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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War - -Author: Charles William Domville-Fife - -Release Date: March 3, 2016 [EBook #51347] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -Italic text enclosed with _underscores_. - -Small-caps replaced by ALL CAPS. - -Tables require a monospace font in order to align properly. - -More notes appear at the end of the file. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.” - - Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes - and 2 q.-f. guns. - - There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912‒14. - -] - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR - - - - - BY - - CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE - - AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”, - “SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC. - - - - - ILLUSTRATED - - - - - HODDER AND STOUGHTON - - LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO - - MCMXIV - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE - - -Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to -arrive at an intelligent understanding of the _naval situation_ or of -the _military campaigns_ in the Great European War, a knowledge of the -scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And -in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting -underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to -the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I -venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the -prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances, -and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the -vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine -Phase” in naval warfare. - - C. W. D-F. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION—THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR 9 - - CHAPTER I - THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT 40 - - CHAPTER II - BRITISH SUBMARINES 60 - - CHAPTER III - FRENCH SUBMARINES 79 - - CHAPTER IV - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES 94 - - CHAPTER V - JAPANESE SUBMARINES 104 - - CHAPTER VI - GERMAN SUBMARINES 108 - - CHAPTER VII - AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES 118 - TABLE SHOWING SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF THE NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS 123 - - CHAPTER VIII - SUBMARINES IN ACTION 124 - - CHAPTER IX - ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS 146 - - CHAPTER X - THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO 160 - - CHAPTER XI - SUBMARINE MINES 168 - - CHAPTER XII - MINE-LAYING FLEETS 174 - - CHAPTER XIII - MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS 179 - - CHAPTER XIV - COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR 184 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR - - -In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less -than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine -fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the -highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies -comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the -grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and -their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in -its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications. -Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks, -ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval -construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the -1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion -of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering -submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging -tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German -and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept -clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained -observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the _dark -patches in the semi-transparent sea-green_ which denote the presence of -mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial -scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle -to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small -steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the -hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted -to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these -deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction -with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect -the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances -are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every -harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by -elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare -underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of -the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone -of war. - -Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine -attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and -describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is -necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this -new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its -influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to -survey _in their submarine aspect_ the naval operations in the opening -phase of this, the greatest war in history. - -In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered -conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and -sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and -even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land -forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid -burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with -difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the -powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. -and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy -of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the -reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets -by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive -engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening -phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in -numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for -their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in -conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North -Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of -the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive -actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be -frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies, -costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these -grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to -delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be -screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer -types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in -the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British -submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed -in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the -enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast -fortifications. Not content with this _rôle_, however, several British -submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the -Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering -distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk -their big ships. - -With what degree of success this new opening or _submarine phase_ in -naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the -first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser _Amphion_, a vessel -of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch -guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the -destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser -_Birmingham_; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off -Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. _Pathfinder_, a fleet scout of about -3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905‒6, by a German submarine; the -destruction of the Wilson liner _Runo_ by a mine; the sinking of the -German cruiser _Hela_, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in -1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British -armoured cruisers _Aboukir_, _Hogue_ and _Cressy_—vessels of 12,000 tons -displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides -twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German -submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over -which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind. - -This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and -property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German -floating mines on the trade-routes. - -To the Allies this _submarine phase_ did not come unexpected. The -British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and -engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness; -Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the -Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co. -Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., -as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been -engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems -continually arising in the practical application of all forms of -submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in -1901‒2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth -of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and -in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82 -vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been -evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American -inventor. - -[Illustration: North Sea Coastlines] - -To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the -submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the -_Gymnôte_, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the -Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine -flotilla, numbering 92 vessels. - -The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since -that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now -numbers 37 vessels. - -Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and -up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a -British-Holland boat in 1904. - -Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of -the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines, -but in 1905‒6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels -U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine -flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany -possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The -Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet -until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels. - -From this brief _resumé_ of the growth of the submarine fleets of the -six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers -as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great -Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must, -however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the -steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets -at war. - -The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the -British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with -submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction -caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine -mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored -to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on -contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking -of the Japanese battleships _Hatsuse_ and _Yashima_ as well as the -Russian battleship _Petropavlovsk_ and the cruiser _Boyarin_—the British -Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen -would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines -could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into -being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old -torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these, -however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing -trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made -arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the -disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new -mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a -new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is -known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 _skippers_ and 1,136 -men taken from the fishing fleet. - -Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British -Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven -old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and -provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid -over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly -laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is -a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to -its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of -second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although -much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was, -during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and -dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were -swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact -with each other during the progress of sweeping operations. - -What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines -in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the -German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France, -Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is -perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several -hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and -Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of -merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested -sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of -food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also -officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin -their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported -across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a -guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile -warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast -had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means -least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that -the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and -left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not -difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of -these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in -these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by -thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes, -many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy -themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept -clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there -blockaded with their cowardly fleet. - -The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of -naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is -essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface -vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary -for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of -the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with -an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel -can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking -the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the -submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and -approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel -the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to -its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like -an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night -owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater -fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea, -however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or -destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled, -and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day -and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often -attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw -attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine -attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain -imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war. - -Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day, -naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight -torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo -and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the _rôle_ -of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to -1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a -considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing -guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of -accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and -A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power -and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of -the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the -case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons, -the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four -12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean -cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing -wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British -submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by -numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which -indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may -be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future. - -The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself -a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it -sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own -engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of -attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in -the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range -and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45 -knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of -the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton -which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This -very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous -hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The -type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies -is the _Whitehead_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses -the _Schwartzkopf_ torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar -to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon. - -In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have -been sunk by submarine torpedoes. - -The activity of the British submarines _in the theatre of war_, from the -beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following -dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first -dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine -attack and reconnaissance:— - - H.M.S. _Maidstone_, - _17th October, 1914_. - - “Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the - honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the - Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:— - - “Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6 - (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander - Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a - reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned - with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers - on a service which is attended by some risk. - - “During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the _Lurcher_ - and _Firedrake_ and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine - Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the - High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our - transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief, - until the _personnel_ of our Army had been transported and all chance - of effective interference had disappeared. - - “These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s - Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much - valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his - patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his - anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and - well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by - Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes. - - “At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the _Lurcher_, and, in - company with _Firedrake_ and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, - E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part - in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th. - The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th, - when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions - from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the - following morning. - - “At daylight on August 28th the _Lurcher_ and _Firedrake_ searched the - area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile - Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of - Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the - object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward. - - “On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good - to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added - considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding - Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and - judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well - as foes. - - “Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions - under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of - closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range. - - “Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, - witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 - through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the _Stettin_ class - close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their - boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser, - but she altered course before he could get within range. After - covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon - their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and - nine men of _Defender_, who had been left behind. The boats also - contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and - eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the - latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six - unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before - leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a - compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war. - - “Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the - vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his - vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist, - was altogether admirable. - - “This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance - which supplied the information on which these operations were based, - and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot, - the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and - skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of - Their Lordships. - - “On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed - and sank the German Light Cruiser _Hela_ six miles South of - Heligoland. - - “A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9 - had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours. - - “On September 14th, in accordance with his orders, - Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of - Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk. - - “On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot), - while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On - rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was - securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately, - however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of - the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine - clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was - effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able - Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released - mine descended to its original depths. - - “On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when - patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer - S.126. - - “The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with - their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with - torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of - much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine - officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration. - - “Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is - also deserving of credit. - - “Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers - have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of - delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one - occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines - been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours. - - “During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between - the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee - shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one. - - “The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland - Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There - was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60 - feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—_i.e._ - vertically moving about twenty feet. - - “I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they - should have maintained their stations under such conditions. - - “Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the - Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have - all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties. - These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of - the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their - command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to - single out individuals when all have performed their duties so - admirably, and in this I concur. - - “The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during - these operations:— - - D.1 (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane). - - D.2 (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson). - - D.3 (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle). - - D.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert). - - E.4 (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir). - - E.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning). - - E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot). - - E.7 (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann). - - E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton). - - I have the honour to be, Sir, - Your obedient servant, - (Signed) ROGER KEYES, - Commodore (S).” - -In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase -in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack -and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen -sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp -engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction -with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of -its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the -forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering -rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness -while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the -flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the -seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean. - -The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German -Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a -hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in -the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the -great battle fleets of England. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT - - -The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and -before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets -at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal -features common to all types of submarine craft. - - - _Method of Submergence_ - -It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have -occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a -submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of -operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[1] - -It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the -surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action. -For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring -the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the -submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at -a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is -necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would, -in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the -destroyers. - -When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is -technically called the _light condition_, that is to say, with her water -ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only -the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface, -water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes -her to sink into the sea until her _back_ is almost flush with the -surface—this is known as the _awash condition_. - -It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might -at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine, -break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout -into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result, -for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little -additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the -surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when -proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the -mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine -hermetically closed, ready to sink. - -To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished -by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with -the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and -sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to -guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to -dive and rise. Two additional _fins_ are frequently placed on each side -of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising. - -In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal -rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The -action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced -down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is -much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the -force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to -right or left. - -From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the -surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the -propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down, -she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no -longer any effect. - -Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is -controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to -move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed -to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is -operated by electricity. - -In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was -required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the -ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now -obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to -carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they -were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode -too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with -the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the -ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of -water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to -enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal -fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome, -and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three -minutes. - -When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the -submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is -compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always -exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in. -Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface -again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the -compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered -that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to -bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker -accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this -case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash -condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the -light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at -the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a -submarine sink than it is to make her rise. - -It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the -other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so -delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may -have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So -steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially -those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies, -that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to -amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few -feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is -almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a -sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect -the firing of the torpedoes. - -The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or -_diving-trim_, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily -very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a -thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100 -gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability -of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known -as _positive-buoyancy_ must be accompanied by a corresponding increase -in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to -drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural -tendency to float on the surface. - -For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in -such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of -weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or -rise with dangerous rapidity. - -This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were -provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by -means of _compensating-tanks_, into which sufficient water is pumped to -compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of _each_ -torpedo. - -Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern _trimming-tanks_, -into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any -tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity. - - - _Propulsion._ - -Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction -the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are -still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity, -petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since -first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for -using these _prime movers_ in conjunction with each other and with -chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors. - -About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a -good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were -abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and -electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful -machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being -used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion. - -The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all -circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons -have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is -more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged -would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be -made. - -[Illustration: - - A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). _A._ Deck - superstructure. _B._ Scuppers for filling superstructure. _D._ External - connections. _E._ Conning-tower (4-inch armour). _F._ Periscope. _G._ - Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). _H._ Air cowls. _I._ Conning-tower - cap (opening sideways). _J._ Mast stays. _K._ Mast (not part of service - equipment). _L._ Torpedo-tube cap. _M._ Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes - in. _N._ Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). _O._ Hydroplane engines. - _X._ Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. _Y._ Spare - torpedoes. _Z._ Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal - pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s - platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering - submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol - engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. - 12. Petrol engines—exhaust. - -] - -It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol -engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with -its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the -submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in -almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs -in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is -extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the -storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities, -although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French -Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in -air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is -impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine -(compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius -of action are curtailed. - -If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines -could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful -set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and -when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be -simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of -action would naturally result. - -In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more -modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is -being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power -obtained with greater safety. - -Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the -vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the -electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored -in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three -separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which -drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a -suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the -electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives -the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the -batteries. - -It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources -of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of -power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The -only actual source being the oil or petrol. - -There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of -machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging -the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and -for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps, -steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this, -hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate -most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the -armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic -quick-firing guns. - -From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine -presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible. -Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed -up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and -with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their -backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and -nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in -front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of -the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in -the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the -arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that -trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping, -and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as -possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to -create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to -be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft. - - - _Vision When Submerged._ - -Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine -construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged. -This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up -from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the -surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a -picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors -inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope -can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when -the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be -easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by -gun-fire. - -The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern -submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of -vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting -only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly -clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at -night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would -be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an -enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight -torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by -ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to -discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed -to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a -surprise attack. - - - _Armament._ - -The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is -expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in -the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat, -so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts -can be made. - -About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they -now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future -chapter is devoted. - -The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for -use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are -arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to -disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of -guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of -defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat -destroyers, or by air-craft. - - - _Habitability._ - -Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold, -hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth. -The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room, -the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well -illuminated by electric lamps. - -The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel -cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks -of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same -time chemically absorbed. - -Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained -from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is -almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a -time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped -deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so -also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - BRITISH SUBMARINES - - -The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82 -submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were, -however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and -distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities -were as follows:— - - - SUBMARINES IN HOME WATERS. - - _Patrol Flotillas._ - - 1st Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Onyx_. - Submarines: A.8 and A.9. - - 2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ship: _Dolphin_. - Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1. - - 3rd Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Forth_. - Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14, - C.15 and C.16. - - 4th Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ships: _Arrogant_ and _Hazard_. - Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35. - - 5th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ship: _Thames_. - Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6. - - 6th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ships: _Bonaventure_ and _Hebe_. - Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13. - - 7th Flotilla. Chatham. - Depôt ships: _Vulcan_ and _Alecto_. - Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, - C.28, C.29, C.30. - - 8th Flotilla. Portsmouth. - Depôt ships: _Maidstone_ and _Adamant_. - Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, - E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9. - - 9th Flotilla. Devonport. - Depôt ship: _Pactolus_. - Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12. - - - SUBMARINES ON FOREIGN STATIONS. - - Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11. - - At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8. - - Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38. - - With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[2] and A.E.2. - -The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas -in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be -taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast -protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the -_Patrol Flotillas_. The wide range of action of modern submarines -enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt, -and consequently Chatham becomes merely the _general store_, or -head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not -only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England -and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form -of _Depôt Ships_, which, with their attached submarines, are often at -Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely -the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover, -Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with -their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line -to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England, -Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however, -furthest removed from the zone of war. - -Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and -distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of -war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main -theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels -of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this -rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas -guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels -from overseas. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.” - - Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern - torpedo tube. - - There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908‒12. - -] - -The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched -from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and -was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the -famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most -successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with -this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched -during 1901‒2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of -craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four -new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the -first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were -designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement -of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were -propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric -motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots -an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their -maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 -knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and -one bow tube. - -All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before -the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of -interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of -British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13, -launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the -table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine -flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All -the following British submarines are now in the fighting line. - - - “A” CLASS. - - (Completed 1904.) - - A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. - -These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were -built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged -displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled -on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of -100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots -and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface -endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the -endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists -of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: -Eleven officers and men. - -These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence, -can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and -single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914, -and was never raised. - - - “B” CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. - -These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way -superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the -sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135 -feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the -“A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when -submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the -electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for -driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged -by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running -on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these -storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the -surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 -knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80‒100 -knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with -4‒6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men. - -The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type -which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the -bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse -the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original -Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes, -each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels -three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed -below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper -water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them -better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are -liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed -of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in -this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages -derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The -speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit. - -The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the -forward superstructure, and the _two_ periscopes. The B.2 was run down -by the liner _Amerika_ in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was -never recovered. - - - “C” CLASS. - - (Completed 1906‒10.) - - C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, - 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38. - -This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B” -type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet -long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give -to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power -of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged -speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000 -knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100 -knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with -six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers -and men. - -In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of -petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative -additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of -both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and -safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event -of disaster while submerged. - -The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11 -collided with the steamer _Eddystone_ in the North Sea in 1909 and was -irretrievably lost. - - - “D” CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒11.) - - D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. - -These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of -considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each -other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons; -and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an -approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines -of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the -surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of -just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated -below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000 -miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels -were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of -electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The -armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with -a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This -gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and -almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the -superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The -complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.” - - Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo - tubes. - - There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906‒12. - -] - - - “E” CLASS. - - (Completed 1912‒14.) - - E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. - -These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the -British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are -176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly -2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the -electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots -an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at -economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an -hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their -predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the -largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped -with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings -for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers. -They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the -“B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three -tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and -increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep -the sea in almost any weather. - - - AUSTRALIAN SUBMARINES: - - A.E.1 and A.E.2. - -These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they -both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under -their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range, -seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval -Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in -October, 1914, and has not been recovered. - - - BRITISH SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in -course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval -dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the -British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid -down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been -constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by -Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding -yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. -Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham. - -Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of -which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been -all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being -constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less -than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were -of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines -under construction at Greenock were of the _Laurenti_, or Italian type, -and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the _Laubeuf_, or French type. In -addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new -vessels have been given the names of _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_. - -The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say -definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas, -and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy -regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it -advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss -too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable -capabilities. - - - “F” CLASS. - -There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are -the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going -submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1, -which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of -1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum -speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000 -H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six -torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns. - - - “V” CLASS. “W” CLASS. “S” CLASS. - - _Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_. - -These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to -those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of -which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are -large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000 -tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which -four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French -_Laubeuf_ type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number, -are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—_Laurenti_ type. The two named -vessels—_Nautilus_ and _Swordfish_—are large sea-going submarines of -wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000 -tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when -submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two -quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about -25 officers and men. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914.) - -Footnote 2: - - Sunk October, 1914. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - FRENCH SUBMARINES - - -France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared. -In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various -stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of -two different types of vessels: _Submarines Defensive_ and -_Submersibles_. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely -for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and -they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The -submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and -Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great -offensive power. - -The first naval submarine (_Gymnôte_) was launched in 1888, giving to -France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine -torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction -in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M. -Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the -French Navy was the _Gustave Zédé_, launched in 1893. So successful did -this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the _Morse_, -was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four -vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and -named _Lutin_, _Farfâdet_ (re-named _Follet_), _Korrigan_, and _Gnôme_. -These, with the exception of the ill-fated _Lutin_, are still in the -active flotillas. - - - LUTIN CLASS. - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Follet_. _Korrigan_. _Gnôme_. - -These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the -defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with -electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged. -Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their -range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of -one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The -complement is nine officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photos, M. Bar._] - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top) - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE. (bottom) - -] - - - FRANÇAISE CLASS. - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Française._ _Algérien._ - -These two vessels are of the improved _Morse_ type, and are intended -solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146 -tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and -submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an -hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots. -They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The -complement is nine officers and men. - - - TRITON CLASS.[3] - - (Completed 1901‒2.) - - _Triton._ _Sirene._ _Espadon._ _Silure._ - -These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were -designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both -France and other countries (_Laubeuf_ type). They have a submerged -displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam. -Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when -submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when -submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are -armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and -have a complement of ten officers and men. - - - NAIADE CLASS. - - (Completed 1902‒4.) - - _Naiade._ _Loutre._ _Protée._ _Lynx._ _Perle._ _Truite._ - _Castor._ _Oursin._ _Meduse._ _Otarie._ _Phoque._ _Ludion._ - _Alose._ _Anguille._ _Grondin._ _Dorade._ _Souffleur._ _Thon._ - _Bonite._ _Esturgeon._ - -Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about -67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of -8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament -consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried. -Their complement is six officers and men. - - - AIGRETTE CLASS. - - (Completed 1904.) - - _Aigrette._ _Cicogne._ - -These two vessels are submersibles of the _Laubeuf_ type, and were great -improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged -displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A -triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface -propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their -speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700 -miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament -consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement -is about fifteen officers and men. - - - ARGONAUTE. - - (Completed 1905.) - -A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French -Navy). This vessel, which was first named _Omega_, has a displacement of -about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed -of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two -holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about -seventeen officers and men. - - - EMERAUDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1906‒8.) - - _Emeraude._ _Saphir._ _Opale._ _Topaz._ _Rubis._ _Turquoise._ - -These six vessels are of the _Maugas_ type and are sea-going submarines -with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and -electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface -speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius -is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of -two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their -complement is seventeen officers and men. - - - CIRCE CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Circe._ _Calypso._ - -These two vessels are of the _Laubeuf_ type, and are improvements on the -_Aigrette_ class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons -and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440 -H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric -motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the -range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four -holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men. - - - PLUVIÔSE CLASS. - - (Completed 1907‒12.) - - _Pluviôse._ _Nivôse._ _Ventôse._ _Messidor._ _Thermidor._ - _Fructidor._ _Brumaire._ _Frimaire._ _Florèal._ _Prairial._ - _Germinal._ - -Submarines of the _Laubeuf_ type with a submerged displacement of nearly -600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The _Brumaire_ and _Frimaire_ are -driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but -all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of -flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their -speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch -torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men. - - - FRESNEL CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒12.) - - _Fresnel._ _Berthelot._ _Papin._ _Monge._ _Ampère._ _Gay-Lussac._ - _Cagnot._ _Faraday._ _Giffard._ _Montgolfier._ _Newton._ _Volta._ - _Watt._ _Euler._ _Faucault._ _Franklin._ _Arago._ _Permouilli._ - _Joule._ _Coulomb._ _Curie._ _Le Verrier._ - -Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going _Laubeuf_ type. Only -three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for -surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the -_Pluviôse_ class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed -is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch -torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes. -Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles. - - - AMIRAL BOURGEOISE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -An experimental boat of the _Bourdelle_ type, built at Cherbourg. The -submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet. -She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which -give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion -are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of -seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles. - - - ARCHIMÈDE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement -is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet -respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and -electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots -below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24 -officers and men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, M. Bar._] - - A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE. - -] - - - MARIOTTE. - - (Completed 1912.) - -The third experimental boat, of the _Rodiquet_ type, built at Cherbourg. -The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200 -feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the -surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her -radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch -torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The -complement is about 25 officers and men. - - - CHARLES BRUN. - - (Completed 1912.) - -The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909‒12. The -submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam -turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface, -and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her -armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22 -officers and men. - - - CLORINDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - - _Clorinde._ _Cornélie._ _Amphritrite._ _Astree._ _Artémis._ - _Aréthuse._ _Atalante._ _Amaranthe._ _Ariane._ _Andromaque._ - -These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine -flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a -length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 -H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors -of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged. -They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and -men. - - - GUSTAVE ZEDE CLASS. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - - _Gustave Zede._ _Néréide._ - -These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas. -They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, -and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16 -knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament -consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes. -They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle, -disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the -complement 27 officers and men. - - - BELLONE CLASS. - - (Completed 1914.) - - _Bellone._ _Hermione._ _Gorgone._ - -Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons. -They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a -surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at -12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. -Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr. -quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men. - - - FRENCH SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early -stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the _Diane_ -and _Daphne_. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800 -tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament -will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will -be 30 officers and men. - -The other seven vessels are of the improved _Gustave Zede_ Class. They -will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 -knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will -consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be -about 35 officers and men. - ------ - -Footnote 3: - - The _Narval_, the first of this type, has been removed from the - effective list. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES - - -The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37 -submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction. -The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as -follows:— - -BALTIC FLOTILLA: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12 -vessels building. _Bases_: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and -Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free). - -BLACK SEA FLOTILLA: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and -several new vessels building. _Bases_: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff. - -SIBERIAN FLOTILLA: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6 -vessels building. _Base_: Vladivostok. - -The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902, -and named the _Petr Kochka_. She was built in sections to facilitate -transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of -Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her -armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, -containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots -on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered -for the Russian Navy was the _Delphin_, which foundered off Kronstadt, -but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the -submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active -flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the -_Graf Cheremetieve_—is still in commission. - - - GRAF CHEREMETIEVE CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒5.) - - _Graf Cheremetieve._ _Kasatka._ _Nalim._ _Skat._ - -These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small -vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement -of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the -surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow -torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. - - - OSTR CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - _Ostr._ _Byts-chok._ _Kefal._ _Platus._ _Plotva._ - -These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The _Ostr_ was -originally the American Lake Co.’s boat _Protector_. They have a -submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in -breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and -electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above -and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full -speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The _special_ characteristics of the -American Lake type will be seen on pages 119‒120. - - - SOM CLASS. - - (Completed 1904‒6.) - - _Som._ _Shtshuka._ - -These two vessels, which are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, have a -submerged displacement of about 150 tons. Petrol and electric motors are -used for surface and submerged propulsion, and the speed is 9 ½ knots -and 7 knots, above and below, respectively. Their armament consists of -two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is -about fifteen officers and men. - - - STERLIAD CLASS. - - (Completed 1905‒6.) - - _Sterliad._ _Bialuga._ _Peskar._ - -These three vessels are also of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a -submerged displacement of 150 tons. The petrol motors for surface -propulsion are of 160 H.-P. The speed is 9 ½ knots and 7 knots, above -and below, respectively. Their armament consist of two bow tubes with -four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is eleven to fifteen -officers and men. - - - SIG. - - (Completed 1906.) - -A submarine of the Lake type; similar in almost every respect to vessels -of the _Ostr_ class. - - - MAKREL CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Makrel._ _Okun._ - -Two vessels of the _Improved_ Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a -submerged displacement of about 200 tons. The petrol motors are of 300 -H.-P., and the electric engines of 150 H.-P. Their speed is 10 knots on -the surface and 8 knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow -tubes and two stern _holders_, and carry six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen officers and men. - - - LOSSOS CLASS. - - (Completed 1907.) - - _Lossos._ _Ludak._ - -Two somewhat smaller submarines of the Holland type. Intended either for -the Black Sea or Far Eastern Flotilla. Similar to those of the -_Sterliad_ class. - - - KARP CLASS. - - (Completed 1907‒8.) - - _Karp._ _Karas._ - -These two submarines are of the Germania, or Krupp type, and have a -submerged displacement of 250 tons. They have Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil -engines of 400 H.-P., and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on -the surface is 12 knots, and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range -of action is about 1,000 miles, and the submerged endurance about three -hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes -and four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is fifteen officers and -men. - - - ALLIGATOR CLASS. - - (Completed 1908‒9.) - - _Alligator._ _Kaiman._ _Drakon._ _Krokodil._ - -Four submarines of the improved Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 500 tons. Their speed is 15 knots on the surface and 10 -knots when submerged. They are fitted with two bow and two stern tubes, -and carry six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is seventeen -officers and men. (See also page 96.) - - - MINOGA CLASS. - - (Completed 1908.) - - _Minoga._ _Potschovy._ - -Two small submarines of the Holland-Bubnoff type, which were built in -sections to facilitate transport by rail. They have a submerged -displacement of about 150 tons, and a speed of 12 knots and 9 knots, -above and below, respectively. Their complement is eleven officers and -men. - - - AKULA. - - (Completed 1909.) - -A large submarine of the Holland-Bubnoff type. Her displacement is about -570 tons, and her speed 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when -submerged. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube, with six -18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is 20 officers and men. - - - KASCHALOT CLASS. - - (Completed 1909‒12.) - - _Kaschalot._ _Kit._ _Krab._ _Morsh._ _Narval._ _Nerpa._ _Tinlen._ - -These seven vessels are among the most modern submarines in the Russian -flotillas. They are of the Holland-Bubnoff type, and have a submerged -displacement of about 500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of over 1,000 H.-P. -drive them at a maximum surface speed of 16 knots, and electric motors -of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour. -Their surface cruising range is about 3,000 miles. Their armament -consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead -torpedoes. They are also fitted with a small, quick-firing, high-angle -gun for defence against air-craft. Their complement is 21 officers and -men. - - - RUSSIAN SUBMARINES BUILDING. - -At the commencement of the war there were nineteen Russian submarines in -course of construction. Very little information concerning these boats -can be obtained, except that their submerged displacement ranges from -800 to 1,500 tons, and their _anticipated_ surface speed is 20 knots. -Some of the 800-ton vessels have already been completed, and the first -twelve will be named: _Svitza_, _Leopard_, _Pantera_, _Ruis_, _Kaguar_, -_Tiqr_, _Yaguar_, _Vepr_, _Wolk_, _Baro_, _Gepard_, and _Tur_. These -vessels have a speed of 16 knots on the surface and 10 knots when -submerged. Their complement is 25 officers and men. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - JAPANESE SUBMARINES - - -The Imperial Japanese Navy includes a submarine flotilla of seventeen -vessels, all except two of which are of the British Holland or Vickers -type. Japan commenced the construction of what is now a rapidly -increasing and powerful flotilla in 1904 by the purchase of five -elementary Holland boats. These, however, are still in the active -flotilla and are designated Nos. 1‒5. They have a submerged displacement -of 120 tons, and are 65 feet in length and 12 feet in beam. Petrol -motors of 160 H.-P. drive them at 9 knots on the surface and electric -motors of 70 H.-P. at 7 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of -one bow expulsion tube with three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. - - - NOS. 6 AND 7. - - (Completed 1906.) - -These two vessels were the first submarine boats to be built in Japan, -but are of the same type as Nos. 1‒5, only larger and faster. They have -a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of -10 feet. The petrol engines are of 300 H.