kasatka.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Nalim.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Skat.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are the oldest submarines in -the Russian Navy, and are small vessels -of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have -a submerged displacement of 200 tons. -Petrol and electric engines drive them at -9 knots on the surface and 6 knots when -submerged. Their armament consists -of one bow torpedo tube and two -exterior holders, with four 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Ostr Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ostr.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Byts-chok.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Kefal.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Platus.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Plotva.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These five submarines are of the -American Lake type. The <i>Ostr</i> was -originally the American Lake Co.’s -boat <i>Protector</i>. They have a submerged -displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>in length and 11 feet in breadth. Have -petrol engines of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> for surface -propulsion and electric motors for use -when submerged. Their speed is 11 -knots above and 7 knots below. The -surface cruising radius is 450 knots at -full speed. The armament consists of -two bow and one stern tube with -four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The -<i>special</i> characteristics of the American -Lake type will be seen on pages <a href='#Page_119'>119‒120</a>.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Som Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1904‒6.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Som.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Shtshuka.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels, which are of the -Holland-Bubnoff type, have a submerged -displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol -and electric motors are used for surface -and submerged propulsion, and the speed -is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above and below, -respectively. Their armament consists -of two bow tubes with four 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement -is about fifteen officers and men.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span> -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sterliad Class.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1905‒6.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Sterliad.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Bialuga.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Peskar.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These three vessels are also of the -Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a -submerged displacement of 150 tons. -The petrol motors for surface propulsion -are of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed is 9 ½ knots -and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. -Their armament consist of two -bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. Their complement is eleven -to fifteen officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Sig.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1906.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>A submarine of the Lake type; -similar in almost every respect to -vessels of the <i>Ostr</i> class.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Makrel Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Makrel.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Okun.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Two vessels of the <i>Improved</i> Holland-Bubnoff -type. They have a submerged -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>displacement of about 200 tons. The -petrol motors are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and the -electric engines of 150 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their -speed is 10 knots on the surface and -8 knots when submerged. They are -fitted with two bow tubes and two stern -<i>holders</i>, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Lossos Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Lossos.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Ludak.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Two somewhat smaller submarines of -the Holland type. Intended either for -the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. -Similar to those of the <i>Sterliad</i> class.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Karp Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Karp.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Karas.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two submarines are of the -Germania, or Krupp type, and have a -submerged displacement of 250 tons. -They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors -of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed on the surface -is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. -The surface range of action is -about 1,000 miles, and the submerged -endurance about three hours at full -speed. Their armament consists of two -bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes -are carried. Their complement is fifteen -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Alligator Class.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1908‒9.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Alligator.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Kaiman.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Drakon.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Krokodil.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Four submarines of the improved -Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 500 tons. Their speed -is 15 knots on the surface and 10 knots -when submerged. They are fitted with -two bow and two stern tubes, and carry -six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their -complement is seventeen officers and -men. (See also page <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.)</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span> -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Minoga Class.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1908.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Minoga.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Potschovy.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff -type, which were built in sections -to facilitate transport by rail. They -have a submerged displacement of about -150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and -9 knots, above and below, respectively. -Their complement is eleven officers and -men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Akula.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1909.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff -type. Her displacement is about -570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on -the surface and 10 knots when submerged. -The armament consists of two -bow and one stern tube, with six 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. The complement -is 20 officers and men.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span> -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Kaschalot Class.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Kaschalot.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Kit.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Krab.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Morsh.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Narval.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Nerpa.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Tinlen.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These seven vessels are among the -most modern submarines in the Russian -flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff -type, and have a submerged displacement -of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil -engines of over 1,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them -at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, -and electric motors of 550 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give them -a submerged speed of just over 10 knots -an hour. Their surface cruising range is -about 3,000 miles. Their armament consists -of two bow and one stern tube with -six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. They -are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, -high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. -Their complement is 21 officers -and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Russian Submarines Building.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>At the commencement of the war there -were nineteen Russian submarines in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>course of construction. Very little information -concerning these boats can be -obtained, except that their submerged -displacement ranges from 800 to 1,500 -tons, and their <i>anticipated</i> surface speed is -20 knots. Some of the 800-ton vessels -have already been completed, and the -first twelve will be named: <i>Svitza</i>, <i>Leopard</i>, -<i>Pantera</i>, <i>Ruis</i>, <i>Kaguar</i>, <i>Tiqr</i>, -<i>Yaguar</i>, <i>Vepr</i>, <i>Wolk</i>, <i>Baro</i>, <i>Gepard</i>, -and <i>Tur</i>. These vessels have a speed -of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots -when submerged. Their complement is -25 officers and men.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span> - <h2 id='ch5' class='c014'>CHAPTER V <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>JAPANESE SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a -submarine flotilla of seventeen vessels, -all except two of which are of the British -Holland or Vickers type. Japan commenced -the construction of what is now -a rapidly increasing and powerful flotilla -in 1904 by the purchase of five elementary -Holland boats. These, however, are still -in the active flotilla and are designated -Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement -of 120 tons, and are 65 feet -in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol -motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> drive them at 9 knots -on the surface and electric motors of -70 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> at 7 knots when submerged. -Their armament consists of one bow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>expulsion tube with three 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 6 and 7.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1906.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels were the first submarine -boats to be built in Japan, but are -of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger -and faster. They have a submerged -displacement of 180 tons, a length of -100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. The -petrol engines are of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and the -electric motors of 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface -and submerged speed is 10 knots and -8 knots an hour, respectively. Their -armament consists of one torpedo tube with -three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Nos. 8 and 9.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907‒8.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are very similar to -the British “C” class, and were built by -Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged -displacement of 320 tons; petrol -motors of 600 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and a surface and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>submerged speed of 13 knots and 8 knots -an hour, respectively. Their armament -consists of two bow tubes with four to six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their -complement is sixteen officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 10‒15.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1909‒12.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the same in -almost every respect as the later “C” -class of British submarines (pages <a href='#Page_70'>70‒71</a>).</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>Nos. 16‒17<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c028'><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912‒14.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the <i>Schneider-Laubeuf</i> -or French type. (British “W” -class.) Their submerged displacement is -about 500 tons, and the horse-power of -their surface engines 2,500. The surface -and submerged speed is 18 knots and -9 knots respectively. Their armament -consists of six torpedo tubes with eight -<i>Schneider</i> torpedoes. The complement is -about 30 officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>The natural adroitness with which -Japanese sailors manipulate complicated -machinery, combined with their absolute -fearlessness, make them ideal for torpedo -work.