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diff --git a/old/52023-8.txt b/old/52023-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e26099c..0000000 --- a/old/52023-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1463 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Textile Fibers used in Eastern Aboriginal -North America, by A. C. Whitford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Textile Fibers used in Eastern Aboriginal North America - -Author: A. C. Whitford - -Release Date: May 8, 2016 [EBook #52023] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILE FIBERS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Sam W. and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS - OF - THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - - - VOLUME XXXVIII, PART I - - - TEXTILE FIBERS USED IN EASTERN - ABORIGINAL NORTH AMERICA - - By A. C. Whitford - - - [Illustration: THE - AMERICAN - MUSEUM - OF - NATURAL - HISTORY - SCIENCE - EDUCATION] - - - By Order of the Trustees - of - THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - New York City - 1941 - - - - -THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - -PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY - - -In 1906 the present series of Anthropological Papers was authorized by -the Trustees of the Museum to record the results of research conducted -by the Department of Anthropology. The series comprises octavo volumes -of about 350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular intervals. -Previous to 1906 articles devoted to anthropological subjects appeared -as occasional papers in the Bulletin and also in the Memoir series of -the Museum. Of the Anthropological Papers 35 volumes have been -completed. A complete list of these publications with prices will be -furnished when requested. All communications should be addressed to -the Librarian of the Museum. - -The current volume is:-- - -VOLUME XXXVIII - -I. Textile Fibers used in Eastern Aboriginal North America. By A. C. -Whitford. Pp. 1-22. 1941. Price, $.25. - -II. (_In preparation._) - - - - -TEXTILE FIBERS USED IN EASTERN ABORIGINAL NORTH AMERICA - -By A. C. Whitford - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - INTRODUCTION 5 - MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES 7 - DIOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES 9 - OBJECTS FROM SPIRO MOUND, OKLAHOMA 15 - SUMMARY 17 - FIBER PLANTS AS IDENTIFIED 17 - TABLE OF IDENTIFICATIONS 19 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The author of this paper has studied the vegetable fibers used in -fabricating objects in the ethnological and archaeological collections -from the Indian tribes of the Mississippi drainage and eastward, now -in the American Museum. The first task was to identify them and view -them against the background of existing textile knowledge. The present -paper reports these identifications and comments upon fiber samples -from collections in other museums. - -The writing of this paper would have been impossible without the -generous and whole-hearted coöperation of many institutions and -individuals. This assistance has ranged from the furnishing of -specimens for determination, to advice as to methods, classifications, -and the supplying of modern material for comparison. For specimens of -classified plants to be used in the comparative work thanks are due to -The New York Botanical Garden in Bronx Park, the Botanical Departments -of the University of Wisconsin, the University of Oklahoma, and the -University of Georgia. - -The standard histological microscopic methods were used for the -determination of the fiber. Slides were made of both cross-sections -and longitudinal sections and these were compared with previously -prepared and classified modern material. When the specimen was too -colored for microscopic examination it was bleached in a solution of -Sodium perborate until clear enough for study. In charred material, -when sufficient detail was preserved for identification the fiber -sample was treated with Schultz Maceration solution, washed, dried, -and fortified by saturating in a collodion solution. Occasionally, it -was found necessary to stain the material and in this either -Delafield's Haematoxylon or Methylene Blue was used. In the -differentiation of certain species, it was found necessary to make -microscopic measurements of the length and width of the cells, but -generally the shape, distribution, medullation, and other constant -characters were sufficient for the identifications. - -In the text and tables the following abbreviations are used for the -names of the coöperating institutions:-- - - American Museum of Natural History AMNH - Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation MAIHF - Milwaukee Public Museum MPM - McGill University Archaeological Museum McGU - Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum OSHAM - Peabody Museum, Harvard University PMHU - Rochester Museum of Arts and Science RMAS - University of Kentucky Museum UKM - United States National Museum USNM - - - - -MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES - - -The fibers from monocotyledonous plants, as identified, are listed -here. Approximately five hundred objects were sampled, so the -frequencies for the several species should be given that denominator. - - -ARECACEAE, Reichenb. (Palm Family) - -The palmetto (_Sabal palmetto_, Walt.) seems