-P. and the electric motors of -100 H.-P. The surface and submerged speed is 10 knots and 8 knots an -hour, respectively. Their armament consists of one torpedo tube with -three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. - - - NOS. 8 AND 9. - - (Completed 1907‒8.) - -These two vessels are very similar to the British “C” class, and were -built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. They have a submerged displacement of 320 -tons; petrol motors of 600 H.-P., and a surface and submerged speed of -13 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their armament consists of -two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Their -complement is sixteen officers and men. - - - Nos. 10‒15. - - (Completed 1909‒12.) - -These six vessels are the same in almost every respect as the later “C” -class of British submarines (pages 70‒71). - - - Nos. 16‒17[4]. - - (Completed 1912‒14.) - -These two vessels are of the _Schneider-Laubeuf_ or French type. -(British “W” class.) Their submerged displacement is about 500 tons, and -the horse-power of their surface engines 2,500. The surface and -submerged speed is 18 knots and 9 knots respectively. Their armament -consists of six torpedo tubes with eight _Schneider_ torpedoes. The -complement is about 30 officers and men. - -The natural adroitness with which Japanese sailors manipulate -complicated machinery, combined with their absolute fearlessness, make -them ideal for torpedo work. - ------ - -Footnote 4: - - It is very doubtful if these two boats were delivered before the - outbreak of war. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - GERMAN SUBMARINES - - -On “The Day”—August 4th, 1914—Germany possessed 30 submarine -torpedo-boats. These were divided into three flotillas, with their -headquarters at Kiel, the largest and most modern vessels being attached -to the Heligoland or North Sea Flotilla. During 1913, although 24 -submarines were stated as being in commission, only about 15 were -actively employed, and these mostly in training reserves, the older -boats being docked and modernized where possible. But during the year -six new vessels were added to the flotilla and the _personnel_ of the -submarine service was largely increased. At the same time the inspection -of submarines was separated from that of the other torpedo-boats and a -flag-officer was appointed as head of the submarine branch of the Naval -Service, with headquarters at Kiel. Thus when the hour came for the -great struggle which was to decide the mastery of the seas the whole -German Flotilla of 30 vessels, _with a reserve of six new boats which -had been secretly hurried forward and were rapidly nearing completion_, -was ready to put to sea. - -The German Naval Law provided for the construction of 72 submarines by -the end of 1917. All the vessels built up to the present time have been -known as the “U” class and numbered in rotation. They are painted a -brownish-grey colour and have high collier-like bows with massive -armoured conning-towers and long superstructures amounting to narrow -decks. They have all been built at either Kiel or Dantzig. - -Although the first submarine boats built for the German Navy were two -vessels of the Nordenfeldt type, launched in 1890, they were never -actively employed with the fleet and have long since been reduced to -scrap-iron, and the first vessel which can now be reckoned as a fighting -unit of the German torpedo-boat flotilla was a vessel designated the -“U.1.” This was built at the Germania Shipyard, Kiel, and launched on -August 30th, 1905. This was the forerunner of the “U” class, which in -most of the essential features resembles the British Improved Holland -type. - - - U.1. - - (Completed 1905.) - -This U.1 was built as an experimental boat by the famous firm of Krupps. -She has a surface displacement of 197 tons, a submerged displacement of -236 tons, and her heavy-oil surface engines are of 250 H.-P. The -electric motors for submerged use develop just over 100 H.-P. The speed -ranges from 10 knots an hour on the surface to 7 knots when submerged, -and her surface range of action is about 700 to 800 miles. The armament -consists of one bow torpedo tube and three (17.7) Schwartzkopf torpedoes -are carried. The complement is nine officers and men. - -The trials of the U.1 extended over a period of a year and a half, and -all proved remarkably satisfactory. During the tests which took place in -Eckernforder Bay she succeeded, twice in succession, in torpedoing a -moving target while travelling submerged at full speed. - -The uncertainty displayed for some years previous by the German Naval -Authorities regarding the value of submarine boats gave place to a -thorough sense of the important part these “mighty atoms” would play in -future naval warfare, and to a strong determination that the German Navy -should include a powerful submarine flotilla. - - - U.2-U.8. - - (Completed 1907‒10.) - -These seven vessels were great improvements on the U.1. Their -displacement is 210 tons on the surface and about 250 tons when -submerged. They are fitted with Krupp-Nuremburg heavy-oil engines of 400 -H.-P. and electric motors of 160 H.-P. Their speed on the surface is 12 -knots and 8 knots when submerged. The surface range of action is 1,000 -miles and the submerged endurance about three hours at full speed. Their -armament consists of two bow torpedo tubes and four torpedoes are -carried. The complement is eleven officers and men. - - - U.9-U.18.[5] - - (Completed 1910‒12.) - -These ten vessels are of increased size and power, their submerged -displacement being 300 tons, and the horse-power of their heavy oil -surface engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The -surface and submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The -surface range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two -bow and one stern torpedo tube with five torpedoes. The U.13 and -subsequent vessels of this class are provided with a quick-firing, -high-angle gun for defence against aircraft, and have sleeping -accommodation for the crew. They may be termed the first German -sea-going submarines. Their complement is twenty officers and men. - - - U.19 AND U.20. - - (Completed 1912‒13.) - -There are only two vessels in this class owing to the adoption of -certain improvements with the aid of which a partly new type has been -evolved. These two vessels have a displacement when submerged of 450 -tons. Their oil engines of 650 H.-P. give a speed of 13 ½ knots an hour -on the surface, and their electric motors of 300 H.-P. give 8 knots an -hour when submerged. Their surface range of action is 2,000 miles, and -their armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube with six -torpedoes, and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns on disappearing -mountings. The complement is seventeen officers and men. - - - U.21-U.24. - - (Completed 1912‒13.) - -These four vessels are the first of the new type of large sea-going -submarines for the German Navy. Their submerged displacement is 800 -tons. They are propelled on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 -H.-P., and when submerged by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed -above water is 14 knots an hour and below the surface 9 knots. The -surface range of action is 3,000 miles and the submerged endurance 120 -miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two bow and two -stern torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing -gun and two 1-pdr. high-angle guns, all on disappearing mountings, for -defence against hostile destroyers and aircraft. Their complement is -twenty-five officers and men. - - - U.25-U.30. - - (Completed 1913‒14.) - -These six vessels are the latest additions to the German submarine -flotilla. They are vessels of 900 tons submerged displacement with -heavy-oil engines of 2,000 H.-P., and electric motors of 900 H.-P. Their -surface and submerged speed is 18 knots and 10 knots, respectively. The -surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of two -bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with eight large size torpedoes, and, -in addition, two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns and two 1-pdr. high-angle -guns. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus on board, and are -specially constructed with long superstructures and high _collier-like_ -bows to enable them to keep at sea in almost any weather. They are -fitted with two or three periscopes, and also possess a small _look-out_ -cap on the top of the lofty conning-tower to facilitate an “awash” -attack in the half-lights of dawn and dusk, when the periscope is almost -useless. The conning-towers and decks are armoured. Their complement is -30 to 35 officers and men. - - - U.31-U.36. - - (Building.) - -These are the six vessels which are rapidly nearing completion, and -which were in a much more advanced state, at the opening of hostilities, -than was generally known in foreign naval circles. They are the same in -almost every respect as the vessels U.25 to U.30. There is, however, -another submarine being built for Germany of a totally different design. -This is the F.I.A.T. or _Laurenti_ boat (Italian), laid down at the -beginning of 1914. This vessel is very similar to the four “S” boats -being built at Greenock for the British Navy. - -No German submarines have in the past been sent to any Colonial or -oversea station. Therefore, the whole flotilla of 30 to 36 vessels was -immediately available for operations in the North Sea and Baltic when -war began. The _personnel_ of the whole torpedo service is very -efficient, great attention having been paid to this branch of the Navy. -The three German Submarine flotillas have their headquarters at Kiel, -Wilhelmshaven, and Heligoland. - ------ - -Footnote 5: - - The U.18 was sunk by a British patrol in November, 1914. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - AUSTRIAN SUBMARINES - - -At the commencement of the War the Austro-Hungarian Navy included six -submarines in the active flotilla and five others were being _completed_ -at the Germania Yard, Kiel, but it is doubtful if they had been -delivered. In which event they must be added to the strength of the -German flotilla. In addition to these, several larger vessels, mostly of -the latest “U” or Krupp design, had been ordered, but were not expected -to take their place in the active flotillas before the end of 1915. - -Austria commenced the formation of a submarine flotilla in 1908 by the -acquisition of two vessels of the _Improved Holland type_ from Messrs. -Vickers Ltd., and two others of the American _Lake type_. In the -following year two more submarines were ordered, this time from Krupp’s -Germania Yard. All these vessels were delivered during 1910, and -Austria’s first submarine flotilla came into being. - - - U.1 AND U.2. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These two vessels are of the American Lake type. They have a submerged -displacement of 250 tons and petrol surface motors of 720 H.-P. Their -speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The -armament consists of two bow and one stern torpedo tube. This type of -submarine has three special features which distinguish it from all -others. It is fitted with a kind of underframe and wheels, and is -designed to travel in four different positions: (1) on the surface; (2) -semi-submerged, with only a look-out cowl above water; (3) submerged, -with nothing but the periscope showing; (4) totally submerged and -running along the sea-bed on wheels, like a submarine motor car. It is -drawn down from the surface to the sea-bed by an ingenious system of -wire-hawsers and drop-weights, which can be released in the event of -accident. A “diving chamber” enables members of the crew to don -diving-dresses and leave the submarine when on the sea-bed, for the -purpose of laying or destroying submerged mines. The Lake type of -submarine is also used in the Russian Navy.[6] - - - U.3 AND U.4. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These two vessels are of the Krupp design, and have a submerged -displacement of 300 tons. The horse-power of their heavy-oil surface -engines is 600. The electric motors develop 200 H.-P. The surface and -submerged speeds are 13 knots and 8 knots respectively. The surface -range of action is 1,500 miles, and the armament consists of two bow and -one stern tube with five 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is fifteen -officers and men. - - - U.5 AND U.6. - - (Completed 1910.) - -These are submarines of the Improved Holland type. Their submerged -displacement is about 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The -horse-power of the petrol engines is 600 and that of the electric -engines 189. The speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when -submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots an -hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four to six 18-inch -Whitehead torpedoes. Their complement is sixteen officers and men. - - - U.7-U.11. - - (Completed 1914. Delivery doubtful.) - -These five vessels are of the Krupp-Germania type, and are similar to -those completed for the German Navy in 1912‒13. They are large sea-going -submarines with a submerged displacement of 800 tons. They are propelled -on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P., and when submerged, -by electric motors of 500 H.-P. Their speed is 14 knots and 9 knots, -above and below, respectively. The surface range of action is 3,000 -miles, and the submerged endurance 120 miles at economical speed. - -Their armament consists of two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with -eight torpedoes, and one 14-pdr. quick-firing gun and two 1-pdr. -high-angle guns, for defence against hostile destroyers and air-craft. -Their complement is twenty-five officers and men. - -One or two Austrian submarines are supposed to have been sunk by the -Allied Fleet during the first few weeks of the war, but exactly which -vessels they were is not known. - -Several other submarines have been ordered in foreign countries for the -Austrian Navy, but cannot be delivered while the war lasts. - - - SUBMARINE FLOTILLAS OF NEUTRAL EUROPEAN POWERS. - - COUNTRY. │ VESSELS BUILT. │ VESSELS BUILDING. - ──────────┬─────────────────────┬──────────────────── - Italy │ 20 (100‒300 tons) │ 8 (large size) - Denmark │ 9 (100‒300 tons) │ several - Holland │ 6 (100‒300 tons) │ 4 (large) - Sweden │ 7 (150‒300 tons) │ 3 (large) - Greece │ 2 (Laubeuf) │ ―― - Norway │ 1 ―― │ 4 (Germania) - Portugal │ 1 ―― │ 3 ―― - Turkey │ ―― │ 3 ―― - Spain │ ―― │ 3 ―― - ──────────┴─────────────────────┴──────────────────── - ------ - -Footnote 6: - - “Submarine Engineering of To-day.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd. 1914). - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SUBMARINES IN ACTION - - -Submarines have two great advantages over all types of surface warships; -they can become invisible at will—or sufficiently invisible to make gun -or torpedo-practice, except at very close quarters, almost entirely -useless—and they can, by sinking, cover themselves with armour-plate of -sufficient thickness to be absolutely shell-proof. These are the two -main points in favour of the submarine. There are, however, many minor -features. Although submarines are known in the naval services as -“daylight torpedo-boats,” for their _greatest_ value lies in their -ability to perform the same task in the “light” as the ordinary surface -torpedo-boats and destroyers can do under cover of darkness or fog—that -of creeping up close to an enemy, and launching a torpedo -unobserved—they have been given, during recent years, so much greater -speed, armament, and range of action, that they can no longer be looked -upon as small boats just suitable for daylight torpedo attack in -favourable circumstances. Their surface speed has been increased from 10 -to 20 knots, making them almost as fast as the surface torpedo-boat. -This, combined with manœuvering powers and general above-water -invisibility, has enabled them to take over the duty of the surface -torpedo-boat—that of delivering night-attacks on the surface. After -nightfall a submarine attack is almost impossible owing to the -periscope—the eyes of the submarine—being useless in the dark. - -The increase in the armament of the submarine—from the single bow -torpedo tube with two torpedoes of short range and weak explosive -charge, to the four bow and two stern tubes with eight or ten torpedoes -of long range and high explosive charge—has greatly increased their -chances of successful attack on surface warships, first, by giving them -four or six shots ahead, then the possibility, in the event of all these -torpedoes missing, of a dive under the object of attack, and two more -shots at close range from the stern tubes (still retaining two -torpedoes); and, secondly, by increasing the distance from which the -first projectile can be launched, owing to the increased range of the -modern torpedo. There are also the advantages derived from the battery -of quick-firing guns installed on the decks of modern submarines. -Although at the present time these guns are only of small power they -nevertheless afford a means of defence—and even of attack under -favourable circumstances—against hostile surface torpedo-boats, -destroyers, and air-craft. In fact, a flotilla of submarines could -undoubtedly now give a very good account of itself if attacked either on -the surface or when submerged by one or two prowling destroyers. The -increase in the power of the guns carried by submarines, which will -certainly come soon, will enable this type of craft to take up the -additional duties of the destroyer—that of clearing the seas of hostile -torpedo-boats and carrying out advanced scouting—for which work their -ability to travel submerged and in a state of invisibility for distances -of over 100 miles makes them eminently suitable. - -The enormous increase in the size and range of action of submarines, -combined with the improvements effected in the surface cruising -qualities, have enabled these vessels to be taken from the “nursery” of -harbour and coast defence and placed with the sea-going flotillas and -battle-fleets. In the short period of ten years the tonnage of -submarines has risen from 100 to over 1,000 tons, and the range of -action from 400 miles at economical speed to 5,000 miles. Exactly what -this means is more easily realized when it is stated that the earlier -types of submarines could scarcely cross the English Channel and return -without taking in supplies of fuel, and in rough weather were forced to -remain in harbour, whereas the modern vessel can go from England to -Newfoundland _and back_ without assistance, and can remain at sea in -almost any weather, as was first demonstrated by the successful voyage -of the British submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 to Australia, and has since -been proved by the operations of the British submarine flotilla in the -North Sea. - -In addition to the cruising range there is, however, the question of -habitability. In this respect the progress has been equally as rapid. In -the older boats no sleeping accommodation was provided for the crew, and -food supplies and fresh water sufficient only for a few days were -carried. In the latest British, French and German vessels proper -sleeping and messing accommodation is provided, and supplies of all -kinds and in sufficient quantity to last a month are carried. Although -work on these craft is still very cramping for the crew, the increase in -the deck space and in the surface buoyancy has greatly minimised the -discomforts of service in