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span> - <h2 id='ch6' class='c014'>CHAPTER VI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>GERMAN SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany -possessed 30 submarine torpedo-boats<a id='tn117'></a>. -These were divided into -three flotillas, with their headquarters at -Kiel, the largest and most modern -vessels being attached to the Heligoland -or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, -although 24 submarines were stated as -being in commission, only about 15 -were actively employed, and these mostly -in training reserves, the older boats -being docked and modernized where -possible. But during the year six new -vessels were added to the flotilla and the -<i>personnel</i> of the submarine service was -largely increased. At the same time the -inspection of submarines was separated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>from that of the other torpedo-boats and -a flag-officer was appointed as head of -the submarine branch of the Naval -Service, with headquarters at Kiel. -Thus when the hour came for the great -struggle which was to decide the mastery -of the seas the whole German Flotilla of -30 vessels, <i>with a reserve of six new boats -which had been secretly hurried forward -and were rapidly nearing completion</i>, was -ready to put to sea.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The German Naval Law provided for -the construction of 72 submarines by the -end of 1917. All the vessels built up -to the present time have been known as -the “U” class and numbered in rotation. -They are painted a brownish-grey colour -and have high collier-like bows with -massive armoured conning-towers and -long superstructures amounting to narrow -decks. They have all been built at -either Kiel or Dantzig.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Although the first submarine boats -built for the German Navy were two -vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>in 1890, they were never actively employed -with the fleet and have long since -been reduced to scrap-iron, and the first -vessel which can now be reckoned as a -fighting unit of the German torpedo-boat -flotilla was a vessel designated the -“U.1.” This was built at the Germania -Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on August -30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of -the “U” class, which in most of the -essential features resembles the British -Improved Holland type.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.1.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1905.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>This U.1 was built as an experimental -boat by the famous firm of -Krupps. She has a surface displacement -of 197 tons, a submerged displacement -of 236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface -engines are of 250 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The electric -motors for submerged use develop just -over 100 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The speed ranges from -10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 -knots when submerged, and her surface -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. -The armament consists of one bow torpedo -tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf -torpedoes are carried. The complement -is nine officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The trials of the U.1 extended over -a period of a year and a half, and all -proved remarkably satisfactory. During -the tests which took place in Eckernforder -Bay she succeeded, twice in -succession, in torpedoing a moving target -while travelling submerged at full speed.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The uncertainty displayed for some -years previous by the German Naval -Authorities regarding the value of submarine -boats gave place to a thorough -sense of the important part these -“mighty atoms” would play in future -naval warfare, and to a strong determination -that the German Navy should -include a powerful submarine flotilla.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.2-U.8.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1907‒10.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These seven vessels were great -improvements on the U.1. Their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>displacement is 210 tons on the surface -and about 250 tons when submerged. -They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg -heavy-oil engines of 400 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> and -electric motors of 160 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their -speed on the surface is 12 knots and -8 knots when submerged. The surface -range of action is 1,000 miles and the -submerged endurance about three hours -at full speed. Their armament consists -of two bow torpedo tubes and four -torpedoes are carried. The complement -is eleven officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.9-U.18.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c028'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1910‒12.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These ten vessels are of increased -size and power, their submerged displacement -being 300 tons, and the horse-power -of their heavy oil surface engines -is 600. The electric motors develop -200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> The surface and submerged -speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots -respectively. The surface range of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>action is 1,500 miles, and the armament -consists of two bow and one stern torpedo -tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 -and subsequent vessels of this class are -provided with a quick-firing, high-angle -gun for defence against aircraft, and -have sleeping accommodation for the -crew. They may be termed the first -German sea-going submarines. Their -complement is twenty officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.19 <a id='tn122-2'></a>and U.20.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>There are only two vessels in this -class owing to the adoption of certain -improvements with the aid of which a -partly new type has been evolved. -These two vessels have a displacement -when submerged of 450 tons. Their -oil engines of 650 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give a speed -of 13 ½ knots an hour on the surface, -and their electric motors of 300 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> give -8 knots an hour when submerged. Their -surface range of action is 2,000 miles, -and their armament consists of two bow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>and one stern torpedo tube with six -torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, -high-angle guns on disappearing mountings. -The complement is seventeen -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.21-U.24.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1912‒13.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These four vessels are the first of the -new type of large sea-going submarines -for the German Navy. Their submerged -displacement is 800 tons. They are -propelled on the surface by heavy-oil -engines of 1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged -by electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -Their speed above water is 14 knots -an hour and below the surface 9 -knots. The surface range of action -is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance -120 miles at economical speed. -Their armament consists of two bow -and two stern torpedo tubes with eight -torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing -gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, -all on disappearing mountings, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>defence against hostile destroyers and -aircraft. Their complement is twenty-five -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.25-U.30.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1913‒14.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These six vessels are the latest additions -to the German submarine flotilla. -They are vessels of 900 tons submerged -displacement with heavy-oil engines of -2,000 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and electric motors of 900 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -Their surface and submerged speed is -18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. -The surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. -Their armament consists of two bow and -two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large -size torpedoes, and, in addition, two -14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. -high-angle guns. They have wireless -telegraphic apparatus on board, and are -specially constructed with long superstructures -and high <i>collier-like</i> bows to -enable them to keep at sea in almost any -weather. They are fitted with two or -three periscopes, and also possess a small -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span><i>look-out</i> cap on the top of the lofty -conning-tower to facilitate an “awash” -attack in the half-lights of dawn and -dusk, when the periscope is almost useless. -The conning-towers and decks are -armoured. Their complement is 30 to 35 -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.31-U.36.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Building.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are the six vessels which are -rapidly nearing completion, and which -were in a much more advanced state, -at the opening of hostilities, than was -generally known in foreign naval circles. -They are the same in almost every -respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. -There is, however, another submarine -being built for Germany of a totally -different design. This is the F.I.A.T. -or <i>Laurenti</i> boat (Italian), laid down at -the beginning of 1914. This vessel is -very similar to the four “S” boats being -built at Greenock for the British Navy.</p> - -<p class='c022'>No German submarines have in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>past been sent to any Colonial or oversea -station. Therefore, the whole flotilla -of 30 to 36 vessels was immediately available -for operations in the North Sea and -Baltic when war began. The <i>personnel</i> -of the whole torpedo service is very -efficient, great attention having been -paid to this branch of the Navy. The -three German Submarine flotillas have -their headquarters at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven, -and Heligoland.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span> - <h2 id='ch7' class='c014'>CHAPTER VII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>At the commencement of the War the -Austro-Hungarian Navy included six -submarines in the active flotilla and -five others were being <a id='tn127'></a><i>completed</i> at the -Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful -if they had been delivered. In which -event they must be added to the strength -of the German flotilla. In addition to -these, several larger vessels, mostly of -the latest “U” or Krupp design, had -been ordered, but were not expected to -take their place in the active flotillas -before the end of 1915.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Austria commenced the formation of a -submarine flotilla in 1908 by the acquisition -of two vessels of the <i>Improved Holland -type</i> from Messrs. Vickers Ltd., and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>two others of the American <i>Lake type</i>. -In the following year two more submarines -were ordered, this time from -Krupp’s Germania Yard. All these -vessels were delivered during 1910, and -Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into -being.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.1 and U.2.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1910.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the American -Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 250 tons and petrol -surface motors of 720 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed -is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots -when submerged. The armament consists -of two bow and one stern torpedo -tube. This type of submarine has three -special features which distinguish it from -all others. It is fitted with a kind of -underframe and wheels, and is designed -to travel in four different positions: (1) on -the surface; (2) semi-submerged, with -only a look-out cowl above water; (3) -submerged, with nothing but the periscope -showing; (4) totally submerged and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>running along the sea-bed on wheels, -like a submarine motor car. It is drawn -down from the surface to the sea-bed -by an ingenious system of wire-hawsers -and drop-weights, which can be released -in the event of accident. A “diving -chamber” enables members of the crew -to don diving-dresses and leave the submarine -when on the sea-bed, for the -purpose of laying or destroying submerged -mines. The Lake type of submarine is -also used in the Russian Navy.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c028'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.3 and U.4.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1910.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These two vessels are of the Krupp -design, and have a submerged displacement -of 300 tons. The horse-power of -their heavy-oil surface engines is 600. -The electric motors develop 200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> -The surface and submerged speeds are -13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The -surface range of action is 1,500 miles, -and the armament consists of two bow -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and one stern tube with five 18-inch -torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen -officers and men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>U.5 and U.6.