to have been an article -of commerce as it was used by the Winnebago and the Iroquois, north of -its northern limit of distribution. It was also used by the Cherokee. -The Winnebago used the fiber in the production of stiff cords for -their bags. In three bags in the American Museum the stiff cords are -made from this material (50-7531). For burden straps the Iroquois used -this fiber to produce stiff strong cords which were covered with -cotton or other soft fiber (AMNH 50.1-1954). The Cherokee used it in -the manufacture of basketry (AMNH 50.1-2141). - - -BROMELIACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Pineapple Family) - -This Florida moss (_Tillandsia usneoides_, L.) was found in specimens -from the Southern States only. The Koasati and the people who built -certain mounds in Florida used it frequently. A specimen in the United -States National Museum from the Parish Mound, Number 2, in Florida, -consisted of a bunch of loose material. The Koasati material is in the -Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, and is represented by -fibers from a blanket and threads on a spindle (1-8551). - - -DRACAENACEAE, Link. (Yucca Family) - -Yucca (_Yucca arkansana_, Trelease) was encountered in one specimen -from the Arkansas Bluff culture in a bundle of loose fiber (MAIHF -11-7429). - -Yucca (_Yucca filamentosa_, L.) was found once in a heavy cord made by -the cave and shelter people of Ohio (OSHAM 332-42) - -_Nolina georgiana_, Michx., was found in two specimens, a moccasin -(OSHAM 332) and a bristle-like fiber from the Spiro Mound (2718-K, -Trowbridge Collection). It is possible that this plant may have been -used very frequently in objects from caves and rock-shelters. It was -not always convenient, however, to examine complete objects so that -some occurrences of its use may have been overlooked, especially since -these people commonly mixed several fibers. In the specimen in -question, for example (OSHAM 332), _Nolina georgiana_ and _Eryngium -yuccaefolium_ were identified. Similar combinations of fibers from -widely different plants have also been noted; frequently, as in the -example cited, a local plant was mixed with one found at a great -distance. - - -JUNIPERACEAE, Horan (Juniper Family) - -Red cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_, L.) was encountered in only one -specimen, a bag made by the Potawatomi Indians (AMNH 50.1-7096). - - -POACACEAE, R. Br. (Grass Family) - -The grass family was the most commonly and widely used of any of the -monocotyledonous families. - -Big blue stem grass (_Andropogon furcatus_, Muhl.) was one of the -major fibrous plants used by the cave and rock-shelter peoples of Ohio -in the construction of coarsely woven articles, such as rope and -moccasins. It was commonly used without preliminary treatment, but was -simply twisted or braided into strands. The specimens examined were -from the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum. A typical -example of the use of this fiber is in a woven moccasin (OSHAM 898-1). - -Sweet grass (_Hierochloe odorata_, L.), to be distinguished from sweet -vernal grass, was encountered only once in a bag made by the Michigan -Ottawa Indians (MAIHF 19-7125). - -Canebrake (_Arundinaria tecta_, Muhl.) was a common source of fiber -for moccasins and rope. It seems to have been utilized by most of the -prehistoric cave and rock-shelter peoples within its range (OSHAM -332-27). - - -TYPHACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Cat-tail Family) - -The cat-tail (_Typha latifolia_, L.) was observed in a mat found in -the caves of Tennessee (USNM 132252). - - -ZEA MAYS, L. (Indian Corn) - -Indian corn occurred only once. This single occurrence has no real -significance as to the frequency of its use, for all specimens in -which it was obvious that corn was the material used were not sampled. -The sample noted here was found in a knife made by the Micmac Indians -(McGU H76). The material was a cornstalk which had been subjected to -considerable pressure to force out the juice and pith to bring the -hardy flinty layers into juxtaposition. It was then used as a wedge to -fasten the knife handle. It was extremely hard and durable. - -The above are the monocotyledons encountered in this survey, in all -some twenty-four objects using this material. It should be noted that -these materials are readily adaptable to use since they need very -little preparation and are frequently used entire. Sometimes the fiber -is removed from the surrounding materials by simply letting them ret. -Yucca and _Tillandsia_ are ordinarily used entire. The grasses were -used as they were gathered, simply twisted or braided. _Tillandsia_ is -the only plant of this group which was used for the manufacture of -fabrics as in the blanket above noted (p. 7). The specimen of -cornstalk was an exception and its preparation was evidently for a -specific purpose. - -Palmetto fiber is especially adaptable. At the base of the leaves, -where they join the main stem is a large mass of more or less loose or -loosely interwoven fibrous material which needs only straightening to -be ready for use. - - - - -DIOCOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES - - -ANONACEAE, D. C. (Custard-Apple Family) - -The pawpaw (_Asimina triloba_, L.) seems to have been universally used -by all the tribes who lived where it flourished. Its use was -apparently limited only by its