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diff --git a/old/52043-0.txt b/old/52043-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1d64f9f..0000000 --- a/old/52043-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10469 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, November 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, November 1883 - A Monthly Magazine Devoted to the Promotion of True Culture. - Organ of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: July 8, 2017 [EBook #52043] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, NOVEMBER 1883 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: Bold text is surrounded by =equal signs= and -italic text is surrounded by _underscores_.] - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. ORGAN OF -THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. IV. NOVEMBER, 1883. No. 2. - - - - -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - - -_President_—Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. - -_Superintendent of Instruction_—Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., New Haven, -Conn. - -_Counselors_—Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop -H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. - -_Office Secretary_—Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. - -_General Secretary_—Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - -[Transcriber's Note: This table of contents of this periodical was -created for the HTML version to aid the reader.] - - - - -Contents - - REQUIRED READING - German History 63 - German Literature 66 - Physical Science - II.—The Circulation of Water on the Land 67 - SUNDAY READINGS - [Sunday, November 4.]—Moral Distinctions Not Sufficiently - Regarded in Social Intercourse 70 - [Sunday, November 11.] 71 - [Sunday, November 18.] 72 - [Sunday, November 25.] 72 - - Political Economy - II. Production, Continued—Capital—Combination and - Division of Labor 73 - III.—Consumption 74 - Readings in Art - II.—Sculpture: Grecian and Roman 75 - Selections from American Literature 77 - Benjamin Franklin—Extracts From Poor Richard’s Almanac 77 - George Washington—Account of the Battle of Trenton 78 - Thomas Jefferson—George Washington 79 - Thoughts from William Ellery Channing 79 - - Autumn Sympathy 80 - Republican Prospects in France 80 - Chautauqua to California 81 - To My Books 83 - Earthquakes—Ischia and Java 83 - Low Spirits 85 - Vegetable Villains 86 - From the Baltic to the Adriatic 87 - Electricity 89 - Poachers in England 90 - Eight Centuries With Walter Scott 91 - The Great Organ at Fribourg 94 - Eccentric Americans 95 - Etiquette 99 - Napoleon’s Marshals 100 - C. L. S. C. Work 102 - C. L. S. C. Stationery 103 - New England Branch of the Class of ’86 103 - C. L. S. C. Testimony 103 - C. L. S. C. Reunion 104 - Local Circles 105 - How to Conduct a Local Circle 107 - Questions and Answers 109 - Outline of C. L. S. C. Studies 112 - Chautauqua Normal Class 112 - Editor’s Outlook 115 - Dr. Haygood's Battle for the Negro 115 - The Political Outlook 115 - History of Greece 116 - A College Reform 116 - Editor’s Note-Book 117 - Editor’s Table 119 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings For November 120 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings in “The Chautaquan” 123 - Tricks of the Conjurors 125 - Talk About Books 126 - - - - -REQUIRED READING - -FOR THE - -_Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle for 1883-4_. - -NOVEMBER. - - - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -By REV. W. G. WILLIAMS, A.M. - - -II. - -From the time of Julius Cæsar to the fall of the Roman Empire, a period -of more than four hundred years, the greater part of the Germans were -subject to Roman rule, a rule maintained only by military force. But -the struggle against Rome never entirely ceased—and as Roman power -gradually declined the Germans seized every opportunity to recover -their liberty and in their turn became conquerors. To trace the -succession of their vicissitudes during this period would be to give -the narrative of a bold, vigorous, war-like people in their rude -barbaric condition. We should discover even in those early times those -race characteristics of strength, bravery and persistence which became -so marked in later centuries; we should recognize in Hermann, the first -German leader, the prophecy of the Great Charles who steps upon the -scene nearly eight centuries later. - - -HERMANN, THE FIRST LEADER. - -He it was (Hermann Arminius) who, with a power to organize equal -to that of William of Orange, bound the German tribes in a secret -confederacy, whose object it was to resist and repel the Roman armies. -While still himself serving as an officer in the Roman army, he managed -to rally the confederated Germans and to attack Varus’s army of forty -thousand men—the best Roman legions—as they were marching through the -Teutoburger Forest, where, aided by violent storms, the Germans threw -the Romans into panic and the fight