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1910.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are submarines of the Improved -Holland type. Their submerged displacement -is about 316 tons; length -135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The -horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 -and that of the electric engines 189. -The speed averages 12 knots on the -surface and 8 knots when submerged. -The surface cruising range is 1,300 -knots at 10 knots an hour. Their -armament consists of two bow tubes with -four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. -Their complement is sixteen officers and -men.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>U.7-U.11.</h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c031'> - <div>(Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.)</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania -type, and are similar to those -completed for the German Navy in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>1912‒13. They are large sea-going -submarines with a submerged displacement -of 800 tons. They are propelled -on the surface by heavy-oil engines of -1,200 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span>, and when submerged, by -electric motors of 500 <span class='fss'>H.-P.</span> Their speed -is 14 knots and 9 knots, above and -below, respectively. The surface range -of action is 3,000 miles, and the submerged -endurance 120 miles at economical -speed.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Their armament consists of two bow -and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight -torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing -gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, -for defence against hostile destroyers and -air-craft. Their complement is twenty-five -officers and men.</p> - -<p class='c022'>One or two Austrian submarines are -supposed to have been sunk by the -Allied Fleet during the first few weeks -of the war, but exactly which vessels -they were is not known.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Several other submarines have been -ordered in foreign countries for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered -while the war lasts.</p> - -<h3 id='flotillas' class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotillas of Neutral European Powers.</span></h3> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='20%' /> -<col width='40%' /> -<col width='40%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Country.</span></th> - <th class='bbt blt brt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Built.</span></th> - <th class='bbt c036'><span class='sc'>Vessels Building.</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Italy</td> - <td class='blt brt c037'>20 (100‒300 tons)</td> - <td class='c038'>8 (large size)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Denmark</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>9 (100‒300 tons)</td> - <td class='c038'>several</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Holland</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>6 (100‒300 tons)</td> - <td class='c038'>4 (large)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Sweden</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>7 (150‒300 tons)</td> - <td class='c038'>3 (large)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Greece</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>2 (Laubeuf)</td> - <td class='c039'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Norway</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>1 ――</td> - <td class='c038'>4 (Germania)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Portugal</td> - <td class='blt brt c038'>1 ――</td> - <td class='c038'>3 ――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c037'>Turkey</td> - <td class='blt brt c037'>――</td> - <td class='c038'>3 ――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c037'>Spain</td> - <td class='bbt blt brt c037'>――</td> - <td class='bbt c038'>3 ――</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span> - <h2 id='ch8' class='c014'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINES IN ACTION</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>Submarines have two great advantages -over all types of surface warships; they -can become invisible at will—or sufficiently -invisible to make gun or torpedo-practice, -except at very close quarters, -almost entirely useless—and they can, -by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate -of sufficient thickness to be absolutely -shell-proof. These are the two -main points in favour of the submarine. -There are, however, many minor features. -Although submarines are known in the -naval services as “daylight torpedo-boats,” -for their <i>greatest</i> value lies in -their ability to perform the same task in -the “light” as the ordinary surface torpedo-boats -and destroyers can do under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>cover of darkness or fog—that of creeping -up close to an enemy, and launching a -torpedo unobserved—they have been -given, during recent years, so much -greater speed, armament, and range of -action, that they can no longer be looked -upon as small boats just suitable for daylight -torpedo attack in favourable circumstances. -Their surface speed has been -increased from 10 to 20 knots, making -them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat. -This, combined with <a id='tn134'></a>manœuvering -powers and general above-water invisibility, -has enabled them to take over the -duty of the surface torpedo-boat—that -of delivering night-attacks on the surface. -After nightfall a submarine attack is -almost impossible owing to the periscope—the -eyes of the submarine—being -useless in the dark.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The increase in the armament of the -submarine—from the single bow torpedo -tube with two torpedoes of short range -and weak explosive charge, to the four -bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>torpedoes of long range and high -explosive charge—has greatly increased -their chances of successful attack on -surface warships, first, by giving them -four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, -in the event of all these -torpedoes missing, of a dive under the -object of attack, and two more shots -at close range from the stern tubes -(still retaining two torpedoes); and, -secondly, by increasing the distance -from which the first projectile can be -launched, owing to the increased range -of the modern torpedo. There are also -the advantages derived from the battery -of quick-firing guns installed on the -decks of modern submarines. Although -at the present time these guns are -only of small power they nevertheless -afford a means of defence—and even -of attack under favourable circumstances—against -hostile surface torpedo-boats, -destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a -flotilla of submarines could undoubtedly -now give a very good account of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>itself if attacked either on the surface -or when submerged by one or two -prowling destroyers. The increase in -the power of the guns carried by submarines, -which will certainly come soon, -will enable this type of craft to take -up the additional duties of the destroyer—that -of clearing the seas of hostile -torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced -scouting—for which work their ability -to travel submerged and in a state of -invisibility for distances of over 100 -miles makes them eminently suitable.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The enormous increase in the size -and range of action of submarines, -combined with the improvements effected -in the surface cruising qualities, have -enabled these vessels to be taken from -the “nursery” of harbour and coast -defence and placed with the sea-going -flotillas and battle-fleets. In the short -period of ten years the tonnage of -submarines has risen from 100 to over -1,000 tons, and the range of action -from 400 miles at economical speed to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>5,000 miles. Exactly what this means -is more easily realized when it is -stated that the earlier types of submarines -could scarcely cross the English -Channel and return without taking in -supplies of fuel, and in rough weather -were forced to remain in harbour, -whereas the modern vessel can go -from England to Newfoundland <i>and -back</i> without assistance, and can remain -at sea in almost any weather, as was -first demonstrated by the successful -voyage of the British submarines A.E.1 -and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since -been proved by the operations of the -British submarine flotilla in the North -Sea.</p> - -<p class='c022'>In addition to the cruising range -there is, however, the question of -habitability. In this respect the progress -has been equally as rapid. In -the older boats no sleeping accommodation -was provided for the crew, and -food supplies and fresh water sufficient -only for a few days were carried. In the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>latest British, French and German -vessels proper sleeping and messing -accommodation is provided, and supplies -of all kinds and in sufficient quantity -to last a month are carried. Although -work on these craft is still very -cramping for the crew, the increase in -the deck space and in the surface -buoyancy has greatly minimised the -discomforts of service in the submarine -flotilla.</p> - -<p class='c022'>With regard to safety, it has already -been shown that a submarine is only held -below the surface by the power of her -engines and the action of the water on -her diving-rudders. This means that in -the event of anything going wrong -<i>inside</i> the vessel she would automatically -rise to the surface; but should the hull -be pierced in any way, either by shot -or by collision, and an overwhelming -inrush of water result—overcoming the -buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing -out the water-ballast tanks—then the -vessel must inevitably sink, and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>question of whether or not the crew -can save themselves becomes a problem -to which no definite answer can be given, -although a special means is provided in -all modern vessels belonging to the British -Navy. Speaking generally, it may, however, -be said that if the disaster occurs -suddenly, and the vessel sinks into very -deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving -are extremely small; but if the -water is comparatively shallow, as along -the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood -of many of the crew being able to save -themselves with the aid of the <i>special -escape helmets and air-locks</i> is fairly good.</p> - -<p class='c022'>We now come to the most important -improvement made in the fighting qualities -of these vessels since first they came into -being, viz. the wonderful increase in the -surface and submerged speed. In the -older craft the surface speed did not -exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it -now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the -submerged speed has risen from 5 knots -to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>for any but a naval man to realize exactly -what this increase in the speed of submarines -really means, and it is equally as -difficult to adequately describe it here in -non-technical language. It is a mere -platitude to say that in order to attack a -surface warship the submarine must first -get within torpedo range of it; and yet it -is on this very point that the strategy and -tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A -clever naval tactician once described the -submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” -The two points on which he -based this opinion were—the (then) slow -speed of these vessels compared with that -of the surface warship, and its almost -total blindness when submerged. These -two defects were for some years the -principal drawbacks of all the submarines -afloat; but since that naval expert pronounced -submarines to be “handicapped -torpedo-boats,” great changes, great improvements -have been made. The speed -of the submarine has increased by over -100 per cent., and they have been given -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>longer and wider range of vision by the -introduction of two and three improved -periscopes instead of one elementary -instrument. Nevertheless, the speed -difficulty is still a very real one, as -will readily be seen when it is taken -into consideration that the speed of a -submarine when attacking submerged is -frequently only half, or even a third, -of that of her enemy. In order to -more clearly illustrate this and lift for -a moment the veil of secrecy which -enshrouds the methods of attack adopted -by this type of craft, it will be necessary -to describe what is known as the<i> right-angle -attack</i>.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Attacking at Right Angles.