distribution, for it was encountered -sixteen times in the prehistoric material examined from Kentucky, -Arkansas, and Ohio, as well as in historic objects made by the -Menomini and Wisconsin Potawatomi. In the University of Wisconsin -Museum is a bunch of prepared fiber (16422) from the caves of -Kentucky. This fiber was commonly used by the cave and rock-shelter -peoples of Arkansas for cords, mats, rope, and in all coarsely woven -materials. A woven mat from Bushwick Cave is a fair example (MAIHF -11-6243). The Ohio cave and rock-shelter dwellers used the pawpaw for -coarse bags and fabrics, for example, in a split bark bag (OSHAM -332-22). In the Milwaukee Public Museum are two bags in which this -fiber was identified, one, from the Menomini (4570) in which only the -weft is of pawpaw, and another (23287) from the Wisconsin Potawatomi, -entirely composed of it. - - -APOCYNACEAE, Lindl. (Dog-bane Family) - -The genera _Apocynum_ is represented by both the species indigenous to -the territory surveyed, but as Indian hemp is one of them, it was -rather surprising how infrequently they were encountered. Only ten -examples of its use were found. - -This plant (_Apocynum androsaemifolium_, L.) which is called dog-bane -is so similar in appearance and properties that it might well have -been and was used indiscriminately with Indian hemp (_Apocynum -cannabinum_, L.). The species was found three times in material -examined. Its use by the Nanticoke in the manufacture of fish nets is -demonstrated by a net (50.2-600) in the American Museum. A burden -strap (50-7221) made from this fiber by the Iroquois is also in the -Museum collections. - -_Apocynum cannabinum_ L., the so-called Indian hemp, was found seven -times and of these is represented four times in the archaeological -cave and rock-shelter materials examined. The Museum of the American -Indian, Heye Foundation, has a bundle of prepared fibers (11-7384) -found at Allards Bluff, Arkansas. A dark colored piece of fabric, -attributed to the Hopewell culture of Ohio, made in part from this -material (957) is in the collections of the Ohio State Historical and -Archaeological Museum. Another piece of cloth (1200) in the same -museum is an Adena culture example of the use of this fiber. The -Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, has a Sauk and Fox bag -(2-4694) made from this fiber. In the American Museum a fish net -(50.2-601) made by the Nanticoke and an Iroquois burden strap -(50-7401) complete the catalogue of objects in which this fiber -occurs. In many of the older specimens examined, the fiber was crudely -prepared before twisting, but in the more recent Indian material it is -well broken down and fine, so as to make small counts and even threads -or cords. - - -ASCLEPIADACEAE, Lindl. (Milkweed Family) - -The milkweed family is represented by four species of _Asclepias_, -namely, _tuberosa_, _pulchra_, _incarnata_, and _syriaca_. These -fibers were used in the manufacture of fine threads and cords. In both -archaeological and recent Indian material the fibers were well -prepared before use. In the archaeological objects it is possible that -the fibers were collected in the spring, after retting by the weather; -in any event, they all show that they have been freed to a large -extent of their cementitious materials and epidermis. - -The highland milkweed (_Asclepias tuberosa_, L.) was encountered -twelve times from all parts of its geographical range. The cave -dwellers of Arkansas used it, as is exemplified by a bundle of knotted -fibers in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation -(11-6179). In the Peabody Museum of Harvard University is some -textile material which accompanied a knife found in an Ohio mound -(28328). The protohistoric Indians of Massachusetts used the fiber to -manufacture textiles as may be seen in a piece of plain cloth (A4127) -and in a specimen of twined cloth (A5478) in the same museum. The -Iroquois Indians employed it to make fine threads for stringing wampum -belts as is shown by one (M1905) in the Archaeological Museum of -McGill University. As stated above, all this material was broken down -to make comparatively fine, smooth threads and cords. - -The species, _Asclepias pulchra_, Ehrh., or swamp milkweed, is closely -related to _A. incarnata_, L. It was found in ten specimens examined, -but from only two states, Ohio and Kentucky. In the University of -Kentucky Museum is a rope (Bh-15/V4), made of this fiber. In the Ohio -State Historical and Archaeological Museum are specimens of fabrics -made from it which are attributed to the Hopewell culture. One of -these, a piece of cloth wrapped around a copper plate (283), also -contains _Urtica gracilis_. - -The milkweed (_Asclepias incarnata_, L.) was noted four times in Ohio -archaeological objects. In the Ohio State Historical and -Archaeological Museum is a two-strand rope (899-20), one strand of -which is made from this fiber. This is a typical cave and rock-shelter -sample. Wrapped around a Hopewell culture copper plate in the same -museum is a piece of fabric containing five different fibers, among -them _Asclepias incarnata_ (957). - -The species _Asclepias syriaca_, L., seems to be the most widely -distributed geographically of any used by the Indians surveyed in this -paper. It was found seventeen times in material from all sections and -many tribes. - -In this Museum were observed the following