was changed to a slaughter. When -the news of the great German victory reached Rome the aged Augustus -trembled with fear; he let his hair and beard grow for months as a sign -of trouble, and was often heard to exclaim: “O, Varus, Varus, give me -back my legions.” Though Rome, under the able leadership of Germanicus, -soon after defeated the Germans, yet she had been taught that the -Germans possessed a spirit and a power sufficient to make her tremble -for her future supremacy. - -Hermann seems to have devoted himself to the creation of a permanent -union of the tribes he had commanded. We may guess, but can not assert, -that his object was to establish a national organization like that of -Rome, and in doing this he must have come into conflict with laws and -customs which were considered sacred by the people. But his remaining -days were too few for even the beginning of a task which included such -an advance in the civilization of the race. We only know that he was -waylaid and assassinated by members of his own family in the year 21. -He was then 37 years old and had been for thirteen years the leader of -his people.[A] - - * * * * * - -He was undoubtedly the liberator of Germany, having dared to grapple -with the Roman power, not in its beginnings, like other kings and -commanders, but in the maturity of its strength. He was not always -victorious in battle, but in war he was never subdued. He still lives -in the songs of the barbarians, unknown to the annals of the Greeks, -who only admire that which belongs to themselves—nor celebrated as he -deserves by the Romans, who, in praising the olden times, neglect the -events of the later years.[B] - - -GERMAN NATIONALITIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE THIRD CENTURY. - -When we meet the Germans at the close of the third century we are -surprised to find that the tribal names which they bore in the time -of Hermann have nearly all disappeared, and new names of wider -significance have taken their places. Instead of thirty to forty petty -tribes, they are now consolidated into four chief nationalities with -two or three inferior, but independent branches. Their geographical -situation is no longer the same, migrations have taken place, large -tracts of territory have changed hands, and many leading families have -been overthrown and new ones arisen. Nothing but the constant clash of -arms could have wrought such change. As each of these new nationalities -plays a prominent part in the following centuries, a short description -of them is given: - -1. _The Alemanni._—The name of this division (_Alle Mannen_, signifying -“all men”) shows that it was composed of fragments of many tribes. The -Alemanni first made their appearance along the Main, and gradually -pushed southward over the Tithe lands, where the military veterans of -Rome had settled, until they occupied the greater part of southwestern -Germany, and eastern Switzerland to the Alps. Their descendants occupy -the same territory to this day. - -2. _The Franks._—It is not known whence this name is derived, nor what -is its meaning. The Franks are believed to have been formed out of -the Sicambrians in Westphalia, a portion of the Chatti and the Batavi -in Holland, together with other tribes. We first hear of them on the -Lower Rhine, but they soon extended their territory over a great part -of Belgium and Westphalia. Their chiefs were already called kings, and -their authority was hereditary. - -3. _The Saxons._—This was one of the small original tribes settled in -Holstein. The name “Saxon” is derived from their peculiar weapon, a -short sword, called _sahs_. We find them occupying at the close of the -third century nearly all the territory between the Harz Mountains and -the North Sea, from the Elbe westward to the Rhine. There appears to -have been a natural enmity—no doubt bequeathed from the earlier tribes -out of which both grew—between them and the Franks. - -4. _The Goths._—Their traditions state that they were settled in Sweden -before they were found by the Greek navigators on the southern shore of -the Baltic in 330 B. C. It is probable that only a portion of the tribe -navigated, and that the present Scandinavian race is descended from the -remainder. They came in contact with the Romans beyond the mouth of the -Danube about the beginning of the third century.[C] - - -INFLUENCE OF THE ROMANS ON THE GERMANS. - -The proximity of the Romans on the Rhine, the Danube, and the Neckar, -had by degrees effected alterations in the manners of the Germans. They -had become acquainted with many new things, both good and bad. By means -of the former they became acquainted with money, and even luxuries. -The Romans had planted the vine on the Rhine, and constructed roads, -cities, manufactories, theaters, fortresses, temples, and altars. Roman -merchants brought their wares to Germany, and fetched thence amber, -feathers, furs, slaves, and the very hair of the Germans; for it became -the fashion to wear light flaxen wigs, instead of natural hair. Of -the cities which the Romans built there are many yet remaining, as -Salzburg, Ratisbonne, Augsburg, Basle, Strasburg, Baden, Spires, Worms, -Metz, Treves, Cologne, Bonn, etc. But in the interior of Germany, -neither the Romans nor their habits and manners had found friends, nor -were cities built there according to the Roman style.