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>The difficulty of attacking a surface -warship steaming at right angles to the -course of the submarine will be clearly -understood by referring to the following -diagrams. The first shows an attack on -a warship travelling at 20 miles an -hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Any increase in the speed of the surface -vessel not only adds to the difficulty of -the attacking submarine, but also the -direction from which the attack must be -made. This feature is shown in the -second diagram, which illustrates a submarine -attack on a vessel steaming -at 30 miles an hour, such as a fast -destroyer or fleet scout. On the other -hand, a decrease in the speed of the -on-coming surface vessel tends to either -make easier the task of the attacking -submarine, or else to increase the -distance from which the attack can be -delivered. This is shown in the third -diagram, which assumes the speed of the -surface vessel to be only 15 miles an -hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, -food-ship, collier, or old warship.</p> - -<div id='tn142' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'><a id='tn142-2'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a submarine attacking -a hostile warship (or fleet) steaming at -20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the -line of vision. The submarine sights the -warship at a distance of just over 11 miles -on her port bow. “B” shows the hostile -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to point -marked “C,” and each division beyond -equals 1 mile.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Directly the submarine, which is -assumed to be lying in an <i>awash -condition</i>, sights the object of attack, -she totally submerges and steers forward -at a speed of 10 miles an hour. -The loss, and gain, of the submarine on -the different courses, can be seen in the -table above the chart.<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c028'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c022'>The spaces between the black dots -show the most favourable points of -attack. It will be noticed in the table -that both vessels are equal at point “C,” -but for many reasons this is not the best -point of attack. The gain of about six -minutes on the longer course enables the -submarine not only to manœuvre into the -best possible position for the attack, but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>also to discharge more than one torpedo -if necessary.</p> - -<p class='c022'><a id='tn144'></a><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the extreme limit at -which a submarine could, with reasonable -chances of success, attack a destroyer, or -other vessel, steaming at 30 (statute) -miles an hour, having sighted her at a -distance of 16 miles in the position -shown by the line of vision “A.”</p> - -<p class='c022'>The distance to “C” is 15 miles -for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for -the submarine. Here, again, the two -vessels would be equal; but the most -favourable point of attack is shown by -the two black dots—where the submarine -has gained two minutes.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='sc'>Fig. 3.</span>—The submarine sights the -object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼ -miles, in the position shown by the line -of vision “A.” The surface vessel has -a speed of only 15 miles an hour -(merchantman). In this case the surface -vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey -along course “B”—arriving at point -“C” 20 minutes in advance of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>submarine. The table shows how the -submarine, by changing her course and -“throwing” the surface vessel on her -beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, -at the point marked with the two black -dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At -this distance she could fire her torpedoes at -long range, with some likelihood of success.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Although these charts show approximately -the extreme limits of the right-angle -attack, a submarine could, of -course, proceed for some distance on -the surface at a much faster speed; -but considering the rate at which the -two vessels would be approaching each -other, the submarine which attempted -it would run considerable risk of being -detected, and thus destroy her chances -of a successful attack. Considering also -the time lost in sinking from the “light” -to the totally submerged condition, in -coming to close quarters, the gain in -speed would not amount to as much as -may at first seem probable.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c028'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>These charts are drawn and calculations -made assuming the following -points:—</p> - -<div class='in1'> - - <dl class='dl_1'> - <dt>(1)</dt> - <dd>The weather—fine and bright. - </dd> - <dt>(2)</dt> - <dd>Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc. - </dd> - <dt>(3)</dt> - <dd>The enemy on the alert. - </dd> - <dt>(4)</dt> - <dd>Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition. - </dd> - <dt>(5)</dt> - <dd>Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” in all courses in a - submerged condition. - </dd> - </dl> - -</div> - -<p class='c022'>The most favourable position for a -submarine flotilla is to manœuvre close -up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within -1,000 yards of a fleet—steaming across -its course; but both of these ideal -positions for attack are extremely -difficult to obtain, and consequently in -all the less favourable positions speed -is the deciding factor. Strategems will -undoubtedly play an important part in -submarine warfare. An example of this -has already been afforded when the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>German submarines resorted to the -dishonest trick of laying in wait behind -a trawler engaged in laying mines, over -which <i>the flag of a neutral state</i> had -been hoisted as a blind. This resulted -in the loss of three British cruisers with -over 1,000 lives. It would, however, -be quite in accord with the rules of -<i>civilised</i> warfare for a submarine to -shelter behind a “decoy”; to attack -simultaneously with a seaplane; or to -approach an enemy behind one of its -own merchant ships.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>The Porpoise Dive.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise -Dive” is merely the sudden rising of a -submarine in order to enable her commander -to get a better view of the surface -than that afforded by the periscope. The -submarine on approaching the object of -attack rises quickly to the surface by the -action of her horizontal rudders, then -dives again, only remaining above water -for a few seconds to enable her commander -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>to get a glimpse of the enemy, -and to take bearings. The submarine -can then get within torpedo-range, with -simply the tiny periscope projecting from -the surface. This manœuvre is now -seldom necessary, owing to the long and -wide range of vision of the two or three -periscopes fitted in modern submarines.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Difficulty of the Fixed Torpedo Tube.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>With the exception of one or two -vessels, which it would be unwise to -specify, all the submarines engaged in -the present war have what are called -<i>fixed submerged tubes</i>. This means that -the tubes from which the torpedoes are -discharged are fitted <i>inside</i> the submarine -<i>on a line with the centre of the boat</i>, and -cannot be moved or aimed in any way -apart from the boat itself. It therefore -becomes necessary for the submarine to -be <i>aligned</i> by the steering rudders on the -object of attack before the torpedoes can -be discharged. In simpler vein, torpedoes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>can only be fired by a submarine straight -ahead or straight astern. Hence a -submarine, with a hostile warship coming -up on its beam, is compelled to turn and -face its opponent (or turn its stern towards -her) before delivering an attack.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Submarine Flotilla</span> <i>v.</i> <span class='sc'>Surface Fleet.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>It is absolutely necessary for submarines -acting in company to have each -its allotted task; and for a wide space of -water to be left between each boat; as it -is impossible, at present, for one submarine -to know the exact position of -another when both vessels are submerged. -Therefore, if each boat was not previously -instructed how to act, there would not -only be the likelihood of the greater -portion of an attacking flotilla firing their -torpedoes at one or two vessels of the -hostile fleet and allowing the remainder -either to escape or to keep up a heavy -and dangerous fire unmolested, but also -of collision and of torpedoeing each other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>by accident. There is no means of -inter-communication between submarines -when submerged, and a battle between -submarines is almost impossible.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Surprise Attack.</span></h3> - -<p class='c027'>In this case invisibility is the element -of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge, -G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once -said: “When submerged the concealment -of the submarine is practically perfect. -If she has not been sighted up to the -moment of diving, she will almost -certainly reach, unobserved, the point at -which she can make her attack.” And -this opinion—shared for many years by -all experts—has been amply proved in the -present war.</p> - -<p class='c022'>A submarine must, however, blend with -the surrounding sea in its ever-varying -colours, lights and shades, in order that -she may be as invisible as possible when -cruising on the surface. The French -Naval Authorities experimented off -Toulon with a luminous paint of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>sea-green colour; but this, although -causing the hull to be almost totally -invisible in certain weather, was found -to be useless, as, on a bright day with -a blue sky, the green showed up clear -against the bluish tint of the surrounding -sea. After many months of experimenting, -a pale, sea-green, non-luminous -paint was chosen as the best colour -for French submarines. The British -Admiralty also carried out a few experiments -in this direction, and came to the -conclusion that a dull grey was the most -invisible shade. The German authorities -decided in favour of a grey-brown.</p> - -<p class='c022'>When travelling submerged, with only -the thin periscopic tube above the surface, -it is almost impossible to detect the -approach of a submarine <i>before</i> she gets -within torpedo range; and when cruising -on the surface she is equally as invisible -at a distance of a few miles. These -qualities enable the submarine in nearly -all cases where her speed permits, to -effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>or cruiser <i>when not closely screened by -fast destroyers</i>, whose duty it is to be ever -on the watch for submarines.</p> - -<p class='c022'>As to the tactics which would be -employed by a submarine (or flotilla) in -attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it -is impossible to say, for, like the -impromptu attacks of all “mosquito -craft,” the exact method, or manœuvre<a id='tn152'></a>, -is arranged to suit the circumstances, -and it is very seldom that two such -attacks are carried out alike. Generally -speaking, however, a hostile warship -could be easily sighted, on a fairly -clear day, from the flying-bridge of a -submarine at a distance of 10 miles; but -it would be practically impossible to -detect the submarine from the deck of -a warship at that distance. On sighting -her object of attack the submarine would -sink to the “awash” condition, and -proceed for from 2 ½ to 5 miles, as -might be deemed expedient. She would -then submerge and steer by her periscopes, -each of which has a field of vision -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>of 60 degrees. He would be a very -keen look-out who would be able to -detect the few square inches of periscopic -tube at a distance of three miles. -As this distance lessened, it might be -advisable, if the sea was <i>very</i> calm and -if the object of attack was stationary, -for the submarine to slacken speed, so as -to prevent any spray being thrown off -by the periscopic tube. Assuming, however, -that the optical tube was seen by -the enemy, it would be extremely difficult -to hit it with gun-fire at a distance of one -or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, -which would probably be immersed to a -depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of -about 2,000 yards, or just over one mile, -the submarine would discharge her first -torpedo, following it up with another -at closer range from the second bow -tube. A rapid dive would then probably -be necessary in order to avoid the hail -of shot which would plough up the waters -around her. If the first two torpedoes -missed their mark the submarine might -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>either dive completely under the object -of attack and then fire her stern tubes -at close range, or else manœuvre below -the surface for an attack from some -other point.