the submarine flotilla. - -With regard to safety, it has already been shown that a submarine is -only held below the surface by the power of her engines and the action -of the water on her diving-rudders. This means that in the event of -anything going wrong _inside_ the vessel she would automatically rise to -the surface; but should the hull be pierced in any way, either by shot -or by collision, and an overwhelming inrush of water result—overcoming -the buoyancy quickly obtained by blowing out the water-ballast -tanks—then the vessel must inevitably sink, and the question of whether -or not the crew can save themselves becomes a problem to which no -definite answer can be given, although a special means is provided in -all modern vessels belonging to the British Navy. Speaking generally, it -may, however, be said that if the disaster occurs suddenly, and the -vessel sinks into very deep water rapidly, the chances of life-saving -are extremely small; but if the water is comparatively shallow, as along -the coast (100 to 150 feet), the likelihood of many of the crew being -able to save themselves with the aid of the _special escape helmets and -air-locks_ is fairly good. - -We now come to the most important improvement made in the fighting -qualities of these vessels since first they came into being, viz. the -wonderful increase in the surface and submerged speed. In the older -craft the surface speed did not exceed 8 to 10 knots an hour, whereas it -now amounts to 16 to 20 knots, and the submerged speed has risen from 5 -knots to 10 to 12 knots. It is a little difficult for any but a naval -man to realize exactly what this increase in the speed of submarines -really means, and it is equally as difficult to adequately describe it -here in non-technical language. It is a mere platitude to say that in -order to attack a surface warship the submarine must first get within -torpedo range of it; and yet it is on this very point that the strategy -and tactics of submarine warfare revolve. A clever naval tactician once -described the submarine as a “handicapped torpedo-boat.” The two points -on which he based this opinion were—the (then) slow speed of these -vessels compared with that of the surface warship, and its almost total -blindness when submerged. These two defects were for some years the -principal drawbacks of all the submarines afloat; but since that naval -expert pronounced submarines to be “handicapped torpedo-boats,” great -changes, great improvements have been made. The speed of the submarine -has increased by over 100 per cent., and they have been given longer and -wider range of vision by the introduction of two and three improved -periscopes instead of one elementary instrument. Nevertheless, the speed -difficulty is still a very real one, as will readily be seen when it is -taken into consideration that the speed of a submarine when attacking -submerged is frequently only half, or even a third, of that of her -enemy. In order to more clearly illustrate this and lift for a moment -the veil of secrecy which enshrouds the methods of attack adopted by -this type of craft, it will be necessary to describe what is known as -the_ right-angle attack_. - - - ATTACKING AT RIGHT ANGLES. - -The difficulty of attacking a surface warship steaming at right angles -to the course of the submarine will be clearly understood by referring -to the following diagrams. The first shows an attack on a warship -travelling at 20 miles an hour, such as a big battleship or a cruiser -Any increase in the speed of the surface vessel not only adds to the -difficulty of the attacking submarine, but also the direction from which -the attack must be made. This feature is shown in the second diagram, -which illustrates a submarine attack on a vessel steaming at 30 miles an -hour, such as a fast destroyer or fleet scout. On the other hand, a -decrease in the speed of the on-coming surface vessel tends to either -make easier the task of the attacking submarine, or else to increase the -distance from which the attack can be delivered. This is shown in the -third diagram, which assumes the speed of the surface vessel to be only -15 miles an hour, such as a merchantman, troopship, food-ship, collier, -or old warship. - -[Illustration: - - RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. -] - -FIG. 1 represents a submarine attacking a hostile warship (or fleet) -steaming at 20 (statute) miles an hour. “A” is the line of vision. The -submarine sights the warship at a distance of just over 11 miles on her -port bow. “B” shows the hostile vessel’s course, which is 10 miles to -point marked “C,” and each division beyond equals 1 mile. - -Directly the submarine, which is assumed to be lying in an _awash -condition_, sights the object of attack, she totally submerges and -steers forward at a speed of 10 miles an hour. The loss, and gain, of -the submarine on the different courses, can be seen in the table above -the chart.[7] - -The spaces between the black dots show the most favourable points of -attack. It will be noticed in the table that both vessels are equal at -point “C,” but for many reasons this is not the best point of attack. -The gain of about six minutes on the longer course enables the submarine -not only to manœuvre into the best possible position for the attack, but -also to discharge more than one torpedo if necessary. - -FIG. 2 shows the extreme limit at which a submarine could, with -reasonable chances of success, attack a destroyer, or other vessel, -steaming at 30 (statute) miles an hour, having sighted her at a distance -of 16 miles in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” - -The distance to “C” is 15 miles for the surface vessel, and 5 miles for -the submarine. Here, again, the two vessels would be equal; but the most -favourable point of attack is shown by the two black dots—where the -submarine has gained two minutes. - -FIG. 3.—The submarine sights the object of attack at a distance of 14 ¼ -miles, in the position shown by the line of vision “A.” The surface -vessel has a speed of only 15 miles an hour (merchantman). In this case -the surface vessel accomplishes the 10-mile journey along course -“B”—arriving at point “C” 20 minutes in advance of the submarine. The -table shows how the submarine, by changing her course and “throwing” the -surface vessel on her beam, gradually reduces the loss, until, at the -point marked with the two black dots, she is but 4 ½ minutes behind. At -this distance she could fire her torpedoes at long range, with some -likelihood of success. - -Although these charts show approximately the extreme limits of the -right-angle attack, a submarine could, of course, proceed for some -distance on the surface at a much faster speed; but considering the rate -at which the two vessels would be approaching each other, the submarine -which attempted it would run considerable risk of being detected, and -thus destroy her chances of a successful attack. Considering also the -time lost in sinking from the “light” to the totally submerged -condition, in coming to close quarters, the gain in speed would not -amount to as much as may at first seem probable.[8] - -These charts are drawn and calculations made assuming the following -points:— - - (1) The weather—fine and bright. - - (2) Not taking into consideration strong tides, currents, etc. - - (3) The enemy on the alert. - - (4) Submarine waits at point “D” in an awash condition. - - (5) Owing to 1, 2, and 3 above, the submarine travels from point “D” - in all courses in a submerged condition. - -The most favourable position for a submarine flotilla is to manœuvre -close up to a fleet at anchor, or to get within 1,000 yards of a -fleet—steaming across its course; but both of these ideal positions for -attack are extremely difficult to obtain, and consequently in all the -less favourable positions speed is the deciding factor. Strategems will -undoubtedly play an important part in submarine warfare. An example of -this has already been afforded when the German submarines resorted to -the dishonest trick of laying in wait behind a trawler engaged in laying -mines, over which _the flag of a neutral state_ had been hoisted as a -blind. This resulted in the loss of three British cruisers with over -1,000 lives. It would, however, be quite in accord with the rules of -_civilised_ warfare for a submarine to shelter behind a “decoy”; to -attack simultaneously with a seaplane; or to approach an enemy behind -one of its own merchant ships. - - - THE PORPOISE DIVE. - -The manœuvre known as the “Porpoise Dive” is merely the sudden rising of -a submarine in order to enable her commander to get a better view of the -surface than that afforded by the periscope. The submarine on -approaching the object of attack rises quickly to the surface by the -action of her horizontal rudders, then dives again, only remaining above -water for a few seconds to enable her commander to get a glimpse of the -enemy, and to take bearings. The submarine can then get within -torpedo-range, with simply the tiny periscope projecting from the -surface. This manœuvre is now seldom necessary, owing to the long and -wide range of vision of the two or three periscopes fitted in modern -submarines. - - - DIFFICULTY OF THE FIXED TORPEDO TUBE. - -With the exception of one or two vessels, which it would be unwise to -specify, all the submarines engaged in the present war have what are -called _fixed submerged tubes_. This means that the tubes from which the -torpedoes are discharged are fitted _inside_ the submarine _on a line -with the centre of the boat_, and cannot be moved or aimed in any way -apart from the boat itself. It therefore becomes necessary for the -submarine to be _aligned_ by the steering rudders on the object of -attack before the torpedoes can be discharged. In simpler vein, -torpedoes can only be fired by a submarine straight ahead or straight -astern. Hence a submarine, with a hostile warship coming up on its beam, -is compelled to turn and face its opponent (or turn its stern towards -her) before delivering an attack. - - - SUBMARINE FLOTILLA _v._ SURFACE FLEET. - -It is absolutely necessary for submarines acting in company to have each -its allotted task; and for a wide space of water to be left between each -boat; as it is impossible, at present, for one submarine to know the -exact position of another when both vessels are submerged. Therefore, if -each boat was not previously instructed how to act, there would not only -be the likelihood of the greater portion of an attacking flotilla firing -their torpedoes at one or two vessels of the hostile fleet and allowing -the remainder either to escape or to keep up a heavy and dangerous fire -unmolested, but also of collision and of torpedoeing each other by -accident. There is no means of inter-communication between submarines -when submerged, and a battle between submarines is almost impossible. - - - SURPRISE ATTACK. - -In this case invisibility is the element of success. Admiral Sir Cyprian -Bridge, G.C.B., in a letter to the Author once said: “When submerged the -concealment of the submarine is practically perfect. If she has not been -sighted up to the moment of diving, she will almost certainly reach, -unobserved, the point at which she can make her attack.” And this -opinion—shared for many years by all experts—has been amply proved in -the present war. - -A submarine must, however, blend with the surrounding sea in its -ever-varying colours, lights and shades, in order that she may be as -invisible as possible when cruising on the surface. The French Naval -Authorities experimented off Toulon with a luminous paint of a sea-green -colour; but this, although causing the hull to be almost totally -invisible in certain weather, was found to be useless, as, on a bright -day with a blue sky, the green showed up clear against the bluish tint -of the surrounding sea. After many months of experimenting, a pale, -sea-green, non-luminous paint was chosen as the best colour for French -submarines. The British Admiralty also carried out a few experiments in -this direction, and came to the conclusion that a dull grey was the most -invisible shade. The German authorities decided in favour of a -grey-brown. - -When travelling submerged, with only the thin periscopic tube above the -surface, it is almost impossible to detect the approach of a submarine -_before_ she gets within torpedo range; and when cruising on the surface -she is equally as invisible at a distance of a few miles. These -qualities enable the submarine in nearly all cases where her speed -permits, to effect a surprise attack on a hostile battleship or cruiser -_when not closely screened by fast destroyers_, whose duty it is to be -ever on the watch for submarines. - -As to the tactics which would be employed by a submarine (or flotilla) -in attacking a hostile warship (or fleet), it is impossible to say, for, -like the impromptu attacks of all “mosquito craft,” the exact method, or -manœuvre, is arranged to suit the circumstances, and it is very seldom -that two such attacks are carried out alike. Generally speaking, -however, a hostile warship could be easily sighted, on a fairly clear -day, from the flying-bridge of a submarine at a distance of 10 miles; -but it would be practically impossible to detect the submarine from the -deck of a warship at that distance. On sighting her object of attack the -submarine would sink to the “awash” condition, and proceed for from 2 ½ -to 5 miles, as might be deemed expedient. She would then submerge and -steer by her periscopes, each of which has a field of vision of 60 -degrees. He would be a very keen look-out who would be able to detect -the few square inches of periscopic tube at a distance of three miles. -As this distance lessened, it might be advisable, if the sea was _very_ -calm and if the object of attack was stationary, for the submarine to -slacken speed, so as to prevent any spray being thrown off by the -periscopic tube. Assuming, however, that the optical tube was seen by -the enemy, it would be extremely difficult to hit it with gun-fire at a -distance of one or two miles, or to damage the boat itself, which would -probably be immersed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet. At a distance of about -2,000 yards, or just over one mile, the submarine would discharge her -first torpedo, following it up with another at closer range from the -second bow tube. A rapid dive would then probably be necessary in order -to avoid the hail of shot which would plough up the waters around her. -If the first two torpedoes missed their mark the submarine might either -dive completely under the object of attack and then fire her stern tubes -at close range, or else manœuvre below the surface for an attack from -some other point. - -One of the effects produced on fleets or individual warships in war time -by the ever present possibility of submarine attack is, however, that -they never remain at anchor or even stationary in an exposed position, -and seldom—if wise—proceed without destroyers as advance and flank -guards. These precautions double the difficulties of a successful -submarine attack. - ------ - -Footnote 7: - - As it is almost impossible for a submarine, when totally submerged, to - steer a _perfectly_ straight course, the table above each chart shows - the approximate average loss and gain on each mile. It must also be - remembered that the submarine in actual practice need only reach the - torpedo firing line. - -Footnote 8: - - “Submarines of the World’s Navies.” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Francis Griffiths.) - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - ANTI-SUBMARINE TACTICS - - -In all warfare, new weapons of attack are, sooner or later, met by new -methods of defence. The submarine and the aeroplane are at present the -only weapons against which there is no true means of defence, and yet -one is being used as an antidote for the other without, however, any -very striking success so far. The seaplane may be able to distinguish -the dark patch in the sea caused by the hull of the submarine _in clear -water_, but she cannot destroy it, neither can she signal the _exact_ -locality to an accompanying destroyer flotilla, owing to the speed with -which seaplane and submarine pass over and under each other; -furthermore, in rough weather or in shallow muddy water no sign of the -submarine when submerged is visible from above. The great value of the -seaplane as an antidote for submarines lies, however, first in the fact -that the water of the open sea is usually clear, and the _submarine -shadow_ is visible from above, and, secondly, in the great speed of -these aircraft which enables them to quickly cover miles of sea in their -search for hostile submarines and to report their presence in a given -locality by wireless to all ships operating within range. - -When the enormous superficial area of a zone of war, such as the North -Sea and English Channel, is duly considered, however, the difficulty in -quickly and reliably locating from the air the few scattered “submarine -shadows” will be easily realized. To make this method of locating -submarines even fairly reliable an enormous fleet of seaplanes would be -required. Again seaplanes do not, in themselves, constitute a means of -defence against submarine attack, they merely increase the likelihood of -detection, but, in actual warfare, it has now been proved that for every -submarine detected by seaplanes two others pass quite unobserved. - -Many means of attack on submarines have been proposed; and no doubt some -of these, in certain cases, would prove effective; but none can be -relied upon. Therefore, one of the points in favour of the submarine -still remains without its antidote. This is the _moral effect_; for if -there is no absolutely reliable means of defence, there can be no -feeling of security for surface warships or merchant vessels when -anywhere within the danger zone of the submarine. - -Let us now examine briefly what practical methods of defence a modern -warship has against submarine attacks. Great speed is undoubtedly a -surface ship’s most reliable defence; and when combined with a frequent -change of course, would greatly reduce the chances of a successful -under-water attack. Should hostile submarines be on the line of advance -they would not know whether to wait and chance the enemy approaching -within torpedo range or whether to run to starboard or port. This is, if -the surface warship was steaming in an erratic course—not a zigzag -course, for then it might be possible to estimate, within torpedo range, -the position of the ship at a given point if the “tacks” were regular. - -Should submarines be seen approaching, a surface vessel would do well to -turn her stern to the attacking flotilla, presenting as small a target -as possible, and deflecting the torpedoes by her propeller race. - -The escape of the Battle Cruiser _Queen Mary_ and the Light Cruiser -_Lowestoft_, during the action in the Heligoland Bight, as described in -the dispatch of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, K.C.B., demonstrates what -may be done by the skilful use of the helm on surface warships to -frustrate submarine attacks. So interesting, and informative as to the -actual fighting between British warships and hostile submarines, in this -dispatch that I give it here in full. It should, however, be studied in -conjunction with the comprehensive report—the first in the history of -Naval warfare detailing submarine attack and reconnaissance—from -Commodore Roger J. B. Keyes, C.B., of the British submarines, given on -page 28. - - “H.M.S. _Lion_, - _1st September, 1914_. - - “SIR,—I have the honour to report that on Thursday, 27th August, at 5 - a.m., I proceeded with the First Battle Cruiser Squadron and First - Light Cruiser Squadron in company, to rendezvous