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diff --git a/old/51850-0.txt b/old/51850-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2f83b19..0000000 --- a/old/51850-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5211 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hosiery Manufacture, by William Davis - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Hosiery Manufacture - -Author: William Davis - -Release Date: April 24, 2016 [EBook #51850] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOSIERY MANUFACTURE *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - _PITMAN'S TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SERIES_ - _Edited by Roberts Beaumont, M.Sc., M.I.Mech.E._ - - - HOSIERY MANUFACTURE - - - - - HOSIERY - MANUFACTURE - - - BY - WILLIAM DAVIS M.A. - _Principal of the Buceleuch Technical Institute, Hawick._ - - - _WITH 61 ILLUSTRATIONS - including many original photo-micrographs._ - - - - - LONDON: SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. - BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK - - - - - PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN - & SONS, LTD., LONDON, BATH, - MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK - - - - - PREFACE - - -This work is being issued at a period of unparalleled development in the -industry of knitted fabrics, when our British manufacturers are -straining every nerve towards attaining a dominating position in this -vital branch of the production of textile goods. It is highly gratifying -and full of promise to note the spirit of enterprise which animates our -younger generation of manufacturers, and the keenness and alertness -which permeate the industry at the present time. Increased concentration -by our machine builders on the numerous mechanical improvements being -brought out in rapid succession from time to time is certain to have a -great influence on the further expansion of the industry, and has the -effect of considerably extending the horizon to the maker of knitted -goods. With so many new firms springing up in different parts of the -country, there has arisen an increased demand for books dealing with the -knitting industry, and this work is presented in the hope that it will -do something towards satisfying this widespread desire. The study of -looped fabric structure is wide in scope, and none the less difficult -because, on a first view, it appears simple and elementary. The prospect -of the maker of knitted goods of all kinds, is further enhanced by the -enormous production possible on the present-day knitting machinery and -on the fact that the garments are made ready-to-wear. In this work an -effort is made to outline the principles underlying the technology of -the industry, and endeavours have been made to clarify certain problems -of fabric structure which require still greater attention from the -students of technology before they can be regarded as solved. Emphasis -has also been laid on the fundamentals of the knitting process as -performed on various mechanisms, for, if these basic principles are -clearly comprehended, the foundation is securely laid for a further -grasp of the industry and its technology. - -Special attention is given to the structure and properties of knitting -yarns, for in this texture it can be said with truth that the yarn is -the fabric, seeing that the bulk of the productions are made from the -single thread looped upon itself. Several problems relating to the -weight of knitted fabric and similar questions are fully demonstrated, -and the formulae explained from fundamental principles. A contribution -is also made to the difficult subject of the setting of looped textures, -generally so imperfectly understood in its theoretical significance. - -That this volume may contribute towards a fuller knowledge of the -technology of the knitting industry is the earnest wish of the Author, - - WILLIAM DAVIS. - - TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, - HAWICK, 1920. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - - CHAPTER I - - DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC 1-8 - - Peculiarities of Knitted Structure-Knitting Trade - Definitions-Hand Knitting and Crochet - - - CHAPTER II - - KNITTING AND WEAVING COMPARED 9-15 - - Hand Knitting-The Knitting Process-The Cut-up Trade-The - Full-fashioned Trade-The Seamless Branch - - - CHAPTER III - - LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING 16-26 - - Loop Formation with the Latch Needle-The Flat Knitter-Working - of Cam Boxes to Give the Various Stitches-Patterns Produced - - - CHAPTER IV - - TYPES OF KNITTING YARNS 27-36 - - Lamb's Wool, Shetland, Natural, and Fingering Knitting - Yarns-Worsted Spun Underwear Yarns - - - CHAPTER V - - SYSTEMS OF NUMBERING HOSIERY YARNS 37-45 - - Yarn Testing for Counts-Conversion from one Count into - Another-Formulae for Calculating the Weight of Knitted - Fabric, allowing for varying Take-up of Yarn-Calculations for - Width, Counts, and Courses per inch - - - CHAPTER VI - - CALCULATIONS FOR FOLDED KNITTING YARNS 46-56 - - Explanation of Formulae-Estimations for Plated Goods and Weight - Percentages for Mixed Garments - - - CHAPTER VII - - BEARDED NEEDLE KNITTING 57-66 - - Stages of Loop Formation with the Bearded Needle-Hand-frame - Knitting Process, and the System of Knitting on Cotton's - Patent Machine - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SETTING OF KNITTED FABRICS 67-75 - - Texture Variation on individual Frames-Variation of Yarn and - Effect of Yarn Quality-Variation in the Length of - Loop-Comparison of Courses and Wales - - - CHAPTER IX - - VARIOUS KNITTING YARNS 76-89 - - Cotton, Mercerised, and Various Silk Yarns-Silk-and-Wool and - Cotton-and-Wool Mixture Yarns-Cashmere, Angora Rabbit, Camel - Hair, and Alpaca-Nettle Fibre Yarn - - - CHAPTER X - - WINDING OF HOSIERY YARNS 90-98 - - Description of a Modern Winding Machine, Bobbin Building and - the Differential-Damping and Methods Adopted - - - CHAPTER XI - - CIRCULAR KNITTING 99-106 - - Stocking Knitting Machine-Making of a Ribbed - Sock-Full-fashioned Hosiery-English and French Foot - - - CHAPTER XII - - COLOUR IN KNITTED GOODS 107-116 - - Naturals, Horizontal Stripes, Vertical Stripes, Tuck Work on - Flat and Circular Frames-Check Designs and Spot Effects - - - CHAPTER XIII - - COLOUR HARMONY AND CONTRAST 117-126 - - Attributes of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary - Colours-Application of Colour Principles to the Hosiery Trade - - - CHAPTER XIV - - DEFECTS IN FABRICS 127-134 - - Sinker and Needle Lines-Slurgalling and Pinholes-Stitches of - Variable Symmetry - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. RIGHT SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3 - - 2. WRONG SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3 - - 3. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF THE PLAIN KNITTED LOOP 4 - - 4 & 5. KNITTING ON THE HAND PINS 7 - - 6 & 7. WORKING OF CROCHET STITCH 7 - - 8. THE LATCH NEEDLE 17 - - 9. STITCH FORMATION ON THE LATCH NEEDLE 17 - - 10. THE DOUBLE-HEADED NEEDLE 17 - - 11. SIDE ELEVATION OF THE LAMB FLAT KNITTER 20 - - 12. VIEW OF THE CAM BOX 20 - - 13, 14, DIFFERENT NEEDLE ARRANGEMENTS ON THE FLAT KNITTER 20 - 15. - - 16. TWO-AND-TWO RIB FABRIC 20 - - 17-20. ARRANGEMENT OF CAMS TO PRODUCE RIB, CIRCULAR, AND 24 - CARDIGAN STITCHES - - 21. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY WHEELING KNITTING YARN 28 - - 22. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY WOOLLEN SPUN KNITTING 29 - THREAD - - 23. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF HOSIERY LAMB'S WOOL YARN 30 - - 24. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY NATURAL SHETLAND YARN 31 - - 25. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY FINGERING YARN FOR HOSIERY 33 - - 26 & 27. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY UNDERWEAR YARNS, CONTINENTAL 33-35 - SPUN - - 28. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY UNDERWEAR YARN 35 - - 29. THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58 - - 30-33. LOOP FORMATION ON THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58 - - 34. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE OLD HAND-FRAME 63 - - 35. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE COTTON'S PATENT FRAME 63 - - 36. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE OF YARN DIAMETER IN THE 69 - BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME - - 37. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE IN LOOP LENGTH IN THE BEARDED 71 - NEEDLE FRAME - - 38. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE COTTON HOSIERY YARN 77 - - 39. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE LOOSE TWISTED COTTON YARN FOR 77 - BACKING - - 40. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF MERCERISED COTTON KNITTING YARN 79 - - 41. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF ARTIFICIAL SILK KNITTING YARN 79 - - 42. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81 - - 43. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81 - (GASSED) - - 44. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SILK AND WOOL KNITTING YARN 82 - - 45. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SILK AND COTTON-AND-WOOL MERINO 84 - FOLDED YARN - - 46. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-PLY PURE CASHMERE KNITTING YARN 85 - - 47. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF YARN SPUN FROM THE NETTLE FIBRE 88 - - 48. THE MODERN HOSIERY WINDING MACHINE 93 - - 49. THREAD CLEARING APPARATUS 93 - - 50. THE GRISWOLD CIRCULAR STOCKING KNITTER 101 - - 51. ACTION OF THE CAMS IN STITCH FORMATION 101 - - 52. STANDARD RIBBED SOCK 101 - - 53. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112 - - 54. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112 - - 55. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113 - FRAME - - 56. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113 - FRAME - - 57. ENLARGEMENT OF THE ONE-AND-ONE TUCK FABRIC 114 - - 58. ENLARGEMENT OF A SINKER LINE IN KNITTED FABRIC 128 - - 59. ENLARGEMENT OF "JACOB'S LADDER" IN KNITTED FABRIC 130 - - 60. ENLARGEMENT OF SLUR GALLING IN KNITTED FABRIC 131 - - 61. ENLARGEMENT OF "PINHOLES" IN KNITTED FABRIC 132 - - - - - HOSIERY MANUFACTURE - - - - - CHAPTER I - DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC - - -There has been in recent years an extraordinary development in the scope -and application of the knitted fabric which may be traced to a variety -of causes. The chief explanation of this growth is to be found in the -structure of the knitted fabric itself, the qualities of which have made -it pre-eminently suitable for special departments of textiles. In its -most elementary form the knitted texture is composed of a series of -loops hung in rows one upon the other and constructed from the curvings -of a single thread which runs continuously through the fabric. One set -of loops is formed on the preceding row and any particular stitch is -dependent for its support on neighbouring stitches above, below, and on -either side of it; if the thread becomes severed at any point the loops -lose contact all round and a considerable opening is incurred. This is -its chief defect, but also its outstanding advantage as a texture; it is -a defect to have the structure destroyed with the severance of the -single ground thread, but it is the mutual interdependence of loops -which accounts for its valuable stretch and elasticity. By virtue of -this elasticity it becomes eminently suitable for articles of -underclothing which have to be worn in close proximity to the cuticle; -the fabric is enabled to yield to the slightest movement of any part and -thus prevents the wearer becoming uncomfortably conscious of the -garment. An inherent yielding quality of the loops causes the article to -stretch and adapt itself to minor irregularities of size and shape; if a -garment is not exactly to dimensions, it contracts to a smaller or -expands to a larger form. This property of stretch must not be unduly -taken advantage of to cover up indifferent systems of manufacturing, but -within certain limits the property is of great value for certain -discrepancies. The knitted fabric is essentially a weft fabric, the -thread being inserted crosswise into the texture after the manner of -filling so that the entire structure presents a horizontal appearance -which is most evident with ground-coloured stripes when the different -colours show themselves crosswise. This proves a serious limitation to -the scope of the plain knitted texture, for the clothing trades have -small use for horizontal effects as compared with vertical coloured -stripes. The knitted structure is quite different in property to woven -cloth where one has two series of separate threads, one being termed the -warp and running longitudinally in the fabric, whilst the other series -is named the weft and is intersected with the warp in the process of -weaving. The warp threads are pre-arranged to the correct length and in -order of pattern on the warp beam whilst the threads of weft are -inserted consecutively during the operation of weaving in the loom. This -mode of intersecting separate series of yarns at right angles to each -other causes the threads to exert a much firmer grip on each other and -the resulting fabric is remarkable for its strength and rigidity. It is -firm and durable in structure, and possessing comparatively little -stretch, it does not yield to the ordinary strains to which it is -subjected. It is pre-eminently the fabric to be used for garments of -outer wear which have to stand the rough service of every-day life, -where a combination of friction, bending and abrasion subject the fabric -to a severe test of endurance. In the case of a knitted texture there is -a right and a wrong side, or face and back, the face comprising the -straight portions of the loops whilst on the back the curved loop -portions predominate. Fig. 1 gives a view of a plain knitted fabric -showing the right side or the face of the texture where the loops may be -distinguished by a characteristic V-shape, these Vs fitting into each -other in a vertical direction. This side of the fabric is always worn -outermost, as it presents the most even surface whilst it is also the -most perfect as all imperfections such as knots, etc., are drawn on to -the back of the cloth. Fig. 2 shows the same fabric on the wrong side -where it will be noted that the chief feature is a series of -interlocking semi-circles which have a distinctly crosswise -determination given to them. The appearance on the back is decidedly raw -and uninteresting, the straightened V-shaped portions of the loops -presenting a much more attractive aspect. On the other hand, most rotary -frames work their fabrics with the back in full view of the worker, and -in case of analysis it is the wrong side of the fabric which will yield -the most definite results to the analyst, for by examination of the -curved loops one can discern more easily the character of the pattern -and the nature of the ornamentation. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. l and 2 -] - -_Peculiarities of Knitted Structure._—An examination of the -photo-micrograph of the plain knitted fabric (back view) shown in Fig. 3 -will demonstrate that the loops are intimately dependent on each other -and that the slightest dislocation at any part will at once affect the -adjacent area. The knitted fabric is extremely difficult to make -absolutely perfect, because each stitch is worked on its own needle -distinct from its neighbour, and the slightest irregularity of yarn -delivery affects the whole stitch area concerned. If a loop is drawn -tighter than the normal at any point, then it is curtailed in size and -the adjacent loops have to enlarge themselves to fill out the allotted -space. In the woven fabric a missing thread usually influences that -portion of the fabric only, but if the main thread of a knitted -structure be broken, the entire cloth may be disintegrated with the -slightest pull. The interspaces between the loops shown in Fig. 3 are -intimately connected with the elastic property, because if the spaces -are closed up by tight knitting, the elasticity is considerably reduced, -if, on the other hand, the spaces are too large, the fabric loses its -equilibrium and a slight pull will cause it to lose its form. An -exception to this may be found in the light-weight fabrics so much in -demand in recent seasons for wearing in an intermediate position in -winter whilst in summer they are worn outermost for lightness. These are -purposely knitted flimsy in texture so as to economize material and for -summer they are quite elegant and serviceable when manufactured in -attractive colourings. For winter use they are possessed of a -heat-retaining property which would not be expected from their bulk, but -to attain the best results they must be worn under a fabric of stronger -and more durable construction. The theory of these surprising results is -that free interspaces act as so many air chambers which contribute to -non-conductivity of heat by the garment. Face veils are usually very -flimsy structures, but on account of the "still layer" of air retained -in the vicinity of the face the heat is effectively retained just as if -a fabric of much heavier construction were employed. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 3 -] - -This property should be fully investigated in a scientific manner in the -light of increased cost of raw materials which has now become vital to -the manufacturer and his public. In many circles weight of cloth is -synonymous with warmth, but experience has shown that this is not the -case and that the warmest garments are not always the heaviest. The -latest converts to the light-weight article are the clothing departments -of the services where, as a result of war experience they have altered -many specifications to include fabrics much lighter in weight; formerly -no gauge or sett could be too coarse and thick for their requirements, -but now the products of all gauges in the equipment of the hosiery -manufacturer are utilized. Now the matter is being brought more fully to -the notice of the manufacturer on account of the great rise in the price -of raw materials when it is essential to extract the utmost farthing of -utility from every ounce of material. If we can more fully requisition -the services of the "still layer of air" in this regard it will prove an -inexpensive medium of clothing. - -_Knitting Trade Definition._—The meaning of the term hosiery has -undergone a great expansion during the past decade and its present -meaning is an eloquent testimony to the enormous growth which the trade -has recently experienced. Originally the term had reference chiefly to -articles of footwear, it was in this regard that the utility of the -knitted stitch was first recognized. The feet form a delicately -susceptible part of our anatomy and require special care in fabric -selection. In walking the muscles and tendons of the foot are in -constant action and it is of vital importance to the comfort of the -individual that the footwear should be worked in the most suitable -fabric. To have footwear in the woven texture is unthinkable if from no -other reason than the seams which would be necessary, and to have one of -these located at the heel or along the sole of the foot would render the -wearer unable to walk in a very short period. There is further the -matter of perspiration which occurs so profusely at the pedal -extremities, and the knitted texture above all others is adapted to that -intimate sort of interaction between skin and fabric which is required -for the absorption of perspiration. It laps it up and gives it back -again gradually in the form of vapour. In a fabric of less absorbent -qualities the article would soon fill with moisture and giving rise to -wetness cause considerable discomfort to the wearer. The term hosiery -has greatly outgrown its original significance as applied to footwear -only and now embraces underwear, articles used for intermediate garments -and an increasing range of garments suited for outer wear. There are now -very few departments of clothing into which the knitted texture has not -penetrated. For outer garments it is not always advisable to employ the -knitted texture in its entirety because it obviously does not possess -all the properties needed, but great progress has been made in the -direction of giving greater stability by a judicious use of the more -rigid woven texture at given points. For example, in the knitted vest -trade the garment edges are often bound with tapes of woven stuff, -whilst the linings are invariably made from these materials. -Incidentally the colour of these reinforcing materials is so chosen as -to harmonize with the ground so that the whole garment is enhanced in -general appearance. Similarly it is found that the plain knitted loop is -neither heavy nor close enough to give adequate comfort for an outer -garment, which deficiency has been attended to by the hosiery machine -builders who have made such improvements on the machines as will enable -much more yarn to be inserted in a given space. This increases the sett -of the loops and the weight and rigidity of texture, so that fabrics may -now be obtained which are almost equal to the woven fabric in resistant -properties. Such modifications of fabric structure usually result in a -pattern with a prevailing one-sided effect, the wrong side being -deficient in appearance and style. The ordinary plain knitted stitch -_per se_ has little scope for ornamentation unless special machines are -employed and where embellishment is required on a plain garment it often -takes the form of added pieces of crochet. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 4, 5, 6 and 7 -] - -_Crochet Work._—This is particularly useful in the trade for children's -garments where many factories employ crochet workers who ornament the -edges by crochet patterns worked in the same yarn. For the very tiny -articles of this class it is often found uneconomical to employ -machines, and in certain districts large numbers of such garments are -produced by the hand crochet workers where the greatest freedom of loop -selection is possible. The operation of hand crochet is illustrated in -Figs. 6 and 7 where the hook is marked H; in Fig. 6 the hook with loop A -upon it is about to grip a portion of the new yarn B, and in Fig. 7 this -has been drawn through the old loop to add a new one to the chain. In -this way one can have on a garment effects which could only be produced -by changing to several types of machines, and when articles are small -this changing is not economically sound. There are still a considerable -number of these crochet workers in various parts of the United Kingdom -notably in rural districts of Ireland and in various districts of -Scotland and England. Many large firms have a number of such hands -attached as an outside staff and they are useful for scrutinizing -fashion publications and producing stitches with hand pins which may -with good results be adapted to machine-made goods. They have subsidiary -departments where customers are supplied with articles of distinctly -novel character and for which they are prepared to pay enhanced prices. -The freest of all mediums of ornamentation in this class is undoubtedly -the crochet, and articles are often ornamented with distinctly elegant -results by the use of the crochet hook. By this means yarn same as the -ground is employed so as to render it homogeneous and elegance of -pattern is due to the fact that the worker can select any point of the -fabric for a new move of the pattern. We may have one style being worked -at this point and an inch farther up a distinctly different pattern can -be evolved. In many rural districts the workers have attained remarkable -skill in pattern origination due to their life-long devotion to the -handicraft; from the art view-point it is hoped that they will continue -to secure such an outlet for their work as will reward their skill and -devotion. It is admitted that such products may not hold their own in -fierce competition of the open market, but "Man does not live by bread -alone," and it is hoped that public taste for such artistic productions -may be maintained and developed in contrast to the strictly utilitarian; -the aesthetic sense is one which the British as a nation sadly lack. - - - - - CHAPTER II - KNITTING AND WEAVING - - -Compared with the weaving branch of textiles the knitting industry has -several outstanding advantages which are now being widely recognized. In -weaving it is necessary to have a considerable amount of tackle and -supplementary attachments if the fancy pattern trade is to be conducted. -The knitted texture is essentially a one-sided composition, but when -effects such as lace work, tuck stitches, or coloured styles are -introduced these are notable on account of their effectiveness. For any -of the machines used in the fancy departments of the knitting trade such -as the Jacquard flat knitter, the lace or pearl machines, designs are in -every case extremely effective, for minor alterations of the patterning -devices produce a result which is at once distinctive and fancy elements -show almost their full quota on the face. In the case of woven fabrics -the loom and a complicated set of cards and shafts are needed to produce -a figure of the most moderate dimensions. Colours in the ordinary twills -only show about 50 per cent. of their effectiveness and the surface of -the texture remains for the most part uniform. The producer of woven -goods has an advantage in that he can make most forms of texture on one -loom which he can alter in setting and tackle so as to give any degree -of fineness or variety of design. The maker of knitted goods requires a -series of entirely different machines in order to produce a full range -of patterns and individual machines show but small variation in texture -and weight. For any particular type of machine he requires to instal a -series varying in the sett or gauge of the needles if a representative -range of textures suitable for the changing seasons has to be devised. -The average maker of knitted goods has to produce garments ready for the -wearer, which renders his task more complicated, for he has to produce -garments in full ranges of size and shape, thus combining the functions -of fabric and garment producer. This has the advantage of enabling him -to establish a more direct relationship with the wearer of his garments -and most firms are adopting the policy of going direct to the retail, -one which has had a most stimulating effect on the trade. This personal -contact with the shopkeeper who places the goods in the hands of the -wearer brings the manufacturer into close contact with the trend of -public demand. - -_Hand Knitting._—The war period witnessed a remarkable revival of hand -knitting which arose from a desire to send comforts to soldier -relatives, and the enormous quantities of articles produced in this way -greatly helped our men to withstand the rigorous conditions of active -service in winter. The usual articles were scarves, gloves, knitted -helmets, but, above all, thick warm socks. Knitting was performed on all -occasions and it proved a great comfort to many who had relatives in -dangerous situations. Knitting acts as a soothing tonic, and there is -the added satisfaction of producing something of direct usefulness -whilst the skilful hand knitter may impart touches of elegance and -distinction not possible by machine. If hand knitting is to be skilfully -performed it is necessary to give attention to the size of the knitting -pins and that of the yarn in relation. The gauges of knitting pins or -needles are recognized in this country by a series of numbers quoted by -all instruction books dealing with the subject, Walker's bell-shaped -knitting gauge being largely used by those who make hand knitting an -occupation of leisure. This is cut bell-shaped in bright polished metal, -the various numbers corresponding to the size of the openings in the -gauge. The full range of gauges runs from 1 to 24 and the needles are -named after these according as they fit the various apertures. The -coarsest knitting-needle in general use is termed 1 and is of such a -thickness that it will pass through the space marked 1; knitting-needle -number 2 will exactly fit opening number 2 and so on till gauge 5 is -reached. The apertures gradually decrease in size till the smallest -recognized hand knitting-needle is termed 24 gauge. Thickness of needle -must correspond to the size of yarn or, in other words, the yarn must -suit the thickness of needle. It is the needle which determines the -interspaces in the fabric, for a certain proportion must be allowed if -the fabric is to possess the required elasticity and stretch. This -property is essential to good wearing service, for if loops are stiff -and stodgy in construction, due to over-tight knitting or meagre -allowance of space, the fabric will not yield to the movements which -occur in wear and will more rapidly give way under strain. The thicker -the yarn the larger the space required and _vice versâ_, so that the -needle determines the space which is to be allowed for any particular -set of loops and should bear a definite relation to the thickness of -yarn. - -_The Knitting Process._—The elementary operation of knitting by hand may -be followed by referring to Figs. 4 and 5, which illustrate the stages -and show the method in which the loops hang on the hand knitting pins. -In this case flat work is being produced, the needle A being shown with -the row of loops upon it whilst the needle B is being used to form a new -row. The thread N is seen to continue from the loops already made and -the pin B is being pushed through the end loop M so that it may catch a -piece of the thread N and form a new loop similar to M. This is in the -act of completion in Fig. 5 where a new piece of thread N has been drawn -through and the old loop M is about to be discharged from needle A, this -being replaced by a new loop N now hanging on needle B. This operation -is continued stitch by stitch until all the loops spread on needle A are -replaced by new loops transferred to needle B. When this is complete -needle A is stripped of its stitches, and then is used to re-transfer -the stitches from B back again to itself. By this operation it will be -seen that the knitting operation as performed by hand on two pins is an -alternate