[D] - - -INVASION OF THE HUNS—ATTILA. - -The fourth century of our era and the first half of the fifth were -characterized by the spirit of migration among all the peoples beyond -the Rhine. Representatives of every German village and district went -to Rome, and each brought back stories of the wealth and luxury -that existed there. They had the keen perception and the strength -to recognize the increasing weakness of the government, and also to -despise the enervation and corruption of its citizens. The German was -ambitious and restless as daily he regarded Rome more and more as his -prey. The Romans themselves saw the danger of the Empire and lived in -apprehension of overwhelming incursions long before they came. In the -latter part of the fourth century the great impulse was given to the -people of northern and eastern Europe by successive invasions from -Asia; and a vast and general movement began among them which resulted -in the disintegration of the Roman Empire, and the transfer of the -principal arena of history from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea -to the countries in which the great powers of modern Europe afterward -grew up. The first impulse to this series of events was given by -disturbances and migrations in central Asia, of whose cause hardly -anything is known. Long before the Christian era there was a powerful -race of Huns in northeastern Asia who became so dangerous to the -Chinese that the great wall of China was built as a defense against -them (finished B. C. 244).[E] - - * * * * * - -These Huns, a Mongol race, had migrated from the center of Asia -westward three-quarters of a century previously (A. D. 375), carrying -death and devastation on their path. They had nothing in common with -the peoples of the West, either in facial features or habits of life. -Contemporary historians describe them as surpassing by their savagery -all that can be imagined. They were of low stature, with broad -shoulders, thick-set limbs, flat noses, high cheek-bones, small eyes -deeply sunk in the sockets, and yellow complexion. Ammianus Marcellinus -compares them, in their monstrous ugliness, to beasts walking on two -legs, or the grinning heads clumsily carved on the posts of bridges. -They had no beard, because from infancy their faces were hideously -scarred by being slashed all over, in order to hinder its growth. -Accustomed to lead a wandering life in their native country, these wild -hordes traversed the Steppes, or boundless plains which lie between -Russia and China, in huge chariots, or on small hardy horses, changing -their stations as often as fresh pasture was required for their cattle. -Except constrained by necessity, they never entered any kind of house, -holding them in horror as so many tombs. They were accustomed from -infancy to endure cold, hunger, and thirst. As the great boots they -wore deprived them of all facility in marching, they never fought on -foot; but the skill with which they managed their horses and threw -the javelin, made them more formidable to the Germans than even the -disciplined, but less ferocious, legions of Rome. - -This was the rude race which, bursting into Europe in the second half -of the fourth century, shook the whole barbarian world to its center, -and precipitated it upon the Roman Empire. The Goths fled before them, -when they passed the Danube, the Vandals when they crossed the Rhine. -After a halt of half a century in the center of Europe, the Huns put -themselves again in motion. - -Attila, the king of this people, constrained all the tribes wandering -between the Rhine and the Oural to follow him. For some time he -hesitated upon which of the two empires he should carry the wrath of -heaven. Deciding upon the West, he passed the Rhine, the Moselle, and -the Seine, and marched upon Orleans. The populations fled before him in -indescribable terror, for the _Scourge of God_, as he was called, left -not one stone upon another wheresoever he passed. Metz and twenty other -cities had been destroyed. Troyes alone had been saved by its bishop, -Saint Loup. He wished to seize upon Orleans, the key of the southern -provinces; and his innumerable army surrounded the city. Its bishop, -St. Aignan, sustained the courage of the inhabitants by promising them -a powerful succor. Ætius, in fact, arrived with all the barbarian -nations encamped in Gaul, at the expense of which the new invasion was -made. Attila for the first time fell back; but in order to choose a -battle-field favorable for his cavalry, he halted in the Catalaunian -plains near Méry-sur-Seine. There the terrible shock of battle took -place. In the first onset the Franks, who