with the - Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_. - - “At 4 a.m., 28th August, the movements of the Flotillas commenced as - previously arranged, the Battle Cruiser Squadron and Light Cruiser - Squadron supporting. The Rear-Admiral, _Invincible_, with _New - Zealand_ and four Destroyers having joined my flag, the Squadron - passed through the pre-arranged rendezvous. - - “At 8.10 a.m. I received a signal from the Commodore (T), informing me - that the Flotilla was in action with the enemy. This was presumably in - the vicinity of their pre-arranged rendezvous. From this time until 11 - a.m. I remained about the vicinity ready to support as necessary, - intercepting various signals, which contained no information on which - I could act. - - “At 11 a.m. the Squadron was attacked by three Submarines. The attack - was frustrated by rapid manœuvring and the four Destroyers were - ordered to attack them. Shortly after 11 a.m., various signals having - been received indicating that the Commodore (T) and Commodore (S) were - both in need of assistance, I ordered the Light Cruiser Squadron to - support the Torpedo Flotillas. - - “Later I received a signal from the Commodore (T), stating that he was - being attacked by a large Cruiser, and a further signal informing me - that he was being hard pressed and asking for assistance. The Captain - (D), First Flotilla, also signalled that he was in need of help. - - “From the foregoing the situation appeared to me critical. The - Flotillas had advanced only ten miles since 8 a.m., and were only - about twenty-five miles from two enemy bases on their flank and rear - respectively. Commodore Goodenough had detached two of his Light - Cruisers to assist some Destroyers earlier in the day, and these had - not yet rejoined. (They rejoined at 2.30 p.m.). As the reports - indicated the presence of many enemy ships—one a large Cruiser—I - considered that his force might not be strong enough to deal with the - situation sufficiently rapidly, so at 11.30 a.m. the Battle Cruisers - turned to E.S.E., and worked up to full speed. It was evident that to - be of any value the support must be overwhelming and carried out at - the highest speed possible. - - “I had not lost sight of the risk of Submarines, and possible sortie - in force from the enemy’s base, especially in view of the mist to the - South-East. - - “Our high speed, however, made submarine attack difficult, and the - smoothness of the sea made their detection comparatively easy. I - considered that we were powerful enough to deal with any sortie except - by a Battle Squadron, which was unlikely to come out in time, provided - our stroke was sufficiently rapid. - - “At 12.15 p.m. _Fearless_ and First Flotilla were sighted retiring - West. At the same time the Light Cruiser Squadron was observed to be - engaging an enemy ship ahead. They appeared to have her beat. - - “I then steered N.E. to sounds of firing ahead, and at 12.30 p.m. - sighted _Arethusa_ and Third Flotilla retiring to the Westward - engaging a Cruiser of the _Kolberg_ class on our Port Bow. I steered - to cut her off from Heligoland, and at 12.37 p.m. opened fire. At - 12.42 the enemy turned to N.E., and we chased at 27 knots. - - “At 12.56 p.m. sighted and engaged a two-funnelled Cruiser ahead. - _Lion_ fired two salvoes at her, which took effect, and she - disappeared into the mist, burning furiously and in a sinking - condition. In view of the mist and that she was steering at high speed - at right angles to _Lion_, who was herself steaming at 28 knots, the - _Lion’s_ firing was very creditable. - - “Our Destroyers had reported the presence of floating mines to the - Eastward and I considered it inadvisable to pursue her. It was also - essential that the Squadrons should remain concentrated, and I - accordingly ordered a withdrawal. The Battle Cruisers turned North and - circled to port to complete the destruction of the vessel first - engaged. She was sighted again at 1.25 p.m. steaming S.E. with colours - still flying. _Lion_ opened fire with two turrets, and at 1.35 p.m., - after receiving two salvoes, she sank. - - “The four attached Destroyers were sent to pick up survivors, but I - deeply regret that they subsequently reported that they searched the - area but found none. - - “At 1.40 p.m. the Battle Cruisers turned to the Northward, and _Queen - Mary_ was again attacked by a Submarine. The attack was avoided by the - use of the helm. _Lowestoft_ was also unsuccessfully attacked. The - Battle Cruisers covered the retirement until nightfall. By 6 p.m., the - retirement having been well executed and all Destroyers accounted for, - I altered course, spread the Light Cruisers, and swept northwards in - accordance with the Commander-in-Chief’s orders. At 7.45 p.m. I - detached _Liverpool_ to Rosyth with German prisoners, seven officers - and 79 men, survivors from _Mainz_. No further incident occurred.—I - have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant. - - “(Signed) DAVID BEATTY, - “Vice-Admiral. - “The Secretary of the Admiralty.” - -Quick-firing guns of the 3-inch and 6-inch type are certainly the best -weapons for an attack on submarines. In combination with “sharp -look-outs,” they could be used with effect from the elevated positions -on the fore part of warships. The periscopic-tube of the submarine -always proves a target for gun-fire; but a grey steel tube, 3 inches in -diameter, at a distance of 1,000 yards requires “excellent” marksmanship -to hit. That it can be done is proved by the sinking of the German -submarine U.15 by the British Cruiser _Birmingham_ in the North Sea. The -effect of a shot carrying away the periscope is to blind the submarine, -at least in one eye, she can then be _run-down_ by the surface warship -or destroyed by rapid gun-fire at close range. - -Of course, if submarines were caught napping on the surface the guns of -surface warships could quickly sink them; but another incident, similar -to that which opened the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese War, -cannot be looked for in the naval engagements to come. - -For a fleet engaged in bombarding or blockading, one of the best methods -of defence would be to lower the torpedo nets, not close round each -vessel, but suspended from “picket-boats” at a distance from the -bombarding or blockading fleet. “Picketing” is also considered a good -defence during daylight, but neither of these methods are reliable. A -submarine might be able to dive unobserved under, or past, the -destroyers acting as pickets, and it is this chance which causes these -under-water craft to be a source of constant anxiety. - -The torpedo-boat destroyer should prove a nasty enemy to the submarine. -In warfare it is the duty of these 30-knot vessels to look after their -under-water opponents. - -It has been suggested that internal armour could be fitted to warships -below the water-line, which would render the hulls able to withstand -mine or torpedo explosions. At present this is practically impossible, -as the great weight of this additional armour, combined with the -ever-increasing size of guns and weight of above-water protection, would -necessitate a vessel of such enormous displacement as to be quite -impossible, if the important factor—high speed—has also to be -maintained. - -The defence of harbours against submarines is a problem which does not -present nearly so many difficulties as the defence of moving ships. -Portsmouth, for example, is closed by means of a submarine boom-defence, -which is stretched across the mouth of the harbour. The entrance to the -River Elbe (leading to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal) is effectively closed -to British submarines by boom-defences, mines, and submerged wire -entanglements. Narrow waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, can be -closed by the laying of contact-mines, and even broader seas can be made -dangerous to submarines by the same method. An example of this is -afforded by the laying of a British mine-field somewhere between the -Goodwin Sands and the Dutch Coast, to prevent German submarines from -penetrating into the English Channel. - -There are so many reliable means of defending harbours and narrow -waterways against submarines that it is unnecessary to say anything -further here. But to protect moving ships at sea, under all conditions, -certainly presents a most profound puzzle. - - - - - CHAPTER X - - THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO - - -The submarine torpedo has become one of the principal naval arms. Not -only does it supply the chief offensive power of the submarine, the -torpedo-boat and the destroyer, but it is also carried as a separate -arm, with a special highly-trained crew, by almost every warship afloat. -At the beginning of hostilities the Naval Powers engaged owned -considerably over 80,000 of these weapons, and _one_ factory in England -alone can make them at the rate of two a day. During the first few weeks -of the _Great War_ the torpedo was responsible for the sinking of -warships to the value of over one million sterling. Had the German Fleet -been on the high seas instead of in harbour and protected from torpedo -raids by carefully-prepared submarine defences, there is little doubt -but what several more of the enemy’s ships would have been sunk by this -weapon. The fact that at first the British light cruisers suffered -rather heavily—though in total loss of ships and men less than the -German Navy—does not point to any advantage derived either from the type -of torpedo used or from skill in this mode of warfare possessed by the -Germans, but clearly to the timidity of the German main fleet, which was -at the very beginning of hostilities withdrawn from the zone of war and -placed behind fortifications, where it was safe from torpedo attack. The -British Fleet, true to the policy of “attack and not defence,” began -operations the moment war was declared, with results so brilliantly -successful, and of such far-reaching and world-wide importance, that -enumeration is well-nigh impossible. But while all these operations were -in progress the British Fleet was more or less exposed to torpedo attack -by any hostile submarines or fast surface craft which might succeed in -getting past the cordon of protecting destroyers, while the German Fleet -was safe, but ignominiously impotent. That the naval losses of Great -Britain, with all her fleets at sea, have not been far greater than they -have is in itself a victory of the greatest magnitude—a victory due -entirely to consummate naval skill. - -The modern torpedo varies in length from 14 to 19 feet, and weighs up to -half a ton. It has an extreme range of 4,000 yards, or just over 2 ¼ -miles. There are three types of torpedoes in use by the fleets at war. -The British use the _Whitehead Torpedo_, the French the Whitehead and -the _Schneider_, the Russians and the Japanese use the Whitehead; the -Germans have a type of their own, known as the _Schwartzkopf_, and the -Austrian arm is principally the Whitehead. All these types are alike in -their essential features, and therefore need not be described -separately. - -The latest pattern 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is propelled by compressed -air stored in that section of the weapon known as the _air-chamber_ (see -diagram). The air on being released is heated and expanded in a tiny -three or four-cylinder engine which operates twin screws, moving -“clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” The “war-head” contains about 200 -pounds of wet gun-cotton which is exploded on the torpedo striking an -object. The essential features of the Whitehead torpedo are shown in the -diagram.[9] - -This torpedo maintains a speed of 42 knots for 1,000 yards, 38 knots for -2,000 yards, 32 knots for 3,000 yards, and 28 knots for 4,000 yards. -Thus, if discharged at a distance of half a mile it reaches its object -in about 45 seconds. - -[Illustration: - - Sketch showing the essential parts of a Whitehead torpedo. _A._ Pistol, - detonator, primer, which causes the explosion of “B” when the torpedo - strikes an object. _B._ Explosive head, filled with wet gun-cotton. - (The “war-head” is substituted by a weighty dummy during practice.) - _C._ Air chamber with compressed air, at a pressure of approximately - 1350 lbs. per square inch, for action. The chamber is tested to stand a - pressure of 1700 lbs. per square inch. _D._ Balance chamber, containing - mechanism for regulating the depth of submergence at which the torpedo - is adjusted to run. _E._ Engine-room, containing propelling machinery - (I.H.P. 60 in latest 18-in. type). _F._ Buoyancy chamber—a practically - empty chamber—to give the necessary buoyancy to the torpedo. _G._ - Gyroscope. An instrument for correcting any deviation of the torpedo - from the line of fire. _H._ Rudders, and mechanism for operating. _I._ - Twin-screws, operating “clockwise” and “anti-clockwise.” - -] - -Torpedoes are fired—or ejected—into the sea from surface or submerged -tubes, and on striking the water are propelled by their own engines in -an absolutely straight course towards the target. The exact mechanism of -the submerged tube—which is used in surface warships as well as in -submarines—is a naval secret. When fired from a surface tube the torpedo -sinks immediately to a depth of about 10 to 14 feet, and maintains this -depth until it strikes its object. When fired from a submerged tube it -rises—if necessary—to the same level. A torpedo always proceeds towards -its object of attack at a depth of a few feet below the surface. This, -combined with speed, renders it almost impossible to destroy an -approaching torpedo by gun-fire. So marvellous is the mechanism of these -little weapons that in anything like favourable circumstances they may -be _depended upon_, if well aimed, to strike within a yard or two of the -spot aimed at. This accuracy is due almost entirely to the gyroscope, -which, briefly described, is a rotating wheel automatically controlling -the torpedo’s course. - -Although for many years torpedoes have been carried by nearly all types -of service warships, none of them were really ideal for this kind of -warfare. A new field for the torpedo was, however, opened out by the -introduction of the submarine boat. In order to be effective the torpedo -must be discharged from a distance under 4,000 yards—preferably from a -point less than half this distance from the object of attack. This means -that the vessel carrying the torpedo would have to get within a mile, or -at least a mile and a-half, of her object of attack before discharging a -torpedo. For a surface vessel to accomplish this in the face of a heavy -cannonade from quick-firing guns would be extremely risky. To make a -quick rush to close quarters, if possible, by several vessels from -different points, was the only chance of delivering a successful torpedo -attack on a hostile warship; unless, of course, she was favoured by fog -or darkness _at the right moment_—favourable conditions which would -seldom obtain in actual warfare. Again, every increase in the speed of -the big surface warship rendered the task of the ordinary torpedo-boat -and destroyer more difficult because in the event of a threatened attack -the larger vessel would make use of her speed to keep out of torpedo -range while her powerful guns were repelling the attacking torpedo-boat. - -The _hour_ of the torpedo came with the _perfection_ of the -submarine. All the conditions of an ideal torpedo-boat were -fulfilled—_invisibility_ rendering daylight attacks possible; -_almost perfect immunity from gun-fire_ enabling the torpedo to be -discharged at closer range; _submerged discharge_ removing the -likelihood of the weapon being exploded by accurate gun-fire before -being discharged; _speed on the surface_ enabling the “carrying” -vessel to manœuvre for position; _moderate speed when submerged_ -enabling an attack under all reasonably tactical conditions; and -_comparatively large displacement_ giving good cruising qualities, -wide range of action, and enabling a large number of torpedoes and -tubes being carried. - ------ - -Footnote 9: - - “Submarines of the World’s Navies,” By Charles W. Domville-Fife. - (London: Francis Griffiths.) - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - SUBMARINE MINES - - -If the Russo-Japanese war was the first to fully demonstrate the value -of the explosive mine, the Great European Conflict has certainly brought -this weapon to the forefront in the rapidly growing science of submarine -warfare. During the first few weeks of the naval fighting several -warships, beginning with H.M.S. _Amphion_, and many merchant vessels -representing millions of pounds sterling, were destroyed by these -weapons. Had it not been for the foresight of the British Admiralty in -providing a very large fleet of mine-sweepers, aided by seaplanes, there -can be no doubt but what the shipping of all countries—neutrals and -belligerents alike—would have suffered far greater losses. - -[Illustration: LAUNCHING A GERMAN TROTYL MINE.] - -[Illustration: - - A GERMAN SUBMARINE TROTYL MINE ON THE DECK OF A MINE-LAYER. - - These mines contain the famous T.N.T., or Trotyl explosive. -] - -The indiscriminate scattering of mines across the trade routes, as -carried on by Germany immediately on the outbreak of war, and before -hardly any of the ships at sea belonging to neutral countries could be -warned to avoid the zone of operations, has never before been so -ruthlessly resorted to by a big civilised power. - -The system of defence consists of the mooring of these mines in such -positions as to make it almost impossible for hostile ships to pass -without either striking or coming within the destructive zone of one or -more of them. What are known as _floating mines_ are those set adrift to -be washed about by the tide. They explode immediately on being struck by -a passing vessel, and, of course, do not discriminate between friend and -foe. The systems of destroying hostile mine-fields consist of -_counter-mining_, or placing other mines in the enemy’s field and -destroying it by their explosion, and by _sweeping_. The latter method -is the one mostly employed in modern warfare. The boats taking part in -the _sweep_ place themselves one on each side of the mine-field, and -between them hangs a long wire rope, weighted in the centre to keep it -well submerged. They then move forward, sweeping the mines to the -surface or exploding them harmlessly. It is, however, very dangerous but -highly necessary work. - -There are two kinds of submarine mines, one is designed to explode on -being struck by a passing vessel, and is called a _contact mine_, and -the other is fired from the shore by an electric current, and is known -as an _observation mine_. The explosive principally used is wet -gun-cotton or Trotyl, owing not only to the safety with which they can -be stored and manipulated, but also to the fact that they seldom explode -in sympathy with neighbouring mines, requiring to be actually fired. The -importance of this will be more fully realised when it is remembered -that in warfare it is often necessary to explode certain mines over -which hostile ships are endeavouring to pass, while leaving others in -fairly close proximity intact, ready to repel a second invasion or to -destroy ships nearer to them. The actual explosion is caused by an -electric current, either from the shore or from a battery in the mine -itself, causing the detonation of fulminate of mercury in conjunction -with a small priming charge of dry gun-cotton. Mines are often laid in a -series, connected to a battery on the sea-bed in the centre of the line -of defence. - -The _observation mine_ is mostly used for defending the approaches to -harbours, as an observer on shore can watch the movements of hostile -warships and explode each mine when the vessel passes over it. _Contact -mines_, on the other hand, are used wherever an enemy’s fleet is likely -to pass. They are anchored to the sea-bed by means of a cable and heavy -weight, and are allowed to float a few feet below the surface. They -explode immediately on contact. At times an unscrupulous or demoralised -enemy will simply throw a number of these mines overboard and allow them -to float at the mercy of wind and tide. They then become a terrible -danger to the shipping of all nations, as once they are left unwatched -it is extremely difficult to tell with any degree of certainty where -they will eventually proclaim their presence by devastating explosions. -Happily for the whole seafaring world, this method is seldom resorted -to, as mines set adrift in this way become a danger to both friend and -foe. In the Russo-Japanese war several ships were destroyed by their own -mines. - -There are many different kinds of submarine mines, both of the -observation and the contact type. Some are spherical in shape and others -cylindrical. Some are moored close down to the sea-bed with a very heavy -explosive charge (200‒500 lbs. of gun-cotton), and have a small buoyant -globe floating above them, which, when struck, fires the mine below. -Others, known as secret-mines, are kept continually moored in the -waterways leading to important naval harbours, and are only allowed to -rise sufficiently high from the sea-bed to be struck by passing vessels -in times of emergency. The type most generally used is, however, the -ordinary _offensive contact mine_, which contains a powerful explosive -charge and is anchored in the path of hostile warships. These mines are -usually automatically sown in large numbers over a wide area of sea by -the mine-laying fleets. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - - MINE-LAYING FLEETS - - -The _regular_ mine-laying fleets of the powers at war are composed of -the following vessels, all of which are fitted with special apparatus -for the work. Submarine mines can, however, be laid by any vessel, and -it is therefore almost impossible to say exactly what ships are engaged -in this work. Both Germany and Austria have converted a large number of -their merchantmen into mine-layers. England, in reply, has converted a -large number of small steamers into _mine-sweepers_. Russia is a strong -believer in explosive mines, and has strewn the gulfs of Finland and -Riga with them. Japan, being on the offensive, is employing more -mine-sweepers than layers. France has an elaborate system of submarine -mine defence for all her important harbours, and maintains a small fleet -at each base, known as the “defence mobile.” These vessels are all -capable of both mine-laying and sweeping. - -The submarine mine is primarily the defence of the weaker naval power, -and therefore a fleet acting on the defensive, either temporarily or -permanently, requires more mine-layers than mine-sweepers, but the -reverse is naturally the case with a fleet acting on the offensive. -Although this may be taken as a general rule, it does not imply that a -strong naval power like Great Britain, whose policy is attack and not -defence, needs no mines or mine-layers. On the contrary, the laying of -_counter_ mines is one of the ways of destroying an enemy’s mine-field; -and even the strongest fleet cannot guard every portion of a long coast -line with many harbours exposed to attack. The judicious laying of -mine-fields will often prevent raids by hostile submarines and -torpedo-boats; and will limit the theatre of operations, as was done by -the British Navy in the southern portion of the North Sea in October, -1914. The axiom that a really strong navy needs to be strong in _every_ -branch, therefore holds good in this, as in all other respects. - - - MINE-LAYING FLEETS. - - - GREAT BRITAIN. - - _Apollo._ _Thetis._ _Andromache._ _Latona._ _Naiad._ _Intrepid._ - _Iphigenia._ - -These are all second class cruisers of from 3,400 to 3,600 tons, built -about 1891‒2, which have been converted into mine-layers. They are -equipped with a very large number of submarine explosive mines, which -can be automatically lowered into the water as the vessels steam along. -Their speed is about 15 knots, and their armament consists of four -4·7-inch quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 150 officers and -men. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Cribb, Southsea._] - - THE BRITISH MINE-LAYER H.M.S. _IPHIGENIA_. - - The mine-dropping gear can be seen in the stern. - -] - - - GERMANY. - - _Pelikan_ (1890). _Nautilus_ (1906). _Albatross_ (1907). _Arkona_ - (1903). - -All these vessels, with the exception of the _Arkona_, which was a -protected cruiser, have been specially built for mine-laying work. Their -displacement is about 2,000 tons. The _Pelikan_ has a speed of 15 knots, -the _Albatross_ and _Nautilus_ of 20 knots, and the _Arkona_ of 21 ½ -knots. They are all fitted with special gear for dropping the large -number of mines carried, and their armament consists of from four to -eight 21-pdr. quick-firing guns. Their complement is about 200 officers -and men. - - - AUSTRIA. - -The Austro-Hungarian Navy possesses only one regular mine-laying -warship—the _Chamaleon_, which was being completed when war was -declared. She is a vessel of 1,800 tons displacement, with a speed of 20 -knots. Her mine-launching gear is of the most modern and efficient type, -and she is armed with several quick-firing guns. - -Since the beginning of hostilities Austria has converted several old -warships and merchantmen into mine-layers. - - - FRANCE AND RUSSIA. - -Neither of these powers possess proper mine-laying vessels, but on the -outbreak of war several old warships and small merchant steamers were -used for that purpose. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - - MINE-SWEEPING FLEETS - - -For clearing away the mines dropped by an enemy special vessels are -employed. Each vessel is fitted on both sides with a curious contrivance -known as the “picking-up gear.” This apparatus is lowered into the -water, and “picks up” any mines which may lie in the path of an -on-coming fleet. When a mine-field is discovered by either destroyers or -seaplanes these vessels are immediately dispatched to destroy it; and -they are aided, in the case of the British Navy, by a large flotilla of -steam trawlers. Many of these auxiliary vessels are not fitted with the -_picking-up gear_, but go to work in pairs. Two vessels, connected -together by a long wire rope weighted in the centre to keep it -submerged, range themselves on each side of a mine-field, and by -steaming ahead in a parallel line sweep up the mines floating between -them. This process can be carried on simultaneously by a large number of -trawlers, covering a very wide area of sea. In the meantime the attached -destroyers and seaplanes can be searching for new fields. It often -happens during sweeping operations that mines are brought into contact -with each other and violent explosions occur. Sometimes the vessels -engaged in this hazardous work will themselves strike one of the mines, -but it is more often the _searching_ flotillas which meet with sudden -disaster in this way. Fully equipped mine-sweepers usually precede a -fleet of battleships and big cruisers through dangerous and narrow seas, -within the likely zone of hostile mines. - -The British Mine-Sweeping Fleet comprises the following vessels:—_Circe_ -(810 tons), _Jason_ (810 tons), _Speedy_ (810 tons), _Leda_ (810 tons), -_Gossamer_ (735 tons), _Seagull_ (735 tons), _Skipjack_ (735 tons), and -_Speedwell_ (735 tons). - -These eight vessels are obsolete torpedo-gunboats which have been -specially fitted out for the work of mine-sweeping. There is also a -large flotilla of steam fishing trawlers engaged. Some of these vessels -were purchased by the Admiralty before the war, and were also equipped -for mine-sweeping; but many others were, by special arrangement, handed -over to the Navy on the outbreak of war. The whole of the mine-sweeping -fleet is manned by a special section of the Royal Naval Reserve, known -as the “Trawler Section,” which consists of about 142 _skippers_ and -1,136 men. This is, of course, in addition to the several thousand naval -sailors employed on the regular mine-sweepers, named above, and also to -those employed on the large number of additional small steamers taken -over for this work by the Admiralty at the commencement of hostilities. -It is estimated that the task of keeping the North Sea clear of mines -during the first four weeks of the Great War required over 100 vessels -and 5,000 sailors, in addition to the usual destroyer and submarine -patrols with their crews, and also to the seaplanes with their pilots -and observers. - -Almost any steamship can be quickly converted into an effective -mine-sweeper, and for this reason it is impossible to give here more -than the very briefest information concerning the vessels employed in -these operations by the other Naval Powers at war. Russia had fifteen -special mine-sweeping vessels building when war broke out; but, -doubtless, many small merchant ships have since been used for this -purpose. France employed a number of mine-sweepers in the Adriatic; and -Japan used some in clearing the approaches to Tsing-tau. Germany and -Austria, of course, did not need many vessels of this kind, as the -Allied Navies laid comparatively few mines and German oversea commerce -ceased to exist almost as soon as war was declared. It was in the North -Sea, during the first phase of the naval war, that the value of a big -British mine-sweeping fleet made itself so wonderfully apparent. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - - COMPARATIVE FIGHTING VALUE OF THE SUBMARINE FLEETS AT WAR - - -Tempered and tried in the forge of war the submarine has at last been -lifted from the experimental stage of naval construction to the -fore-front of fleets in being. For over twenty years naval experts, -marine engineers and scientists have been wrestling with the vast and -complex problems of submarine construction, navigation and warfare, and -have, at a cost of many lives and many millions sterling, produced -submersible warships of steadily increasing size and power, until to-day -264 of these vessels, of over a dozen different and more or less secret -designs, with displacements ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons are in the -fighting line of the Fleets at war. Thousands of sailors have been -trained to fight beneath the seas; torpedoes, guns, engines, and even -the air to breath, have been adapted for submarine work. A comparison, -therefore, of the strength and fighting power of the submarine fleets -engaged for the first time in this great struggle for the mastery of the -seas is of more than passing interest. - - - BRITISH NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 1,000‒1,500 tons (“F” class), range 6,000 miles, 6 - speed 20/12 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: - (nearly completed) - - Submarines of 800 tons (“E” class), range 5,000 miles, speed 19 - 16/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (“D” class), range 4,000 miles, speed 8 - 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (“C” class), range 1,700 miles, speed 37 - 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 70 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 300 tons (“B” class), range 1,000 miles, speed 12/8 10 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200 tons (“A” class), range 350 miles, speed 11/7 8 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 18 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in British Flotillas 88 - -It must, however, be pointed out that six vessels of the sea-going “F” -class have not yet taken their place in the active flotillas; and that -eight vessels of the “E” class were on duty on foreign stations when war -commenced. - - - FRENCH NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 600‒1,000 tons (_Diane_ class, _Bellone_ class, and 7 - _Gustave Zede_ class), range 4,000‒5,000 miles, speed 18/10 - knots, armament 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 2 to 4 q.-f. guns: - (completing) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Clorinde_ class), range 3,500 miles, 10 - speed 15/9 ½ knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 600‒800 tons (vessels: _Mariotte_, _Archimède_, 4 - _Charles Brun_, and _Admiral Bourgeoise_), range 3,000‒3,500 - miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 600 tons (_Fresnel_ class), range 2,000 miles, 22 - speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Pluviôse_ class), range 2,500 miles, 11 - speed 12/9 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 54 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 450 tons (_Circe_ class), range 1,000 miles, speed 2 - 11/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 torpedoes in - holders: (in commission) - - Submarines of 400 tons (_Emeraude_ class), range 1,000 miles, 6 - speed 12/8 ½ knots, armament 2 tubes and 4 holders: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Argonaute_ and _Aigrette_ class), 3 - range 700 miles, speed 10/9 knots, armament 1 to 4 torpedo - tubes: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 11 - - - HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Triton_ class, _Française_ class, 9 - and _Lutin_ class), range 100‒600 miles, speed 11/8 knots, - armament 3 to 4 torpedo tubes or holders: (in commission) - - Submarines of 50‒100 tons (_Naiade_ class), range 100 miles, 20 - speed 8 ½/5 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube and 2 holders: (in - commission) - - Total Harbour Defence Submarines 29 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in French Flotillas 94 - - - RUSSIAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 800‒1,500 tons (_Tigr_ class), no particulars: 12 - (completing) - - Submarines of 500‒600 tons (_Kaschalot_ class), range 3,000 7 - miles, speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. - gun: (in commission) - - Submarines of 400‒500 tons (_Alligator_ class), range 3,000 4 - miles, speed 15/10 knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (_Akula_ class), range 2,500 miles, 1 - speed 16/10 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (_Karp_ class), range 1,000 miles, 2 - speed 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200 tons (_Makrel_ class), range 800‒1,000 miles, 2 - speed 10/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes and 2 holders: (in - commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 28 - - - COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 150‒200 tons (_Minoga_ class, _Lossos_ class, 19 - _Sig_, _Sterliad_ class, _Som_ class, _Ostr_ class, and _Graf - Cheremetieve_ class), range 400‒600 miles, speed 11‒9 knots on - surface and 6‒7 knots submerged, armament 1‒3 torpedo tubes and - holders: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 19 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Russian Flotillas 47 - - - JAPANESE NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 500 tons (Nos. 16‒17), range 3,500 miles, speed 6 - 18/9 knots, armament 6 torpedo tubes and holders: (completing) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (Nos. 10‒15), range 1,700 miles, speed 6 - 14/9 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (Nos. 8‒9), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 2 - knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 14 - - - COAST AND HARBOUR DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 180‒200 tons (Nos. 6‒7), range 800 miles, speed 2 - 10/8 knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - Submarines of 100‒150 tons (Nos. 1‒5), range 500 miles, speed 9/7 5 - knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - Total Coast Defence Submarines 7 - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Japanese Flotillas 21 - - - GERMAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 900 tons (U.25-U.30 completed, and U.31-U.37 13 - completing), range 4,000 miles, speed 18/10 knots, armament 4 - torpedo tubes and 4 q.-f. guns: (in commission and completing) - - Submarines of 800 tons (U.21-U.24), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 4 - knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 400‒500 tons (U.19-U.20), range 2,000 miles, speed 2 - 13 ½/8 knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (U.9-U.18), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 10 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes and 1 q.-f. gun: (in - commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.2.-U.8), range 1,000 miles, speed 7 - 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Total Sea-going Submarines 36 - - - COAST DEFENCE VESSELS. - - Submarines of 200 tons (U.1), range 700‒800 miles, speed 10/7 1 - knots, armament 1 torpedo tube: (in commission) - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in German Flotillas 37 - - - AUSTRIAN NAVY. - - - SEA-GOING VESSELS. - - Submarines of 800 tons (U.7-U.11), range 3,000 miles, speed 14/9 5 - knots, armament 4 torpedo tubes and 3 q.-f. guns: - (completing—delivery doubtful) - - Submarines of 300‒400 tons (U.5-U.6), range 1,500 miles, speed 2 - 12/8 knots, armament 2 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 300 tons (U.1-U.4), range 1,500 miles, speed 13/8 2 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - Submarines of 200‒300 tons (U.1-U.2), range 800 miles, speed 12/8 2 - knots, armament 3 torpedo tubes: (in commission) - - ―― - - Total number of vessels in Austrian Flotillas 6 - -When war commenced all the vessels of the German Flotillas (30 to 37) -were concentrated in the North Sea and Baltic. The Austrian Flotilla of -six vessels was in the Adriatic. Great Britain had in home waters 74 -submarines and 14 others on duty in the outer seas. France had several -of the 92 vessels composing her powerful flotillas at her oversea -colonial naval bases. Russia had 14 submarines in the Baltic, 11 in the -Black Sea, and 12 in the Far East. The Japanese Flotilla (17) was -concentrated in Japanese waters. - - - _Printed in Great Britain by Wyman & Sons Ltd., London and Reading._ - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Printed Corrected Page - guns guns. Frontispiece and 2 q.-f. guns. - gunfire gun-fire 30 attacked by gun-fire - ), ). 37 E. B. Feilmann). - Submarines Submarines: 61 Submarines: B.3, B.4, - destroyers· destroyers. 74 and destroyers. - BUILDING: BUILDING. 75 SUBMARINES BUILDING. - topedo-boats torpedo-boats. 108 torpedo-boats. - and AND 113 U.19 AND U.20. - _eompleted_ _completed_ 118 were being _completed_ - manœvring manœuvering 125 with manœuvering - Fig. 1 FIG. 1 133 FIG. 1 represents a - Fig. 2 FIG. 2 135 FIG. 2 shows the - manœuvre manœuvre, 143 method, or manœuvre, - “anti-clockwise.’ “anti-clockwise.” 164 and “anti-clockwise.” - oncoming on-coming 179 path of an on-coming - -On the Title Page, a comma was added after “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S -NAVIES”. - -The image for RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACK BY SUBMARINES. appeared after Page 160 -in the digitized source. - -Under the SEA-GOING VESSELS heading on Page 190, “Total Sea-going -Submarines | 36” was added for consistency. - -Some hyphenation inconsistencies have been retained. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the -War, by Charles William Domville-Fife - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINES, MINES, TORPEDOES IN THE WAR *** - -***** This file should be named 51347-0.txt or 51347-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/4/51347/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Anne Hatfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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