</p> - -<p class='c022'>One of the effects produced on fleets -or individual warships in war time by -the ever present possibility of submarine -attack is, however, that they never -remain at anchor or even stationary in -an exposed position, and seldom—if wise—proceed -without destroyers as advance -and flank guards. These precautions -double the difficulties of a successful -submarine attack.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span> - <h2 id='ch9' class='c014'>CHAPTER IX <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>In all warfare, new weapons of attack -are, sooner or later, met by new methods -of defence. The submarine and the -aeroplane are at present the only -weapons against which there is no true -means of defence, and yet one is being -used as an antidote for the other without, -however, any very striking success so far. -The seaplane may be able to distinguish -the dark patch in the sea caused by the -hull of the submarine <i>in clear water</i>, -but she cannot destroy it, neither can -she signal the <i>exact</i> locality to an -accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing -to the speed with which seaplane and -submarine pass over and under each -other; furthermore, in rough weather or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>in shallow muddy water no sign of the -submarine when submerged is visible -from above. The great value of the -seaplane as an antidote for submarines -lies, however, first in the fact that the -water of the open sea is usually clear, -and the <i>submarine shadow</i> is visible -from above, and, secondly, in the great -speed of these aircraft which enables -them to quickly cover miles of sea in -their search for hostile submarines and -to report their presence in a given -locality by wireless to all ships operating -within range.</p> - -<p class='c022'>When the enormous superficial area of -a zone of war, such as the North Sea -and English Channel, is duly considered, -however, the difficulty in quickly and -reliably locating from the air the -few scattered “submarine shadows” will -be easily realized. To make this -method of locating submarines even -fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes -would be required. Again seaplanes -do not, in themselves, constitute -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>a means of defence against submarine -attack, they merely increase the likelihood -of detection, but, in actual warfare, -it has now been proved that for every -submarine detected by seaplanes two -others pass quite unobserved.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Many means of attack on submarines -have been proposed; and no doubt some -of these, in certain cases, would prove -effective; but none can be relied upon. -Therefore, one of the points in favour -of the submarine still remains without -its antidote. This is the <i>moral effect</i>; -for if there is no absolutely reliable -means of defence, there can be no -feeling of security for surface warships -or merchant vessels when anywhere -within the danger zone of the submarine.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Let us now examine briefly what -practical methods of defence a modern -warship has against submarine attacks. -Great speed is undoubtedly a surface -ship’s most reliable defence; and when -combined with a frequent change of -course, would greatly reduce the chances -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>of a successful under-water attack. -Should hostile submarines be on the -line of advance they would not know -whether to wait and chance the enemy -approaching within torpedo range or -whether to run to starboard or port. -This is, if the surface warship was -steaming in an erratic course—not a -zigzag course, for then it might be -possible to estimate, within torpedo -range, the position of the ship at a -given point if the “tacks” were regular.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Should submarines be seen approaching, -a surface vessel would do well to turn -her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting -as small a target as possible, -and deflecting the torpedoes by her -propeller race.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The escape of the Battle Cruiser -<i>Queen Mary</i> and the Light Cruiser -<i>Lowestoft</i>, during the action in the -Heligoland Bight, as described in the -dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David -Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what may -be done by the skilful use of the helm -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>on surface warships to frustrate submarine -attacks. So interesting, and informative -as to the actual fighting -between British warships and hostile -submarines, in this dispatch that I give -it here in full. It should, however, be -studied in conjunction with the comprehensive -report—the first in the -history of Naval warfare detailing submarine -attack and reconnaissance—from -Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., -of the British submarines, given on -page 28.</p> - -<div class='c040'>“H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>, </div> -<div class='c040'><i>1st September, 1914</i>.</div> - -<p class='c024'>“<span class='sc'>Sir</span>,—I have the honour to report -that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 a.m., -I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser -Squadron and First Light Cruiser -Squadron in company, to rendezvous -with the Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements -of the Flotillas commenced as -previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser -Squadron and Light Cruiser Squadron -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>supporting. The Rear-Admiral, <i>Invincible</i>, -with <i>New Zealand</i> and four -Destroyers having joined my flag, the -Squadron passed through the pre-arranged -rendezvous.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal -from the Commodore (T), informing me -that the Flotilla was in action with the -enemy. This was presumably in the -vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. -From this time until 11 a.m. I remained -about the vicinity ready to support as -necessary, intercepting various signals, -which contained no information on which -I could act.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked -by three Submarines. The attack -was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and -the four Destroyers were ordered to -attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., -various signals having been received -indicating that the Commodore (T) and -Commodore (S) were both in need of -assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser -Squadron to support the Torpedo Flotillas.</p> - -<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>“Later I received a signal from the -Commodore (T), stating that he was -being attacked by a large Cruiser, and -a further signal informing me that he -was being hard pressed and asking for -assistance. The Captain (D), First -Flotilla, also signalled that he was in -need of help.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“From the foregoing the situation -appeared to me critical. The Flotillas -had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., -and were only about twenty-five miles -from two enemy bases on their flank and -rear respectively. Commodore Goodenough -had detached two of his Light -Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier -in the day, and these had not yet rejoined. -(They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As -the reports indicated the presence of many -enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I -considered that his force might not be -strong enough to deal with the situation -sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the -Battle Cruisers turned to E.S.E., and -worked up to full speed. It was evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>that to be of any value the support must -be overwhelming and carried out at the -highest speed possible.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“I had not lost sight of the risk of -Submarines, and possible sortie in force -from the enemy’s base, especially in view -of the mist to the South-East.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Our high speed, however, made -submarine attack difficult, and the -smoothness of the sea made their detection -comparatively easy. I considered -that we were powerful enough to deal -with any sortie except by a Battle -Squadron, which was unlikely to come -out in time, provided our stroke was -sufficiently rapid.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 12.15 p.m. <i>Fearless</i> and First -Flotilla were sighted retiring West. At -the same time the Light Cruiser -Squadron was observed to be engaging -an enemy ship ahead. They appeared -to have her beat.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“I then steered N.E. to sounds of -firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. sighted -<i>Arethusa</i> and Third Flotilla retiring to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>the Westward engaging a Cruiser of the -<i>Kolberg</i> class on our Port Bow. I -steered to cut her off from Heligoland, -and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At 12.42 -the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased -at 27 knots.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged -a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. <i>Lion</i> -fired two salvoes at her, which took -effect, and she disappeared into the mist, -burning furiously and in a sinking condition. -In view of the mist and that she -was steering at high speed at right angles -to <i>Lion</i>, who was herself steaming at -28 knots, the <i>Lion’s</i> firing was very -creditable.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“Our Destroyers had reported the -presence of floating mines to the Eastward -and I considered it inadvisable to -pursue her. It was also essential that -the Squadrons should remain concentrated, -and I accordingly ordered a -withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned -North and circled to port to complete the -destruction of the vessel first engaged. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. -steaming S.E. with colours still flying. -<i>Lion</i> opened fire with two turrets, and at -1.35 p.m., after receiving two salvoes, she -sank.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“The four attached Destroyers were -sent to pick up survivors, but I deeply -regret that they subsequently reported -that they searched the area but found -none.</p> - -<p class='c024'>“At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers -turned to the Northward, and <i>Queen -Mary</i> was again attacked by a Submarine. -The attack was avoided by the use of -the helm. <i>Lowestoft</i> was also unsuccessfully -attacked. The Battle Cruisers -covered the retirement until nightfall. -By 6 p.m., the retirement having been -well executed and all Destroyers accounted -for, I altered course, spread the -Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in -accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s -orders. At 7.45 p.m. I detached -<i>Liverpool</i> to Rosyth with German -prisoners, seven officers and 79 men, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>survivors from <i>Mainz</i>. No further incident -occurred.—I have the honour to -be, Sir, your obedient Servant.</p> - -<div class='c023'>“(Signed) DAVID BEATTY, </div> -<div class='c023'>“Vice-Admiral.</div> -<div class='c023'>“The Secretary of the Admiralty.” </div> - -<p class='c022'>Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and -6-inch type are certainly the best weapons -for an attack on submarines. In combination -with “sharp look-outs,” they -could be used with effect from the -elevated positions on the fore part of -warships. The periscopic-tube of the -submarine always proves a target for -gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches -in diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards -requires “excellent” marksmanship to -hit. That it can be done is proved by -the sinking of the German submarine -U.15 by the British Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i> -in the North Sea. The effect of a shot -carrying away the periscope is to blind -the submarine, at least in one eye, she -can then be <i>run-down</i> by the surface -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>warship or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at -close range.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Of course, if submarines were caught -napping on the surface the guns of surface -warships could quickly sink them; but -another incident, similar to that which -opened the naval engagements of the -Russo-Japanese War, cannot be looked -for in the naval engagements to come.</p> - -<p class='c022'>For a fleet engaged in bombarding or -blockading, one of the best methods of -defence would be to lower the torpedo -nets, not close round each vessel, but -suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance -from the bombarding or blockading -fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a -good defence during daylight, but -neither of these methods are reliable. -A submarine might be able to dive -unobserved under, or past, the destroyers -acting as pickets, and it is this -chance which causes these under-water -craft to be a source of constant anxiety.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The torpedo-boat destroyer should -prove a nasty enemy to the submarine. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot -vessels to look after their under-water -opponents.</p> - -<p class='c022'>It has been suggested that internal -armour could be fitted to warships -below the water-line, which would -render the hulls able to withstand mine -or torpedo explosions. At present this -is practically impossible, as the great -weight of this additional armour, combined -with the ever-increasing size of -guns and weight of above-water protection, -would necessitate a vessel of -such enormous displacement as to be -quite impossible, if the important factor—high -speed—has also to be maintained.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The defence of harbours against submarines -is a problem which does not -present nearly so many difficulties as -the defence of moving ships. Portsmouth, -for example, is closed by means -of a submarine boom-defence, which is -stretched across the mouth of the -harbour. The entrance to the River -Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>Canal) is effectively closed to British -submarines by boom-defences, mines, and -submerged wire entanglements. Narrow -waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, -can be closed by the laying of contact-mines, -and even broader seas can be -made dangerous to submarines by the -same method. An example of this is -afforded by the laying of a British -mine-field somewhere between the -Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to -prevent German submarines from penetrating -into the English Channel.</p> - -<p class='c022'>There are so many reliable means -of defending harbours and narrow -waterways against submarines that it is -unnecessary to say anything further -here. But to protect moving ships at -sea, under all conditions, certainly presents -a most profound puzzle.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span> - <h2 id='ch10' class='c014'>CHAPTER X <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The submarine torpedo has become one -of the principal naval arms. Not only -does it supply the chief offensive power -of the submarine, the torpedo-boat and -the destroyer, but it is also carried as a -separate arm, with a special highly-trained -crew, by almost every warship afloat. -At the beginning of hostilities the Naval -Powers engaged owned considerably over -80,000 of these weapons, and <i>one</i> factory -in England alone can make them at the -rate of two a day. During the first few -weeks of the <i>Great War</i> the torpedo -was responsible for the sinking of warships -to the value of over one million sterling. -Had the German Fleet been on the high -seas instead of in harbour and protected -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>from torpedo raids by carefully-prepared -submarine defences, there is little -doubt but what several more of the -enemy’s ships would have been sunk -by this weapon. The fact that at first -the British light cruisers suffered rather -heavily—though in total loss of ships and -men less than the German Navy—does -not point to any advantage derived either -from the type of torpedo used or from -skill in this mode of warfare possessed by -the Germans, but clearly to the timidity -of the German main fleet, which was at -the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn -from the zone of war and placed behind -fortifications, where it was safe from -torpedo attack. The British Fleet, true -to the policy of “attack and not defence,” -began operations the moment war was -declared, with results so brilliantly successful, -and of such far-reaching and -world-wide importance, that enumeration is -well-nigh impossible. But while all these -operations were in progress the British -Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>attack by any hostile submarines or fast -surface craft which might succeed in -getting past the cordon of protecting -destroyers, while the German Fleet was -safe, but ignominiously impotent. That -the naval losses of Great Britain, with -all her fleets at sea, have not been far -greater than they have is in itself a victory -of the greatest magnitude—a victory due -entirely to consummate naval skill.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The modern torpedo varies in length -from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to -half a ton. It has an extreme range -of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ miles. -There are three types of torpedoes in -use by the fleets at war. The British -use the <i>Whitehead Torpedo</i>, the French -the Whitehead and the <i>Schneider</i>, the -Russians and the Japanese use the -Whitehead; the Germans have a type -of their own, known as the <i>Schwartzkopf</i>, -and the Austrian arm is principally the -Whitehead. All these types are alike in -their essential features, and therefore need -not be described separately.</p> - -<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead -torpedo is propelled by compressed air -stored in that section of the weapon -known as the <i>air-chamber</i> (see diagram). -The air on being released is heated and -expanded in a tiny three or four-cylinder -engine which operates twin screws, -moving “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” -The “war-head” contains about -200 pounds of wet gun-cotton which is -exploded on the torpedo striking an -object. The essential features of the -Whitehead torpedo are shown in the -diagram.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c028'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c022'>This torpedo maintains a speed of -42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for -2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, -and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. Thus, if -discharged at a distance of half a mile -it reaches its object in about 45 seconds.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c041'> - <img src='images/164.jpg' alt='Whitehead Torpedo' /> - <div> - -<p class='c022'><span class='c006'>Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead -torpedo. <i>A.</i> Pistol, detonator, primer, which causes the -explosion of “B” when the torpedo strikes an object. <i>B.</i> -Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. (The “war-head” -is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.) -<i>C.</i> Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of -approximately 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The -chamber is tested to stand a pressure of 1700 lbs. per square -inch. <i>D.</i> Balance chamber, containing mechanism for -regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo -is adjusted to run. <i>E.</i> Engine-room, containing propelling -machinery (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). <i>F.</i> Buoyancy -chamber—a practically empty chamber—to give the -necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. <i>G.</i> Gyroscope. An -instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo -from the line of fire. <i>H.</i> Rudders, and mechanism for -operating. <i>I.</i> Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and -“anti-clockwise.<a id='tn175'></a>”</span></p> - - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into -the sea from surface or submerged -tubes, and on striking the water are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>propelled by their own engines in an -absolutely straight course towards the -target. The exact mechanism of the -submerged tube—which is used in -surface warships as well as in submarines—is -a naval secret. When fired from -a surface tube the torpedo sinks immediately -to a depth of about 10 to 14 -feet, and maintains this depth until it -strikes its object. When fired from a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>submerged tube it rises—if necessary—to -the same level. A torpedo always -proceeds towards its object of attack at -a depth of a few feet below the surface. -This, combined with speed, renders -it almost impossible to destroy an -approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So -marvellous is the mechanism of these -little weapons that in anything like -favourable circumstances they may be -<i>depended upon</i>, if well aimed, to strike -within a yard or two of the spot aimed -at. This accuracy is due almost -entirely to the gyroscope, which, -briefly described, is a rotating wheel -automatically controlling the torpedo’s -course.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Although for many years torpedoes -have been carried by nearly all types -of service warships, none of them were -really ideal for this kind of warfare. A -new field for the torpedo was, however, -opened out by the introduction of the -submarine boat. In order to be effective -the torpedo must be discharged from a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>distance under 4,000 yards—preferably -from a point less than half this distance -from the object of attack. This means -that the vessel carrying the torpedo -would have to get within a mile, or at -least a mile and a-half, of her object -of attack before discharging a torpedo. -For a surface vessel to accomplish this in -the face of a heavy cannonade from quick-firing -guns would be extremely risky. -To make a quick rush to close quarters, -if possible, by several vessels from -different points, was the only chance of -delivering a successful torpedo attack -on a hostile warship; unless, of course, -she was favoured by fog or darkness -<i>at the right moment</i>—favourable conditions -which would seldom obtain in -actual warfare. Again, every increase in -the speed of the big surface warship -rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat -and destroyer more difficult because -in the event of a threatened attack the -larger vessel would make use of her -speed to keep out of torpedo range while -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>her powerful guns were repelling the -attacking torpedo-boat.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The <i>hour</i> of the torpedo came with -the <i>perfection</i> of the submarine. All the -conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were -fulfilled—<i>invisibility</i> rendering daylight -attacks possible; <i>almost perfect immunity -from gun-fire</i> enabling the torpedo to be -discharged at closer range; <i>submerged -discharge</i> removing the likelihood of -the weapon being exploded by accurate -gun-fire before being discharged; <i>speed on -the surface</i> enabling the “carrying” -vessel to manœuvre for position; <i>moderate -speed when submerged</i> enabling an -attack under all reasonably tactical -conditions; and <i>comparatively large displacement</i> -giving good cruising qualities, -wide range of action, and enabling a -large number of torpedoes and tubes -being carried.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span> - <h2 id='ch11' class='c014'>CHAPTER XI <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>SUBMARINE MINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>If the Russo-Japanese war was the -first to fully demonstrate the value of -the explosive mine, the Great European -Conflict has certainly brought this weapon -to the forefront in the rapidly growing -science of submarine warfare. During -the first few weeks of the naval fighting -several warships, beginning with H.M.S. -<i>Amphion</i>, and many merchant vessels -representing millions of pounds sterling, -were destroyed by these weapons. Had -it not been for the foresight of the -British Admiralty in providing a very -large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by -seaplanes, there can be no doubt but -what the shipping of all countries—neutrals -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>and belligerents alike—would -have suffered far greater losses.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/168.jpg' alt='Launching Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/169.jpg' alt='Trotyl Mine' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p>A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER.<br /><br /><span class='c006'>These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>The indiscriminate scattering of mines -across the trade routes, as carried on -by Germany immediately on the outbreak -of war, and before hardly any of the -ships at sea belonging to neutral -countries could be warned to avoid the -zone of operations, has never before been -so ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised -power.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The system of defence consists of the -mooring of these mines in such positions -as to make it almost impossible for hostile -ships to pass without either striking or -coming within the destructive zone of one -or more of them. What are known as -<i>floating mines</i> are those set adrift to be -washed about by the tide. They explode -immediately on being struck by a passing -vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate -between friend and foe. The systems of -destroying hostile mine-fields consist of -<i>counter-mining</i>, or placing other mines in -the enemy’s field and destroying it by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>their explosion, and by <i>sweeping</i>. The -latter method is the one mostly employed -in modern warfare. The boats taking -part in the <i>sweep</i> place themselves one -on each side of the mine-field, and -between them hangs a long wire rope, -weighted in the centre to keep it well -submerged. They then move forward, -sweeping the mines to the surface or -exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, -very dangerous but highly necessary -work.