formed the vanguard of Ætius, -fought with such animosity that 15,000 Huns strewed the plain. But -next day, when the great masses on both sides encountered, the bodies -of 165,000 combatants were left on that field of carnage. Attila was -conquered. The allies, however, not daring to drive the wild Huns to -despair, suffered Attila to retreat into Germany (451). In the year -following he made amends for his defeat by an invasion of northern -Italy, ravaging Aquileia, Milan, and other cities in a frightful -manner, but died of an apoplectic stroke (453), soon after his return, -and his empire fell with him, but not the terrible remembrance of his -name and of his cruelties. The Visigoths, whose king had perished in -the fight, and the Franks of Meroveus, had had, with Ætius, the chief -honor of that memorable day in the Catalaunian plains. For it had -become a question whether Europe should be German or Mongolian, whether -the fierce Huns or the Germans should found an empire on the ruins of -that which was then crumbling.[F] - - -FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE—MANNERS AND MORALS OF THE GERMANS IN THIS -AGE. - -The Western Empire had now but a short time to live. The dastardly -emperor Valentinian III., suspicious of the independent position of -Ætius, recalled the conqueror of Attila from Gaul, and slew him with -his own hand (A. D. 454). He was himself murdered soon after, and his -widow, Eudoxia, though forced to marry the assassin, determined to -avenge her husband. She invited the Vandals, for this purpose, from -Africa across the sea to Rome. This German tribe, still ruled by the -aged Genseric, was the only one which possessed a fleet; and by this -means the Vandals had already made themselves masters of the great -islands of the Mediterranean, of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. The -“sea-king” eagerly obeyed the summons (A. D. 455), and now “golden -Rome” was given up for fourteen days to his soldiers, and was sacked -with such horrors that the name of Vandal has ever since been a proverb -for barbarity and destruction. Yet the mediation of Leo the Great, then -Bishop of Rome, saved the city from utter ruin. From this time onward -the emperors, who followed one another in quick succession, were mere -tools of the German generals, and symbols of power before the common -people; for the whole imperial army now consisted of the remnants of -various German nations, who had sought service for pay. These too, at -last, like their kindred in the provinces, demanded lands in Italy, and -would have no less than one-third of the soil. When this was refused, -Odoacer, at the head of his soldiers—Heruli, Sciri, Turcilingi, and -Rugii, who forced their way thither from the Danube—put an end to the -very name of the Roman Empire, stripping the boy Romulus Augustulus, -the last emperor, of the purple, and ruling alone in Italy, as German -general and king. Thus the Western Empire fell by German hands, after -they had already wrested from it all its provinces, Africa, Spain, Gaul -and Britain. This occurred in the year 476. Ancient history ends with -this event; but in the history of the Germans it is merely an episode. - -At the time of the great migrations, the German tribes were barbarians, -in that they were destitute alike of humanity toward enemies and -inferiors, and of scientific culture. Neither the pursuit of learning -nor the practice of mercy to the vanquished could seem to them other -than unmanly weakness. Their ferocity spread misery and ruin through -the whole arena of history, and made the fifth and sixth centuries of -our era the crowning epoch in the annals of human suffering; while -their active, passionate contempt for learning destroyed the existing -monuments of intelligence and habits of inquiry and thought, almost -as completely as they swept away the wealth, prosperity, and social -organization of the Roman world. Their ablest kings despised clerical -accomplishments. Even Theodoric the Great could not write, and his -signature was made by a black smear over a form or mould in which his -name was cut. Nevertheless these nations were not what we mean by -savages. Their originally beautiful and resonant language was already -cultivated in poetical forms, in heroic songs. There was intercourse -and trade among the several nations. Minstrels, especially, passed -from one royal court to another, and the same song which was sung to -Theodoric in Ravenna could be heard and understood by the Vandals -in Carthage, by Clovis in Paris, and by the Thuringians in their -fastnesses. A common language was a strong bond of union among these -nations. Messengers, embassies, and letters were sent to and fro -between their courts; gifts were exchanged, and marriages and alliances -entered into. Thus the nations were informed concerning one another, -and recognized their mutual relationship. It was this international -intercourse that gave rise to the heroic minstrelsy—a faithful relation -of the great deeds