objects in which this fiber -was used in whole or in combination with other fiber: a Sauk and Fox -bag (50-4886); a Delaware drum string (50.1-1609); a Delaware burden -strap (50-7244); a Matchapunga fish net (50.1-9911); and a cord used, -for wrapping on a spear (50.1-7475), Micmac. In the Museum of the -American Indian, Heye Foundation, is a Kickapoo ball of string -(2-5294) made of this fiber. In an Iroquois wampum belt (M1913) in the -Archaeological Museum of McGill University, the beads are strung on -cords made from this fiber. An Iroquois burden strap (AE 360) in the -Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences is composed of this fiber. Fiber -of this species was also used by the prehistoric cave and rock-shelter -people of Ohio as is shown by a fish net (OSHAM 332-23) in the Ohio -State Historical and Archaeological Museum. - - -BETULACEAE, Agardh. (Birch Family) - -The paper birch (_Betula papyrifera_, Marsh.) was encountered in one -specimen (AMNH 50.2-1792). The bark was untreated, simply twisted into -a cord. In a specimen of Iroquois horsehair embroidery (McGU H49) the -bark had received no preliminary treatment, but was used in the raw -state. - - -CANNABINACEAE, Lindl. (Hop Family) - -This introduced plant, hemp (_Cannabis sativa_, L.), was found in four -specimens, evidently made in post-Columbian times as the plant is not -indigenous to the Western Hemisphere, but was introduced by the -colonists at a very early date. It was found in a bag (MPM 28116) made -by the Wisconsin Potawatomi Indians. A bowstring on an Algonkin bow -(AMNH 50.2-4221A) is made from this fiber as are also portions of an -Oneida burden strap (AMNH 50.1-1800). - - -DAPHNACEAE (Mezereon Family) - -This moose or leatherwood fiber (_Dirca palustris_, L.) was -encountered eleven times in as widely separated states as Arkansas and -Wisconsin. It was used both in the raw state, as strips twisted into -cord, and as treated fiber in finer cords and threads. A prehistoric -mat made by the inhabitants of Bushwick Cave, Arkansas, is composed of -this material (MAIHF 19-4635). Cloth of the Adena culture made, in -part, from this bast fiber (1200) is in the Ohio State Historical and -Archaeological Museum. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a Wisconsin -Potawatomi bag (23447) in which the weft is nicely prepared fiber -from this plant. In the collections of this Museum is a Winnebago bag -(50-784D) woven with two kinds of cord; light colored cord of _Dirca -palustris_ and dark colored cord of _Tilia americana_. - - -JUGLANDACEAE, Lindl. (Walnut Family) - -The bast from the black walnut (_Juglans nigra_, L.) was encountered -twice in burden straps from the Iroquois (Museum of the American -Indian, Heye Foundation). These fibers had apparently been previously -treated, both chemically and mechanically. They were probably boiled -in ashes, pounded, and then straightened so as to make them usable in -twisting cord and thread. One such specimen in the above Museum -carries the catalogue number 16-5208. - - -LINACEAE, Dumort. (Flax Family) - -Common flax (_Linum usitatissimum_, L.) is another example of -introduced fibers used by the Indians in post-Columbian times. The -fiber was probably secured in trade. It was found in five specimens -made by the Winnebago, Potawatomi, Michigan, Ottawa, and Delaware -Indians. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a bag (14619), made by the -Winnebago and composed entirely of flax cords. In a Delaware burden -strap (50-7191) in this Museum the fine cords are linen, but the -coarse cords are milkweed, _Asclepias syriaca_. In the Archaeological -Museum of McGill University is a wampum belt (M5932), the beads of -which are strung on a commercial linen thread. - - -MALVACEAE, Neck. (Mallow Family) - -As was to be expected, cotton (_Gossypium herbaceum_, L.) became the -most commonly and universally used of any of the fibers after it was -introduced east of the Mississippi River. No specimen was encountered -in the prehistoric material, but after its introduction and sale by -traders it was the most commonly used fiber. It does not seem -advisable to discuss these uses in detail, suffice it to say that it -served all purposes for which string and thread are utilized. - - -SALICACEAE, Lindl. (Willow Family) - -Black willow (_Salix nigra_, Marsh.). This species of black willow was -used by the Menomini, Winnebago, Michigan Ottawa, and Ojibway Indians -in the manufacture of bags, pouches, fish nets, and cord. A Menomini -bag (MAIHF 8-1136) and a similar Winnebago bag (AMNH 50.1-903) contain -black willow fiber. A Micmac fish spear (AMNH 50-4754) is wrapped with -black willow twine. In the preparation of black willow fiber the bark -was obviously stripped from the tree. Then the inner white bast tissue -was removed and boiled in wood ashes; finally, this bast was pounded -and rubbed to remove all the cementitious materials and loosen the -fibers so they could be arranged more or less parallel to each other -for twisting or spinning. In none of the specimens examined were crude -strips of the inner bark used without preliminary treatment. - - -TILIACEAE, Juss. (Basswood Family) - -The bast layer from the basswood (_Tilia americana_, L.) seems to have -been the fiber most commonly and universally used by the Eastern -Indians, for it was encountered fifty-two times, in all areas from -which specimens were obtained, with the exception of the extreme -south. It was utilized for nearly all purposes, from the manufacture -of bags to textiles. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a Menomini bag -(4586) made from the _Tilia_ bast, carefully and thoroughly prepared -to remove the gums and render the fibers parallel and capable of being -spun into good yarn. A Potawatomi bag in this Museum (50.1-7091) is -made from the same material. In the Museum of the American Indian, -Heye Foundation, is a bag made by the Sauk and Fox (2-4966). In the -Peabody Museum of Harvard University is a twilled woven garment -(A5479B) made by the protohistoric Indians of Massachusetts. An -Iroquois burden strap (AE 2963) in the Rochester Museum of Arts and -Sciences is woven of threads from prepared fibers from this tree. In -the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum is a prehistoric -fabric (957) containing _Tilia_ and three other species of fiber. -Hopewell mound and rock-shelter specimens in the same museum show the -use of _Tilia_. - -The above gives a general picture of basswood fiber usage. It was -found in an untreated state, merely cut into strips, as well as -thoroughly treated and spun into comparatively fine threads. - - -ULMACEAE, Mirbel. (Elm Family) - -The slippery elm (_Ulmus fulva_, Michx.) was found three times. Once, -in a burden strap made by the Iroquois Indians (AMNH 50-6680) in which -the fibers had received some preliminary treatment to soften them and -remove much of the natural gum. Two other specimens, both rather -coarsely woven fabrics from mounds of the Hopewell culture (OSHAM 283 -and 125) were in the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum. - -The American elm (_Ulmus americana_, L.) was encountered only once in -an Iroquois burden strap (MAIHF 19-4550). The fiber had received some -preliminary treatment and differed decidedly from _Ulmus fulva_ in the -shape of the cells, in cross-section, and the residual amount of -amorphous material. - - -UMBELLIFERAE - -The _eryngium_ (_Eryngium yuccaefolium_, Michx.) was commonly used by -the prehistoric tribes of the area in which it occurs. It was found -fifty-five times in material from the caves and rock-shelters of -Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Its parallel veined long -leaves lend themselves to all uses as readily as the yuccas of the -south and west. It is easily shredded or it can be used entire with -equal facility. The stem contains a very strong bast fiber which was -also utilized. It does not seem to have been utilized by the historic -Indians, as it was not encountered outside of the above cultures. -Whatever, if any, treatment it received before usage was very slight -and consisted apparently of shredding, with no chemical treatment, as -no fine threads or cords were found. A sandal from the Kentucky cave -culture is made from this plant by utilizing the leaf, as in the -Southwest. A cord from a reed mat found in the Tennessee caves (USNM -132252) is made from this material. The cord was used for tying reeds -(_Typha latifolia_, L.) together. The Museum of the American Indian, -Heye Foundation, contains many specimens taken from the caves and -rock-shelters of Arkansas. Among these is a bag (11-7315) from Allards -Bluff, made of this material. - -This plant was frequently encountered in collections from the Hopewell -and the rock-shelter cultures of Ohio, in the State Museum at -Columbus; as, braided work (957), and cloth from a burial (854). These -objects are believed to be typical, but the same plant was used in all -classes of cordage and textiles found in collections representing -these cultures. - - -URTICACEAE, Reichenb. (Nettle Family) - -The nettle family is represented by three genera, _Boehmeria_, -_Urtica_, and _Laportea_. Specimens of these three were encountered -forty-eight times, so it seems to have been one of the most important -families as a source of fibrous materials. The tissues were, almost -without exception, treated before use. - -The stingless nettle (_Boehmeria cylindrica_, L.) was used by -practically all the Indian tribes covered by this survey. It was -invariably more or less treated, with the possible exception of some -twisted strands from the Bushwick Cave of Arkansas (MAIHF 19-4632). -This cord appears to have been made by simply peeling the bark from -the plant and twisting it. The Delaware used the same fiber in a -wampum string (AMNH 50.1-1579), also in a burden strap (AMNH -50.1-1592). A Cherokee string used in a feather charm occurs in the -collection of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. The -handle of a Micmac curved knife (McGU H76) is fastened to the blade by -wrapping with cord of this fiber. In the same museum there are two -Iroquois wampum belts in which the strings for the beads are made from -_Boehmeria_ fiber. In the American Museum are two specimens of cord, -one on a Micmac fish spear (50.1-7475) and the other the string to an -Ojibway bow (50-6874A). - -It is evident that raw _Boehmeria_ fiber, properly treated, produces -especially fine, soft, and strong material. It is easily distinguished -from the fibers of the other members of the family by its smaller -size, the shape of the cells, and their distribution when seen in -cross-section. Both the _Urtica_ and _Laportea_ fibers are coarser and -the ratio of length to width of the fiber is much greater. The lumen -in all