</p> - -<p class='c022'>There are two kinds of submarine -mines, one is designed to explode on -being struck by a passing vessel, and is -called a <i>contact mine</i>, and the other is -fired from the shore by an electric -current, and is known as an <i>observation -mine</i>. The explosive principally used is -wet gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only -to the safety with which they can be -stored and manipulated, but also to the -fact that they seldom explode in sympathy -with neighbouring mines, requiring to be -actually fired. The importance of this will -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>be more fully realised when it is remembered -that in warfare it is often necessary -to explode certain mines over which hostile -ships are endeavouring to pass, while -leaving others in fairly close proximity -intact, ready to repel a second invasion -or to destroy ships nearer to them. The -actual explosion is caused by an electric -current, either from the shore or from a -battery in the mine itself, causing the -detonation of fulminate of mercury in -conjunction with a small priming charge -of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid -in a series, connected to a battery on the -sea-bed in the centre of the line of -defence.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The <i>observation mine</i> is mostly used for -defending the approaches to harbours, as -an observer on shore can watch the movements -of hostile warships and explode -each mine when the vessel passes over -it. <i>Contact mines</i>, on the other hand, are -used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely -to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed -by means of a cable and heavy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>weight, and are allowed to float a few -feet below the surface. They explode -immediately on contact. At times an -unscrupulous or demoralised enemy will -simply throw a number of these mines -overboard and allow them to float at the -mercy of wind and tide. They then -become a terrible danger to the shipping -of all nations, as once they are left -unwatched it is extremely difficult to tell -with any degree of certainty where they -will eventually proclaim their presence -by devastating explosions. Happily for -the whole seafaring world, this method is -seldom resorted to, as mines set adrift in -this way become a danger to both friend -and foe. In the Russo-Japanese war -several ships were destroyed by their -own mines.</p> - -<p class='c022'>There are many different kinds of submarine -mines, both of the observation -and the contact type. Some are spherical -in shape and others cylindrical. Some -are moored close down to the sea-bed -with a very heavy explosive charge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>(200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have -a small buoyant globe floating above -them, which, when struck, fires the mine -below. Others, known as secret-mines, -are kept continually moored in the waterways -leading to important naval harbours, -and are only allowed to rise sufficiently -high from the sea-bed to be struck by -passing vessels in times of emergency. -The type most generally used is, however, -the ordinary <i>offensive contact mine</i>, -which contains a powerful explosive -charge and is anchored in the path of -hostile warships. These mines are -usually automatically sown in large -numbers over a wide area of sea by the -mine-laying fleets.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span> - <h2 id='ch12' class='c014'>CHAPTER XII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-LAYING FLEETS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>The <i>regular</i> mine-laying fleets of the -powers at war are composed of the -following vessels, all of which are fitted -with special apparatus for the work. -Submarine mines can, however, be laid -by any vessel, and it is therefore almost -impossible to say exactly what ships are -engaged in this work. Both Germany -and Austria have converted a large -number of their merchantmen into mine-layers. -England, in reply, has converted -a large number of small steamers into -<i>mine-sweepers</i>. Russia is a strong -believer in explosive mines, and has -strewn the gulfs of Finland and Riga -with them. Japan, being on the -offensive, is employing more mine-sweepers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>than layers. France has an -elaborate system of submarine mine -defence for all her important harbours, -and maintains a small fleet at each base, -known as the “defence mobile.” These -vessels are all capable of both mine-laying -and sweeping.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The submarine mine is primarily the -defence of the weaker naval power, -and therefore a fleet acting on the -defensive, either temporarily or permanently, -requires more mine-layers than -mine-sweepers, but the reverse is -naturally the case with a fleet acting -on the offensive. Although this may -be taken as a general rule, it does not -imply that a strong naval power like -Great Britain, whose policy is attack -and not defence, needs no mines or -mine-layers. On the contrary, the -laying of <i>counter</i> mines is one of the -ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field; -and even the strongest fleet -cannot guard every portion of a long -coast line with many harbours exposed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>to attack. The judicious laying of -mine-fields will often prevent raids by -hostile submarines and torpedo-boats; -and will limit the theatre of operations, -as was done by the British Navy in the -southern portion of the North Sea in -October, 1914. The axiom that a really -strong navy needs to be strong in <i>every</i> -branch, therefore holds good in this, as -in all other respects.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'><span class='sc'>Mine-Laying Fleets.</span></h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Great Britain.</span></h4> - -<div class='c001'></div> -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Apollo.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Thetis.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Andromache.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Latona.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Naiad.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Intrepid.</i></li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Iphigenia.</i></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>These are all second class cruisers of -from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built about -1891‒2, which have been converted -into mine-layers. They are equipped -with a very large number of submarine -explosive mines, which can be automatically -lowered into the water as the -vessels steam along. Their speed is -about 15 knots, and their armament -consists of four 4·7-inch quick-firing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>guns. Their complement is about 150 -officers and men.</p> - -<div class='myfigcenter c004'> - <img src='images/176.jpg' alt='Iphigenia' /> - <div> -<p class='c035'><span class='c006'><i>Photo, Cribb, Southsea.</i>]</span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c032'> - <div>THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. <i>IPHIGENIA</i>.</div> - <div class='c001'><span class='c006'>The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - - </div> -</div> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Germany.</span></h4> - -<div class='c001'></div> -<div class='center'> -<ul class='ships'> -<li class='shipit'><i>Pelikan</i> (1890).</li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Nautilus</i> (1906).</li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Albatross</i> (1907).</li> -<li class='shipit'><i>Arkona</i> (1903).</li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>All these vessels, with the exception of -the <i>Arkona</i>, which was a protected -cruiser, have been specially built for -mine-laying work. Their displacement -is about 2,000 tons. The <i>Pelikan</i> has a -speed of 15 knots, the <i>Albatross</i> and -<i>Nautilus</i> of 20 knots, and the <i>Arkona</i> of -21 ½ knots. They are all fitted with -special gear for dropping the large -number of mines carried, and their -armament consists of from four to eight -21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement -is about 200 officers and men.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Austria.</span></h4> - -<p class='c027'>The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses -only one regular mine-laying warship—the -<i>Chamaleon</i>, which was being completed -when war was declared. She is -a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>with a speed of 20 knots. Her mine-launching -gear is of the most modern -and efficient type, and she is armed -with several quick-firing guns.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Since the beginning of hostilities -Austria has converted several old warships -and merchantmen into mine-layers.</p> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>France and Russia.</span></h4> - -<p class='c027'>Neither of these powers possess -proper mine-laying vessels, but on the -outbreak of war several old warships -and small merchant steamers were used -for that purpose.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span> - <h2 id='ch13' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIII <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>For clearing away the mines dropped -by an enemy special vessels are employed. -Each vessel is fitted on both -sides with a curious contrivance known -as the “picking-up gear.” This -apparatus is lowered into the water, -and “picks up” any mines which may -lie in the path of an <a id='tn196'></a>on-coming fleet. -When a mine-field is discovered by -either destroyers or seaplanes these -vessels are immediately dispatched to -destroy it; and they are aided, in the -case of the British Navy, by a large -flotilla of steam trawlers. Many of -these auxiliary vessels are not fitted -with the <i>picking-up gear</i>, but go to work -in pairs. Two vessels, connected together -by a long wire rope weighted in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>the centre to keep it submerged, range -themselves on each side of a mine-field, -and by steaming ahead in a parallel line -sweep up the mines floating between -them. This process can be carried on -simultaneously by a large number of -trawlers, covering a very wide area of -sea. In the meantime the attached -destroyers and seaplanes can be -searching for new fields. It often -happens during sweeping operations -that mines are brought into contact with -each other and violent explosions occur. -Sometimes the vessels engaged in this -hazardous work will themselves strike -one of the mines, but it is more often -the <i>searching</i> flotillas which meet with -sudden disaster in this way. Fully -equipped mine-sweepers usually precede -a fleet of battleships and big cruisers -through dangerous and narrow seas, -within the likely zone of hostile mines.</p> - -<p class='c022'>The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet -comprises the following vessels:—<i>Circe</i> -(810 tons), <i>Jason</i> (810 tons), <i>Speedy</i> (810 -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>tons), <i>Leda</i> (810 tons), <i>Gossamer</i> (735 -tons), <i>Seagull</i> (735 tons), <i>Skipjack</i> (735 -tons), and <i>Speedwell</i> (735 tons).</p> - -<p class='c022'>These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats -which have been specially -fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. -There is also a large flotilla of steam -fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these -vessels were purchased by the Admiralty -before the war, and were also equipped -for mine-sweeping; but many others were, -by special arrangement, handed over to -the Navy on the outbreak of war. The -whole of the mine-sweeping fleet is -manned by a special section of the Royal -Naval Reserve, known as the “Trawler -Section,” which consists of about 142 -<i>skippers</i> and 1,136 men. This is, of -course, in addition to the several -thousand naval sailors employed on the -regular mine-sweepers, named above, -and also to those employed on the large -number of additional small steamers taken -over for this work by the Admiralty at -the commencement of hostilities. It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>estimated that the task of keeping the -North Sea clear of mines during the first -four weeks of the Great War required -over 100 vessels and 5,000 sailors, in -addition to the usual destroyer and submarine -patrols with their crews, and also -to the seaplanes with their pilots and -observers.</p> - -<p class='c022'>Almost any steamship can be quickly -converted into an effective mine-sweeper, -and for this reason it is impossible to -give here more than the very briefest -information concerning the vessels -employed in these operations by the -other Naval Powers at war. Russia had -fifteen special mine-sweeping vessels -building when war broke out; but, -doubtless, many small merchant ships -have since been used for this purpose. -France employed a number of mine-sweepers -in the Adriatic; and Japan -used some in clearing the approaches to -Tsing-tau. Germany and Austria, of -course, did not need many vessels of -this kind, as the Allied Navies laid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>comparatively few mines and German -oversea commerce ceased to exist almost -as soon as war was declared. It was -in the North Sea, during the first phase -of the naval war, that the value of a big -British mine-sweeping fleet made itself -so wonderfully apparent.