of German heroes during the migrations; but the -minstrel boldly transforms the order of events, and brings together -things which in reality took place at intervals of whole generations. -Thus they sing of Hermanric, of Theodoric the Great (Dietrich the -Strong, of Berne), and of his faithful knight Hildebrand; then of -the fall of the Burgundian kings, of the far-ruling Attila, and of -Sigurd, or Siegfried, who was originally a Northern god of spring, but -here appears as a youthful hero, faithful and child-like, simple and -unsuspicious, yet the mightiest of all—the complete image of the German -character. - -These wild times of warfare and wandering could not, of course, -favorably affect morals and character. They did much to root out of -the minds and lives of the people their ancient heathen faith and -practices. Their old gods were associated with places, scenes, features -of the country and the climate; and, with these out of sight, the gods -themselves were easily forgotten. Moreover, the local deities of other -places and nations were brought into notice. The people’s religious -habits were broken up, their minds confused, and thus they were better -prepared than before to embrace the new and universal doctrines of -Christianity. But the wanderings had a bad effect on morality in all -forms. The upright German was still distinguished by his self-respect -from the false, faithless, and cowardly “Welshman,” whose nature had -become deformed through years of servitude. But Germans, too, were -now often guilty of faithlessness and cruelty; and some tribes grew -effeminate and corrupt, especially the Vandals in luxurious Africa. -They imitated the style of the conquered in dress, arms, and manner -of life; and some adopted their language also. For instance, even -Theodoric the Great corresponded in Latin with foreign monarchs; and as -early as the sixth and seventh centuries, the Germans recorded their -own laws in Latin, the West Goths and Burgundians introducing the -practice, which was followed by the Franks, Alemanni, Bavarians, and -Langobards. These laws, and the prohibitions they contain, are the best -sources of information upon the manners of the time, and especially -upon the condition of the lower orders, the peasants, and the slaves. -The most frequent cases provided are of bodily injuries, murder, -wounds, and mutilations, showing that the warlike disposition had -degenerated into cruelty and coarseness. For all these injuries, the -weregeld, or ransom, was still a satisfaction. The life of a nobleman, -that of a freeman, of a slave, and the members of the body—the eye, -ear, nose, and hand—were assessed each at a fixed money valuation, -to be paid by the aggressor, if he would not expose himself to the -vengeance of the wronged man or his family. But crimes committed by -peasants and slaves were punished by death, sometimes at the stake, -where freemen might escape by paying a fine. The oaths of parties and -witnesses were heard; and they were sustained by the oaths of others, -their friends, relations, or partisans, who swore that they were to -be believed. If an accused party swore that he was innocent, it was -only necessary for him to obtain a sufficient number of compurgators, -or jurors, of his own rank to swear that they believed him, in order -to secure acquittal. But the number required was much larger for men -of low rank than for the nobles; and the freedmen and slaves had no -rights of the kind, but were tortured at will to compel them to confess -or testify. The slaves were often tried by an ordeal, and were held -guilty of any accusation if they could not put their hands into boiling -water without harm. For freemen, if no other evidence were accessible, -a trial by battle was adopted, as an appeal to God’s judgment. The -heathen tribes in Germany proper—the Frisi, Saxons, Thuringians, and -Alemanni—lived on in their old ways; yet they too failed to maintain -the spotless character assigned them by Tacitus. It was a time of -general ferment. The new elements of civilization had brought with them -new vices, and the simplicity of earlier days could not survive.[G] - - [To be continued.] - - * * * * * - -RIGHT well I know that improvement is a duty, and as we see man strives -ever after a higher point, at least he seeks some novelty. But beware! -for with these feelings Nature has given us also a desire to continue -in the old ways, and to take pleasure in that to which we have been -accustomed. Every condition of man is good which is natural and in -accordance with reason. Man’s desires are boundless, but his wants are -few. For his days are short, and his fate bounded by a narrow span. I -find no fault with the man who, ever active and restless, crosses every -sea and braves the rude extremes of every clime, daring and diligent in -pursuit of gain, rejoicing his heart and house by wealth.