process; you transfer stitches from a needle working from -right to left as in Fig. 4, and at the next course you work from left to -right transferring the stitches back again. In this we do not obtain -perfectly plain fabric but what is known as the garter pattern or one -and one pearl-stitch. If it is desired to make plain work on two hand -pins, the worker in turning the direction of knitting must push the -needle into the old stitch in the reverse direction so as to effect a -cast-off same as in the previous course. For the making of hose and -half-hose on hand knitting-needles at least three pins are necessary to -enable us to knit in circular form so as to produce the article to fit -the foot. A more convenient method of knitting in a circle is to use -four pins with the idle stitches evenly distributed over three of these -pins and using the fourth to transfer in the manner already described. -In this way each needle in turn is released and is used as the operating -pin to form and transfer the loops in knitting. Even if the pins are -correct in gauge in relation to the size of the yarn it is easy to make -defective material or texture should the loops not be worked at a proper -tension. Slack knitters and tight knitters are known according as they -work with the thread slack or tight; in this it is well to strike the -happy medium, too slack tension makes working to correct size very -difficult, whilst too tight work reduces the speed of knitting and the -wearing qualities of the article. Correct tension is generally in the -region of that which gives reasonable freedom of motion to the knitter. - -_Branches of the Knitting Industry._—_The Cut-up Trade._—The -manufacturer of knitted goods has not only to produce the fabric but in -most cases completes the garments ready for wear and has thus to act as -manufacturer and tailor combined. By the cut-up trade is meant that -branch where the garments are made by cutting the component pieces from -a roll or web of cloth similar to the manner of a tailor of outer -garments. This branch is usually associated with the cheaper grades of -the knitted industry because the cutting can be done in standard sizes, -many plies at one and the same time using automatic cutting devices such -as the circular electric machine. Similarly the making-up and trimming -of the garments is performed on the principle of mass production where -output is based on a large number of articles being produced in exactly -the same manner and to a standard type. In recent years the relative -advantages of the cut method of manufacture as compared with other -systems have undergone some modification. In the first place we have the -waste which is a heavy item in the cut branch, for no matter how -skilfully the pieces may be carved from the plies of fabric there is -always a considerable number of waste pieces at corners, etc., which it -is not possible to utilize. The problem of waste has become more serious -since materials have risen so much in value and has tended to augment -the price of such goods on the market. On the other hand, one of the -great objections to the cut method of manufacture lies in the kind of -seam or join used to piece the various sections together because owing -to the frayed edges of severed loops, the seamer has to secure a hold -several stitches from each edge and this gives rise to a bulky portion -at the join which in underwear particularly proved a serious obstacle to -comfort. The activities of machine makers have, however, in recent years -been concentrated on devising methods of seaming which will minimize -these deficiencies, and there are now several machines such as the -flat-lock, which in place of taking the stitches so far from each edge -introduce a number of threads to form a kind of bridge of texture of -their own with the edge loops. This makes a secure join and at the same -time gives a seam of little more than normal bulk. - -_The Full-Fashioned Trade._—As the term indicates, this section applies -to articles made to the shape of the body these pieces being complete -units with perfect selvedges which are afterwards united to form a -garment where the edges are joined with comparatively little bulk of -seam. The best examples of the full-fashioned trade are the garments -produced on the Cotton's Patent Rotary frame which is built to work as -many as twelve full width articles at the same time. This capacity of -multi-production proves one of the strong points of the fashioned trade -because the articles being worked identically effects a considerable -reduction on the cost of making. Also the seam or join is made with -selvedge loops which are perfect in formation so that the worker can use -the end two loops as supports for the seaming thread which is of the -same material as the garment and is thus inconspicuous and at the same -time gives the correct elasticity. With the cut-up seam as at present -practised clean-surfaced yarns have to be employed to the number of -eight or more, and these are usually in white cotton which on a coloured -garment at once proclaims its origin. In seaming fashioned goods each -selvedge loop is joined to a corresponding stitch on the other side by -the method termed "point-to-point" seaming, and under present conditions -the slowness of this method and its greater cost has led many -manufacturers of full-fashioned to reconsider seriously their position. -The cup seamer can in many cases give a three-fold production and this -is now being employed with success in such branches as the -fashioned-hose trade. For high-class underwear, however, the -point-to-point system still holds its own as being the best adapted for -the work, and efforts are being made to have this type of machine -accelerated to give increased production. - -In the novelty trade such as that of knitted coats the articles are so -varied in style and shape that they have to be fashioned singly on a -hand machine, and it is being recognized that the full-fashioned system -is too expensive if the firm is to do trade on a large scale. To -increase production in such goods, therefore, the articles are often cut -from knitted web separately to the style and shape desired and seamed on -one or other of the mechanisms now being improved to give a suitable -join for such goods. The distinct difference lies in the method of -cutting which is individualistic so that full expression can be given to -shape and modifications of fashion. To work the full-fashioned branch of -the hosiery trade requires an enormous outlay for equipment, as these -multi-garment machines run to a high figure and have to be installed in -a series of gauges so as to present a sufficiently large assortment of -textures to the market. For the cut-up trade, on the other hand, we can -obtain a large quantity of fabric from a few circular frames; what -remains is to cut the material to shape and trim and finish the -garments. - -_The Seamless Branch._—This embraces another very important class of -knitted fabrics which are produced for the most part without joins or -seams and ready to fit the wearer. As most garments are circular in form -this requires a plant of circular frames, or the flat knitter may be -adapted for the making of circular fabric. The best example of this -section is that of the hose and half-hose, or stockings and socks, which -are required circular in form. Also large quantities of seamless gloves -are placed on the market each season, these being worked with the -fingers in the form of small circular bags to accommodate the fingers. -Seamless fabric for hose and half-hose is of special value because any -irregularities of texture instantly make themselves uncomfortably -evident in footwear. The seamless hose trade is done on machines of -small diameter with the needles arranged in circular form, and where -suitable provision is made for the addition of pockets to accommodate -the heel and toes. From machines of larger diameter are made garments -such as nightdresses where the fabric is produced in the form of a large -circular sack, a length of which is taken to form the body whilst -similar circular pieces are produced on machines of smaller diameter for -the sleeves. The practice of making garments of the sweater or "Jumper" -class on circular frames is on the increase especially since machine -types have been evolved which can make rib, plain, pearl and striped -fabrics on one and the same machine with a suitable arrangement for -narrowing. It stands to reason, however, that this method of making body -garments does not allow of great accuracy of fit and that the greatest -scope lies in garments which by their nature are of a loosely fitting -description. At the same time the advent of the rib stitch in such -machines enables the fabric to be given a latent amount of elasticity -which can be utilized to fit the form of a slender person, whilst it can -be stretched to accommodate an individual of more portly build. - - - - - CHAPTER III - LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING - - -The latch needle is one of the indispensable instruments of the knitting -industry, as was abundantly proved during the war period when shortage -of needles threw large numbers of useful knitting machines into disuse, -whilst inferior needles accounted for a great drop in efficiency. There -is a great variety in form of the latch needle, but they are similar in -essential features. A sketch of a normal type is given in Fig. 8 where -the various parts are lettered thus: H = hook at the left extremity of -the needle, L = latch, S = stem or shank of the needle, B = needle butt -or heel, as it is often termed. The latch moves on a pivot from the -dotted position when it shuts the hook to the normal position when the -hook is open. The stem or shank varies in proportion of length according -to the class of machine in which it is employed, whilst there is also a -large diversity of forms of the needle heel or butt usually in the -direction of strengthening by adding extra metal to withstand friction -for large scale knitting. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 8, 9 and 10 -] - -_Loop Formation with Latch Needles._—The matter of loop formation is of -the greatest interest and importance in any study of knitting and is -shown in detail by means of a series of sketches, 1 to 5 in Fig. 9, -illustrating the operation at the various stages. This will be useful in -studying any knitting frame, for an apparently complex piece of -machinery may be quickly reduced to intelligible dimensions if the -observer has a grasp of the process of loop formation. All machines -using the latch needle, and they are many and varied, form their stitch -on exactly the same principle, and when this is understood considerable -progress has been made towards a thorough comprehension of the whole. -Sections 1 to 5 of Fig. 9 represent the successive stages in stitch -making, the needles being shown at the angle usually found in the flat -knitting machine of the Lamb type. In Diagram 1 of the series the needle -is shown in its normal non-operative position with the latch closed and -the loop M inside it. In all knitting a division must be maintained -between the old loop and the new yarn. In Diagram 2 the needle rises, -and in so doing the old stitch M opens the latch L and passes on to the -stem and the new yarn marked Y is in the act of being seized by the hook -of the needle. In Diagram 3 the needle is noted to have sunk lower in -position so that the old loop M closes the latch with the yarn Y inside, -and the old loop covers the latch as shown. This stage is termed the -"landing of the stitch" and in Diagram 4 the needle is noted to have -dropped still farther, so that the old loop is pushed over the needle -extremity and the new yarn drawn through the old loop M to form a -complete stitch. Precautions have to be taken in the machine mechanism -to have the old loop properly discharged over the needle end and the new -yarn completely drawn through. When this is complete the needle again -rises in its position as in Diagram 5, and in so doing the yarn inside -the hook moves downwards and opens the latch preparatory to a new course -of stitches. - -Diagram 10 illustrates another important form of the latch needle known -as the double-headed needle as it has a hook at each extremity. This -instrument forms the basis of utility of a series of different machines -such as the rib hose frame and the pearl knitter. In these cases the -needle moves from one knitting stage into another discharging its loop -from the upper or lower hook according to the pattern of the rib or -pearl fabric. - -_The Flat Knitter._—One of the best known machines using the latch -needle for its loop formation is the flat knitter which has an extensive -use in the knitting industry. The scope of work produced on the flat -knitter is truly wonderful and its great versatility of application -accounts for its immense popularity. In addition to plain fabric it can -make a large variety of fancy and reinforced stitches, which provide -great extension to the textural scope of the knitted fabric, allowing it -to be employed for a wider diversity of uses. Various colours can be -introduced in stripe formation, and with attachments of Jacquard -character or by the use of the double-headed needle the range of -patterns is further diversified. In regard to making full-fashioned -goods almost every form of garment can be made on it-pants, shirts, hose -and half-hose, coats, vestings, caps and gloves, are only a few of the -garments procurable. These can be fashioned by the worker to the -required form and an interpretation can be given to symmetry and style -of the human form. It has found an extensive application as a hand -machine to the making of seamless gloves being used by the most -progressive firms in the trade, and with the application of power it can -be adapted with considerable success to the making of goods in the bulk. -Hand machines are moderately priced so that to start a knitting factory -with such a plant is not a really formidable proposition, quite a -respectable equipment being procurable for a few hundred pounds; many a -prosperous firm owes its initial successes to the adoption of the flat -knitter and from this they have been able to launch larger schemes of -development in the knitting business. With new starters in this trade -to-day the flat knitting machine nearly always figures prominently when -there is lack of capital, and on this basis quite a sound foundation may -be laid. - -A diagrammatic side view of the Lamb flat knitting machine is shown in -Fig. 11 where the foundation of the machine consists of two needle beds -or stages marked NB which are cut with tricks or grooves into which the -needles are placed as shown, each side being a duplicate of the other. -The needle is marked N and on it will be recognized such essentials as -the latch L, the hook H, the butt or heel B working inside the cam-box -CB. The thread T passes from its bobbin through the eye of the -thread-carrier TC and the needle is pushed into its position in the -cam-box by the spring marked S shown at the extremity of the needle -beds. The fabric is marked F and is noted to pass down through the -centre of the machine whilst at its extremity is attached a set of -weights which act as a means of drawing the fabric from the needle ends -as they are formed and if the needles are not being sufficiently well -cleared the amount of weight is increased. The weights have to be raised -from time to time to a higher position in contact with the fabric as it -is being worked. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 -] - -_Interior of Cam-box._—In this machine the principal functional part is -the cam-box CB, and from this the knitting action is imparted to the -needles. On this account a full view is given in Fig. 12 of the set of -cams used in the knitting machine made by Messrs. W. and J. Foster of -Preston. This set of cams is placed on each bed right and left and the -constituent parts are indicated as follows. Parts A and B are termed the -knitting cams, whilst the parts C, D and E combine to form what is known -as the knock-up cam. The part E is a fixture, whilst the needle path is -indicated curved, and through this the needle butts N are seen to be -passing. From the previously-given description of the making of loops on -the latch needle it should not be difficult to note that the cams -working on the needle butts in the needle path combine to raise the -needles to secure the yarn from the thread-carrier and, having received -the yarn, the needles are pulled down again to complete the loop by -drawing the new yarn through the old loop. The cams have a side-to-side -motion and pass over the needle bed from right to left and again from -left to right. In so doing they operate as follows: when the cam-box is -passing from right to left the needle heels are made to ascend the left -side of C and D and are drawn down again by the inside of cam B; when -the action is reversed and the cam-box is drawn from left to right, the -needle heels pass up the right side of cam D and are drawn down again by -passing along the inside of cam A, this alternate action being repeated -during the process of making plain work on the flat knitting machine. - -_The Rib Stitch._—One of the outstanding advantages of the flat knitter -is the facility with which all kinds of rib stitches can be made, and -this is due to the arrangement of the needle beds, where the needles of -one side make their stitches in a direction contrary to those in the -opposite side. In making rib work both sets of needles in back and front -beds are in action at the same time; when the thread is supplied to the -needles those on the back rise equally with those on the front and -receive their share of yarn to form their own loops. Now it is clear -that the knitting action on the right-hand needle is opposite in effect -to that of a left-hand needle, this being expressed by the form of the -knock-over of the stitch; the right-hand needles discharge their -stitches to the left, whilst the left-hand needles discharge their -stitches towards the right. It is this combination of stitches -discharged in opposite directions which gives rise to the rib stitch -which is such a valued adjunct to all forms of knitted texture. This -difference in the direction of loop discharge causes one set of needles -to form back-fabric stitches whilst the opposite needles knit right-side -fabric stitches. The normal flat knitter has its two needle beds cut -one-and-one, as shown in Fig. 13, each bed has accommodation for the -same number of needles, these being set so as to pass up the centre -between the opposite series. This is termed a one-and-one arrangement -and the resulting fabric is known as the 1-and-1 rib stitch, one row of -loops in a vertical direction appears as wrong-side fabric stitches, -whilst the alternate rows work out as right-side fabric loops. This -explains the great increase of elasticity found in rib texture as -compared with plain because back-fabric stitches are always seeking the -back. In their normal position they virtually pass to the back, only -being visible on the face when stretch is applied in the width. The yarn -in crossing from face to back and _vice versâ_ undergoes a greatly -increased amount of intersection which contracts the whole fabric in the -width. This property is of the greatest practical value in garment -manufacture, because the extremities are usually finished with a few -inches of rib which enables the article to secure a firmer hold on the -limb or part of the body and thus serves to keep it in position. The rib -stitch is also an indispensable foundation of a number of textures which -weigh much heavier than the plain, as it enables a greater weight of -yarn to be inserted and the fabric is thereby increased greatly in bulk. - -_Tension and Weight._—The texture of a fabric on any given knitting -machine can be varied according to a number of factors and of these -quite an important one is the length of loop drawn by the needle. An -examination of Fig. 11 will show that the needle beds on the flat -knitting machine are stationary and that the needles during stitch -formation draw the yarn over the top ends of the beds and obviously the -length of the loop will depend on the distance which the needle is drawn -below the edge of the needle bed, this distance being determined by the -adjustment of the knitting cams A and B shown in Fig. 12. - -Cam B is shown in a dotted position raised so as to draw a shorter loop -and the length of the loop can be varied according to the height of -either knitting cams A or B within certain limits. If the loop is drawn -too long, that is, if the knitting cam is set too deep, the yarn may not -stand the strain and breakage will result; on the other hand, if the -loop is too short the fabric will appear stodgy in character. - -_Patterns Produced._—This type of knitting machine has an extensive -range of patterns and textures which can be obtained and amongst the -first variations possible are those which result from an alteration of -the needle arrangement. The normal setting is to have one needle in the -front stage for one in the back stage, and these being arranged -alternately give the ordinary 1-and-1 rib stitch. This is shown in Fig. -13, where the upper row of small circles represents the needles in the -back bed or stage whilst the lower row gives those in the front stage. -The next, Fig. 14, shows the needles in exactly the same sett except -that the needles have been arranged to give the 2-and-2 rib pattern, -this being shown in diagrammatic enlargement in Fig. 16 at the side. The -third sett of needles given in Fig. 15 represents the arrangement for a -3-and-1 rib pattern where every third needle only is allowed to remain -in the front stage whilst the back stage retains its full complement. -From these examples it will be clear that by altering needles in this -way to any scheme a large variety of rib effects may be produced, nor -need the arrangement be uniform throughout the width, for the borders -may be in one pattern and the ground or interior in another. Novel -effects in imitation of lace work may also be produced by leaving a -needle out of one or other of the beds which makes an opening in the -fabric which can be manipulated to give an effect of a lace-like -character. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 17, 18, 19 and 20 -] - -_Manipulation of Knitting Cams._—Figs. 17 to 20 have been prepared to -illustrate the manner in which the cams are altered to give certain -well-known stitches in the flat knitting machine, and the construction -is the same as Diagram 12, with corresponding letters for the various -parts. On the left of the plate are arranged the cams as in the front -bed whilst the right-hand arrangement gives the set of the cams in the -back. In Fig. 17 the two beds are shown arranged for plain rib work -where both back and front needles are in action at the same time. Fig. -18 shows the cam setting in front and back beds for making the -well-known half-cardigan or royal rib which has played such an important -part as the stitch for cardigan jackets supplied to the troops during -the war period. It will be seen that on the front bed cam A is raised -into what is termed a tucking position, that is, the needles are pushed -up by D to receive the thread but are not drawn down far enough to have -their loops discharged over the needle ends. At the same time the cams -in the back bed are set for plain work and the needles there knit as -usual at every course. The real stitch, however, does not appear until -the direction of knitting is reversed, because the needles on the front -bed are again pushed up to receive a second thread and on this occasion -are drawn down the full distance by B to knock off the stitches. This -means that on the front bed stitches are formed in double threads after -every two courses whilst the back discharges its loops at every course, -which enables a much greater weight of yarn to be inserted into the -texture, making it more rigid and stable. The cams in Fig. 19 are -arranged in front and back beds to produce the polka or full cardigan -stitch, where double courses are worked on both front and back. This may -be clear if we consider the cam arrangements as illustrated moving first -to the right when the stitches on the front bed are "tucked" whilst -those on the back bed knit to the position of cam A. In reversing the -knitting to proceed to left, two yarns are drawn through in the front -needles whilst no discharge takes place on the back. In this way the -knitting occurs on the cardigan rib plan on both front and back needle -beds and the resulting fabric is much heavier in weight than -half-cardigan and when taken from the machine shows a strong tendency to -expand in width owing to the yarn seeking to take up a more expanded -position. The full cardigan stitch tends to be loose in character, the -weight of material is greatly increased over plain 1-and-1 rib, but -there is a lack of structural firmness and cohesion. In Fig. 20 the part -C of the cam comes into the picture as being necessary to give circular -work on the flat knitting machine. This can be drawn up out of action in -both front and back beds by a small finger lever, and an examination of -this arrangement will show that in going to the right the needles of the -front bed will knit as usual, but in reversing, as shown on the right of -Fig. 20, the needles pass completely under part D owing to the absence -of part C and knitting is not performed; the cam portion D is raised by -a spring to allow the needles to pass over the dotted position. It will -thus be seen that to make circular work we arrange the cams on the front -bed so that they will knit in going to right but miss in going to left, -whilst in the opposite bed the reverse holds good. Thus a course of -loops is made on the front with the back not knitting, alternated by a -course made on the back with the front not knitting. The fabric's being -worked from one yarn causes the loops to be joined at the edges and so a -continuous length of circular webbing is produced. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - TYPES OF KNITTING YARNS - - -The qualities necessary for knitted goods have already been outlined as -applied to the fabric, but if ideal results are to be secured, the yarns -require to possess certain specific features of their own, for the most -efficient textures can only be got by combining the qualities of yarn -and fabric. The range of yarns covers a wide variety of material and -systems of manufacture and the type selected depends entirely on the use -to which it has to be applied; price is its primary consideration, and -whether required for outer, intermediate or under garments is also -important. Speaking generally, the knitting yarn should be open in -texture, full in handle, and the material should be soft and comfortable -to the touch. Except for some classes of outer wear the thread should -have a plentiful proportion of surface-projecting fibres which are of -value in covering raw loop formation. - -_Woollen Spun Yarns._—Yarns spun in the woollen system are still used to -a considerable extent in the knitting trade, such having large scope in -the more moderate priced qualities. The yarn is produced by the ordinary -methods of woollen yarn spinning, the wool being teased, scribbled, -carded, condensed and spun into threads on the woollen mule. The -combined effect of these operations is to give a yarn which has its -constituent fibres crossing and re-crossing at every angle so as to give -a melange of fibres, confused at first sight only because these are -arranged in a yarn regular in diameter and compact in structure. Carding -and spinning are done in the grease so that goods made from them require -a more liberal scouring and fulling. The best known type in the coarse -variety of woollen-spun yarns is, perhaps, the wheeling, which is -illustrated by means of photo-micrograph, Fig. 21, and given in the form -of two-ply, but large numbers are used in three or more ply for goods of -the coarsest gauge. The name Wheeling is probably derived from the early -days of hand spinning on the wheel when the wool grown on the farm was -dealt with by the farmer's daughter by means of the distaff and spindle. -In this type of yarn the wool fibres were spun as they hung on the -distaff, and the chief care of the spinster was to draw them out so as -to present as even a strand as possible to the torsion of the whorl. The -single yarns were therefore rather irregular, but these deficiencies -were to a large extent overcome subsequently by folding two or three -plies according to the weight desired. In the days of hand spinning it -was deemed most easy to specialize in one uniform thickness of ground -thread and obtain the thicker counts by twisting these threads two or -more ply. The wheeling yarns as made to-day partake very much of the -same character; they are spun from the coarser grades of wool where long -and short fibres are used promiscuously, all of which features may be -noted by an examination of photo-micrograph 21 which gives the thread -original magnified forty-fold. Fig. 22 gives a similar enlargement under -the microscope of a yarn of the same class as used for utility wear at a -moderate price, this yarn is three-fold and is spun on the woollen -system with fibres showing in every variety of angle. The three-ply yarn -shows very dense and gives a garment in a coarse gauge with considerable -weight and of most serviceable character; it is found very adaptable for -thick woollen socks for artisan wear. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 21 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 22 -] - -_Lamb's Wool Yarns._—The term lamb's wool as used in the knitting -industry does not confine its connotation to the product of the lamb -during its first six months of growth, although such yarns would -naturally be included in the first scope of the term. Naturally the -growth on the lamb during the first half-year is of the softest -description and greatly esteemed for many classes of knitted goods where -a kindly feel is of the utmost value. The term has to-day a much wider -definition, and includes yarns spun from the shorter staples on the -woollen system, so that such goods are well covered with surface -material and further offer a good basis for brushing on the teasles or -gig, thus increasing the softness considerably. Fig. 23 gives a -photo-micrograph of one of the finer classes of lamb's wool yarns where -the crossing and re-crossing amongst the constituent fibres is very well -displayed along with the loose open form of the thread. The openness of -texture proclaims this variety as being eminently suitable for the -underwear branch of the business and these made into garments of -moderate price give excellent service. In this sample the fibres are -very regular in diameter, the thread is well constructed and will be -sound in respect of absorbent quality. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 23 -] - -_Shetland Yarns._—This is another example of a designation employed in -the knitting trade which has wandered far from its original meaning. The -name has primary reference to yarns and fabrics produced from the -material taken from the Shetland breed of sheep which give wool of -excellent soft handling properties. These wools occur in natural -colours, brown, grey and black being found in addition to the -predominating white. The fibre is soft, exceedingly agreeable to handle, -and has been largely used for the industry from the pioneer days of the -hand knitting. The word Shetland as now known in the trade has shown a -distinct tendency to deteriorate in connotation and most generally means -yarns of coarse character, carded and spun on the woollen system with a -certain proportion of fibre of nondescript character mixed. These fibres -are usually dark in colour and mixed along with the white wool give a -tint known as "Natural"; the tints are most serviceable for utility -undergarments in regular wear as they obscure soiling and allow of -longer inter-laundry periods. Pure white articles are quickly soiled, -the "Natural" garments can give a longer period of usefulness without -sacrificing real cleanliness. In times of scarcity of material and in -absence of laundry facilities, these natural coloured garments prove -distinct aids to economy. Formerly the natural tint in a garment was at -once a sign of inferiority and low grade, but now wools of expensive -character are mixed with 5 to 10 per cent. of freshly-dyed fibre of -pleasing effect to give better service. There has latterly been a -tendency to increase the proportion of dark-coloured fibres and give a -wider colour expression; in place of the ordinary brown, fawn and grey, -other varieties bolder in aspect are utilized. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 24 - - 2-PLY SHETLAND NATURAL YARN SHOWING DARK FIBRES INTERMIXED -] - -_Fingering Yarns._—The term fingering is widely known in the trade and -is a clear reference to the era of hand spinning on the wheel when the -fibres were drawn through the fingers preparatory to the addition of -torsion, this "fingering" being a domestic attempt to establish a -certain amount of parallelism amongst the fibres. Wools of longer staple -were employed for these productions which may be regarded as the -prototype of the modern worsted thread. The attempt to render the fibres -parallel by hand cannot be completely successful, but the worker -rejected the shorter material which was not incorporated in the thread, -whilst the longer residual fibres were spun with rather more twist than -was usual with pure woollen yarns. The fingering yarn as now known is -spun from the better classes of medium-stapled wool and is usually found -in three or four-ply for the better class woollen hose trade. It gives a -good quality article which felts less than the woollen spun and has -increased durable qualities, the three-ply giving a considerably -augmented strength to the article. The principle of worsted spinning as -practised in the Bradford district for weaving yarns is not suitable for -the knitting industry. As a rule the twist is too hard, and even with -slack twist the structure is scarcely suitable, not being open enough -and having too little surface fibre. A fingering yarn largely used for -the footwear trade is given in photo-micrograph at Fig. 25, where the -thread is noted to be three-fold; the single strands show a firm twist, -but at the same time there is visible a fair percentage of surface -material which makes the yarn suitable for covering the interstices and -contributing to fabric consistency. The qualities of this particular -yarn have been tested by long experience in use and have proved ideal -when the right kind of wool is used as foundation. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 25 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 26 -] - -_Worsted Underwear Yarns._—A view of a typical yarn as used for the -light-weight underwear branch of the knitting business is given in Fig. -26, which represents a two-fold hosiery yarn used for light-weight -shirts and pants, but more particularly for ladies' garments. Extreme -fibre parallelism is the chief feature of this yarn structure, the -fibres being meticulously pulled into line with each other by the teeth -of the comber. The next points important to observe are the spaces shown -between the individual fibres which ensure adequate ventilation and -absorbency, along with the requisite elasticity. The twist in the single -is very slight and the strength is obtained by folding the two single -strands together. At the same time a sufficiency of surface material is -present to insure correct cover for the loops so as to remove rawness of -structure and impart a "skin" to the cloth. - -The yarns illustrated in micro-photos 27 and 28 may be regarded as -typical structures employed for the great bulk of the trade in -underwear, these being samples of the widely-known dry-spun yarns on the -French system. As compared with the method of producing worsted yarns in -the weaving trade, this system of dry spinning is so called because no -oil is added to the sliver in preparation; the system of combing adopted -deals with shorter and less valuable wools and moderately priced yarns -are feasible. Openness of character is best secured by imparting twist -on the ordinary woollen mule, where the thread is torsioned -intermittently in long lengths, during which operation a certain -proportion of the fibres are thrown to the surface, as clearly shown in -Fig. 27. The yarn is two-ply with a fair twist in the two-fold, whilst -the singles have quite a small amount of torsion. The extraneous -material prominent in this sample 27 is a valuable feature in the -success of the yarn for the knitting trade. Fig. 28 gives a view of a -thread of the same character but rendered denser in form on account of -its three-fold character. This is an excellent sample of a yarn giving -splendid service in wear and the production of which has caused a most -flourishing spinning industry to be established in continental -countries. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 27 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 28 -] - -In this prosperity it is hoped the British spinner will participate more -fully in the future, because it is a branch which lends itself to -enormous production on a large scale, the usual way of doing the trade -being for one mill to concentrate on few counts so as to have a minimum -alteration in the setting of machinery. In addition the spinner requires -to instal the right kind of combing plant which, it is satisfactory to -learn, can be made very efficiently in this country; the British machine -builder has risen to the occasion, and it is to be hoped that the -spinner will follow quickly in his wake and prove equal to the enormous -call for this class of yarn. These yarns are often referred to in the -trade variously as botany yarns, or cashmere yarns, although the latter -is in reality a misnomer, having original reference to the product of -the Cashmere goat indigenous to the Himalaya Mountains in Northern -India. - - - - - CHAPTER V - COUNTS OF YARN - - -Within recent years a great improvement has been effected in the matter -of yarn numbering for the hosiery trade. Formerly a number of systems -were in vogue which were distinctly local in their character and -application, but these now tend to confine themselves to the standards -common to other branches of textiles. Most yarns can be classed under -the worsted, cotton or silk systems; woollen yarns spun on the Borders -of Scotland are based on the Galashiels counts, whilst those from -Yorkshire are counted on the skein system. Artificial silk yarns are -numbered on the denier system which has come into greater prominence -recently in connection with the growth of artificial silk goods on the -market. The more irrational and arbitrary methods of numbering yarns are -rapidly declining in use and the great majority of yarns now supplied -are given in one or other of the systems named. - -_Worsted Yarns_, including those coming under the term cashmere, botany -and mohair are numbered on the worsted system which has its basis in the -number of 560-yd. hanks which weigh 1 lb. of 16 oz. - -_Cotton Yarns_, including those spun from a mixture of cotton and wool -under the term merino, and spun silk are estimated on the number of -840-yd. hanks which weigh 1 lb. of 16 oz. There is a reservation in the -case of two-fold silk yarns, the counts giving the exact number whether -single, two-fold, or three-fold. - -_Woollen Yarns._—Alloa is an important centre of hosiery yarns spinning, -and a system used in this locality is based on the equivalent of the -number of 240-yd. hanks which weigh 1 lb. - -Woollen yarns spun on the Scottish Borders are calculated on the -Galashiels method which is equivalent to the number of 200-yd. hanks in -1 lb. The Yorkshire woollen skein system is based on the number of yards -per oz. which, brought into line with others, gives a basis of the -number of 256-yd. hanks which weigh 1 lb. Leicester lamb's wool system -is equivalent to the number of hanks of 176 yd. each in 1 lb. - -_Silk Yarns._—In addition to the spun silk yarns mentioned as being -counted on the basis of the cotton hank of 840 yd., what is known as the -Organzine silk system is given by the number of yards per oz. - -Tram silk is calculated on the weight in drams of 1,000 yd., and in the -case of artificial silk yarns the counts are gauged by the weight in -deniers of 520 yd. There are 1,600/3 or 533⅓ deniers in 1 oz. - -_Yarn Testing for Counts._—This subject has been taken up with greater -interest by hosiery manufacturers, who are now installing suitable -apparatus for conducting the important test as to whether a yarn is up -to standard in regard to counts. Variation in the yarn size at once -reflects itself in the weight per dozen garments, the usual trade basis, -and with increased prices of yarns these tests are likely to become more -prevalent in the future. Compared with the weaving trade the question of -gauging the size of a yarn by the method of inspection and handling is -by no means effective on account of the loose nature of many knitting -yarns; in general they appear to have much less weight than their -diameter would lead the observer to suppose. In weaving yarns the twist -is much more decided in effect, but in hosiery materials accurate -estimation can only be performed by making a calculation based on the -weight of a given length of the sample. A number of simple devices are -on the market whereby the counts of yarn can be accurately determined by -weighing a given number of threads cut to a certain template according -to the yarn system, and these instruments are being largely employed in -cases where the overseer is too busy to give the matter personal -attention. An intelligent yarn foreman, however, prefers the method of -weighing off a given length of the thread and finding the counts by -direct calculation or by the aid of an assimilating table. He can also -devise short ways of making the calculation of counts adapted to the -class of yarns being handled in greatest numbers, and these do not -depend for their accuracy on any accidental mechanical factors. - -Let it be supposed that the custom in a factory is to test a yarn by -unravelling a length of 20 yd. and finding the weight of this in grains. -In each calculation the proportion will be repeated of finding the -number of yards in 1 lb. or 7,000 grains. Again, if the prevailing -counts be worsted, then this will involve 560 in each calculation as in -the following example. - -_Example 1._—On unreeling a yarn it is found that a length of 20 yd. -weighs 10 grains, find the counts in worsted. - -By proportion, if there are 20 yd. in 10 grains, the yards in 1 lb. or -7,000 grains will give the yards per lb. This obtained, we divide by 560 -the length of the worsted hank to obtain the counts thus— - - 20 × 7,000 - —————————— = 25's worsted counts of yarn. - 10 × 560 - -_Example 2._—A worsted hosiery yarn is tested and 20 yd. are found to -weigh 35 grains, find the counts. - - 20 × 7,000 - —————————— = 7⅐ worsted counts. - 35 × 560 - -If these two examples be observed it will be noted that for every -calculation of this type such as a yarnman might be expected to make -frequently, the common numbers are (20 × 7,000)/560 = 250. These will -occur in every calculation of this kind and this gives a short method of -getting the result, for in place of using these three factors we take -the resultant 250 as shown and divide the weight of grains into it. - -_Example 3._—Find the counts of a cashmere hosiery yarn, 20 yd. of which -weigh 24 grains. - -Following the method indicated we can obtain this result at once by -dividing 250 by 24 = 10·4 counts cashmere. - -The other counts met with frequently is the cotton or merino system -where the hank number is 840 and the value in all such calculations is -given by the numbers— - - 20 × 7,000 500 - —————————— = ——— or 166⅔. - 840 3 - -_Example 4._—Find the counts of a merino yarn of which 20 yd. weigh 14 -grains. - -Taking the value 500/3 divide it by 14, thus— - - 500 - —————— = 11·9 counts. - 3 × 14 - -Similarly, if working with dram weights and a standard length of 20 yd. -we should devise a value for the figures constantly recurring and this -would greatly simplify the calculation of the counts. - -_Example 5._—Find the counts in Galashiels or Scotch woollen system of a -yarn, 20 yd. of which weigh 2 drams. - -The first step is to find the yards in 1 lb. = 16 × 16 = 256 drams, and -then divide by the hank length of 200 yd.— - - 20 × 256 - ———————— = 12·8 cut Scotch woollen. - 2 × 200 - -In all calculations of this character the numbers (20 × 256)/200 will -occur and these reduced give a value of 25·6 which is taken as the -constant and for all similar calculations the weight in drams is simply -divided into this value to obtain the result. - -_Example 6._—Find the counts in Scotch woollen of a yarn, 20 yd. of -which weigh 1·25 grains. - -Taking the value as 25·6, this is divided by 1·25 = 20·4 cut woollen. - -Sufficient has been given to show that it is comparatively easy to -calculate counts of yarns regularly coming into the yarn store where we -have a few standard hank lengths to consider along with the values -obtained for each type of calculation met with in practice. Tables in -each can be constructed from which the counts of yarn may be seen at a -glance, the only work being to find the weight of the test length. - -_Yarn Conversion._—When two or more yarn classes are used in the same -garment it is necessary for purposes of calculation to translate the -counts into one or other of the systems, the most common system for -choice. Thus, in cotton and wool, or silk and wool twist yarns, it may -be necessary to make a calculation for counts and this cannot be -affected unless both yarns are in the same denomination. The rule is to -multiply the given counts by its own hank length and divide by the hank -length of the yarn required. - -_Example 7._—Change 2/40's merino counts into worsted and Yorkshire -skeins. 2/40's merino = 20's single, and by the rule— - - 20 × 840 - ———————— = 30's worsted. - 560 - -To convert into skeins counts the hank length is 256, and the formula is -given by— - - 20 × 840 - ———————— = 65·6 skeins. - 256 - -_Example 8._—Change 24/24 Scotch woollen into Alloa and skein systems. -24/24 = 12 cut single. - - 12 × 200 - ———————— = 10's counts Alloa. - 240 - - 12 × 200 - ———————— = 9·4 skeins counts. - 256 - -_Example 9._—Find the equivalent of 40/2 spun silk in worsted and skeins -counts. In silk the number is always the exact counts whether it be -folded two or more ply. Thus, we have it stated as— - - 40 × 840 - ———————— = 60's counts in worsted. - 560 - - 40 × 840 - ———————— = 131·25 counts skeins. - 256 - -_Example 10._—Find the yards of yarn in 3 lb. of 2/48's worsted and ¼ -oz. of 60/2 spun silk respectively. - -In 2/48's worsted 24 × 560 = yards in 1 lb., ∴ 24 × 560 × 3 = 40,320 yd. -in 3 lb. 60/2 spun silk = 60 × 840 = yards in 1 lb. or 16 oz., and to -obtain the length in ¼ oz. divide by 4 × 16— - - 60 × 860 - ———————— = 787·5 yd. - 4 × 16 - -_Weight of Knitted Fabrics._—These calculations lead to examples where -the weight of knitted fabric has to be found. The ordinary plain knitted -loop in which the bulk of textures is worked consists really of a weft -structure, that is, the yarns run predominantly crosswise, and are -intersected with the preceding loops in the manner already described. In -determining the weight of a given length of plain knitted fabric we -require various factors, these being taken as they are on the frame. It -is essential in the first place to know the counts of yarn employed, and -the number of courses inserted per inch into the fabric, and again it is -essential to know the width at which the fabric is being worked on the -machine. Finally, it is necessary to estimate what is known as the -"take-up," for the yarn is pushed into curved formation which "takes up" -yarn about twice the width of the fabric by the intersecting of the yarn -over the needles and this has a very definite influence on the weight. - -_Example 11._—Find the weight of 10 yd. of knitted fabric made from -2/20's worsted yarn with 18 courses per inch at a width of 32 in. on the -needles. The take-up is 2, that is, to form one course of loops, a -length of yarn equal to twice the width is required. - -If the question of take-up be ignored for the moment, let the yarns be -inserted as weft threads crosswise in the fabric and we shall have in 1 -in. of cloth 18 courses or threads each 32 in. wide. This gives (18 × -32)/36 = yards of yarn in 1 in. of cloth or (18 × 32 × 36)/36 yards of -yarn in 1 yd. of cloth × 10 for 10 yd., but from the yarn counts we know -that the size is such that 2/20's worsted = 10 × 60 = yards in 1 lb., so -that dividing the latter by this number of yards will give the weight of -the fabric in pounds, thus— - - 18 × 32 × 36 × 10 - ————————————————— = 1·03 lb. as the weight of 10 yd. of fabric. - 36 × 10 × 560 - -But this is the weight if the yarns are straight in the fabric, which -they are not, for there is a take-up of 2, that is, the weight has to be -doubled— - - 1·03 × 2 = 2·06 lb. weight. - -From this concrete example may be derived a formula which can be applied -to all cases where the sufficient particulars are given, and following -the above example we obtain— - -_Example 12._— - - Courses per in. × width × length × take-up - —————————————————————————————————————————— = weight in lb. - counts × basis - -In this statement let the courses per inch or the sett be represented by -_S_, the width by _w_, and the weight by _W_, counts = _C_, basis = _B_, -length = _L_, from which we obtain the following equation— - -_Example 13._— - - _S_ × _w_ × _L_ × _T_ - ————————————————————— = _W_, - _C_ × _B_ - -or- - - _S_ × _w_ × _L_ × _T_ = _W_ × _C_ × _B_. - -From this it follows that given any six of the seven factors we may -obtain the seventh by substitution of values. Some of these -possibilities are of academic interest only and are seldom required in -practice, but a few examples may be given of the use of this formula. - -_Example 14._—Find the weight of 200 yd. of knitted webbing worked from -2/40's cashmere yarn with 28 courses per inch to a width of 48 in. with -a take-up of 1·75. - -Substituting as in formula 12— - - 28 × 48 × 200 × 1·75 - ———————————————————— = 42 lb. weight. - 20 × 560 - -_Example 15._—Calculate the weight of fleecy fabric worked one thread -2/30's worsted yarn on face with 12 skeins yarn on back; the worsted has -a take-up of 1·75, whilst the back yarn take-up is 2. There are 24 -courses per inch of each thread, the length is 150 yd. and the width -equivalent to 60 in. - -For this example it is most expeditious to work out each yarn separately -according to formula 12. For the face yarn the items will be stated -thus— - - 24 × 60 × 150 × 1·75 - ———————————————————— = 45 lb. weight, - 15 × 560 - -for the woollen— - - 24 × 60 × 150 × 2 - ————————————————— = 140·6 lb. woollen. - 12 × 256 - -These added give 45 + 140·6 = 185·6 for the total weight in pounds. - -_Example 16._—Find the weight of a fabric plated as follows— - - 1-40/2 spun silk with take-up of 1·75 - 1-2/32's merino with take-up of 2·25 - -Length 320 yd., 24 courses per inch, 60 in. wide. - -For the silk the counts 40/2 are taken as 40's single— - - 24 × 60 × 320 × 1·75 - ———————————————————— = 24 lb. - 40 × 840 - -For merino— - - 24 × 60 × 320 × 2·25 - ———————————————————— = 77·14 lb. Total 101·14 lb. - 16 × 840 - -_Example 17._—Find the merino counts of yarn to produce 72 yd. of fabric -56 in. wide, 18 courses per inch, 24 lb. of material with a take-up in -knitting of 2½. - -The formula for this type of calculation can be derived from that given -for finding the weight, all items being the same except that the weight -is substituted for the counts. - -Following formula 12— - - 18 × 56 × 72 × 2½ - ————————————————— = 9's counts single or 2/18's. - 24 × 840 - -_Example 18._—Calculate the yarn counts in the Alloa system for a fabric -180 yd. long with 14 courses per inch, 66 in. wide, the take-up is 2 and -the weight 24 lb. - - 14 × 66 × 180 × 2 - ————————————————— = 57¾ Alloa. - 24 × 240 - -_Example 19._—Estimate the skein counts for a fabric 200 yd. long, 80 -lb. in weight, 60 in. wide, 12 courses per inch, with a take-up of 2·25. - - 12 × 60 × 200 × 2·25 - ———————————————————— = 15·8 skeins counts. - 80 × 256 - -_Example 20._—Give the worsted counts to reduce the weight to 60 lb. for -example 19. - - 12 × 60 × 200 × 2·25 - ———————————————————— = 9·6 worsted or 2/19's approx. - 60 × 560 - -_Example 21._—Calculate the length of knitted fabric which can be -secured from 30 lb. of 2/42's cashmere, 22 courses per inch, 63 in. -wide, take-up 1½. - -This is obtained from formula 13 and may be stated thus— - - weight × counts × basis - ————————————————————————— = length. - courses × width × take-up - - 30 × 21 × 560 - ————————————— = 170 yd. approx. - 22 × 63 × 1½ - -_Example 22._—Find the length per 100 lb. obtained in 2/30's merino, -take-up 1·75, 21 courses per inch, 64 in. wide. - - 100 × 15 × 840 - —————————————— = 535·7 yd. - 21 × 64 × 1·75 - -_Example 23._—Find the length of rib fabric with a take-up of 3 obtained -from 100 lb. of 20/20 Scotch woollen counts, 15 courses per inch, 60 in. -wide. - - 100 × 10 × 200 - —————————————— = 74 yd. - 15 × 60 × 3 - -_Example 24._—Find the width at which a fabric will require to be worked -to use 80 lb. of 2/16's worsted counts, take-up 2½, length 240 yd., 18 -courses per inch. - -This formula is identical to that used to find the length, except that -the length is substituted for the width— - - weight × counts × basis - —————————————————————————— = width. - courses × length × take-up - - 80 × 8 × 560 - ————————————— = 33·19 in. wide. - 18 × 240 × 2½ - -_Example 25._—Find the width for a cotton fabric weighing 40 lb., 120 -yd., 2/32's counts, 21 courses per inch, take-up is 2½. - - 40 × 16 × 840 - ————————————— = 85·3 in. wide. - 21 × 120 × 2½ - -_Example 26._—Find the courses per inch required for a fabric worked in -18 skeins, 60 in. wide, take-up 175, 120 yd., 50 lb. weight. This is -obtained from the same formula as Examples 24 and 25 except that the -width is substituted for courses per inch. - - 50 × 18 × 256 - ——————————————— = 18·3 courses per inch. - 60 × 120 × 1·75 - - - - - CHAPTER VI - FOLDED YARNS - - -An interesting series of calculations useful to the knitting industry -can be built up in connection with the methods of finding the resultant -single counts of two or more yarns folded together. The counts of twist -yarns is in the first instance of special application to the spinner, -but there are many circumstances in which they may be useful in the yarn -store of a hosiery factory. When two yarns of the same counts are -twisted, the resultant equivalent single counts is obtained by dividing -by 2, but when the yarns vary in size the proceeding is rather -different. A common fault is to add the two counts together and divide -by 2, but this gives a result which is entirely wrong. For purposes of -comparison it is useful to have the equivalent single counts when two or -more yarns are folded together, but the special interest to this branch -lies in using two single yarns to take the place of one, in cases where -supplies of the first material have run short. It is then of practical -importance to have the two substitute yarns chosen from those in stock -so that they approach as nearly as possible the size of the original. - -_Example 27._—Find the counts of 60's and 40's folded together. This -example can be used to build up the formula from first principles. Take -for convenience 60 hanks of the highest counts and twist this with an -equal length of 60 hanks of the second counts stated thus— - - 60 hanks of 60's counts weigh 1 lb. - 60 hanks of 40's counts weigh 1½ lb. - ──────────────────────────────────── - 60 hanks of folded thread = 2½ lb. - -therefore, 60 divided by 2½ gives 24 hanks of folded yarn in 1 lb. which -is the counts 24's. - -To find out a shorter rule for estimating the counts of a two-fold -thread, let the first counts be represented by _A_, and the second -counts by _B_, and let _R_ be the resultant counts of yarns _A_ and _B_ -folded together. Following the concrete example 27, it may be stated -generally thus— - -_Example 28._— - - _A_ hanks of _A_ counts = 1 lb. - _A_ hanks of _B_ counts = _A_/_B_ lb. - ────────────────────────────────────────── - _A_ hanks of folded yarn = 1 + _A_/_B_ lb. - -The resultant counts _R_ is obtained thus— - - _A_ - ——————————— - 1 + _A_/_B_ = _R_, - -but - - _A_ _A_ + _B_ - 1 + ——— = ————————— - _B_ _B_ - -and making the fraction proper we obtain the rule— - - _AB_ - ————————— = _R_. - _A_ + _B_ - -Stated in words the rule is "To find the resultant counts of two threads -folded together, multiply the two counts together and divide by their -sum." - -It often happens that a counts of a given size is required from two -single yarns as in the frequent case of yarns running down before the -contract for goods has been delivered. In such instances the resultant -counts required is known and given one of the constituent singles, the -other can be obtained by the rule: "Multiply the two counts together and -divide by the difference." This can be proved in a general way from the -last-found formula— - -_Example 29._— - - _A_ × _B_ - ————————— = _R_ - _A_ + _B_ - -in this equation the following also holds good - - _AB_ = _R_ (_A_ + _B_) - - _AB_ = _AR_ + _BR_ - - _A B_ - _BR_ = _AR_ - - _B_ (_A_ - _R_) = _AR_ - - _AR_ - _B_ = ————————— - _A_ - _R_ - -Similarly, if _A_ is the missing counts of the two-fold yarn, the rule -for _A_ can be proved thus— - - _AB_ = _R_ (_A_ + _B_) - - _AB_ = _AR_ + _BR_ - - _AB_ - _AR_ = _BR_ - - _A_ (_B_ - _R_) = _BR_ - - _BR_ - _A_ = ————————— - _B_ - _R_ - -_Examples in folded yarns._ - -_Example 30._—Find the counts of 64's, 48's and 32's yarns folded -together, and also give average when they are used separately one thread -of each size in a garment. From the formula proved in Example 28 we have -the following, taking the highest counts as starting-point— - - 64 hanks of 64's counts weigh 1 lb. - 64 hanks of 48's counts weigh 1⅓ lb. - 64 hanks of 32's counts weigh 2 lb. - ──────────────────────────────────── - 64 hanks folded yarn weigh 4⅓ lb. - -therefore— - - 64 - —— = 14-10/13 counts. - 4⅓ - -In the hosiery trade such yarns are more often used separately than -folded together, when the more useful problem is to find the average -counts of the three threads which is obtained by multiplying this result -by the number of threads in the set, in this case 3. - - Average counts = 14-10/13 × 3 = 44-4/13 average. - -_Example 31._—Give the resultant equivalent single counts of a silk and -wool yarn composed of one thread of 2/40's worsted folded with a thread -of 60/2 spun silk, also give the weight of each material in 110 lb. of -garments and state the price ratios of worsted and silk respectively, -taking the silk at 12s. 6d. per lb. and the worsted at 5s. - -For the counts calculations both yarns have to be expressed in the same -denomination and let the worsted system be taken. Transferring 60/2 -silk, the counts is 60's as it stands and the transfer is made thus— - - 60 × 840 - ———————— = 90's. - 560 - -To find the counts formula 28 can be used, that is, multiply the two -counts together and divide by their sum— - - 90 × 20 90 × 20 180 - ——————— = ——————— = ——— = 16-4/11. - 90 + 20 110 11 - -To obtain the weight ratio the calculation had better be worked thus— - - 90 hanks of 90's = 1 lb. - 90 hanks of 20's = 4½ lb. - ───────────────────────── - 90 hanks twist = 5½ lb. - - 90 ÷ 5½ = 16-4/11 as before. - -For the weight proportion the total is given as 110 lb., which has to be -divided in the ratio of the weight column, that is, of a total of 5½ -lb., 1 lb. is silk and the remainder worsted— - - 1 - —— × 110 = 20 lb. silk. - 5½ - - 4½ - —— × 110 = 90 lb. worsted. - 5½ - -For the price let the weight column be again used— - - 1 lb. silk @ 12/6 = 12/6 - 4½ lb. wor. @ 5/- = 22/6 - ───────────────────────── - 5½ lb. twist = 35/- - - 35/- ÷ 5½ = 6/4¼ per lb. - -also 5/14 of cost is due to silk and 9/14 due to worsted. - -It is quite evident that this method of procedure yields results of the -utmost interest and value to the maker of knitted goods. - -_Example 32._—Find the counts of 48's cashmere folded with 30's merino. -Answer in merino system. - -Change 48's cashmere into merino— - - 48 × 560 - ———————— = 32's. - 840 - -Using the rule as in (28)— - - 32 × 30 32 × 30 - ——————— = ——————— = 15-15/31. - 32 + 30 62 - -_Example 33._—Find the resultant counts of 2/32's cashmere or worsted -folded with 21's skeins counts. State answer in skeins system. - -Transfer worsted to skeins— - - 16 × 560 - ———————— = 35 skeins. - 256 - -By one method the counts is given by— - - 35 × 21 35 × 21 - ——————— = ——————— = 13⅛ counts skeins. - 35 + 21 56 - -In this connection it might be useful to have the weight proportion of -each, also the average counts if the two threads are not folded but -placed side by side. Let the price of the 2/32's be 7/6 per lb., and -that of the 21's skeins, 3/-per lb., when the cost per lb. of the -combination is obtained as follows— - - 35 hanks of 35's = 1 lb. @ 7/6 = 7/6 - 35 hanks of 21's = 1⅔ lb. @ 3/- = 5/- - ──────────────────────────────────────── - 35 hanks of folded = 2⅔ lb. = 12/6 - -For the counts 35/2⅔ = 13⅛ if folded, but if separate, number × 2 will -give the average counts 13⅛ × 2 = 26¼ average counts. - -The weight percentage of each constituent in the garment is stated thus— - - 1 1⅔ - —— × 100 = 37½ % worsted. —— = 62½ % skeins. - 2⅔ 2⅔ - -For the average price 2⅔ lb. = 12/6 = 4/8¼ per lb. - -_Example 34._—Find in Scotch system the resultant and average counts of -36/36 Scotch with 2/40's cotton. - -Bringing the cotton to Scotch counts— - - 20 × 840 - ———————— = 84 cut, - 200 - -by the rule— - - 84 × 18 - ——————— = 14·82 counts, or × 2 = 29·6 average counts. - 84 + 18 - -This rule can be applied twice in succession to find the counts of a -three-fold yarn. - -_Example 35._—Find the counts of 80's, 40's and 20's folded together and -give the average counts if they are used separately in a garment, one -thread of each. - -Taking 80's and 40's the resultant counts of these two is secured by the -usual method— - - 80 × 40 80 × 40 80 - ——————— = ——————— = —— or 26⅔ counts. - 80 + 40 120 3 - -This is now folded with the remaining counts 20, in a similar operation— - - 26⅔ × 20 - ———————— = 11-3/7 resultant counts or × 3 = 34-2/7 average counts. - 26⅔ + 20 - -This result can be verified by the original method— - - 80 ÷ 80 = 1 - 80 ÷ 40 = 2 - 80 ÷ 20 = 4 - ──────────────── - 80 hanks = 7 lb. - - 80 ÷ 7 = 11-3/7 × 3 = 34-2/7 average. - -_Example 36._—Give all useful particulars for the following combination -of yarns in a garment— - - 1 - 2/42 wor. @ 5/6 per lb. - 1 - 12's cotton @ 3/6 per lb. - 1 - 80/2 silk @ 15/- per lb. - -Bring the worsted to cotton counts and the three yarns will then be in a -like denomination— - - 21 × 560 - ———————— = 14's cotton. - 840 - -Arranging these for the resultant counts, price and weight -relationships— - - 80 ÷ 80 = 1 lb. @ 15/- = 15/- - 80 ÷ 14 = 5·7 lb. @ 5/6 = 31/4 - 80 ÷ 12 = 6·6 lb. @ 3/6 = 23/1 - ───────────────────────────────── - 80 hanks = 13·3 lb. = 69/5 - -80 ÷ 13·3 = 6·1 counts if twisted, and × 3 = 18·3 counts average. - - 69/5 ÷ 13·3 = 5/2 per lb. folded. - -By computation from the table of prices it is found that - - 21·4 % of cost is due to silk - 45·1 % of cost is due to worsted - 33·5 % of cost is due to cotton. - -For the weight percentage the proportions are taken from the weight -column— - - 1 5·7 - ———— × 100 = 7·52 % silk. ———— × 100 = 42·8 % worsted. - 13·3 13·3 - -The remaining figure 49·68 % cotton is obtained by subtraction. - -_Example 37._—Find the useful particulars for a plated fabric composed -of 2/20's worsted @ 8/6 per lb., 10's cotton @ 4/- per lb. The cotton -yarn appears on the back and has 50 per cent. more take-up than the -face. - - 10 × 840 - ———————— = 15's worsted. - 560 - - 15 plus 50 % of 15 = 22½ ÷ 15 = 1½ lb. @ 4/- = 6/- - 15 plus 0 = 15 ÷ 10 = 1½ lb. @ 8/6 = 12/9 - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────── - 3 lb. = 18/9 - - 15 ÷ 3 = 5's counts. 