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span> - <h2 id='ch14' class='c014'>CHAPTER XIV <br /> <br /> <span class='c020'>COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c021'>Tempered and tried in the forge of -war the submarine has at last been -lifted from the experimental stage of -naval construction to the fore-front of -fleets in being. For over twenty years -naval experts, marine engineers and -scientists have been wrestling with the -vast and complex problems of submarine -construction, navigation and warfare, and -have, at a cost of many lives and many -millions sterling, produced submersible -warships of steadily increasing size and -power, until to-day 264 of these vessels, -of over a dozen different and more or -less secret designs, with displacements -ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the fighting line of the Fleets at war. -Thousands of sailors have been trained -to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, -guns, engines, and even the air to breath, -have been adapted for submarine work. -A comparison, therefore, of the strength -and fighting power of the submarine -fleets engaged for the first time in this -great struggle for the mastery of the -seas is of more than passing interest.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>BRITISH NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (nearly completed)</td> - <td class='c018'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>70</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table3' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in British Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>88</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c022'>It must, however, be pointed out that -six vessels of the sea-going “F” class -have not yet taken their place in the -active flotillas; and that eight vessels -of the “E” class were on duty on foreign -stations when war commenced.</p> - -<h3 class='c026'>FRENCH NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table4' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (<i>Diane</i> class, <i>Bellone</i> class, and <i>Gustave Zede</i> class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: (completing)</td> - <td class='c018'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Clorinde</i> class), range 3,500 miles, speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: <i>Mariotte</i>, <i>Archimède</i>, <i>Charles Brun</i>, and <i>Admiral Bourgeoise</i>), range 3,000‒3,500 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 600 tons (<i>Fresnel</i> class), range 2,000 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Pluviôse</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>54</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table5' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 450 tons (<i>Circe</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400 tons (<i>Emeraude</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Argonaute</i> and <i>Aigrette</i> class), range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>11</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table6' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Triton</i> class, <i>Française</i> class, and <i>Lutin</i> class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Submarines of 50‒100 tons (<i>Naiade</i> class), range 100 miles, speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Harbour Defence Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>29</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in French Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>94</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3 class='c026'>RUSSIAN NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table7' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (<i>Tigr</i> class), no particulars: (completing)</td> - <td class='c018'>12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500‒600 tons (<i>Kaschalot</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (<i>Alligator</i> class), range 3,000 miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (<i>Akula</i> class), range 2,500 miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (<i>Karp</i> class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (<i>Makrel</i> class), range 800‒1,000 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>28</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table8' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 150‒200 tons (<i>Minoga</i> class, <i>Lossos</i> class, <i>Sig</i>, <i>Sterliad</i> class, <i>Som</i> class, <i>Ostr</i> class, and <i>Graf Cheremetieve</i> class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and holders: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>47</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3 class='c026'>JAPANESE NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table9' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing)</td> - <td class='c018'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Sea-going Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>14</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Coast and Harbour Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table10' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table class='table11' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr><td class='c042' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total Coast Defence Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>21</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3 class='c026'>GERMAN NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table12' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing)</td> - <td class='c018'>13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'><a id='tn207'></a>Total Sea-going Submarines</td> - <td class='c018'>36</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span><span class='sc'>Coast Defence Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table13' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in German Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>37</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3 class='c026'>AUSTRIAN NAVY.</h3> - -<h4 class='c030'><span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels.</span></h4> - -<table class='table14' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='97%' /> -<col width='2%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (completing—delivery doubtful)</td> - <td class='c018'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission)</td> - <td class='c018'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'></td> - <td class='c018'>――</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c017'>Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas</td> - <td class='c018'>6</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c022'>When war commenced all the vessels -of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. -The Austrian Flotilla of six vessels was -in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in -home waters 74 submarines and 14 others -on duty in the outer seas. France had -several of the 92 vessels composing her -powerful flotillas at her oversea colonial -naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines -in the Baltic, 11 in the Black Sea, and -12 in the Far East. The Japanese -Flotilla (17) was concentrated in Japanese -waters.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c043'> - <div><i>Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c044' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. -Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.)</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Sunk October, 1914.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. The <i>Narval</i>, the first of this type, has been removed from -the effective list.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered -before the outbreak of war.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. -Domville-Fife. (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally -submerged, to steer a <i>perfectly</i> straight course, the table -above each chart shows the approximate average loss and -gain on each mile. It must also be remembered that the -submarine in actual practice need only reach the torpedo -firing line.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. -Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c022'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. -Domville-Fife. (London: Francis Griffiths.)</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c014'>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table15' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c045'>Printed</th> - <th class='c045'>Corrected</th> - <th class='c046'>Page</th> - <th class='c047'></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>guns</td> - <td class='c045'>guns.</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tnfrontis'>Frontispiece</a></td> - <td class='c047'>and 2 q.-f. guns.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>gunfire</td> - <td class='c045'>gun-fire</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn031'>30</a></td> - <td class='c047'>attacked by gun-fire</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>),</td> - <td class='c045'>).</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn038'>37</a></td> - <td class='c047'>E. B. Feilmann).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>Submarines</td> - <td class='c045'>Submarines:</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn062'>61</a></td> - <td class='c047'>Submarines: B.3, B.4,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>destroyers·</td> - <td class='c045'>destroyers.</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn079'>74</a></td> - <td class='c047'>and destroyers.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building</span>:</td> - <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Building.</span></td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn080'>75</a></td> - <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Submarines Building.</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>topedo-boats</td> - <td class='c045'>torpedo-boats.</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn117'>108</a></td> - <td class='c047'>torpedo-boats.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>and</td> - <td class='c045'><span class='fss'>AND</span></td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn122-2'>113</a></td> - <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>U.19 and U.20.</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'><i>eompleted</i></td> - <td class='c045'><i>completed</i></td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn127'>118</a></td> - <td class='c047'>were being <i>completed</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>manœvring</td> - <td class='c045'>manœuvering</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn134'>125</a></td> - <td class='c047'>with manœuvering</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>Fig. 1</td> - <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span></td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn142-2'>133</a></td> - <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 1</span> represents a</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>Fig. 2</td> - <td class='c045'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span></td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn144'>135</a></td> - <td class='c047'><span class='sc'>Fig. 2</span> shows the</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>manœuvre</td> - <td class='c045'>manœuvre,</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn152'>143</a></td> - <td class='c047'>method, or manœuvre,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.’</td> - <td class='c045'>“anti-clockwise.”</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn175'>164</a></td> - <td class='c047'>and “anti-clockwise.”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c045'>oncoming</td> - <td class='c045'>on-coming</td> - <td class='c046'><a href='#tn196'>179</a></td> - <td class='c047'>path of an on-coming</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c048'>On the <a href='#tntitle'>Title Page</a>, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”.</p> - -<p class='c048'>The image for <a href='#tn142'><span class='sc'>Right-Angle Attack by Submarines.</span></a> appeared after Page <a href='#Page_160'>160</a> in the digitized source.</p> - -<p class='c048'>Under the <span class='sc'>Sea-going Vessels</span> heading on Page <a href='#tn207'>190</a>, “Total Sea-going Submarines | 36” was added for consistency.</p> - -<p class='c048'>Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the -War, by Charles William Domville-Fife - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - -***** This file should be named 51347-h.htm or 51347-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/4/51347/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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