three is longer one way than the other, but is much more open -in _Boehmeria cylindrica_ than the other species. - -The slender nettle (_Urtica gracilis_, Ait.) seems to have been a -favorite source for all peoples from prehistoric to modern Indians. -Its use extended from New England to Wisconsin. It was usually -processed before use, except among some of the prehistoric peoples -where it was merely twisted into cord. A bag from the caves of -Tennessee (USNM 132255) is made from this fiber which has had some -preliminary treatment. A modern Sauk and Fox bag (MAIHF 2-7911) shows -complete preliminary processing. Some string in the Peabody Museum of -Harvard University (A4109), is made from this plant; this is -protohistoric material. The Hopewell culture of Ohio is represented by -twelve specimens using this fiber, all of which show some preliminary -treatment. A sample of cloth from a copper plate is representative -(OSHAM 283). The cave and rock-shelter cultures of Ohio are -represented, but here the fiber seems to have received little, if -any, preliminary treatment prior to use (OSHAM 332-42). - -The woods nettle (_Laportea canadensis_, L.) was most widely used of -all of the _Urticaceae_, both before and after treatment. It was used -by the Sauk and Fox for bags, after it had received thorough -treatment. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a bag (30260) made of -this material, thoroughly treated before being twisted into fine cord. -A string used for tying a spear point to a shaft is in the Ojibway -collection of the American Museum (50-4748). The Iroquois used it to -make burden straps (MAIHF 19-8895). Braided cloth from prehistoric -Kentucky is represented by a specimen (56795) in the Peabody Museum of -Harvard University. The cave culture of Tennessee is represented in -the United States National Museum by a shirt (132254) made from this -fiber. The Hopewell culture of Ohio is well represented by fabrics in -the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum (957, is an -example). The cave and rock-shelter culture of the same state employed -this fiber to make twined cords as is exemplified by a cord (OSHAM -332-34). The cave and rock-shelter cultures of Arkansas used it for -the manufacture of twisted cords as may be seen in a specimen -(19-4630) in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. - - - - -OBJECTS FROM SPIRO MOUND, OKLAHOMA - - -The well-known Spiro Mound, clearly prehistoric, furnished some -examples of basketry, matting, cord, and cloth. The samples were sent -to the writer by Mr. H. M. Trowbridge, Bethel, Kansas. - - 2716-C Twisted fibers covered with feathers Arundinaria tecta - 2716-H Twisted fibers covered with feathers Asimina triloba - 2717-C Twisted fibers covered with feathers Asimina triloba - 2717-G Woody material with feathers attached Asimina triloba - 2717-I&E Twisted fiber mass Asimina triloba - 2718-E Twisted fiber mass Asimina triloba - 2718-K Bristle-like vegetable fiber Nolina georgiana - 2719-J Twisted vegetable fiber Asimina triloba - 2721-A Mat Arundinaria tecta - 2721-S Fragment of basketry Arundinaria tecta - 2722-D Twisted fiber Arundinaria tecta - 2722-I Twisted fiber covered with feathers Arundinaria tecta - 2724-A Twisted fiber covered with feathers Arundinaria tecta - 2724-K Fawn colored string Arundinaria tecta - 2731 Mat Arundinaria tecta - 2782 Copper stained rope Asimina triloba - 2781 Charred basket Arundinaria tecta - 2783 Fibers adhering to copper sheet Arundinaria tecta - -A comparison of materials in prehistoric collections reveals an -excess of animal materials in the artifacts from Spiro Mound. One gets -the impression that in Spiro textiles strings of vegetable fiber are -usually surfaced with hair or other animal materials to increase the -softness of the product. This may account for the almost exclusive -use of canebrake and pawpaw, both relatively coarse fibers used -without preliminary treatment. A striking contrast is between the -slipshod way of making string and the highly precise fine techniques -of covering it with hair and feathers. - - - - -SUMMARY - - -This survey makes no pretension of being complete, but it is an -adequate sampling of the fibers utilized by the Eastern Indians and -illustrates their resourcefulness in exploiting the raw materials at -hand. It is noticeable that they used a great variety of plants and -that one of the determining properties or qualifications was the local -abundance of a plant. There seems to have been a tendency to use the -monocotyledonous plants and the bast from the trees for coarser work -and the diocotyledonous herbaceous plants for the manufacture of finer -cords and threads. - -Several general points of interest are apparent from the comparative -study of these prehistoric and historic plant materials. - -1. The plant fibers used by the prehistoric people were rarely if ever -treated before utilization, while among the modern Indians a high -degree of skill has been attained in the preparation of the fibers -before spinning. - -2. There seems to have been some commercial interchange between the -Northern and the Southern tribes, both in historic and prehistoric -times. The occurrence of palmetto fibers in modern Mohawk and -Potawatomi collections and the use of _Nolina_ by the cave and -rock-shelter people of Ohio, shows commerce. - -3. It seems that most, if not all, of the materials utilized were wild -plants for there was no discoverable evidence of the cultivation of -these plants. Such evidence would be far from obvious since -cultivation does not seem to improve the fibers in textile plants. - -4. Among the prehistoric peoples the purposeful mixing of fibers was -the rule. This is especially notable in the collections from Ohio and -Arkansas. These mixtures of fibers occur both in the same strand and -in the two-ply cords. It is not apparent why the fibers from different -plants were mixed, but the combinations seem intentional, as nettle -and milkweed, blue stem grass and pawpaw, nettle and yucca, basswood -and nettle, and pawpaw and yucca. Yet, such intentional mixtures were -rarely encountered in the historic collections examined. - -5. It is apparent that the prehistoric peoples used such fibers as -were adapted to their immediate purpose without previous treatment. -They were stripped from the plant and twisted at once. This seems to -account for the dominance of monocotyledonous fibers in prehistoric -collections. The historic Indians, on the other hand, used a greater -variety of species of fiber plants because they were able to prepare -them properly before using. The determining factors seem to have been -strength, fineness of fiber, and abundance of supply. - -All the above observations are consistent with the assumption of a -steady advance in textile skill and knowledge from prehistoric time to -the present. - - - - -FIBER PLANTS AS IDENTIFIED - - - Andropogon furcatus Blue stem grass - Apocynum cannabinum, androsaemifolium Indian hemp - Arundinaria tecta Canebrake - Asclepias syriaca, tuberosa, pulchra, incarnata Milkweed - Asimina triloba Pawpaw - Betula papyrifera Paper birch - Boehmeria cylindrica Stingless nettle - Cannabis sativa Hemp - Dirca palustris Moosewood - Eryngium yuccaefolium - Gossypium herbaceum Cotton - Hierochloe odorata Sweet grass - Juglans nigra Black walnut - Juniperus virginiana Red cedar - Laportea canadensis Woods nettle - Linum usitatissimum Flax - Nolina georgiana Yucca - Sabal palmetto Palmetto - Salix nigra Black willow - Tilia americana Basswood - Tillandsia usneoides Florida moss - Typha latifolia Cat-tail - Ulmus americana, fulva Elm - Urtica gracilis Slender nettle - Yucca arkansana, filamentosa Yucca - Zea mays Indian corn - - - - -TABLE OF IDENTIFICATIONS - - -Selected objects in museum collections to show the range and -frequencies in the use of vegetable fibers, including geographical and -chronological distributions. - -The objects from the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum -are all prehistoric. In other museums prehistoric objects are marked -with an asterisk (*). - - -AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - - Number Object Fiber - - -ALGONKIN - - 50.2-4221A String from bow Cannabis sativa - - -CHEROKEE - - 50.1-2141 Basket Coarse material, Sabal palmetto; - fine material, cotton - 50.1-9911 Fish net Asclepias syriaca - 50.1-1901a Moccasin Corchorus capsularis, jute - - -DELAWARE - - 50-7191 Burden strap Fine cord, Linum usitatissimum; - coarse cord, Asclepias syriaca - 50.1-1592 Burden strap Boehmeria cylindrica - 50-7244 Burden strap Asclepias syriaca - 50-7243 Burden strap Asclepias syriaca - 50-7203 Ceremonial wampum Tilia americana - 50.1-1609 Drum string Asclepias syriaca - 50.1-1621 Rope Tilia americana - 50.1-1579 Wampum string Boehmeria cylindrica - - -IROQUOIS - - 50-6683 Burden strap Light-colored string, Asclepias - syriaca; dark-colored loose - material, Sabal palmetto; - dark-colored string, Tilia - americana - 50-6682 Burden strap Light-colored string, cotton; - dark-colored string, Tilia - americana - 50-6680 Burden strap Ulmus fulva - 50-6681 Burden strap Brown cord, cotton; light-colored - material, Laportea canadensis; - dark-colored material, Tilia - americana - 50-7221 Burden strap Apocynum androsaemifolium - 50-7401 Burden strap Apocynum cannabinum - 50.1-1800 Burden strap Cannabis sativa, hemp - 50.1-1954 Pack frame Cotton, palmetto, and Tilia - americana - - -MATCHAPUNGA - - 50.1-9911 Fishnet Asclepias syriaca - - -MENOMINI - - 50-9885 Reed mat Tilia americana - 50.1-5880 Bag Cotton - 50-9864 Bag Soft string, cotton; stiff cord, - Tilia americana - 50-9871 Bag Cotton - 50-9873 Bag Cotton - 50-9867 Bag Cotton - 50-9872 Bag Cotton - 50-9866 Bag Cotton - 50-4798 Bag Cotton - 50-9877 Bag Tilia americana - 50.1-6862 Bag Tilia americana - 50-9880 Bag Tilia americana - - -MICMAC - - 50.1-7475 Fish spear Dark stiff cord, Boehmeria - cylindrica; gray cord, Asclepias - syriaca - - -NANTICOKE - - 50.2-601 Netting Apocynum cannabinum - 50.2-600 Netting Apocynum androsaemifolium - - -OJIBWAY - - 50-6874a Bow Boehmeria cylindrica - 50-4754 Fish net Salix nigra - 50-4749 Fish hook wrapping Salix nigra - 50-4748 Spear wrapping Laportea canadensis - 50-5690 Woven bag Cotton - 50-4600 Woven bag Yellow threads, animal; gray - threads, cotton - - -PAMUNKEY - - 50.1-9907 Net Cotton - 50.1-9906 Net Cotton - 50.1-9897 Net Cotton - - -POTAWATOMI - - 50.1-7098 Bag Tilia americana - 50.1-6895 Bag White cord, cotton; dark loose - fiber, Tilia americana - 50.1-7091 Bag Tilia americana - 50.1-6899 Bag Cotton - 50.1-7096 Bag Cotton and cedar - 50.1-6897 Bag Cotton and animal - 50.1-7090 Bag Cotton - 50.1-7095 Bag Cotton and animal - - -SAUK AND FOX - - 50.1-2169 Bag Tilia americana - 50-4886 Bag Light and dark, Asclepias syriaca - 50-3558 Bag Cotton - 50-3550 Bag