18/9 ÷ 3 = 6/3 per lb. - -From the column of weights it is seen that this is divided equally -between the two yarns; although the cotton is finer in diameter, yet the -weights are made equal by extra take-up in loop formation. - -_Example 38._—A garment order is being executed from 2/42's yarn which -runs short, 2/60's is in sufficient stock, and it is required to find -what counts used with this will give the same weight of garment on the -frame. Applying the difference rule— - - 2/60's = 30's 30 × 21 30 × 21 - ——————— = ——————— = 70's. - 2/42's = 21's 30 - 21 9 - -_Example 39._—Given two counts 48's and 24's in stock, find the third -yarn needed to twist with these to obtain a counts equivalent to 10's -single. The first step is to fold the two yarns together by the addition -rule— - - 48 × 24 - ——————— = 16's. - 48 + 24 - -Then by the difference rule— - - 16 × 10 160 - ——————— = ——— = 26⅔ _Ans._ - 16 - 10 6 - -_Example 40._—40's and 30's worsted are yarns in stock, find a third -thread to fold with these to make a three-fold counts = 10's. - - 40 × 30 40 × 30 - ——————— = ——————— = 17⅐ counts of the two yarns folded. - 40 + 30 70 - -Using the difference rule— - - 17⅐ × 10 - ———————— = 24's _Ans._ - 17⅐ - 10 - -To provide proof use the ordinary method of folding— - - 40 ÷ 40 = 1 lb. - 40 ÷ 30 = 1⅓ lb. - 40 ÷ 24 = 1⅔ lb. - ───────────────── - 40 hanks = 4 lb. - - 40 ÷ 4 = 10's counts. - -If the third thread were wanted in another quality such as cotton, the -answer would be secured by transfer— - - 24 × 560 - ———————— = 16's cotton - 840 - -or- - - 24 × 560 - ———————— = 52½ skeins. - 256 - -_Example 41._—Find the particulars for a fabric containing three yarns -used, one of each in succession, where the take-up of each thread varies -in the fabric as shown. This take-up of different yarns in knitting is -frequently neglected in calculations, but obviously should be carefully -taken into account for it has a very direct influence on the weight. - - 1 - 40's yarn with take-up of 1·25 for normal fabric. - 1 - 30's yarn with take-up of 1·50 for normal fabric. - 1 - 12's yarn with take-up of 2·25 for normal fabric. - -We proceed by stating the length of hank in the ratio of the various -take-ups thus— - - 225 hanks of 12's = 18·75 lb. - 150 hanks of 30's = 5 lb. - 125 hanks of 40's = 3·12 lb. - ───────────────────────────── - 125 hanks normal = 26·87 lb. - -Working out percentages in the usual way from the column of weights we -find that— - - 40's yarn = 11·4 % of weight. - 30's yarn = 18·6 % of weight. - 12's yarn = 70 % of weight. - -_Example 42._—2/24's worsted yarn has been used for an order and runs -out before completion of the weight required; sufficient weight of 16's -is in stock, find the nearest counts which must be used along with this -to give a fabric of the same weight as the original; 2/24's = 12's. - -Using the rule of differences— - - 16 × 12 - ——————— = 48's. - 16 - 12 - -The ratio of weights can be found thus, 48's and 16's— - - 48 hanks of 48's = 1 lb. - 48 hanks of 16's = 3 lb. - ————— - 4 lb. - -That is, out of a total of 4 lb. one-quarter is of the finer counts 48, -whilst the remaining three-quarters is of the second counts 16's. By -making this calculation it will be seen whether there is a sufficient -weight of each yarn to complete the order. - -_Example 43._—As a substitute for solid 2/22's yarn in a garment it is -proposed to use one thread of 18's and a second yarn of suitable size to -give the same weight. Find this yarn and state the ratio in which the -two will occur in the garment. - -By the rule of differences— - - 18 × 11 18 × 11 - ——————— = ——————— = 28-2/7 counts. - 18 - 11 7 - -For the weight of each, this can be done quite simply by adding the two -counts and taking the relative proportions inversely— - - 18 + 28-2/7 = 46-2/7. - - 18 - —————— × 100 = 38-8/9 % of 28-2/7 counts. - 46-2/7 - - 28-2/7 - —————— × 100 = 61⅑ % of 18's counts. - 46-2/7 - -This last example shows clearly that the weight of the constituents -varies inversely according to the yarn counts, the higher the counts the -lower the weight and _vice versâ_. The matter is more prominent in -problems where a resultant counts is given with two weight ratios, the -counts to produce these being sought by calculation. - -_Example 44._—A garment is required equal to 12's counts composed of two -yarns where one-third of weight is on the face and two-thirds on the -back. Find two counts which will fulfil these conditions. - -The counts are inverse to the weights; if the proportion had been direct -we should have stated: ⅓ of 12's, but seeing that the ratio is inverse -we state: 3/1 of 12's = 36's for one yarn. - -The other thread is ⅔ of 12, which inversely gives 3/2 of 12 = 18. For -proof— - - 36 × 18 - ——————— = 12's counts. - 54 - -_Example 45._—Find two yarns one having one-fifth of the weight and the -other four-fifths to give a resultant counts = 12's. - - ⅕ of 12, inverse = 5/1 × 12 = 60's counts. - ⅘ of 12, inverse = 5/4 × 12 = 15's counts. - -These counts are 60's and 15's and they together produce a thread = -12's. - -_Example 46._—A three-fold yarn is equal to a counts of 8's, the first -thread gives one-seventh of the weight, the next three-sevenths and the -next four-sevenths, find each counts in the folded thread. - - 7/1 × 8 = 56's. 7/3 × 8 = 18⅔. 7/4 × 8 = 14's. - -_Example 47._—A fabric with an average counts of 20's is required in two -materials, one giving two-fifths of weight and the other three-fifths, -find the counts of each. - - 5/2 × 20 = 50's. 5/3 × 20 = 33⅓. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - BEARDED NEEDLE KNITTING - - -The type of knitting instrument employed is responsible for a convenient -division of the industry according as the machines are fitted with the -latch or the bearded needle. The latch needle has already been described -when it was observed to be independent in action. Each needle is free to -prepare and complete its own loop, this being done in rapid succession -as the cams traverse the heels or butts. In bearded needle knitting the -process is quite different, and a number of separate parts require to -co-operate with the needle for stitch formation. Fig. 29 gives a clear -view of the construction of the bearded needle, also known as the spring -needle, consisting of a piece of steel wire specially tempered with one -end bent over into the form of a spring or beard. The stem of the needle -is marked S, the beard is indicated by B, and the stem has a groove D -into which the beard is pressed during loop formation. It is -satisfactory to learn that this branch of needle manufacture has always -been efficiently carried on by the British maker. The needle is usually -fixed in what is termed a lead into which it is cast in a molten -condition, each such frame having its corresponding mould according to -gauge. The lead is used as the basis of gauge for the frame and each -lead as a rule has two needles cast in it for the great majority of -machines of this character. These leads are fixed together in a bar -which lifts in sections, and to replace any needle the clamp is -unscrewed, the lead lifted out, and a new one inserted in its place. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 -] - -_Stitch Formation on Bearded Needles._—The process of stitch formation -by means of the bearded needle is indicated in the series of diagrams 30 -to 33, which represent the operation as performed on a modern rotary -frame of the Cotton's Patent type. The needle is much less independent -in action than the latch variety, and to complete the making of the loop -several auxiliaries are indispensable. Of these the most important are -the presser P which in this system is stationary, and the sinker S with -its throat A and its nose B. For the knock-over of the loop is required -the aid of the discharging piece DP which is also stationary. In Fig. 30 -the needle is seen in the act of descending, having just received the -thread T from the yarn-carrier and which thread has entered under the -open beard B of the needle. At this stage the loops of the fabric F are -seen hanging on the needles down on the stem and under the nose B of the -sinker. Fig. 31 shows the next operation where the needle drops still -farther and moving towards the left has its beard pressed into the -groove D, just after which the needle descends still farther and -receives the old loop from the needle stem on to its closed beard or -spring. The stage shown in Fig. 32 is known as knocking over or -discharging where the needle is noted to have moved to the right away -from the presser, whilst it has also sunk still farther between the -discharging pieces DP. These latter perform their function solely by -reason of their position, and act as supports or rests for the stitches -as they are drawn down between the pieces as indicated. In this it is -very important that the needle should draw the new stitch properly -through the old one as any defect in knocking-over results in faulty -fabric. In Fig. 33 the needle is seen to be rising once more into the -normal position ready to receive another supply of yarn from the thread -carrier. The stitch-forming process is so important that it may be well -to summarize the whole operation under various headings. - -_Laying the Yarn._—This operation is performed by the thread-carrier in -the usual manner and it draws its thread across the sinker throats from -one side of the frame to the other, regular delivery of thread being -most important at this stage. - -_Sinking the Loops._—This operation is illustrated in Fig. 30 where the -sinker is noted to have pushed the thread already supplied and is -sinking it over the stems, every second needle being dealt with in this -way. - -_Dividing the Loops._—The sinking of the loops in the normal frame takes -place on every second needle only, and the yarn thus supplied is -distributed equally over all the needles in the process of dividing. In -this what are termed the dividing sinkers are brought forward in a body -and spread the yarn equally over all the needles. In the operation of -sinking and dividing the part of the sinker most in use is the throat, -marked A, and this is the point where wear most rapidly occurs due to -the friction of the yarn. Wearing is accelerated in the case of stiff -yarns being worked on the machine and sinkers have to be specially -tempered or hardened to give adequate service. - -_Pressing and Landing._—These two operations are performed in close -succession and are illustrated in Fig. 31. At this stage the presser -comes largely into the picture, and in itself is simply a piece of steel -fixed in front of the bar in which the sinkers work. The needles tilt -somewhat to the left and push their beards against the presser, so that -the beards enter the grooves marked D in Fig. 29, and at almost the same -instant the old loops pass on to the beards or are landed. Obviously the -timing of the pressing and the landing of the loop is of the closest -description; the spring is pressed into the groove and in an -infinitesimal space of time the needle moves downwards and the old loop -slips on to the pressed beard. Immediately this is completed the needle -leaves the presser and the beard springs back to its former position -once again. In pressing a great strain is thrown on the beards of the -needles, and if the metal is soft or devoid of elasticity defective -knitting at once results. - -_Knocking-over or Discharging._—This operation is shown in Fig. 32, and -consists in drawing the new yarn through the old loop and throwing off -the latter to take its place in the fabric. The new yarn is pulled -through the former stitch and the main factor in discharging is the -downward sweep of the sinker in relation to the position of the -knocking-over bit DP. These are arranged in a kind of stationary comb -and act as a rest to the loops whilst the needle is making its descent. -Again, it is seen that correct drawing through of the loop is of the -utmost importance for successful stitch formation, and knitting is -impeded if stitches which should be thrown into the fabric remain on the -needle stems undischarged. - -It will be seen that the loop-forming process with the bearded needle as -agent is carried through in a series of operations, all of which must be -perfectly co-ordinated and timed in relation to each other. When it is -essential to secure the highest results in regard to fabric texture, the -bearded needle machine is chosen in preference to the ordinary form of -latch needle machine. The method of using sinkers for loop formation -induces greater uniformity of stitch as the thread is accurately served -out to the needles, and kept under perfect control from start to finish -of the operation. One great difference between this and latch needle -knitting is that the course of loops is made as a whole, and after -sinking they are divided, pressed, and discharged at the same time -across the entire width. - -_Knitting on the Hand-frame._—Hand-knitted fabrics may have two meanings -attached to them, they may be worked entirely by hand on the knitting -pins where each stitch in the article is formed by hand. Again, hand -goods may be worked on the hand-frame, the earliest form of knitting -machine, where the actual operations of sinking, knocking-over, etc., -are performed mechanically by a series of movements performed by the -hands and feet. Fig. 34 gives a view of the functional parts of a -hand-frame directly connected with the elementary operation of knitting. -This is a side elevation showing a complete jack, sinker, etc. The -action of stitch formation is identical whether made on the hand-frame -or power machine, the sequence being sinking, dividing, pressing, -landing, and discharging of the loops. In the Fig. 34 the various parts -are marked as follows: N = needle, NB = needle bar, NL = needle lead, B -= needle beard, P = presser, T = thread, TC = thread-carrier, S = -sinker, FB = falling bar, J = jack, JW = hole for jack wire, SC = -slurcock, V = spring; on the sinker S the following parts may be -distinguished: 1 = small nose or neb, 2 = large nose, 3 = sinker throat, -K = sinker belly. - -_Working of the Parts._—To form a course of loops the parts mentioned -combine their action in the knitting operation, and some further -explanation may be given of the manner in which this is executed on the -hand-frame. The thread T proceeds from a bobbin at the side of the frame -and passes through the eye of the thread-carrier TC, as shown by the -dotted line. The thread-carrier has an alternate motion from left to -right and from right to left and at the same time the slurcock has its -side-to-side movement in the wake of the thread-carrier, being timed to -run just a little behind. The action of the slurcock SC is to strike the -tails of the jacks J and tilt them up so that the sinker drops on to the -yarn which has just been placed over the stems of the needles and pushes -the yarn a short distance between them. The part of the sinker acting at -this stage is the small nose 1, whilst the fabric marked F and its -stitches hang in the sinker throats 3. The sinkers are then drawn -forward in a body by handle bars in which the sinker tails are placed, -and this action pushes the sinker loops under the beards B of the -needles N. When this is completed the presser marked P is drawn firmly -down on to the beards of the needles and the sinker with a further -movement to the right pushes the old loops so that they cover the -beards. When the old stitches have been completely and securely landed -in this fashion, the presser releases its hold on the beards or springs; -the sinkers are drawn still further to the right and, with an upward -sweep of their bellies marked K, the old loops are thrown over the -needle ends and the new loops drawn through. The sinkers are then pulled -well down in front of the machine to secure the loops in their throats -3, and with a push are again replaced on the stems of the needles -previous to re-commencing all over again. The jack is fulcrummed at the -point marked JW which is a hole through which a wire is passed, called -the jack wire; the spring V is important in fixing the position of the -jack when in its non-operative position and keeps all sinkers in line -until the sidewise action of the slurcock releases them and causes the -fall of the jacks. The slurcock SC is drawn from side to side by what is -termed the slur wheel, which oscillates, and a separate cord on this -wheel makes the thread-carrier perform a similar motion from side to -side. The falling bar FB is rather important in that it determines the -size of the loop sunk on the frame. Obviously when the jacks are -released they are free to fall a certain distance, and this distance -determines the length of loop sunk between the needles of the machine. -The longer the loops, the lower are the jacks allowed to fall, whilst a -higher adjustment of the falling bar FB produces a shorter loop. The -needle N is shown to be fixed in the needle lead NL, which in turn is -fixed in the needle bar NB. These are arranged along the bar with a -given number clamped under a metal piece, and when a needle breaks this -clamp is removed at that region only which obviates needles being -uncovered for the whole width. Other points in the mechanism arrangement -to note are that the needles are horizontal and fixed, whilst the -sinkers are vertical and jacks horizontal. The presser is moveable and -the fabric proceeds downwards, there being a winding roller to take up -the fabric. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 34 and 35 -] - -The hand-frame is rapidly disappearing from our knitting establishments, -although this is rather due to a decline of apprentices willing to learn -the business than lack of work. Some firms of good standing in the trade -still experience an insistent demand for real hand-frame goods, as they -are unrivalled in point of quality and wearing properties. It is not -strictly true that the hand-frame makes fabrics of so much better -quality than the power machine, but owing to the higher cost of working -on the hand-frame as compared with the power machine, it is futile to -make inferior or low-grade materials by hand. Experts declare that no -fabric is equal in textural excellence to that produced on the -hand-frame. The old stocking-maker was a skilled craftsman, who in the -course of years established a close sympathy between himself and the -machine he was working; he could interpret its moods of facile -operation. Certainly he learned how to humour the machine according to -the nature of the material and in the great subtleties of "meeting the -presser" and consequent knocking-over of the loops he acquired the skill -of imparting to the article a "skin," which the connoisseur declares to -be absent from the automatic machine-made product. The hand-frame worker -was a skilled artist in the respect of shaping articles to the fit of -the individual and his pride was that any person, however far removed -from the normal, could be provided with a garment exactly suitable to -his form. - -_The Power Frame._—It is outside the scope of this work to give in -detail all the various knitting mechanisms, but it is important for the -reader to have a clear idea of how the knitting process is conducted on -several standard machines, for when these basic principles have been -mastered they can be applied quickly to elucidate the method of -operation of almost any variety of machine in the whole wide range of -the hosiery machine builder. The hand-frame as invented by Lee held its -own in the forefront of the industry for many decades and was -undoubtedly a work of genius, for it was practically perfect from the -start, as succeeding efforts at improvement produced little change in -the hand-frame as such. Even after automatic machine knitting was -introduced, the machine followed closely upon the hand-frame type, all -the leading features such as sinkers, jacks and needles being placed -exactly as in the hand machine, except that the motions were produced by -a series of shafts, cams and belts. - -The first big advance in knitting with the bearded needle on an -automatic machine was made possible by the invention of William Cotton -of Loughborough, which in its present-day form is one of the most -efficient means of knitting. It is the system universally adopted for -the full-fashioned trade where the garments are worked correct to size -and shape, twelve full-sized garments being possible on one machine. The -chief functional parts of this machine operated during loop formation -are given in detail in Fig. 35 where, for purposes of comparison, the -corresponding parts have been lettered similar to the parts in the -hand-frame sketch. Briefly stated these are: N = needle, B = needle -beard, NL = needle lead, NB = needle bar, S = sinker, P = presser, SB = -sinker bar, J = jack, SC = slurcock, T = thread, TC = thread-carrier, DP -= discharging piece, CB = catch bar, NP = narrowing points. - -It will be noted that this machine presents a great difference in -arrangement as compared with the hand-frame, the needles being vertical, -whilst in the hand-frame they are horizontal. Hand-frame needles are -stationary in every respect whilst the needle bar of the power frame has -a finely graduated series of movements in vertical and horizontal -directions compounded to give a series of delicate sweeps in -stitch-forming. The sinker is horizontal and not attached to the jack, -the presser is rigid, whilst the fashioning points marked NP are placed -above the machine and can be brought down over the needle beards for -loop transference. - -_Knitting Operations._—The general principles of loop formation on this -machine have already been described in reference to Figs. 30 to 33. The -central feature of the frame is the main shaft on which is located the -cams for giving the needle bars, catch bars, etc., their various -motions. In stitch-making the thread-carrier and slurcock move across -the frame from left to right and back again alternately, the carrier -proceeding a little distance in front of the slurcock. The slurcock has -the effect of pressing against the ends of the jacks to push forward the -sinkers which in turn press into the yarn just laid over the needles to -form a series of loops over the needle stems. The jack sinkers are -arranged alternately in the machine so that the dividing sinkers are -pushed forward in a body and the loops equally divided over the needle -stems. At this stage the needle bar cam operates and the needles descend -in a body so as to allow of the sinker loops passing under their beards, -the needles then immediately move to the left to push their beards -against the presser P placed in front of the sinker bar SB. Beneath the -sinkers on the right are placed the knocking-over bits or the -discharging pieces DP, and on the comb formed by these blades the fabric -F rests with the loops of the last course down on the needle stems. When -the needles have been pressed and the stitches landed on to the needle -beards, a further downward movement of the needle bar is made to allow -the stitches to be discharged at the needle extremities, with the arms -of the new stitches resting on the edges of the knocking-over bits. When -this is done the needles rise again to their former position as was -described in detail in connection with Figs. 30 to 33. An important -feature of this mechanism is the catch bar marked CB which has the work -of controlling the action of the sinkers and dividers during loop -formation. The catch bar, as is noted by the shape, fits into the groove -at the sinker ends and when it assumes this position it is able to work -the sinkers as desired for loop formation. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - SETTING OF KNITTED FABRICS - - -By the setting of a fabric is meant the closeness in which the loops are -knitted in the fabric, and this question also bears reference to the -weight of the fabric and its density. The first item which affects the -setting is the gauge of the frame, that is, the closeness with which the -needles are set in the machine and a firm producing a full range of -knitted goods requires to instal a range of machines from fine to -coarse. In machines of the Cotton's Patent type the gauge is given by -the number of leads which occupy 3 in., there being as a rule two -needles cast in the lead. Twice the gauge number gives the needles on 3 -in., and to obtain the needles per inch we divide by 3. In other words, -the needles per inch are equivalent to two-thirds of the gauge number of -the machine. From 8 to 12 gauge is considered coarse, from 14 to 20 -gauge is medium, whilst the fine numbers range from 20 to 40 gauge. At -the one end of the scale we have gauges on which the coarsest kinds of -military articles are worked, whilst at the other are numbers suitable -for the finest silk-knitted hosiery. Thus the work produced from a -16-gauge frame is termed 16-gauge fabric, that from the 30-gauge is -termed 30-gauge texture. Between these extremes, however, there is a -certain variation of texture possible on each frame according as the -yarn is heavy, medium or light, and within certain limits fabrics of -different weights may be forthcoming from one and the same machine. - -_Texture Variation on Individual Frames._—Fig. 36 gives a series of -diagrams which, if examined, will throw light on the interesting -question of variation of set on any one gauge of machine. The diagram -represents the conditions on a frame of the Cotton's Patent type where -the needles are shown in shaded circles marked N and given in end -section, whilst the sinkers are noted to pass between these and are -marked S. The rope-like structure which envelops these indicates the -thread and is marked by T, the whole diagram representing the action of -sinking the loops on any spring needle machine where the sinkers are -pushing the thread between the needles to provide the material for -loops. In all the diagrams marked A to E the dimensions of the -stitch-forming parts such as the sinkers and needles are constant in -size and the variation occurs entirely in the thickness of the yarn. In -diagram A it will be noted that each needle space, that is, from one -needle to the next, is divided thus: needle, space for yarn; sinker, -space for yarn. Between each needle, therefore, we have needle, yarn, -sinker, yarn in sequence, and this order persists throughout the frame. -It will thus be seen that we have various factors of variation, the -first being in the relative spacing of sinkers and needles, this -proportion being determined by the machine builders. Strange to say all -machines of the same type do not have the spacing arranged in the same -proportion, different makers adopting a somewhat varying practice in -this regard. From the point of view of the machine constructor he has to -decide on relative measurements which give the greatest strength to the -parts, the sinkers have to be of the size which will make them -sufficiently stable in working and make wear and tear the lowest -possible. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 36 -] - -_Yarn Variation._—The real foundation of this problem lies in the way in -which the yarn can be increased in size for any given frame gauge, and -the counts can be varied within certain limits to give widely-differing -results. If the spaces marked 1 and 2 of Diagram A in Fig. 36 be noted, -it will be seen that the whole matter depends on the way in which these -are filled by the yarn. If the spaces are but sparsely occupied, then -the setting of the loops will of necessity be slack, and the texture -will suffer owing to the yarn not being bulky enough to fill up the -interspaces. The interspaces are in the first instance created by the -presence of the parts, and for a normally good texture the yarn closes -up to a considerable extent after the fabric has left the needles. If -the space exceeds a certain ratio, the resulting texture is loose and -open in appearance and of little value for ordinary clothing purposes. -True, such texture may be useful in what are termed gauze varieties, -where the thickness of the yarn is diminished out of all proportion to -the gauge, and the fabric has an appearance which is so loose that the -loops cannot be supported in their usual symmetrical form. Diagram B of -Fig. 36 shows a further stage in the yarn thickness where the -relationship between the yarn size and the gauge is approaching normal -and under certain circumstances would give quite satisfactory results in -summer or light-weight goods. The succeeding three diagrams C, D and E -show a graduated thickening of the yarn where the thickness is increased -from normal condition to that in which the yarn is too thick for the -gauge. Diagrams C, D, and E mark the transition from light-weight to -normal and from normal to heavy-weight textures. In Diagram E the yarn -is already occupying all the available space, and to extend the -thickness further in relation to the gauge would give rise to -unsatisfactory results in the texture. Even in Diagram D the yarn is -approaching the stage where it is uncomfortable to work, for if a -certain amount of free space be not allowed, the loops are stiff and -crowded together in too little space. The weight of the fabric is -undoubtedly increased, but owing to the congested state of the loops -little or no interaction is possible amongst them and the cloth becomes -stodgy in character. It may happen that the thickness of yarn is -increased to make stouter fabrics and more durable, but when the -thickness of yarn has exceeded a certain proportion of space, we have -increased weight with a great reduction in elasticity. The net result is -to lower the wearing value of the texture, for what is gained in dead -weight is lost in elasticity. In the wearing properties of the knitted -fabric elasticity is a most important item, and unless there is a -modicum of this property the fabric is seriously reduced in durability. -In addition to this, grave injury is done to the working parts of the -machine by making "full" fabrics, because the extra strain imposed on -sinkers and needles augments the depreciation of the mechanism. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 37 -] - -_Effect of Yarn Quality._—In studying the correct size of yarn suitable -for any particular gauge of frame, the nature of the yarn and its -quality and structure have to be taken into consideration. In regard to -material a great point is whether the yarn is made from wool, cotton or -silk. Woollen yarns have a considerable proportion of material of open -character which adheres but loosely to the core, and are eminently -suited for knitted goods, but their character makes it difficult to -determine what the exact diameter is. Silk yarns, on the other hand, -appear at the opposite end of the scale, for these are fine in diameter -and comparatively dense in body and clear in surface, so that they are -best accommodated in very fine gauges. Cotton yarns may be said to have -intermediate properties in this regard, they are dense in structure and -even in diameter with a comparatively small amount of surface material. -Woollen textures are usually set more openly and at increased width in -the frame to allow of a thickening of the fabric in scouring and -milling, but as cotton does not exhibit this tendency to felt in -anything like the same degree, it is set much more tightly on the frame, -for it requires to receive its necessary consistency when it leaves the -machine without depending on augmentation of thickness in the scouring -and milling process. All knitted fabrics worked in the plain stitch -contract at once on leaving the needles, the rib stitch contracts most. -In the case of the tuck varieties there may sometimes be an increase in -width if the yarns are heavily worked on the frame, heavy working upsets -the equilibrium of the knitted stitch, and this pressure it seeks to -relieve by spreading out in the width. In determining the yarns suitable -for any gauge, allowance has to be made for the nature of the material -and the structure of the yarn. For instance, a woollen yarn spun on a -tight principle might appear too thin for a given gauge, whilst another -yarn of similar weight but fuller in handle would appear to fill the -gauge exactly. It will be seen from these points that it is extremely -difficult to lay down rules for setting yarn on any particular gauge of -machine, but with practical experience in any branch of manufacture we -may arrive at a rule which may be applied with confidence for any -particular class of goods. We can also say with fair definiteness what -size of yarn will be too light to give a good structure on any -particular gauge whilst we may also determine the counts which is too -heavy. The frame-worker is a good judge of its suitability by noting the -way it works on the needles. - -_Variation in Loop Length._—In describing the structure of various -systems of loop formation it was mentioned that the texture of the -fabric worked on any particular gauge of frame could be regulated -according to the length of loop drawn on the needles of the machine. -This is performed on the flat knitting machine by raising the cams for a -shorter loop, and lowering them so as to draw a larger loop. When the -loop is shortened it means that a larger number of courses can be -inserted per inch and so the weight is increased. When the loop is -lengthened it makes the fabric looser in texture, and although the yarn -drawn by a course of loops is longer than for any individual course of -short loops, the take-up of yarn for the tight fabric is amply -compensated for by the increased number of courses per inch which can be -inserted. It is a mathematical problem of considerable interest as to -what the difference actually is; if we lengthen the loop a greater -weight of yarn is necessary to provide a course of stitches, in making -the work stiffer we reduce the weight of yarn required for any -particular course but increase the number of courses per inch. Variation -of yarn tension for making slack or stiff work can only be done to a -limited extent in any particular gauge, but it is a very useful method -of varying fabric texture. If the tension is not correct, the fabric is -lacking in character and this deficiency is at once reflected in the -quality. - -The point may be better understood by a reference to the diagram given -in Fig. 37 where the set of the needles and sinkers with their relative -thicknesses is the same as in Fig. 36. In Fig. 36 the yarn varies in -thickness according to the various stages illustrated, in Fig. 37 the -thickness of yarn remains the same throughout but with a difference in -the length of loop drawn. The process is illustrated in five stages -beginning with F, where the tension is stiffest and the loop shortest, -and culminating at J where the tension is slackest and the loop longest. -At first sight these would appear to be reversed in their effect, and -Diagram J would seem to give the heaviest fabric seeing that it has a -greater length of take-up per course drawn. It must, however, be clearly -understood that this shorter take-up enables a greater number of -individual courses to be inserted per inch, so that the apparent loss is -amply compensated for by the increase in the courses. - -In Fig. F the loop drawn is the shortest possible and the sinkers S push -the yarn T below the needles N. In Fig. G a slight lengthening of the -loop is observable and this stage may be regarded as intermediate -between stiff and medium setting of the courses. In stage H the loop is -further extended between the needles and may be considered a normal form -of loop sinking. In Fig. I a corresponding lengthening takes place, -marking the intermediate stage between normal and slack texture, whilst -in J the loops are formed for a slack fabric which will give a texture -known in the trade under the name of gauze often used for light-weight -goods. - -_Courses and Wales._—A woven fabric consists of two series of threads, -one termed the warp runs lengthwise in the cloth, whilst the second -series called the weft runs crosswise. The knitted fabric cannot be so -exactly described because the plain stitch is in reality a weft fabric -having its threads inserted crosswise in the texture and termed courses. -At the same time the horizontal courses have vertical features known -under the name of wales; the stitches are formed on needles, and from -one needle to the next comprises a wale. Wales are measured in the width -generally by the number per inch, whilst the courses are similarly -measured in the length. In woven goods a normal well-balanced structure -known as a square cloth has the number of warp threads per inch equal to -the number of weft threads per inch, but this relationship does not hold -good for the knitted structure. In the hand-frame times statements were -always made out on the assumption that fabrics were worked "to the -gauge," that is, a 12-gauge frame Cotton's type would have 12 courses -per inch, and an 18-gauge would have 18 courses per inch. If this be -analyzed it will be found equivalent to a 50 per cent. increase of the -courses per inch over the wales, because the wales per inch are -equivalent to needles per inch and, as was mentioned previously, the -needles per inch = two-thirds of the gauge. In a fabric worked to the -gauge we have 50 per cent. more courses than wales per inch, that is, a -fabric with 12 wales per inch would have 18 courses per inch and so on. -Present-day practice does not bear out this setting, for the courses per -inch usually fall short of a 50 per cent. increase over the stitches per -inch. Thus for a normal texture in 18-gauge there are 12 needles per -inch, or equivalent to 12 wales per inch. If this were worked to the -gauge we should have 18 courses per inch, but in general present-day -practice about 15 to 16 is more usual. A 24-gauge fabric has 16 needles -or wales per inch, and this worked to the gauge would give 24 courses -per inch, but in general practice 20 to 22 would be nearer the figure. -This is a point which has to be carefully considered in regard to making -out designs for knitted fabrics which have to be ornamented, because if -the effect has to be represented on squared paper the horizontal squares -should exceed the vertical squares by about 50 per cent., so that the -figure may present a true picture of the actual size of design. - -_Yarns Suitable for Gauge._—The matter of evolving a general rule for -finding the yarn which will be suitable for a certain gauge of machine -is full of difficulty as will be understood when the elusive elements of -the knitted texture are fully realized. In the woollen underwear trade a -rule followed in practical working is that for the Cotton's Patent -frame, the yarn suitable for any gauge is the worsted yarn number -two-ply the same as the gauge. Thus for a 16-gauge 2/16's yarn would be -considered suitable, for 2/20's yarn we should select a 20-gauge frame -and so on. As has been pointed out, however, each frame has a short -series of yarn sizes which can be worked on it, each giving a result -which will be suitable for specific purposes. This rule whilst a useful -guide for medium gauge machines goes wrong in the extremes, that is, in -the extremely coarse and the extremely fine. For example, on 40-gauge it -is usual to work yarns much finer than 2/40's worsted, whilst on the -12-gauge frame, 3/12's worsted for stiff military fabrics is often -worked. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - VARIOUS KNITTING YARNS - - -A large variety of yarns other than pure woollens are employed for -knitted goods and there is no branch of the textile industry where such -free use is made of materials of different type and character. For the -plain knitted stitch in particular "the yarn is the fabric" and the -qualities of touch and handle as well as colour form the chief features -sought after in the yarn. - -_Cotton Yarns._—Yarns spun from cotton are utilized for a large -selection of the trade in knitted articles which perform an -indispensable function in clothing. When examined with the naked eye -cotton yarns can be distinguished by their dense structure, the fibre is -soft when in fibre form, but when spun into yarns takes a firm -structure. Cotton yarns used for knitting are usually spun with as slack -a twist as is consistent with strength, and an effort is made to throw a -considerable portion of fibre to the surface of the thread. When -examined under a low-power microscope much useful information may be -gained by scrutiny of the lie of the fibres and of the way in which they -dispose themselves. A photo-micrograph of a fine counts of cotton yarn -used in knitting is given in Fig. 38 where the fibres are noted to be -densely packed in the yarn with copious material round the surface to -enable the thread to cover up the loop interspaces. From this sample -also may be noted the twisted appearance common to all cotton fibres; -the single fibres have an irregular twist like a twisted ribbon. This -distorted aspect of the fibre is one of the best means of distinguishing -this material, and when the feature is noted, it is a sure sign that -cotton is present. Another evidence which confirms this is the peculiar -manner in which the fibres dispose of themselves, they appear -disjointed, form sharp corners and shoot away at steep angles. Wool -fibres in a yarn appear curved and dispose of themselves in elegant -waves, whilst cotton strands strike out in divergent directions. Fig. 39 -gives another view of a type often employed for cotton knitted goods, -this being a single thread of long stapled cotton loosely twisted so as -to give a soft full handle. This character of thread is often employed -for the so-called fleecy underwear where the soft yarn is raised or -brushed on the teasles to give an effect extremely pleasant to the -touch. In this example the fibres are shown freely scattered from the -core of the yarn, and a closer examination of them will show that they -have the sharp angles and the spiral twists just referred to as being -indicative of the cotton fibre. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 38 - - TYPE OF SINGLE COTTON YARN OF FINE COUNTS USED FOR HOSIERY -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 39 - - SINGLE LOOSE TWISTED COTTON YARN USED FOR BACKING -] - -_Mercerized Cotton Yarn._—Mercerized cotton is largely employed in -knitted goods of the fancy class where the great lustre of the material -imparts effectiveness to the fabric. The usual type of mercerized thread -used in knitting is two-ply and hard twisted, with the surface fibre -singed off so as to give an uninterrupted reflection of light. The yarn -is mercerized usually in the hank when the hanks of yarn are stretched -tightly over poles and then immersed in a strong solution of caustic -soda. In a short time the cotton swells and becomes lustrous, -approaching silk in general appearance, and this effect is augmented by -the evenness of the surface of the thread. This type of yarn lends -itself to the production of brilliant colours and is admirably adapted -to such articles as knitted coats, scarves and other types of the fancy -trade in knitted goods, being best suited for summer wear on account of -their coolness. - -_Artificial Silk._—The application of artificial silk or wood pulp to -the manufacture of knitted goods has been extensively made and gives -results in every way brilliant in character. The structure of this type -is shown in photo-micrograph 40 which is a view of a single thread of -artificial silk, where it will be noted that the fibres are exactly -parallel to one another and there are no straggling members whatever, -each and all of them taking their place in the thread in a perfectly -parallel and orderly fashion. The substance from which these yarns is -produced is at first in a fluid condition and is pressed through tubes -in a container in very fine strands, a certain number of which are run -together to constitute thread. This material is usually supplied -two-fold for knitting purposes and has been in great demand for the -scarf and knitted coat trade, where brilliance of shade and elegance of -appearance are outstanding features. Care must be taken that the goods -are correctly described, as the Silk Association of Great Britain -maintains a continuous campaign to have these goods distinct in -description from those of real silk. One famous case hinged on the term -art silk. If the word art is written art. with a full-stop it is -recognized as a contraction for the word artificial, but without this -period the term art is misleading as indicating a variety of real silk -and as such constitutes a mis-description for which penalties are -provided. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 40 - - 2-FOLD MERCERISED COTTON YARN USED IN KNITTING -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 41 - - SINGLE THREAD OF ARTIFICIAL SILK YARN -] - -_Spun Silk Yarns._—These yarns are produced in silk manufacture from the -cocoons which have been damaged so as to cause the silk to be broken or -torn. Such have to be prepared and combed like other short materials and -the resultant yarns are in great demand for knitted goods. The perfect -cocoons have their fibres unravelled in continuous lengths, a certain -number of these being run together to form a single thread of commerce. -Artificial silk thread is similar in appearance except that it is not -possible to approach the real organzine in fineness of fibre. The spun -silk thread is elastic and extremely useful in knitted articles, -although its use is restricted to specialities on account of the high -price of the product. Illustration 42 gives a photo-micrograph of a -common form of spun silk yarn which is two-fold in character, with -abundant surface material projecting at all angles. To attain greater -lustre and a cleaner yarn, these varieties are often put through the -process of gassing, that is, the yarns are passed through a gas flame to -have their loose projecting filaments burned off. Fig. 43 gives a view -of this same thread where the surface fibre has been singed off and the -yarn made much more definite in effect. In the two illustrations the -surpassing sheen of the extremely fine filaments is clearly visible; -when examined still more closely they give the appearance of lustrous -glass rods with very little variation in their structure, absolute -plainness being the characteristic. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 42 - - 2-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN - - FIG. 43 - - GASSED SPUN SILK THREAD -] - -_Silk and Wool Knitted Articles._—The free use of pure silk yarns is -rendered prohibitive in many branches of the trade on account of the -enormous price of the yarns, and generally for knitted goods it is not -possible to produce a garment of sufficient weight for normal use. If -silk is employed for the entire fabric, much of it is lost by -intersecting on the back, only a tithe of the material being visible on -the face. There is no real advantage in having silk on the back of the -texture, and fuller effectiveness and greater comfort and weight are -attained by bringing a heavier material on to the back, preferably a -woollen thread with the silk showing on the face only. The back woollen -thread by its bulk gives greater proportional weight and at the same -time pushes the silk yarn prominently on to the surface and enables it -to exhibit its full lustre. This is certainly the most effective way of -obtaining the utmost utility from the silk material in the texture. The -silk and wool hosiery folded yarn is also employed largely for these -goods, one yarn of silk being folded in a loose twist with one thread of -woollen. In some cases the silk yarn is organzine, in others it is -two-fold spun silk, but as a general rule the woollen constituent is -composed of wool in the single yarn only, and this loosely spun to give -an open effect. This type of silk and wool yarn forms the basis of an -important branch of knitted underwear and such garments present an -intermediate position between the plain variety of woollen garment and -the more costly pure silk article. Fig. 44 gives a view of a typical -sample of this class of yarn, being a single thread of organzine silk -folded with a single pure woollen yarn. The dense member of the twist is -clearly seen to be the silk thread of the organzine variety, because the -constituent fibres are continuous and run parallel with each other. -Contrasted with this the woollen yarn is free and open in structure, the -most suitable type of wool being medium to long staple. In this yarn the -lustre and neatness of the silk imparts an elegant appearance to the -fabric, whilst the open structure of the woollen thread removes the -baldness of the yarn and adds the essential fullness to the handle as -well as softness and warmth. In many cases the organzine silk thread is -replaced by the ordinary type of two-fold spun silk yarn and the -thickness of the woollen neighbour greatly increased over what is here -noticeable. In almost every case for such fabrics the silk yarn -constituent is pure white and very attractive results accrue if the -woollen thread is folded dyed in some bright shade, such as blue, red or -green. The lustrous silk yarn with its whiteness tones down the strong -colours in a highly pleasing manner and the entire production is of the -most elegant description and deservedly a favourite with many classes of -wearers. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 44 - - SILK AND WOOL KNITTING YARN -] - -_Cotton and Wool Mixtures._—Just as we obtain articles of intermediate -qualities by adding silk and wool together, so by combining cotton and -wool results are obtained which blend the peculiarities of each -material. For many wearers pure wool underwear proves rather an irritant -to the skin, the crispness making itself felt on a tender cuticle. On -the other hand, garments worked entirely from cotton do not possess -anything like the power of heat retention as is the case with the pure -wool article, and in the important matter of elasticity and absorbency -cotton as much inferior to the wool. When the two materials are blended, -the resultant is warmer than pure cotton and not so warm as wool, whilst -the blended article stands mid-way in absorbency and does not produce -the same irritation to the skin as some varieties of pure wool. In -regard to whiteness the cotton and wool blend is more satisfactory than -many types of wool which have to be bleached in a rather expensive -method in order to give similar whiteness. The addition of the cotton -improves the colour and obviates bleaching of the garment. Finally, the -blended article from cotton and wool is much more moderate in price than -the pure woollen garment. For winter its chief drawback is a much lower -clothing or heating power, and for the summer its disadvantage is that -it quickly fills with moisture and renders the wearer uncomfortable -until this moisture has been radiated back again. - -_Merino._—The great bulk of fabrics of this class are embraced under the -term merino, which denotes cotton and wool articles where the materials -have been blended in the fibre in a given proportion. The normal yarn is -composed of 50 per cent. of each, but the range includes as much as 90 -per cent. cotton, with 10 per cent. wool, with 90 per cent. wool and 10 -per cent. cotton at the other end of the scale. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 45 - - SILK SINGLE AND COTTON AND WOOL MERINO FOLDED 2-PLY -] - -If Fig. 45 be examined it will be noticed that it is in the form of -two-ply, one thread being composed of pure silk as shown by its density -and fineness, whilst the thicker yarn is merino, that is, cotton and -wool mixed in the fibre. The presence of the cotton and the wool may -both be detected by an examination of the straggling fibres, the wool -curving and bending in its usual characteristic manner, whilst the -cotton fibres show their twisted convolutions and their furtive breaks -into angles. The usual kinds of merino yarns used for underwear are -folded two-ply, with a slack twist which seldom exceeds more than a few -turns per inch. In spinning such yarns it is sought to throw the wool to -the thread surface as far as possible so as to increase the comfort to -the wearer and give improved handle. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 46 - - SHOWING GRACEFUL CURLING PROPENSITIES OF A CASHMERE THREAD -] - -_Cashmere._—The general use of this term includes open spun worsted -yarns, used in underwear, but the original signification is the product -of the Cashmere goat which inhabits the Himalayas. This material is -natural coloured, the softest kinds are of a sandy fawn shade and are -largely employed in the knitting industry for scarves, gloves and vests. -In respect of soft, delicate handle real cashmere is without an equal -amongst textile materials, and this property alone makes it eminently -suitable for these branches in particular. - -_Angora Rabbit Fur._—The fur of the rabbit has recently come into -prominence for the knitting industry and many new uses have been found -for these materials. The product of the Angora rabbit reared in large -numbers in France has been extensively used for knitted articles, -notably gloves and vests, where its surpassing qualities of delicacy of -handle have been greatly appreciated. One disadvantage of this fur is -that it readily contracts when steeped in water, where the least -scouring makes it almost vanish out of view. It is extremely difficult -to spin into yarns which will bear the strains of knitting and of -ordinary wear, the length of the fibres is rather variable and large -portions of the rabbit coat consist of fibre of the most flimsy -description, being perceptibly swayed by the ordinary air currents of a -room. It will thus be seen that in employing this material the kind of -article to which it has to be applied must be kept carefully in mind, -and every effort should be made to utilize it where it will be protected -from contact with excessive moisture. The article selected should not be -one which encounters much friction during its period of wear because one -of the troubles is that the loose floating fibres easily separate -themselves from the parent fabric. This sort of material taken from the -common rabbit is often vended in the shops in balls of thick, loose spun -thread which can rapidly be made into plain stitch gloves, not very -shapely but certainly having qualities of novelty and comfort. - -_Camel Hair._—As the name indicates this material is secured from the -camel, large tufts of good quality fibre growing on its chest and of a -predominantly sandy tint, natural in hue. This is used in its life shade -for a large number of varieties of knitted articles, perhaps its -best-known use in knitting is in connection with the scarf trade, whilst -it is also found in the knitted glove and cap industry. - -_Alpaca._—This is the product of the goat of the same name which -inhabits the Andes of South America and is very useful because of the -large variety of colours in which it grows on the fleece. These are -sorted out into tones of approximately the same depth and used for -numerous other articles in the knitting industry. The material in itself -often appears rather hard and cold for knitted goods, but the handle can -be improved by steaming which has the effect of permanently softening -the cell walls of the fibre. Very successful effects are produced by -folding a thread of one shade with a single thread of another, and when -these are brushed in finishing they give melanged effects which are most -attractive and pleasing. - -_Peculiarities of Goat and Camel Hairs._—Materials such as camel hair, -alpaca and cashmere all have certain properties in common. They have -each two growths of material, one on the surface consisting of long, -strong beard hairs which are rough in the extreme and quite unsuitable -for manufacturing purposes. Under this overgrowth and protected by it is -the variety which as a rule is much softer to touch and shorter in -staple; the long hairs are a great nuisance to the manufacturer, but are -in reality indispensable as they afford much needed protection to the -soft undergrowth during the turbulent life of the goat. If they are not -too coarse they may be employed as the dark colouring element in natural -hosiery yarns, the browns and greys of alpaca being most useful in this -regard. These materials belong to the most dirty class of materials used -in knitting yarns, and it is very necessary that they should be -thoroughly cleaned before use. Owing to the fact, however, that they are -not dyed but generally employed as they stand, they may not be scoured -so thoroughly as ordinary wool. The deadly germs of anthrax are often -present on these materials, this disease being frequently transmitted to -a worker handling the fleeces where clots of blood produced by careless -clipping are a grave source of danger. There is also further evidence of -uncleanness in the specks of dandruff-like matter which are often found -sticking on the fibres of the yarn. - -Like other branches of the textile industry, hosiery manufacture has -been the subject of numerous attempts at introducing new and novel -fibres heralded on to the market with much blowing of trumpets and -exaggerated prospectuses. This industry can absorb a greater variety of -yarns, different classes of materials than almost any other branch of -textiles. What has often been suggested as a sound commercial -proposition is that yarn made from the nettle plant should be more -extensively utilized. A thread made from fibre extracted from the stem -of the ordinary stinging variety is given in Fig. 47 which gives a -thread quite suitable for many classes of woven fabrics. The material, -however, is not of suitably agreeable handle for knitted goods and would -only be employed for this purpose in times of dire scarcity. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 47 - - YARN SPUN FROM NETTLE FIBRE -] - -_Requirements of the Fancy Trade._—In the chapter on woollen underwear -yarns the characteristics of material and structure were discussed in -relation to the trade in underwear. In this chapter a number of -materials have been referred to which take their place in the what is -known as the fancy trade for outer and intermediate garments. If it is a -question of the fancy stitches, it is required to bring out the features -of these with yarns clear in surface and neat in structure so that the -eye may follow the intersections of the yarns in the fabric. The silk -and artificial silk productions belong to the most highly valued of the -ornamental branches of the knitting industry, and these may be utilized -to bring out in the clearest effect stitches such as shogged patterns, -rib varieties and lace designs where definiteness of stitch and -brilliance of colour combine to give results of a high value for elegant -garments. In the case of materials of camel hair, Angora fur or pure -cashmere class, the stitch as a rule is subsidiary, being usually of the -plainest description so as to allow of the fullest display of the -natural properties of the material. In the fancy trade it is futile to -employ features which compete with each other for the attention of the -observer. In a fancy-stitch article the mono-colour should prevail; -where the stitch is simple the best ground is afforded for the display -of several colours in the goods. - - - - - CHAPTER X - HOSIERY YARN WINDING - - -In former chapters it has been pointed out that the knitted stitch is -apparently a simple structure, but on closer examination a number of -elements are discovered which together form a complex whole. In the -knitting operation the chief essential is accuracy of loop formation and -regularity of stitch right along the entire width of loops in the -course. If at any point the thread is drawn slightly tighter than the -normal, this tightening is at once apparent in the formation of the -loops and a grave defect occurs which on account of its minuteness is -impossible to remedy in after operations. In the knitting operation -correct tension of thread is indispensable to good quality fabric, and -this again depends on an absolutely uniform feed of yarn to the needles -of the machine. In this yarn supply one of the first essentials is a -proper package for the yarn and one which will insure that the thread -unwinds with absolutely even tension throughout. It is a very serious -matter indeed to the hosiery manufacturer if even slight obstacles occur -on the bobbin for these at once injure the fabric quality. Another -frequent cause of defects occurs by what is termed the ballooning of the -thread as it comes from the bobbin, that is, the swing which the thread -makes in unwinding itself when it encounters the resistance of the air, -a matter which depends on the bulk of the thread and the amount and -nature of its surface fibre. It also varies according as the bobbin is -full or nearly empty with intermediate stages of differential variation. -So important is this matter of uniform yarn feed recognized to be for -first-class fabric, that the Americans in particular have given the -utmost attention to yarn supply devices, by which the yarn is measured -into the needles by an arrangement which deadens all the minor -variations of tension before the yarn approaches the sinkers and -needles, and the amount fed into the needles is measured absolutely -level for each stitch. There is also a growing disinclination amongst -manufacturers to undertake the winding of yarn owing to the loss -incurred by imperfect work, and this branch is being more and more -relegated to the spinner who delivers the material in a form ready to -work on the frame. Of course in a varied class trade it will be found -impossible to eliminate the winding operation entirely, for we have the -problem of the conservation of small quantities of yarn and their -subsequent working into fabric. One of the chief difficulties of the -winding department is the correct piecing of the ends with a minimum of -waste and this department has been largely left to young workers as -their first job in entering the factory. With the enormous rise in the -prices of yarns manufacturers are now recognizing that the operation has -developed from a subsidiary to a primary one, and better results are -being obtained by having the winding performed by older and more -experienced workers who have a correct idea of the value of the material -and are properly schooled in the avoidance of waste. With inexperienced -workers much weekly loss is caused not only by the waste incurred in -piecing the ends but also because these knots are not properly secured -or are ragged in appearance. Very often they are quite firm, but on -account of their size are unable to pass through the eye of the -thread-carrier or if they do emerge successfully from this ordeal the -chances are that the sinkers will refuse to take them in, and the -needles bend or breakage of the springs result. If the knot does get -safely into the fabric, the trouble is by no means finished, for if it -is untidy in appearance it lowers the quality of the fabric and reduces -the saleability. A frequent point of danger is the eye of the -thread-carrier which is fine in aperture, and unless the knot is of -reasonable size, it stands a strong chance of causing a press-off on the -machine, with loss of time in having the fabric picked on again added to -the loss due to stoppage of the other machine sections. What is probably -worse in effect is the momentary tightening of the loops due to the knot -being caught in the eye of the thread-carrier which usually takes the -form of several inches of stitches attenuated in length compared with -the rest of the fabric and which constitutes an instant blemish on the -fabric texture quality. The chief waste in winding is made when piecing -the two ends together when it requires skill to perform the operation of -knotting with the finger tips so as to employ less material. The -primitive mode is to bring hands, wrists, and even the elbows into play -with a considerable amount of waste incidental to the process. With -yarns at 12/-per lb. a careless worker can soon dissipate a considerable -amount of money in waste and it is advisable to have some form of -checking the waste made by any particular worker so as to form a proper -estimate of their individual efficiency. - -_The Winding Operation._—Sufficient has been stated to indicate that the -winding of yarn usually regarded as subsidiary in other branches of -textiles is a first essential in the knitting business. An evenly-wound -package is of great importance, and in regard to the size of bobbin -conditions are quite different to those prevailing in the weaving trade. -In weaving the weight of the package is restricted to the capacity of -the shuttle, this being limited in size so that the weight may be kept -at the minimum required for throwing across the lay of the loom. In -knitting the position is more favourable, for the bobbin or yarn package -is usually stationary and the thread is drawn from it to be fed into the -needles of the frame. For this it is naturally an advantage to have the -package as large as possible so as to reduce to the lowest minimum the -time required for changing from an empty bobbin to a full one. To insure -uniformity of yarn delivery to the needles and sinkers it is essential -to have a perfectly built bobbin, and for the older types of winding -frames, the usual shape was a bobbin with a high centre where the yarn -got frequently caught in the grooves or on the bottom end. This -primitive system of yarn winding was not unsuitable for the coarser -types of knitting yarns in the stout gauges, and for this work the older -form of winder is found in many of our factories even to-day. This -machine has the advantage of being simply constructed and easily -manipulated by an unskilled worker, and it is also rapid in action. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 48 and 49 -] - -_The Modern Hosiery Winder._—In the hosiery trade there is practical -unanimity as regards the type of machine most suitable for the general -purposes of a knitting factory, and herewith in Fig. 48 is given a side -view of a section of the chief functional parts of a machine which -enjoys a large popularity with manufacturers as having proved itself -immensely suitable for general purposes. It is somewhat vaguely known as -the Foster winder, made with variations by a number of firms, and -through each the leading principles of construction are the same. The -bobbin is marked B, and is of the type invariably employed in the -underwear trade, this being placed on a spindle where it is kept in -position by a groove which fits the shape of the metal part on which it -rests. Further down in the machine the friction wheel FW is attached, -this being in the form of a circular disc rotated by the driving wheel -marked DW. This wheel has its rim covered with rough leather so that it -can turn the wheel or disc FW and so cause the bobbin B to revolve. In -front of the bobbin is a finger operated by the worker which has the -effect of raising the friction disc FW away from the driving wheel DW, -thus bringing the bobbin to a standstill. The yarn is indicated by T -which is seen to pass upwards from the hank H which is stretched over -the racers U. On the way to the bobbin the thread passes successively -between the plates of the yarn-clearing apparatus YC, over the roller R, -and then through the eye of the guide G direct to the bobbin. - -_Bobbin Building._—The outstanding advantage of this machine is the -efficient manner in which the bobbin is built, and in this process -several factors have to be considered. The thread guide G has a regular -up-and-down motion for the traverse, this upward and downward sweep -being brought about by the heart-shaped cam C which, by its revolving -action, causes the whole stage P to rise and fall, thus giving a similar -motion to the thread guide. Partaking in this traverse is the spiral S -with the wheel W, which has a ribbed surface to preserve contact with -the yarn level. The wheel W has a finger V attached, which in turn works -into the spiral of rod S, and whenever the yarn rises to a certain level -on the bobbin, it comes into frictional contact with the ribbed wheel -which receives a turn sufficient to cause the wheel and guide to rise -higher on the spiral and with it the thread guide also assumes a more -elevated position. In this way the wheel W and the thread guide G travel -from the lower end of the spiral S to the other upper end during the -operation of filling a single bobbin. Up to this stage the action may be -detailed thus: the thread guide receives its traverse over a certain -distance of the bobbin by the action of the heart-shaped cam C, this -being denoted by the dotted positions C1 for cam, K1 for stud, P1 for -the stage, G1 for the guide, and this motion proceeds regularly during -the winding operation. There is next the gradual rising of the guide on -the spiral rod caused by the turning of the bobbin B, the high part of -the bobbin B having friction with the ribbed wheel W causing it to rise -gradually on the spiral. - -_The Differential._—The final element in successful bobbin building is -the differential and the means of securing this are ingenious in the -highest degree. The driving wheel DW with its rough leather rim works on -the disc FW and causes it to rotate, but the speed of rotation must vary -according as the upper or the lower part of the bobbin is being filled. -When the yarn is passing on to the bare part of the bobbin as it does at -the upper sweep of the traverse, one revolution coils a very much -smaller length of thread than it does at its lowest position when the -bobbin is full. The rate of winding varies differentially according to -the intermediate positions of the thread, in the upward sweep of the -traverse the speed of the bobbin accelerates as the bare part is -approached, whilst on the downward sweep the speed of the bobbin -decreases, reaching its slowest when the full part of the bobbin is -attained. This differential is produced by a side-to-side movement of -the driving wheel DW over the rim of the disc FW, from the outer rim and -slowly towards the inner rim and _vice versâ_. When the wheel is driving -at its extreme position on the outer rim the bobbin is running at its -slowest, because the driving wheel has a longer distance to traverse in -order to effect one bobbin revolution. When the driving wheel is acting -at its furthest position inwards the bobbin is at its highest speed, and -this takes place with graduated differences in the intermediate stages -of the process. - -_Yarn Clearing._—On most winding machines for the hosiery trade are -placed in front of each spindle for winding a pair of upright plates -which comprise the yarn clearers YC, which are regulated in their -distance from each other by means of a small screw. The thread clearer -is shown in front section in Fig. 49 where the plates are marked YC, -their distance apart being regulated to a nicety by the small screw -marked X operated by the two fingers. These thread clearers are fixed -there so that by passing the yarn through between them on its way to the -bobbin B, thick places, burrs, slubs, etc., may be removed from the -yarns and extra large knots caught between them. In other words, the -function of the thread clearer may be stated as a qualifying of the -thread for its passage through the thread-carriers into the needles and -sinkers of the knitting frame, and by removing these obstructions in -winding, subsequent trouble in knitting is avoided and loss of time -averted. In many hosiery factories, however, it is noted that these -clearers are by no means in general use, and certainly if the yarn is in -anything like clean condition, it should be permitted to pass on to the -bobbin in an unruffled condition. - -_Damping._—Damping is one of the subsidiary operations of hosiery -manufacture which, apparently of little account, may yet have serious -consequences if neglected or improperly performed. Manufacturers are -divided as to the merits of damping or lubricating as it is often -called, and in many progressive factories it is seldom if ever -performed. The object of damping is to soften those classes of woollen, -silk and cotton yarns which are deficient in pliability and do not allow -themselves to be formed into symmetrical loops. In the case of woollen -yarns some varieties are hard and unyielding, and when knitted in loops -they display small irregularities of stitch which are known popularly -under the term of pinholes. These occur irregularly all over the texture -and seriously impair its quality and lubrication or damping is found to -have a beneficial effect by giving greater elasticity and bending power -to the thread. The lubricating or damping agent varies according to the -type of yarn, woollen yarns are damped with an emulsion of oil and soap, -lard is often used for silk materials, whilst cottons are passed through -cakes of paraffin wax. For woollen yarns the lubricating is performed on -the winding machine by passing the yarn through a lubricating trough -marked N, Fig. 48, the trough being half filled with liquor marked L and -in which the roller R is made to revolve. The ideal emulsion for the -damping agent is olive oil and soft soap heated and mixed together to -form an emulsion, but the high cost of these commodities have placed -them out of the reach of practical work and now various substitutes are -employed. The roller R is made to revolve in the damping solution by -means of a band connected with the side drive of the machine, and this -brings a fresh supply of liquor into persistent contact with the thread. -The yarn should be worked on the frame as soon as possible after -winding, for when the bobbin has stood for twelve hours or so the liquor -begins to lose its effect due to evaporation, and if left standing -overnight the effect of the damping may to a considerable extent be lost -on a yarn. - -_Evils of Damping._—The beneficial effects of damping dry and hard -woollen yarn is at once evident in the improved nature of the fabric, -but there are serious drawbacks to the indiscriminate adoption of the -process. Woollen yarn has considerable hygroscopic capacity and it laps -up this moisture very greedily, altering its physical properties -considerably in so doing. One effect of damping is to considerably -augment the elasticity and stretch of the yarn and this induces -variation in the dimensions of garments, introducing an unstable element -which is very difficult to gauge accurately. The sizes of garments tend -to vary considerably, and difficulty is experienced in seaming or -joining them together to have each side terminate equally. There are -also differences in the weight of the garments owing to the capacity -which the woollen fibre has of absorbing moisture far in excess of what -is recognized as essential, and the effect is to vitiate size -measurements. This gives rise to pants longer in one leg than another, -and one side of a seam going to a greater length than the neighbouring -one to which it has to be attached. The lubricating materials supplied -as substitutes have not always proved suitable, for in many instances -they fail to emulsify, and if the oil is left to go on to the yarn by -itself it causes stickiness if the brand proves to be inferior or -contains resinous substitutes. In the coarser varieties of hosiery yarn -which are spun in the grease, lubrication is not so essential, as the -yarn is quite pliable, but in the varieties known as dry-spun where -little or no oil is inserted in the sliver during preparation, damping -greatly improves the loop-forming propensities. It would seem that a -certain amount of fat is essential to the fullest possession of the wool -fibre of all its important properties; in wool scouring the natural fat -or yolk of the material is extracted, and if this be not replaced at a -subsequent stage of spinning or knitting, the resilient properties are -seriously diminished. In dry spinning we have greater cleanliness of -yarn, but what is gained in cleanness is lost in resilience and -pliability, and to restore these physical properties the natural oil or -fat present in the cells of the fibre is artificially replaced by a -soap-oil emulsion. In the case of silk it is often found that the -crispness of fibre and the frictional resistance cause the fibres to -resist the curves of looping and a form of electricity is generated -during the contact of the silk material with the needles of the frame. -In such cases when the quality of stitch is seriously impaired the yarns -are passed through cakes of lard on their way to the winding bobbin -which has the effect of greatly improving the knitting qualities of the -yarn, the loops being at once transformed from half-made and rugged -structures into perfectly-arched specimens. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - CIRCULAR KNITTING - - -Knitting machines are divided into two classes according as they produce -fabric in flat portions or in circular shape. In the methods of stitch -formation already described the courses of loops are constructed in a -flat piece, whilst the circular machine makes its fabric in circular -form. This system of fabric production has many advantages over the -plain width fabric and is indispensable for various branches of the -hosiery trade. In seamless articles such as hose and half-hose it is an -advantage to have them worked circular as this fits the shape of the -body part where they have to be worn. Also large quantities of fabric -are expeditiously worked on the circular frame with big diameter head, -these lengths being often suitable for making into articles such as -nightdresses where the circle of fabric may be used for the body part. -The great bulk of fabrics made on large diameter circulars are intended -for the cut-up trade, and they are so made because of the great -advantages possessed by such frames in point of speed. In flat rotary -frames where the work is made by an alternating motion of the -thread-carrier from side to side a principle of motion is utilized which -has a certain jerkiness as characteristic. With the circular principle -of motion there is an entire absence of jars and jerks in working, the -movement being steady and accurate, whilst the addition of eight or more -feeds to a machine makes an enormous production possible. One of the -most easily understood forms of this type of motion is incorporated in -the well-known Griswold type of circular knitting machine used still in -considerable numbers in one or other of its modifications for the -footwear trade. An illustration of this class of knitting machine is -shown in section in Fig. 50, which is so arranged as to give a side view -of the cylinder which makes the plain work and the dial as used for rib -work. The machine is constructed in a circle which for men's half-hose -is about 4¼ in. in diameter for a normal size, and the upright cylinder -marked C is fitted with grooves cut according to the set of the article -as it is fine or coarse. An average set of machine is 84 needles in the -4¼ in. diameter, but there are as few as 64 in the cylinder for the -coarse varieties, and up to 144 for fine gauges of footwear. A section -of the dial or ribber, as it is often called, is shown crosswise at D -with the cams at CB1. The cylinder needles are indicated by CN whilst -the dial or ribber needles are marked DN. The thread-carrier is shown on -the right by TC, whilst the thread is recognized by the letter T. - -_Movement of the Parts._—The upright cylinder receives its rotatory -movement by means of a handle at the side which operates the bevel -gearing to drive the thread-carrier and the set of cams. The action of -the cams is to give the needles their up-and-down motion in loop -formation, they move round to work on the needle butts in succession, -pushing them up so that the hooks receive the thread from the carrier, -and drawing them down again so as to discharge and knock over the loops. -The thread-carrier and the cams are made to revolve together by the -turning of the machine handle, or in the case of power machines this -motion proceeds from the drive of the frame. The machine may be worked -without the dial, using the cylinder needles only for knitting, in which -case plain stitch fabric is produced as would be required for a plain -hose article. When ribbed work is needed the dial or ribber needles are -set in connection with the upright cylinder needles and are made to -rotate with the cylinder so that the dial needles share the thread with -the cylinder needles. The process of feeding the thread to both sets of -needles is clearly illustrated at the right-hand corner of Fig. 50, -where the thread T is seen to be proceeding through the eye of the -thread-carrier TC, when part of the thread is taken by the cross needle -issuing from the dial and part taken by the upright needles working in -the cylinder. The dial needles discharge their stitches towards the -right, whilst the cylinder needles throw their stitches over to the -left, and this alternation in direction of the stitch discharge is -responsible for the ribbed effect in the fabric. The ribber needles -radiate from the centre of the dial outwards, whilst the cylinder -needles all stand parallel to each other in an upright circle. The -fabric F proceeds down the centre of the machine, as shown, and is -maintained at the correct tension by suspension of weights in the hand -machine, whilst for the power frame we have an automatic motion for -winding up the fabric as it is produced. - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 50, 51 and 52 -] - -_Stitch Formation._—The principle of stitch formation may be understood -from an examination of Fig. 51, which gives a view of the type of cams -found inside the cam box of the hand machine. Except where it is -required to knit the needle rests on what may be termed the normal -ledge, and it is only moved from this position when the cams reach it to -make it knit. The normal ledge is indicated by L and L1, and whilst the -needle is resting on this part of the platform no motion can result. To -form the stitch the first stage is to have the needle knocked above the -general level of the needle hooks to catch its share of the thread as it -is being fed into the needles, and this push-up is given by the small -triangular-shaped cam marked PC which raises the needles just -sufficiently above the normal height to receive their share of the -thread from the carrier. This done, the needle is at once operated upon -by the knitting cam KC, which is of the shape shown so as to draw down -the needle for the discharge of the loop. The butts of the needles N are -depressed by the knitting cam KC, and when they have reached their -lowest extremity N they have discharged their loops completely. The part -M of the cam causes the needles to rise once more into their normal -inoperative position, where they remain until the cams swing round to -them again to resume the knitting operation. On the right of Fig. 51 -will be noted a push-up cam in a dotted position PC1, and it should be -explained that this is for the case of reciprocal knitting such as is -required in making the heel or the toe of an article of hose. In this we -operate only one-half of the needles in the cylinder, and in so doing -cause the cams to move from side to side in an oscillatory fashion. When -the cams are rotating in one direction push-up cam PC1 operates the -needles, and when the direction of knitting is reversed PC gives the -needles their upward thrust to receive the yarn. From Fig. 51 it will be -clear that the depth of stitch drawn by the needle depends on the -adjustment of the knitting cam KC, and the lower this is set the longer -will be the loop drawn through. If the loop is required shorter so as to -accommodate a larger number of courses per inch, the knitting cam is -raised in its adjustment so that a shorter stitch is the result. The -dial needles have a corresponding arrangement by which the needles are -drawn farther in to make a longer loop and for a shorter loop are not -pulled inwards to the same degree. - -_Making of a Ribbed Sock._—Fig. 52 gives a view of an ordinary type of -sock where the various sections are marked as they are produced on the -machine. A start is made with the rib top marked R which in this case is -1 and 1 rib, that is, one upright needle in the cylinder for every -needle in the dial or ribber, and when all these are in operation at the -same time 1 and 1 rib work is formed on the power stocking-knitter. -Before beginning the rib top proper it is usual to make what is termed a -welt which consists in working a number of courses in the upright -needles only and letting the ribbed stitches draw round so as to give a -finished appearance to the edge. On reaching the end of the rib top it -is necessary to change the needle arrangement for making 3 and 1 rib, -and in the case of the power-rib stocking-knitter every second needle in -the upper ribber cylinder which is in the same plane as the lower one is -made to slide into the lower cylinder, that is, we have three needles in -the lower cylinder for every needle in the upper one. The 3 and 1 rib -continues for the leg portion, as shown by Fig. 52, when arrangements -require to be made for the heel-which has to be in the plain stitch and -continued for the sole of the foot and round the toe. To effect the -plain stitch for the heel, the front half of the dial needles are made -to slide into the lower cylinder and fashioning for the heel is soon -commenced. This is brought about by reducing the needles in work at each -side one at a time until only about twelve needles are left in -operation, when the process is reversed and the needles again brought -into knitting position at each successive course until the full -complement is available. This action gives a nicely-rounded pocket for -the accommodation of the heel, and at the same time it is usual to -introduce some form of reinforcing thread known as splicing, which has -the effect of considerably increasing the period of wear of such -articles. The plain stitch introduced for the heel is continued for the -sole, where the top of the foot A is worked in rib stitch and the under -portion B plain, as indicated in the diagram. When the foot has been -worked in this manner to its full length, the reciprocating motion is -repeated for the making of the toe exactly as for the heel, and several -extra courses are inserted so that one article may be kept separate from -another, and the next sock is worked exactly as the last. On the modern -automatic rib sock machine about seven dozen pairs of men's socks can be -produced by a single machine in a working day of eight hours, and as one -girl can mind a set of half a dozen machines, it will be seen that the -cost of production is infinitesimal when compared with hand-driven -machines or with the hand stocking-knitter. One heavier item in the -upkeep is the outlay required for a skilled mechanic, who is most -essential if the machines are to be maintained in thorough working -order, and this expense is proportionately the greater if the -manufacturer has only a few machines in this department. It is essential -to instal a series of machines of adequate scope of gauge and fineness -to warrant the employment of a skilled mechanic who can repair and keep -them in constant working order. - -_Full-fashioned Hosiery._—In addition to the large and important branch -of the footwear trade which is devoted to the making of plain and ribbed -articles devoid of seams and which comprise a large and important -section of the knitting industry, we have other systems such as the -full-fashioned hosiery trade which produce varied types of footwear. For -full hose the length is greater, and as it has to cover the leg of the -wearer right over the knee, it requires to be shaped to the fit of the -individual. In the cheaper classes of hosiery an effort is made to -introduce a diminution in the width of the leg towards the ankle by -means of boarding, that is, the stockings are made uniform in width till -nearly the ankle except for any small contraction which it is possible -to effect by tightening the tensions. The woollen articles are stretched -on boards carved to the shape of the leg and when dried in a heated -chamber the natural plasticity of the wool enables the articles to take -up the shape they have been stretched into, the wide portion of the leg -stretches, whilst at the narrow portion the width contracts. Obviously -this device cannot long stand the exigencies of wear, and after a short -period of service the lower leg portion begins to widen and the result -is most untidy. When one comes to consider the great trouble involved in -making an article true to shape, it will be realized that such -stratagems of quick manufacture mean a considerable saving of time. - -As the name implies, full-fashioned hosiery is worked on the knitting -frame in flat pieces which are afterwards seamed or joined together to -form the article as required. For a full-fashioned hose in plain stitch, -a rotary frame of the Cotton's Patent type is employed, and they are -made with two articles in one normal division of the frame, that is, in -a 12-at-once machine, for garment size we should be able to make -twenty-four articles of hose at one and the same time. The leg is made -uniform in width right down to the calf when narrowings are performed -according to the rate of diminution required, but it is when the heel is -reached that greatest labour is expended. It is necessary to work the -heel in two sections at each side, and the foot sole is worked on to -these pieces for the lower portion, the upper part of the foot being a -continuation of the leg and the whole is secured by a seam along each -side of the foot. By this system of manufacture it becomes possible to -make a much more roomy and capacious heel than is general on the -automatic seamless machine, for it can be made square-shaped and of any -convenient size by enlarging or contracting the heel portions. - -This method of manufacture is termed the English heel, but there is -another system known as the French heel which is also largely adopted -for certain classes of goods. The real test of these articles is to note -the seam, which in the English foot always occurs along each side of the -foot and down the back of the heel. In the case of the French foot the -seam occurs along the centre of the sole of the foot which is obviously -an awkward arrangement from point of view of comfort. The French style -of foot is often employed for articles which have clocking or -embroidered patterns on them, whilst there is also a saving of time in -the process of making. The upper and lower portions of the foot are made -in one width and afterwards folded over with only one seam along the -middle of the sole of the foot, whilst in the case of the English foot -the seam is double and occurs along each side of the foot. It is -interesting to be able to distinguish between these various methods of -making hosiery; for the article in which no effort is made to fashion -the leg on the frame the marking indicative of narrowings for the leg -will be entirely absent, and in their place will be the temporary local -thickening of the fabric due to the increase in the number of stitches -at that point. In the case of the full-fashioned article, the shape will -be gradual and symmetrical, for the French foot only one seam will be -found along the centre of the foot, whilst in the English variety a seam -will occur at each side. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - COLOUR IN KNITTED GOODS - - -The part played by colour in knitted goods depends largely on the use to -which they have to be put and the variety of garment in which they are -employed. For undergarments which are seldom noted in wear for general -purposes, the _rôle_ of colour is slight and the prevailing tints are -white, cream or mixture varieties of the natural or tinted class. The -nature of the tint for undergarments is important, and a connoisseur -will be able to distinguish quite a number of qualities in a white -garment. The tint of a white article depends on a number of factors, one -of the chief being the class of wool used in its production. Some wool -classes are in themselves whiter than others according to the place from -which the wool is obtained. Most types of merino wools give materials of -a splendid whiteness, whilst the majority of home wools give a result -which is more or less of a yellowish nature; if sand particles are -adhering in any quantity, the result is to impart a reddy tint which is -difficult to eradicate in bleaching or scouring. The yellow tint, common -to most classes of wool, is not evident at first sight, and it is only -by comparison with bleached goods that the observer may be able to tell -the difference. For many purposes of ordinary wear yellowish tinted -goods are quite serviceable and are sold under the designation of cream. -This tint is the result of a colouring pigment present in the medullary -cells of the material and can be removed by one or other of the various -methods of bleaching, but the yellow tinge may be greatly increased by -scouring in too hot liquor or using cleansing agents which exercise -drastic action on the wool fibre. Similarly when the goods are in the -hands of the wearer, the yellow tint may be considerably increased in -intensity if care be not exercised in washing and if agents of the -proper strength be not employed. To preserve the whiteness of bleached -articles certain precautions have to be observed in scouring and these -may be summarized as follows. The temperature of the scouring liquor or -the washing solution should not be raised beyond what is absolutely -necessary to effect a removal of the dirt, for a high temperature -produces a kind of melting action on the goods which causes the internal -scales of the fibre to fuse to some extent, with the result that a -permanently yellow tinge is imparted. Next to the temperature, which -should be as close to the "lieu warm" as possible, is the question of -the nature and composition of detergents. Launderers know that an -application of a certain amount of soda or alkali accelerates the -scouring action and gives to the liquor a certain softness which is -rather misleading. The softening experienced really constitutes a -dissolving action on the wool fibre which settles on the material when -dry a feeling of pronounced hardness. These two factors combined with a -high temperature of scouring liquor and an excess of alkali or soda will -destroy the quality of the purest white and impart a permanently -discoloured or faded yellow appearance to the finest goods. - -_Natural Tinted Goods._—The simplest departure from pure white -undergarments is to be found in the well-known natural coloured members -of the knitting industry, which are usually pants, shirts and -combination garments. This is obtained by an admixture with white of -about 10 per cent. of coloured fibre, and has the effect of increasing -the serviceability of the garments by allowing more extended intervals -between the washes. In their usual forms these blends or tinted shades -do not possess an aspect of attractiveness, the general run being in -dull brown, drab or cold bluish tint, but recently there has been a -tendency to brighten up the blends somewhat and introduce an element of -greater attractiveness to the garments. There is not, however, great -scope for colour effect in such goods; little colour is wanted, as they -seldom come into vision. - -_Horizontal Stripes._—Unfortunately the knitted fabric as such does not -give great scope for the production of coloured effects in the plain -stitch because of its peculiar structure as an essentially weft fabric. -The thread is inserted crosswise in the fabric, both vertical and -horizontal elements of the structure being formed from one and the same -yarn, and this limitation must be carefully kept in mind when -considering the capacity of the fabric for showing colour. From the -inherent horizontal character of the fabric it is evident that cross -effects such as horizontal stripes of colour can be much more -expeditiously produced than effects of the vertical variety. There is -something jarring about a predominantly horizontal series of colour -stripes, for when these are made into garments they show crosswise, -whilst the prevailing cast of the human figure is vertical. For the -great bulk of goods, therefore, cross stripes are quite unserviceable -except, perhaps, for the sporting jersey, where the object is to arrest -the attention of the observers and enable them to trace the movement of -individual players in the field. In most types of knitting mechanism the -cross colour effect is much more easily produced than the vertical, -because we have simply to provide a colour for each thread-carrier and -these are brought into operation in succession according to the pattern -required. To overcome the inherent defect of the horizontal direction, -fabrics are often turned round a right-angle so that a horizontal colour -stripe becomes a vertical one, but this has the disadvantage of turning -the stitches on their side. The stretch in length is greatly increased -over the width, and such garments show a tendency to elongate -considerably during their period of wear, whilst the elasticity in the -width is much reduced from the normal. In wearing such a garment the -tendency is for the fabric to go to length by reason of its own weight -combined with the action of the wearer in walking. - -In considering patterns for horizontal striped goods, it should be borne -in mind that the average rotary frame has a side-to-side movement of the -thread-carrier, and that the full extent of the motion requires two -courses to complete, once to the right and another to the left. If -single courses are inserted it means that one of the thread-carriers has -to be kept on the off side of the frame and special tackle requires to -be used to work odd courses on these machines. In making out patterns -for horizontal striped goods, the patterns should be built as far as -possible on evenly numbered courses, 2, 4, 6, etc., for in this way the -thread-carrier for any particular colour can be brought back to the -starting-point. The usual way of indicating horizontal striped patterns -is to detail each colour and the number of courses in succession until -the whole pattern is complete. Thus we might have a pattern as follows: -12 black, 6 white, 2 grey, 4 black, 12 white, 6 grey, 6 white. When -colour patterns are written in this fashion it may become a rather -lengthy process in the case of complicated arrangements such as are -often required for fine gauge goods, and for these it is a saving of -time and labour to arrange the colour scheme in the following manner— - - Black 12 . 4 . . - White 6 . 12 . 6 - Grey 2 . 6 . . - -In this case the colours present in the effect are set down one below -the other as shown, and the pattern is indicated by the figures in the -columns beginning at the left-hand side and reading downwards from top -to bottom for each row, when completed a start is made with the next row -and so on till the pattern is finished. The following gives another -example of a horizontal striped arrangement which embodies several fancy -colours— - - Brown 16 8 16 . 12 . . . - Green 8 4 . 8 . 8 . . - Yellow . 2 6 . 4 . 4 . - Black . . . . . 2 . 2 - -In this pattern there are 100 courses in one complete repeat of the -pattern, and to produce this a pattern chain would require to be drawn -out which by its projections would cause connecting fingers to swing -into the carrier as indicated by the colours of the pattern. In all such -patterns the colours introduced are part and parcel of the fabric and in -direction run crosswise in the texture. Outer wear fabrics made -predominantly of cross stripe are not popular because of the reasons -already shown, but they are often used for trimming garments, for -borders of coats, cuffs and collars, and for fancy shirts they are often -quite effective. One point must be borne in mind in selecting fancy -colours in fine materials such as silk, etc.; the size of the fancy yarn -chosen has to be approximately equal to that of the ground texture, or -the fancy threads will cause a space more or less open to appear in the -fabric so as to spoil its amenity. - -_Vertical Stripes._—For most kinds of knitted articles the vertical -stripe is extremely difficult to produce without extra tackle on the -machine, and most examples of vertical lines are produced by means of -yarn inserted in addition to the ground of the fabric, notably in the -case of clocking introduced in hosiery articles and vertical striped -effects so popular in the men's shirting trade. In both these cases the -effect is introduced as a form of embroidery worked as an addition to -the fabric, where the fancy yarn is made to exhibit itself prominently -on the face of the goods and only comes to the back for purposes of -intersection. The materials employed for such colour effects are usually -of the lustrous variety, silk or mercerized cotton, and they are forced -into prominence on the face by the upward thrust of the ground yarn -which they cover. A feature of the vertical stripe effects produced on -Cotton's Patent frame is the variety of colours which it is feasible to -insert, for every extra thread introduced can be of a different colour -if necessary, as each yarn proceeds independently from its own bobbin. -In regard to the scope of design, this is generally restricted to solid -vertical stripes, and very interesting and effective variations are -produced by a zig-zag motion given to the thread guides in knitting. - -_Tuck Work._—The term tuck is employed to indicate a class of fabric -where certain stitches are tucked in the cloth, that is, they are not -permitted to form their stitches in the ordinary way but are retained on -the needles to be worked in along with the following stitch. This -tucking of a yarn into another stitch is performed by means of tuck -pressers on bearded needle machines, these pressers being cut so that -during the knitting operation the needles affected are left unpressed, -that is, they are not permitted to discharge their thread in the normal -manner but are held up on the stem of the needle to be discharged as -part of a second course of loops. Naturally the omission of the pressing -operation cannot be allowed for long, because this would cause a -conglomeration of unworked yarn on the needle stems which would in a few -courses lead to disaster in the fabric; an essential of the pattern -arrangement is to insure that the tucked stitches are cleared from the -needle stems after every two courses or so. On the hand frame and the -patent rotary machine tuck pressers are of the form shown in Figs. 53 -and 54, being the ordinary kind of presser cut with spaces so that the -needles which come under the spaces of the presser are not pressed but -have their yarn retained on the needle stems. These stitch portions are -pushed back on the needles, and when the next yarn is fed into them, the -presser is moved along so that needles left unpressed at the last course -are now pressed and two yarns are discharged in place of one. In the -figures the points marked N represent the needles, and in Fig. 53 the -spaces are noted to be over every second needle, 2, 4, 6, etc., whilst -the remaining needles, 1, 3, 5, etc., are pressed by the projecting -pieces. The odd numbered needles are being pressed in Fig. 53 whilst the -even needles are left unpressed. At the next course the presser is moved -one needle sidewise, so that the even needles are pressed to discharge -their double loops whilst the odd numbered needles remain unpressed. The -third course sees further reversal of the presser back to start again -when the operation is repeated as before. In Fig. 54 is given another -design for a tuck presser, this being termed a 2 and 1 pattern, and -every third needle is left unpressed whilst the remaining two-thirds of -the needles are pressed as usual. This presser is also given a sidewise -movement to insure that the needles are cleared of their stitches every -two courses or so. The 2 and 1 presser and the 3 and 3 presser are often -used in conjunction with other patterns such as the 1 and 1 or 2 and 2 -to form patterns more fancy in style and character. Very effective -patterns can be produced in colour by working the 3 and 3 tuck presser -in co-operation with the 1 and 1, whilst very effective designs may be -made with 2 and 2 tuck presser and a plain presser alternately. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 53 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 54 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIGS. 55 & 56 -] - -_Tuck Work on Circular Frames._—In frames employing the spring or -bearded needle arranged in circular machines which are largely employed -for the making of fabric in the roll, tuck patterns can be produced by -cutting the pressers in circular form as illustrated in Figs. 55 and 56. -In the French circular frame, the presser consists of a plain circular -disc which, by reason of its adjustment, presses the beards or springs -of the needles as they revolve. Figs. 55 and 56 are the circular tuck -pressers which correspond to Figs. 53 and 54, that is, 1 and 1 and 2 and -1 pressers. In Fig. 55 the circumference of the wheel is cut alternately -in small spaces which come over the beards and press them, and larger -spaces which by the depth of their incisions fit over the beards of the -machine but do not press them. The wheel receives its motion by the -revolving action of the needles in the circle, and the teeth have -therefore to be cut to the gauge required, that is, the setting of the -machine needles and the teeth in the wheel circumference require to -coincide. In Fig. 56 every third space is cut large so as to grip the -needle but not press it, whilst the remaining two spaces are cut with -small indentations so that the needle will be pressed in the ordinary -way. In circular frames there are several feeds, that is, the -stitch-forming apparatus is repeated two or more times round the -circumference of the machine which allows of a more convenient -arrangement being made for the discharge of the unpressed loops. One way -is to have a tuck presser and a plain presser arranged alternately in -the machine so that there is a tucked pattern where the double stitches -are discharged every second course. If, in addition, there is a -different colour in each feed, we have an interesting colour effect -which is different with every type of pattern wheel employed, whilst -wheels can be cut with the greatest freedom right round the edge -according to a predetermined design. What actually happens in the fabric -with the use of tuck pressers may be better understood by a reference to -Fig. 57, which is a diagrammatic enlargement of the pattern produced by -the 1 and 1 tuck presser illustrated in Figs. 53 and 55. For the first -course where needles 1, 3, 5, etc., are pressed to knit the odd numbered -needles are worked, and this state of matters is represented in Fig. 57, -where the needles are numbered 1 to 4 to correspond from left to right. -Stitch 1 and stitch 3 are pressed as usual and form their ordinary -stitches as given by the shape of the presser in Fig. 53, stitches 2 and -4 are left unpressed, and the yarn is noted to have fallen to the lower -position marked _a1_, whilst the knitted loops are retained in their -higher position _a a_. At the second course _b_, _b1_, the position is -reversed, the stitches on needles 1 and 3 being tucked or left unpressed -whilst those on needles 2 and 4 are knitted as usual. This effect may be -traced by following the course of the thread marked _b_, _b1_, _b_, -_b1_. From this diagram it will be evident that the whole structure of -the texture is altered by the tuck presser, and that this will enable us -to insert a greater weight of yarn into the fabric because the threads -are not subjected to such a high degree of intersection, and the result -is to give a cloth of greater weight and consistency suitable for a -large variety of outer garments. Again, it is evident that when two or -more colours are employed, novel and characteristic colour effects will -result because of the way in which it is possible to pass one colour to -the back at certain points and allow the other to show on the face and -_vice versâ_. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 57 -] - -_Check Designs._—By the structure of ordinary tuck work illustrated in -Fig. 57 it is clear that the threads have a considerable mingling -together, and the result will to a considerable extent be a melange -colour effect. In what is termed check or press-off work in knitting a -clear-cut colour effect of reversible character is often desired, that -is, when a block of one colour is knitting on the face, the second -colour is made to float loosely on the back, and this arrangement can be -made to work with each colour in turn. To make such designs on the -circular frame we have two pressers, one cut the reverse of the other, -and these are used in succeeding feeds of the machine, so that the -needles pressed at one feed have their stitches tucked at the next and -_vice versâ_. The whole matter of tuck check designs belongs to the -higher branches of designing of knitted fabrics. The term check in the -ordinary way consists of a vertical colour scheme combined with a -horizontal scheme of the same character, and whilst these are possible -in the knitted fabric their production is somewhat difficult. Tartan -hosiery can be produced in a number of colours having the vertical -elements working on the embroidery system and with the corresponding -cross colour scheme working in the ordinary horizontal stripe, but these -effects require great skill in manipulation owing to the fact that the -extra embroidery yarn is inserted over and above the ground, and this -tends to show more prominently than the cross effects, and these require -special treatment at the hands of the colorist if the balance of the -colour scheme has to be preserved. - -_Spot Effects._—This type of colour effect is best produced on the -Jacquard flat knitting machine which is the ordinary flat knitter with -an attachment for making patterns of a raised character. These raised or -knop effects are produced on the basis of the rib stitch where one -needle bed is made to stop knitting for a few courses during which time -the opposite side is making its loops as usual. The needle bed which -does not knit has its stitches drawn tight and this causes the loops of -the other bed to curve round and form an arched effect which can be made -the basis of a most interesting pattern scheme. These raised or knop -designs have the result of causing an uneven reflection of light, the -ridges give a full reflection, whilst the light which falls into the -hollows is dispersed and broken so as to cause an interesting play of -light and shade. This is used to form novel designs on the flat knitter -with the aid of the Jacquard selective mechanism, and when several -colours are employed by means of the extra thread-carriers, these can be -made to form spot effects with considerable facility. Here again the -effects are very pronounced and produced by quite minor alterations in -the machine mechanism. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - COLOUR HARMONY AND CONTRAST - - -It should be stated that there is a great need for a fuller knowledge of -the basic principles of colour harmony and contrast in the knitting -industry if the artistic qualities of the knitted product are to be -enhanced. Colours are too often employed together without due regard -being paid to their suitability, and many knitted productions offend the -aesthetic sense in a very marked degree. This is easy to explain, -because for a long time the knitted industry was chiefly confined to the -manufacture of articles used for underwear and as such did not require -to be specially suitable in regard to colour selection, the tints were -of the most ordinary character such as drabs, greys, naturals and -whites. As the scope of the knitted texture became enlarged and outer -garments produced, colour became more important, and those who had -previously handled the dull shades extended their activities to the more -highly-coloured varieties. The use of these garments has now come to -assume such an important _rôle_ that specialists in colour are required -if the productions are to take their proper place on the market. The -chief defect of these knitted productions has been their incongruous -combinations of bright, strong colours with tints delicate in hue; there -has also been too little appreciation of the relative weight of colour, -strong contrasting colours being used in too great proportion to the -more delicate variety. - -_Colour Theory._—Some useful hints regarding the use of colour in -knitted goods may be gleaned by a study of the colour theory if the -operator possesses the instinct to extend the theories to cases which do -not come strictly under the technical definitions. According to the -pigment theory of colour, which is generally recognized as having the -closest application to textiles, three primary colours are given, -namely, red, yellow and blue. These are taken as basic or elementary -colours, which means that by combining these colours with each other in -varying proportions and tinting with white or shading with black, all -other colours can be produced. The general attributes of these colours -may be given as follows— - -_Red_ is strong and vivid in its nature and at once arrests attention by -its power and striking effect on the retina of the eye. It is symbolical -of all the attributes of warmth, heat and agitation of the senses, the -red cloth incenses the bull, whilst the red flag has also its -associations of stirring character. It is used as a signal for danger, -and at the same time is found in colour combinations where it is -intended to produce an influence of comfort and warmth, the reds and -their derivatives are found largely in articles intended for winter wear -as the prevailing aspect is that of warmth. - -_Yellow._—Yellow as a colour calls up visions of a rather conflicting -nature which are sometimes difficult to reconcile. At its worst it is -regarded as a symbol of the past and indicates a glory that is faded and -gone. When white deteriorates in hue, its place is usually taken by a -dirty tone of yellow, whilst the yellow discoloured tinge of wool is the -bane of many departments of textile manufacture, necessitating expensive -bleaching operations. It is likewise the colour of the fading leaf and -denotes decaying life in the vegetable world. In its sense as a primary -colour, yellow has an entirely different meaning and denotes brightness -and gaiety as prevailing characteristics, it is outstanding in the -property of luminosity, it is bright and attractive, and its use on gala -days greatly contributes to the festive spirit. Yellow by itself cannot -be said to occupy a prominent place in the knitting industry except for -the purposes of brightening up otherwise sombre blends, when it is used -in a limited quantity according to the character of the ground. The -colour in its modified form such as salmon and canary shades prove very -attractive for the summer knitted coat and scarf trade; the most -brilliant derivatives of yellow have an enormous success in certain -years for the height of the summer season, these colours being of a -brilliance and gaiety which could never be permitted in other -departments of the textile industry. When toned down to make tan shades, -it has an extensive use in all branches of the knitting industry. - -_Blue._—Blue may be considered the great corrective of the other two -primary colours, and although inherently useful by itself it is in -combination with others that its full value comes to be recognized. It -stands in direct antithesis to the two primary colours red and yellow, -and in its primary form is indicative of coldness and gloom combined -with a certain strength and harshness. On the other hand, when enlivened -by a tinting agent such as white, it becomes extremely bright and stands -out distinct from all other colours. When toned with black its sombre -qualities are intensified, particularly that coldness and aloofness -which makes it the recognized official colour for formality and duty. It -is by no means a sociable member, and care has to be exercised in -bringing it into combination with other colours in a fabric, special -regard having to be given to its strength and intensity which in many -cases give rise to hardness of colour effect and displeasing results in -colour harmony. - -_Secondary Colours._—To produce the whole range of colours from these -three primaries in combination requires attention to certain -well-defined principles, and in dealing with the possible combinations -of a given number of colours, the total number of permutations should be -considered seriatim. If they are selected in a haphazard manner, many of -the best colour effects may be overlooked. In regard to the primary -colours, only three permutations are possible, and each of these -combinations of the ordinary colours are two at a time, namely, red with -blue giving purple, red with yellow yielding orange, and blue with -yellow giving green. These combinations hold good in various ways when -adopted for blending colours in yarns and fabrics. In the case of dyes -the primary yellow is blended with the primary blue to give the -secondary green, the result being quite clearly defined. When wool dyed -with primary red is blended fibre with fibre with wool dyed primary -blue, a melange of coloured fibres is obtained which gives a green -mixture effect, but there is a decided difference in the quality of the -green so produced in comparison with dyes mixed in the dye bath. The -general quality of colour resulting is of a less defined character, if -the melange be examined at close range, the individual green and yellow -fibres may be quite well distinguished, but a little way off the -predominant effect is green due to the mixing of the yellow and blue in -the eye. The third manner of blending is less satisfactory in result -although more readily performed, and that is the twining of two coloured -yarns together. A yellow thread folded with a blue will produce a yellow -and blue beaded effect in the yarn, but when worked into the knitted -fabric the general result is green, provided the twist is not too slack -nor the gauge too coarse. The best example of this form of colour -blending is to be found in the basses of intermediate colour found in -the patterns of clan hosiery used by officers and men of Highland -regiments. If, for instance, the ground-coloured basses are yellow and -blue, there would appear solid diamond squares of these colours with -squares of melanged colour intervening. The two ground colours are given -a slight twist on the winding frame by spooling the two yarns together, -the twist going on to the yarn when the threads are issuing from the -bobbin. The two solid colours twisted together in this way make a result -which is predominantly green in aspect, although the marl character is -not entirely concealed. This system of colouring provides an explanation -of the fundamental harmony of such productions, for the yellow element -of the melange answers to the solid yellow diamond and preserves contact -with it, whilst the blue element of the ground preserves liaison with -the solid blue diamond squares of the patterns. Although these patterns -are built with colours of primary or secondary character in strong -contrast, the groundwork of marl produced by twining the two bright -colours together preserves harmony between the strong ground colours. -These Highland patterns are very striking in hue, but the basic harmony -of colour here outlined has much to do with their never-failing -popularity for military as well as civilian wear. - -_Qualities of Secondary Colours._—Yellow and red primary colours mixed, -blended or marled together give an orange secondary, and it will be seen -that a secondary unites the qualities of the two primaries of which it -is composed. Orange is a most brilliant colour because it combines the -strong and arresting characteristics of red with the luminosity and -brilliance of yellow. Orange and a number of its near relations in the -colour scale have an important _rôle_ to perform in knitted goods. Owing -to its strength and intensity it has not a large use for the ground of a -garment, but employed as a fancy in minute quantities it is distinctly -effective. Thus it is employed in collars, rosettes for belts, where the -smallest tip of the colour is often sufficient to give brightness and -charm to a composition which might otherwise be dull and feeble. With -suitable ground shades it may be found in certain seasons as a covering -for buttons where the small colour circle in harmonious surroundings -gives a very elegant result. - -When red and blue are blended together the result is purple, and this is -a secondary colour which in many respects possesses an individuality -absolutely unique. Recalling the strong and bright qualities of the red -and the coldness and strength of the blue, these qualities are -effectively fused and blended in the resulting purple. Real secondary -purple has a depth, richness, saturation and bloom which cannot be -approached by any other colour, the aggressive qualities of the red are -effectively subdued by the retiring qualities of the blue, whilst in -both is a strength of character which is the basis of the undoubted -handsomeness of the purple. There is an air of quiet dignity about -purple, qualities are held in reserve which do not strike the eye at -first sight, and these undoubtedly form the basis of its use for -ceremonial robes, where it is desired to give the fullest expression to -dignity, pomp and power. Purple can be used with great effect as a -ground colour, but as such is difficult to blend with other colours for -good results, it is socially "stand-offish," and its companions have to -be carefully selected if harmonious and helpful results are to follow. -Purple and its near relations heliotrope, mauve, etc., quickly respond -to the brightening effects of a pure white when combined in a garment, -and white edging greatly enhances the richness and gives it increased -brightness. Used with black it provides an effective mourning -combination as the black tones down the whole colour aspect. - -Green is also a secondary of considerable utility in the knitted goods -trade, and has qualities distinctly suitable for use in an extended -capacity. The primal components are yellow with blue, that is, the -brightest primary blends its qualities with those of the darkest primary -colour and the resultant is distinctly different from either of its -components. In examining a purple or an orange secondary, for instance, -the component primaries can always be distinguished, but in green it is -not always possible to detect the primary components at a glance. The -brightness and luminosity of the yellow tone into the strength and -coolness of the blue with the result that the secondary green is cool -and refreshing in aspect and proves what has been termed a sociable -blending colour, it is not difficult to harmonize and is not too -fastidious as to its associates. Green is a colour which has to be used -very carefully because in itself it is not always suitable for a ground, -and is improved in association with other colours. All secondary colours -can be varied in quality according as either of the two primary -constituents is made to predominate in the blend, and this quality is -more marked in the case of green than any other. The quality of the -green can be varied from yellowish green which has only a modicum of -blue in it, to a blue green where the yellow can only be traced with -difficulty. This range of greens is very extensive and undergoes a great -change in quality according as one or other of the primary constituents -is made to rule. - -_Colour Harmony._—The question of colour harmony is one which requires a -long experience to be efficient in, and rules of theory can never -replace the skill in blending colours, which comes as the result of -highly-trained natural talent. When one examines the crude combinations -of colour which are so often placed on the market by the makers of -knitted articles, it is obvious that knowledge of the principles of -colour harmony as they are set forth in any book on colour would be -instrumental in avoiding many of the glaring defects which have -characterized certain branches of the knitting industry in the past. -These productions often violate every law of colour harmony and are a -grave menace to the prosperity of the industry. The more progressive -manufacturers are now becoming fully alive to the importance of this -subject, and are taking trouble to engage the services of managers who -have received a long and careful training in the blending of colour and -the art of garment production. In any branch of the textile industry -there is a large and important section of colour effects which depend on -the principle of colour analogy, that is, the colours employed are of -the same nature in regard to quality and hue, but they differ in -strength or intensity, they are lighter or darker in hue. The best-known -examples of colour analogy are, of course, the greys, and colour effects -are produced by dark grey used along with mid grey, or mid grey employed -with light grey and so on. At the upper end of the series the light grey -can be graduated into white, whilst at the lower end the dark greys can -be graduated into black. These colour combinations are always in favour, -and no matter what the prevailing shade may be there is always a certain -proportion of trade done in the neutral tints. In the knitted coat trade -are found grounds of grey and variety introduced by having the garment -bound round the edges with white to brighten or with black to tone down -the ground. Another effective method is to have the binding done in -black and white striped fabric worked two courses white with two courses -black on the ordinary flat knitting machine in a horizontal stripe, and -these impart an appearance of considerable smartness to the garment. A -large number of pleasing and serviceable articles are made by folding -white with black, or light grey with dark grey, and working these -together in the knitting machine. If the yarns lend themselves to -raising on the teasles of the gig, the individuality of the separate -threads is covered up and the final effect is a pleasing grey. In -addition to the folding of greys with each other in a twist yarn, -suitable contrasts may be obtained by using various tints of lavender -for the garments as these harmonize with grey and black and white -combinations. What applies to the grey colour blends of analogous -effects also applies to the shades and tints of other self colours. Very -useful designs are obtained by having various shades of brown in one and -the same garment, the edging often being of fawn to brighten up the -articles, whilst a garment of fawn ground may be effectively toned down -by a dark-brown scheme of colouring for the edges, tops of pockets, -belts and cuffs. Greens are not great favourites for analogous -colourings, because if an article is too decidedly green it tends to -nauseate the wearer in a way which would not happen with brown. A blue -garment may be effectively designed with trimmings of darker or lighter -blue as the case may be; also mauves, purples and heliotropes may be -made the foundation of pleasing colour schemes of analogy. - -_Colour Contrast._—Most foremen have a fairly good idea of the methods -of using colours in articles where the scheme is mono-chromatic or -one-coloured, but when it is a matter of blending colours which are -entirely different in character and hue the difficulties begin. The most -usual faults are combining colours which can never harmonize so as to -give results agreeable to the aesthetic sense; colours are combined -which vary greatly in relative depth of hue, that is, light, delicate -shades are employed indiscriminately with colours which are strong and -decided in nature. In regard to colours which should harmonize in a -poly-chromatic or a multicoloured combination, the basic principles of -harmony as enunciated by the colour theory may be of service in many -cases. In this connection it is necessary to define the complimentary -pairs of colours to be found in the range of primaries and secondaries -which have been already discussed. Whenever two colours are placed -together so as to fulfil the condition of complementariness, all three -primaries must be present in the combination. Thus we have purple and -yellow as a complementary pair, the purple being composed of red and -blue with yellow as the remaining primary. When these two colours are -employed together the idea is that the harmonic triad is complete and -the result is pleasing, because the eye perceives all the chief elements -in a perfect colour circle. In the same way red and green are regarded -as complementary because green being composed of yellow with blue, the -remaining primary is red which is found by combining these two -complementary colours together. The remaining complementary pair are -orange and blue. - -_Colour Separation._—The colour theory shows that complementary colours -produce an effect pleasing to the eye, and this simple principle may be -found quite a useful guide if the worker exercises discrimination in -employing colours which are as nearly as possible of the same depth of -hue or of the same weight of colour. Heavy, strong colours cannot be -employed successfully with colours which are delicate and light in -effect, or at least the quantity of the strong vivid colours has to be -reduced in proportion to the strength of the light colour. If the -relative weight of colour be carefully considered, colours of varying -intensity and weight may be employed together with quite good results, -but there are members of the colour circle which can never harmonize -when placed in juxtaposition. In such cases a harsh and displeasing -result may be avoided by a judicious use of black or white as separating -agents, and the maker of knitted articles has not sufficiently -appreciated the saving grace of these toning and tinting agents. They -can be introduced quite simply on the knitting machine by about two -courses of black or two courses of white inserted between the offending -colours and these have the influence of considerably modifying the harsh -effect to the eye of the observer. The result of two colours placed in -juxtaposition depends to some extent on the nature of the stitch, -colours which show indifferently when appearing in continuous stripes -may prove quite attractive when employed in a fancy stitch where the -colours intersect in fragments. - -_Weight of Colour._—The weight of any colour is based on its position in -the colour scale as has already been mentioned, any colour may be -modified by the addition of white or of black which is carried out -either in the dyeing operation or in blending of coloured wools. For any -colour a scale of weights may be determined according as it is a tint or -a shade of the colour. The tints can be so thin that they almost -approximate to white for delicate effects, whilst the shades may be so -dark that very little of the ground colour may be discernible, the -effect being almost black. When blending colours, whether of the same -quality or of different hue, regard must be had to its position in this -scale of tints or tones, for fabrics where two colours are combined in -equal quantities the best results will be attained by employing them as -nearly as possible of the same weight, if one colour predominates over -the other in strength or brightness, it should be used in relatively -less proportion to prove effective. If colours differ greatly in -intensity the more heavily toned colour should, as a rule, be employed -in relatively less proportion to the lighter shade. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - DEFECTS IN FABRICS - - -In a former chapter the intricately delicate structure of the knitted -loops was described, and the causes of some of the minor defects of -stitch were outlined when the utmost importance of a regular feed of -yarn to the needles was emphasized. Another important series of defects -in knitted articles are directly traceable to faults in the -stitch-forming parts of the machine, such as the sinkers and needles, -and many imperfections spring from faulty condition or adjustment of -these parts. The needle is perhaps the most delicate part of the frame -and constant attention has to be given to these if perfect knitting has -to be produced. Large firms find it to their advantage to engage an -operative for this special work alone, he inspects all frames and his -trained eye can soon detect the slightest fault of needle alignment and -he replaces faulty needles by casting new ones. The pliaring of needles, -as it is called, is an important part of the work of a modern knitting -factory, and care to these machine parts is at once reflected in the -quality of the fabric produced on the frames. A constant source of -trouble in knitting is the beard or spring of the needle, and if these -are not properly hardened or tempered their period of service is much -shortened, because the beard soon develops faulty action and refuses to -spring back into its former position after the removal of the presser. -If the beard has lost its spring the new yarn cannot be pushed properly -underneath, a common defect being for the stitch to be halved, one -portion of the thread going under and the other half over the spring of -the needle. These split stitches cause small puckerings in the texture -which seriously affect its market value, and when the yarn is split in -this fashion the stitch at this point has only half its strength, the -thread gets broken and a hole is caused in the fabric. Another defect in -the needle occurs when the beard is working out of its true position in -a vertical direction, the beard in place of going straight into the -groove lands a little to the right or the left when it catches the yarn -as it is drawn forward. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 58 -] - -_Sinker and Needle Lines._—Sinker and needle lines are formed vertically -in the fabric and are due to needles and sinkers being out of alignment -in relation to their neighbours. If the needle is raised above or -depressed below the normal level of the needle line, or if it is not in -the exact central position in relation to the needle at each side a -defect will be formed, which will show vertically in the fabric. A -diagrammatic view of this kind of fabric blemish is given in Fig. 58 -where the line is marked A and is formed by a vertical series of loops -of larger curves than those around. The sinker line and the needle line -are alike in general appearance except that the sinker line affects the -sinker wales and the needle lines the needle rows. The needle at A has -been pushed a little to the left so that more than normal spacing -occurs, and this causes an extra length of yarn to be served to the -stitch at this point. It might be more correct to say that this extra -length is supplied at the expense of the neighbouring loops at B and C -which are seen to be smaller than the normal. The needle in moving to -the left out of the true central position between its neighbours -enlarges the draw at one point, but makes a corresponding contraction of -the stitch at B where the needle has to be content with a shorter piece -of the yarn. This is the basic reason why these lines are so -conspicuous, the regular spacing of the needles is departed from and -there is always a large-size loop side by side with a shorter and more -contracted stitch. The sinker line may also be caused the same way and -has the same general appearance; if the sinker is not working in its -true central position between two needles there is a variation in the -length of loop which shows a line as before. In the case of the sinker, -the lines may be produced from another cause, and that is the wearing of -the sinker at its throat, the part employed for pushing the yarn between -the frame needles. This wearing of the sinker throat will tend to reduce -the size of the loop at that point, because it will not be able to take -a sufficient length of loop when pushed forward. Similar defects are -caused if the sinker is rough, and another blemish is known as -"cutting," where the yarn is totally or partially cut through as the -sinkers push the yarn between the needles. Cutting may be due to the -push of the sinker being too great, or it may be caused by yarn which is -not strong enough to stand the strain of loop sinking. - -_Other Defects._—A very common defect which will prove disastrous if not -remedied is given at Fig. 59, known popularly as a "Jacob's Ladder." -This will be noted to be due to a stitch running down in a vertical -direction and caused in the first place by a breaking of the thread. -Once this severance has taken place the stitch loses its supports and -unravels as long as the least strain is imposed upon it. The method of -repairing this is to take the last perfect stitch in the run and link it -up with the slack thread of the course immediately above until the whole -fabric has been restored, the top stitch being secured suitably to -prevent a repetition of the unravelling. This linking of the stitch can -be done very rapidly by an experienced hand with the aid of a turning -hook which is indispensable for repairing all defects in the knitted -texture. If the loops get severed by a cross cut the process of -repairing the break is much more complicated and requires greater skill -to rehabilitate. The cut loops have to be unravelled to give a perfect -row of stitches on which to base the repair, and the missing courses -have to be entirely rebuilt by the needle of the operative. In -reconstructing those missing stitches, they have to be formed as nearly -as possible of the same size as will correspond to the fabric gauge, and -it requires years of experience for a worker to acquire the ability to -reconstruct the fabric in such a way that the rent will be -imperceptible. In some hosiery districts the saleable quality of their -products is much reduced owing to faulty repairing of cross -imperfections, in many cases the practice prevails of simply drawing the -stitches tightly together and securing them. To repair a large hole in a -knitted structure the usual way is to patch by cutting the broken part -out in the form of a square running directly crosswise with the loops -and directly vertical with the wales of the fabric. The patch is made -from a piece of fabric identical in gauge and texture with the ground -fabric, and the stitches are knitted to each other crosswise at the top -and bottom of the square, a perfect union being possible; vertically the -patch is seamed and joined to the ground fabric by a row of ordinary -sewing which is drawn round to the back of the garment and which, if -skilfully performed, gives but little indication of the blemish. A -worker skilled in this branch of repairing knitted fabrics proves of the -greatest value to any knitting mill, and her efforts result in the -salving of large numbers of expensive garments which might otherwise -have to be disposed of at sacrificial prices. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 59 -] - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 60 -] - -_Slurgalling._—This term is applied to several defects in knitted -fabrics which are the bane of hosiery manufacturing and belong to the -type of imperfections which it is extremely difficult to repair, whilst -in many cases it is not a practical possibility. A few stitches of this -kind of imperfection are given herewith in Fig. 60, which is a -diagrammatic enlargement of the wrong side of the plain knitted loop -where the defect is shown plainly by means of the black coloured -stitches appearing crosswise in the fabric. It consists of a tightening -of the loops due to a momentary increase of the tension of the thread -during knitting; the stitches become constricted and at once injure the -general amenity of the fabric. Even minor variations in yarn tension -will cause these crosswise defects in the cloth, and they are so minute -in their formation that it is almost impossible to repair them. If any -irregularity creeps into the tensioning of the thread as the carrier is -moving from right to left as compared with its motion from left to -right, then the variation in the size of the loops may be perceptible at -alternate courses and occur right across the fabric. Small obstructions -on the yarn surface such as knots, burrs or slubs, will produce a -momentary catch on the aperture of the thread-carrier and cause this -cross constriction of loops; a rough carrier nose is a fruitful source -of trouble if any grooves are being worn in the instrument. In some -machines a worn slurcock may be the cause of such irregularities. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 61 -] - -_Stitches of Variable Symmetry._—These defects are illustrated in -various forms in Fig. 61, which gives a diagrammatic view of the chief -variations which are met with in single stitch formation in the knitted -texture. During knitting the yarn usually forms itself into curved -loops, but various conditions have to be met if this curving has to be -perfect. Should the knitting yarn be lacking in yielding property curves -will not eventuate, but will be replaced by various distorted -formations. Very often the mechanical structure of the yarn makes it -impossible for the thread to fall out in nicely-shaped curves, this -taking place when the constituent fibres are tightly arranged in the -yarn or when they are composed of long fibres drawn with meticulous -precision in parallel order side by side. A much more suitable thread is -worked from shorter materials which gives a freer scope of direction. -This renders the thread less rigid and makes it more amenable to loop -formation, whilst the beneficial effects of lubrication or damping of -dry yarn have already been referred to. Several typical examples of -these deficiencies are illustrated in Fig. 61 by means of the stitches -marked 1 to 4. Stitches 1 and 2 show a mal-formation of loop due to a -straightening of the yarn, the fibres are too long and do not yield in -loop formation. With hard yarns which are thick for the gauge of the -frame, these straightened loops may occur six or eight together and have -the effect of tightening the fabric at that point, at other times they -take up a direction leaning to the right or the left which greatly -impoverishes the goods. The more usual type of mal-formation is given in -loops 3 and 4 where the stitch, unable to content itself with the length -of yarn allotted to it, takes up an enlarged area. These are termed -"pinholes," and when scattered all over a fabric seriously undermine its -value. - -Manufacturers are often baffled by a plain fabric issuing from the frame -of the rotary type using bearded needles which shows an effect like 2 -and 1 rib, that is, there is a minute opening after every second stitch -which, by its general appearance, resembles 2 and 1 rib, the space -giving the impression of the open part formed by the vertical row of -loops which go to the back of the texture. Wherever this is detected -attention should be given to the dividing of the loops in the machine. -In stitch formation for an average bearded needle machine the loops are -first sunk over alternate needles, and thereafter equalized or divided -over all the needles. When the equalization is not accurately performed, -as is the case when the divider sinkers are not pushed sufficiently -between the needle or are pushed too far, then the ribbed effect will be -produced. Another common defect occurs at the selvedge consisting of a -variable tension of the end loops, some being large and others -constricted. This may be due to the yarn having too much play at the -edge, so that the end two sinkers are permitted to draw more than their -quota of yarn for stitch formation, which makes the edge raw and -unsightly and gives trouble in seaming when the quality of the seam is -variable owing to the different size of loop. The remedy for this -imperfection lies in an adjustment of the snappers which exercise a drag -on the thread just when the end sinkers show a tendency to take more -than their share of yarn. - - - - - INDEX - - - Angora rabbit fur for knitting, 86 - - Artificial silk knitting yarns, 78 - - Average counts in knitted web, 50 - - - Bad selvedge, causes of, 134 - - Bearded needle, function of, 57 - - —— ——, stitch formation with, 59 - - Blue, characteristics of, 119 - - Bobbin building, principles of, 94 - - - Camel hair, uses of, 86 - - Cardigan rib stitches, 25 - - Cashmere yarns for hosiery, 85 - - Check designs in circular frames, 115 - - Clan hosiery, colour principles of, 120 - - Colour harmony, principles of, 122 - - —— contrast, 124 - - Constants for yarn calculations, 40 - - Correct texture, essentials in, 74 - - Cotton knitting yarns, 76 - - —— and wool mixtures, 83 - - —— yarns, setting of, 74 - - Cotton's patent power frame, 65 - - —— —— —— ——, gauging of, 67 - - Courses and wales, comparison of, 74 - - Crochet, hand, 7 - - Cut-up trade, 12 - - - Damping of hosiery yarns, 96 - - Defects in knitted colourings, 117 - - Differential motion in winding, 95 - - - English heel on full-fashioned hosiery, 105 - - - Factory winding, disadvantages of, 91 - - Fancy trade, requirements for, 88 - - Flat knitter, technicalities of, 19 - - Folded yarn calculations, 46 - - —— thread, to find missing counts in, 53 - - —— yarns, costing of, 49 - - Footwear machines, gauges of, 100 - - Formulae, explanations of, 47 - - Foster winding frame, 94 - - French heel on full-fashioned hosiery, 106 - - Full-fashioned hosiery, manufacture of, 104 - - Full fabrics, description of, 70 - - —— -fashioned knitting, 13 - - - Goat hairs, peculiarities of, 87 - - Green, place of, in knitted goods, 121 - - Griswold circular knitter, 99 - - - Hand-frame knitting, 61 - - Hand knitting gauges, 10 - - Heat-retention, theory of, 5 - - Horizontal colour stripes, 109 - - Hosiery, definition of, 5 - - - "Jacob's Ladder" defect, 129 - - - Knitted coats, colouring of, 123 - - —— fabric, structure of, 1 - - —— ——, weight calculations, 42 - - —— ——, length calculations, 45 - - Knitting, knop effects in, 116 - - —— and weaving, 9 - - —— process, 11 - - —— yarns, wheeling, 27 - - —— ——, lamb's wool, 29 - - —— ——, Shetland, 30 - - —— ——, natural, 31 - - —— ——, fingering, 33 - - —— ——, dry-spun, 34 - - —— ——, counts of, 37 - - —— ——, mercerized, 78 - - —— ——, spun-silk, 79 - - - Latch needle frames, loop formation on, 16 - - Laundering, rules for, 108 - - Loop length, variations of, 73 - - - Merino fabrics, 84 - - - Natural tints in underwear, 108 - - Needle lines in fabric, 127 - - Nettle fibre yarn, 88 - - - Orange, place of, in knitted goods, 120 - - - Patching knitted webbing, 130 - - Patterns from flat knitter, 23 - - Pattern styles in knitted goods, 110 - - Pigment colour theory, 117 - - Pinholed work, 133 - - Purple, place of, in knitted goods, 121 - - - Reconstructing broken stitches, 130 - - Red, characteristics of, 118 - - Rib stitch, characteristics of, 22 - - Ribbed footwear, making of, 103 - - - Seamless hosiery trade, 14 - - Secondary colours, production of, 119 - - Separating colours, 125 - - Setting of knitted fabrics, 68 - - Silk and wool fabrics, 81 - - —— ——, uses of, 82 - - Sinker lines in fabric, 129 - - Slurgalled work, 131 - - Split stitches, 127 - - Stitch formation on circular frames, 102 - - - Take-up in knitting calculations, 52 - - Tuck pressers, 112 - - —— stitch structure, 114 - - - Vertical striped goods, 111 - - - Washing, precautions in, 107 - - Weight percentages, 55 - - Winding of hosiery yarns, 90 - - Woollen yarns, setting of, 72 - - - Yarn testing for counts, 38 - - —— conversion calculations, 40 - - ——, variation in setting, 68 - - —— package, essentials of, 90 - - —— clearing system, 96 - - Yarns suitable for frame gauge, 75 - - Yellow, characteristics of, 118 - - —— tint in knitted goods, 107 - - - - - _Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_ - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical - errors. - 2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 3. 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