Cotton - 50-2219 Bag Cotton - 50.1-2168 Bag Cotton - 50-4885 Bag Animal - 50-3570 Fiber for making - bags Laportea canadensis - 50-2204 String Asclepias tuberosa - - -WINNEBAGO - - 50.1-903 Bag Red fiber, Salix nigra - 50-7573 Bag Blue and red yarn, animal; gray, - cotton; stiff cord, Tilia - americana - 50-7531 Bag Soft cord, cotton; hard cord and - loose fiber, Sabal palmetto - 50-7572 Bag White cord, cotton; loose fibers, - Sabal palmetto - 50.1-906 Bag Tilia americana - 50.1-907 Bag Cotton and animal (wool?) - 50-7533 Bag Cotton and animal - 50-7759 Bag Cotton and animal - 50-784D Bag Light-colored cord, Dirca - palustris; dark-colored cord, - Tilia americana - 50-7532 Bag Light cord, Tilia americana; - dark-colored cord, Salix nigra - 50-7574 Bag Stiff cords, Tilia americana; soft - cords, Dirca palustris - 50.1-904 Bag Cords, cotton; loose fibers, Tilia - americana - 50-7760 Bag Cotton and animal - 50-7763 Bag Cotton and animal - 50-7843 Bag Cotton and animal - 50.2-8024 Bag Cotton - 50-7762 Bag Cotton - 50.1-905 Bag Soft cord, cotton; hard cord, Sabal - palmetto - - -MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN, HEYE FOUNDATION - - Number Object Fiber Tribe or - Location - 2-4694 Bag Apocynum cannabinum Sauk and Fox - 2-4966 Bag Tilia americana Sauk and Fox - 2-7911 Bag Urtica gracilis Sauk and Fox - 8-1136 Bag Salix nigra Menomini - 11-6232* Bag Eryngium yuccaefolium Arkansas - 11-7315* Bag Eryngium yuccaefolium Arkansas - 19-7125 Bag Hierochloe odorata - 16-5208 Burden strap Juglans nigra Mohawk - 19-4550 Burden strap Ulmus americana Iroquois - 2-5294 Cord Asclepias syriaca Kickapoo - 19-4632* Cord Boehmeria cylindrica Arkansas - 11-6179* Cord Asclepias tuberosa Arkansas - 11-7384* Cord Apocynum cannabinum Arkansas - 11-7429* Cord Yucca arkansana and - Asimina triloba Arkansas - 1-8551 Cord Tillandsia usneoides Koasati - 11-8575* Cord Asimina triloba Arkansas - 19-4630* Cord Laportea canadensis Arkansas - 1-8672 Saddle blanket Tillandsia usneoides Koasati - 19-8146 Cord on a kettle Apocynum androsaemifolium Iroquois - 11-6243* Mat Asimina triloba Arkansas - 19-4635* Mat Dirca palustris Arkansas - - -OHIO STATE HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - 332-22 Bag Asimina triloba - 332-34 Cord Eryngium yuccaefolium; Laportea canadensis - 332-42 Cord Yucca filamentosa - 898-1 Cord Andropogon furcatus - 899-20 Cord Asclepias incarnata - 7 Fabric Asclepias pulchra - 125 Fabric Ulmus fulva - 283 Fabric Asclepias pulchra; Urtica gracilis; Ulmus - fulva - 332 Fabric Andropogon furcatus; Asimina triloba; - Arundinaria tecta - 854 Fabric Eryngium yuccaefolium - 957 Fabric Eryngium yuccaefolium; Tilia americana; - Asclepias incarnata; Apocynum cannabinum; - Laportea canadensis - 1200 Fabric Dirca palustris; Apocynum cannabinum - 1175 Mat Arundinaria tecta - 332 Moccasin Nolina georgiana - 332-27 Moccasin Arundinaria tecta - 332-23 Net Asclepias syriaca - - -MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - 4570 Bag Asimina triloba - 4586 Bag Tilia americana - 14619 Bag Linum usitatissimum - 23287 Bag Asimina triloba - 23447 Bag Dirca palustris - 28116 Bag Cannabis sativa - 30260 Bag Laportea canadensis - 33076 Fabric Urtica gracilis - - -UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - Le-5/V2* Netting Asclepias pulchra - Bh-15/V4 Netting Asclepias pulchra - - -UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - 16422* Fiber Asimina triloba - - -ROCHESTER MUSEUM OF ARTS AND SCIENCES - - Number Object Fiber - AE2963 Burden strap Tilia americana - AE 360 Burden strap Asclepias syriaca - - -MCGILL UNIVERSITY ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - H76 Cord Zea mays; Boehmeria cylindrica - M1911 Cord Tilia americana - 11083 Cord Asclepias tuberosa - M1905 Wampum belt Asclepias tuberosa - M1908 Wampum belt Asclepias tuberosa - M1912 Wampum belt Boehmeria cylindrica - M1913 Wampum belt Asclepias syriaca - M5932 Wampum belt Linum usitatissimum - - -UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM - - Number Object Fiber - 132255* Bag Urtica gracilis - 132254* Fabric Laportea canadensis - 132252* Mat (reeds) Typha latifolia - 132252* Cord Eryngium yuccaefolium - 132253* Fabric Laportea canadensis - - -PEABODY MUSEUM, HARVARD UNIVERSITY - - Number Object Fiber - A4109 Cord Urtica gracilis - A4127* Fabric Asclepias tuberosa - A5478 Fabric Asclepias tuberosa - A5479B Fabric Tilia americana - 28328* Fabric Asclepias tuberosa - 28390* Fabric Eryngium yuccaefolium - 56795 Fabric Laportea canadensis - 8232 Moccasin Eryngium yuccaefolium - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -Variant spelling is preserved as printed. - -Minor punctuation errors have been repaired. - -On page 17, the common name for Eryngium yuccaefolium is omitted from -the table 'Fiber Plants as Identified.' It is typically identified as -button eryngo, button snake-root or rattlesnake master. The omission -in the table is preserved as printed. - -On page 21, there is nothing in the 'Tribe or location' column for the -bag, 19-7125, in the table 'Museum of the American Indian, Heye -Foundation.' - -On page 22, there were no column labels on the tables from 'University -of Kentucky Museum' onwards. For ease of reference, the transcriber -has added column labels. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Textile Fibers used in Eastern -Aboriginal North America, by A. C. 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