—_Goethe._ - -FOOTNOTES: - -[A] Bayard Taylor. - -[B] Tacitus. - -[C] Bayard Taylor. - -[D] Sime. - -[E] Lewis. - -[F] Sime. - -[G] Lewis. - - - - -GERMAN LITERATURE. - - -Among the Germans, as among all other nations, the earliest literature -is poetical. Little is preserved of their ancient poetry, but Tacitus -tells us that the Germans of his time had ancient songs relating to -Tuisco and Mannus, and to the hero Arminius. It is the opinion of many -critics that the stories of “Reynard, the Fox,” and “Isengrim, the -Wolf,” may be traced back to these remote times. The legends of the -“Nibelungenlied” have many marks of antiquity which would place them in -this pre-historic age. The first definite period, however, is: - -I. THE EARLY MIDDLE AGE.—When the German tribes accepted Christianity, -the clergy strove to replace the native poetry by the stories of the -gospel. In the fourth century Bishop Ulfilas prepared a clear, faithful -and simple translation of the Scriptures, which has since been of value -in the study of the Teutonic languages. Charles the Great overpowered -the effort the priests had made to check poetry by issuing orders to -collect the old German ballads. But few of these treasures of Old High -and Low German literature have come down to us. Later the Church still -further counteracted the influences of pagan literature by a religious -poetry in which the life of Christ was sung in verse. Scholastic -learning was also zealously cultivated in the monasteries and schools. - -II. THE AGE OF CHIVALRY.—Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty during the -period of Middle High German the country passed through one of the -greatest epochs of its literature. The most characteristic outcome -of this active era is a series of poetical romances produced in the -twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In these romances the subject of -whatever epoch it might be, was treated wholly in the spirit of -chivalry, the supreme aim was to furnish an idealized picture of the -virtues of knighthood. Wolfram von Eschenbach was one of the most -brilliant of these writers; “Parzival,” his chief poem, is purely -imaginative. The hero is made to pass from a life of dreams to one of -adventure, finally to become lord of the palace of the Holy Grail. -Its object is to show the restless spirit of the Middle Ages, which, -continually discontent with life, sought a nobler place. - -Gottfried, of Strasburg, was a complete contrast to Wolfram and his -greatest contemporary. Tristam and Iseult is his theme. Mediæval -romance bore its richest fruit in these two poets, and most of their -successors imitated either one or the other. To this age belongs the -famous epic, the “Nibelungenlied,” in which many ancient ballads have -been collected and arranged. “Gudrun” is another epic in which a poet -of this period has given form to several old legends. But lyrics as -well as romances and epics mark the age of chivalry. The poets of this -class were known as _minnesänger_ because their favorite theme was -_minne_ or love. Of all the _minnesänger_ the first place belongs to -Walther von der Vogelweide. He wrote poems of patriotism as well as on -the usual subjects of lyric verse. - -To this epoch belong the beginnings of prose in German literature. -Latin was the speech of scholars, and prose works were almost uniformly -in that language. The “Sachenspiegel” and “Schwabenspiegel,” two -collections of local laws, aroused interest among Germans in their -language. The preachers, however, were the chief founders of prose -style. Dissatisfied with the abuses and mere forms under which genuine -spiritual life was crushed, they strove to awaken new and truer ideas -of religion. A Franciscan monk, Berthold, and Eckhart are the two to -whom most is due. - -III. THE LATER MIDDLE AGE.—After the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, -chivalry died out in Germany, and with it the incentive to poetry. -During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, attempts were made to -produce poetry by rule. As every trade has its guild, so there was -formed a guild of poetry, in which the members made their verses by the -“_tabulatur_,” and were obliged to pass through successive stages up -to the “_meistersänger_.” More important were the efforts at dramatic -composition. They were crude representations of scriptural subjects, -with which the clergy sought to replace the pagan festivals. Out of -these representations grew the “mysteries,” or “miracle plays,” in -which there was an endeavor to dramatize sacred subjects. “Shrove -Tuesday plays” were dialogues, setting forth some scene of noisy fun, -and were the first attempts at comedy. - -During the latter part of the fifteenth century there was in Germany, -as in other European countries, a great revival of intellectual life. -It was due to two things—the re-discovery of Greek literature and the -invention of printing. In the universities a broader culture took the -place of scholastic studies. Many books found their way to the people, -but these were mainly on social questions. The tyranny of princes and -abuses of the clergy were the topics for the times, and multitudes of -books were written ridiculing princes, priests, nobles, and even the -Pope. The greatest of these satires was “Reineke Vos,” by Barkhusen, -a printer of Rostock. During this stirring period Maximilian I. was -emperor, and attempted to revive the mediæval romance. His success was -not great, and in no sense affected popular taste. - -IV. THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION.—While the Renaissance brought -about a great literary movement in England and France, and an artistic -movement in Italy, in Germany the Reformation agitated the nation. -Luther was the commanding spirit of the age in literature, as in -religion. His greatest achievement was his translation of the Bible. -For the first time a literary language was given to the nation. Luther -gave to the men of all the countries of Germany a common speech, so -that it is to him that the Germans owe the most essential of all the -conditions of a national life and literature. Next to Luther stands -Ulrich Von Hutten, an accomplished defender of the new culture and of -the Reformation. Hans Sachs, the meistersänger of Nuremburg, is now -acknowledged to be the chief German poet of the sixteenth century. He -wrote more than six thousand poems. His hymn, “Warum betrübst du dich, -mein Herz,” was soon translated into eight languages. The religious -lyrics of this age were of superior worth. Indeed, next to the -translation of the Bible, nothing did so much to unite the Protestants. -During this century the drama made considerable progress. - -V. THE PERIOD OF DECAY.—This period is in many respects the most -dismal in German history. During the seventeenth century little poetry -of worth was produced. No progress was made in the formation of the -drama, and few prose works were written that are now tolerated. The one -brilliant thinker of the age was Leibnitz. - -VI. THE PERIOD OF REVIVAL.—With the accession of Frederick the Great, -a stronger national life sprung up in Germany, and literature shared -the growth. Several causes contributed to the advance of literature; -the revival of classical learning, and a knowledge of English -literature were chief. Several literary schools grew up. Important -as were many of the writers in them, they exercised slight influence -on the national mind compared with founders of the German classical -literature—Klopstock, Wieland, and Lessing. Klopstock’s fame mainly -rests on the “Messiah,” a work now little read, and if defective, yet -full of striking and beautiful images. Klopstock’s odes are superior to -his dramas, the latter showing knowledge neither of the stage nor of -life. His influence upon intellectual life in Germany was very marked. - -Wieland was one of the most prolific of writers. “Oberon” is the most -pleasing of his poems to modern readers, and by far most famous. -“Agathon” is his best prose romance. Although at first a strong -pietist, Wieland eventually became a pronounced epicurean. Lessing, -the third of these great poets, is the only writer before Goethe that -Germans now read sympathetically. As an imaginative writer he was -chiefly distinguished in the drama, and his most important dramatic -work is “Minna Von Barnhelm.” Superior to his imaginative works were -his labors as a thinker. His style ranks with the greatest European -writers, and his criticisms are of great value. - -VII. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD.—About 1770 there began in German literary -life a curious movement called “_Sturm und Drang_” (storm and -pressure). Almost all young writers were under its influence. Its most -prominent quality was discontent with the existing world. The critical -guide of the movement was Herder. To him is due the impulse which -led to a collection of the songs and ballads of the people. His most -important prose work was “Ideas Toward the Philosophy of the History -of Humanity.” To Herder belongs the honor of stimulating the genius -of Goethe, who holds in German literature the place of Shakspere in -English. His extraordinary range of activity is his most wonderful -characteristic. Goethe’s first published work placed him among the -writers of the “_Sturm und Drang_” school, as was true of the earlier -works of Schiller. The lyrics of Goethe have perhaps the most subtle -charm of all his writings, but “Hermann und Dorothea,” “Wilhelm -Meister,” “Faust,” etc., are his great productions. Schiller, Goethe’s -great rival, divided with him the public attention and interest. -Schiller’s literary career began when he was only twenty-two. “The -Robbers” and “Don Carlos” are his principal early works. It was in 1794 -that Goethe and Schiller began that acquaintance which ripened into -one of the most beautiful friendships in the history of literature. -They wrote in common on Schiller’s journal “Die Horen,” and many of -Schiller’s works were influenced by the larger life of his friend. This -is particularly true of his dramas, “Wallenstein,” “Die Jungfrau von -Orleans,” “Maria Stuart,” and “Wilhelm Tell.” - -In 1781 one of the most important works of German literature was -published—Kant’s “Kritik der Reinen Vernunft.” The philosophical -systems of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel followed, and excited even -greater interest than the writings of the imaginative writers. - -Each of the leading writers of the classical period had numerous -followers, but the most important band was that which at first grew up -around Goethe—the romantic school. The aim of the school was to revive -mediævalism—to link daily life to poetry. The writer known as the -prophet of the school was Frederick von Hardenburg, generally called -Novalis. The critical leaders were Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel. -Tieck, Nackenroder, Fouquè, and Schleiermacher were the chief writers. - -VIII. THE LATEST PERIOD.—In 1832, with the death of Goethe, a new -era began in German literature. In philosophy the school of Hegel, -who wrote during the lifetime of Goethe, has had many enthusiastic -adherents; among these were Strauss, Ruge and Feuerbach. Schopenhauer, -although he wrote his chief book during the time of Goethe at present -stirs deeper interest than any other thinker. - -In imaginative literature the greatest writer of the latest period is -Heinrich Heine, whose lyrics have attracted general attention. The -novel has acquired the same important place in Germany as in England. -Among the chief novelists are Freytag, the Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn, Paul -Heyse, Spielhagen and Reuter. - - * * * * * - -EVERYTHING that regards statesmanship and the interest of the world -is in all outward respects of the greatest importance; it creates -and destroys in a moment the happiness, even the very existence, of -thousands, but when the wave of the moment has rushed past, and the -storm has abated, its influence is lost, and even frequently disappears -without leaving a trace behind. Many other things that are noiselessly -influencing the thoughts and feelings often make far deeper and more -lasting impressions on us. Man can for the most part keep himself very -independent of all that does not trench on his private life—a very wise -arrangement of Providence, since it gives a much greater security to -human happiness.—_William von Humboldt._ - - - - -PHYSICAL SCIENCE. - - -II.—THE CIRCULATION OF WATER ON THE LAND. - -Although air is continually evaporating water from the surface of the -earth, and continually restoring it again by condensation, yet, on the -whole and in the course of years, there seems to be no sensible gain or -loss of water in our seas, lakes, and rivers; so that the two processes -of evaporation and condensation balance each other. - -It is evident, however, that the moisture precipitated at any moment -from the air is not at once evaporated again. The disappearance of the -water is due in part to evaporation, but only in part. A great deal of -it goes out of sight in other ways. - -The rain which falls upon the sea is the largest part of the whole -rainfall of the globe, because the surface of the sea is about three -times greater than that of the land. All this rain gradually mingles -with the salt water, and can then be no longer recognized. It thus -helps to make up for the loss which the sea is always suffering by -evaporation. For the sea is the great evaporating surface whence most -of the vapor of the atmosphere is derived. - -On the other hand, the total amount of rain which falls upon the land -of the globe must be enormous. It has been estimated, for example, -that about sixty-eight cubic miles of water annually descend as rain -even upon the surface of the British Isles, and there are many much -more rainy regions. If you inquire about this rain which falls upon -the land, you will find that it does not at once disappear, but begins -another kind of circulation. Watch what happens during a shower of -rain. If the shower is heavy, you will notice little runs of muddy -water coursing down the streets or roads, or flowing out of the ridges -of the fields. Follow one of the runs. It leads into some drain or -brook, that into some larger stream, the stream into a river; and the -river, if you follow it far enough, will bring you to the sea. Now -think of all the brooks and rivers of the world, where this kind of -transport of water is going on, and you will at once see how vast must -be the part of the rain which flows off the land into the ocean. - -But does the whole of the rain flow off at once into the sea in this -way? A good deal of the rain which falls upon the land must sink -underground and gather there. You may think that surely the water which -disappears in that way must be finally withdrawn from the general -circulation which we have been tracing. When it sinks below the -surface, how can it ever get up to the surface again? - -Yet, if you consider for a little, you will be convinced that whatever -becomes of it underneath, it can not be lost. If all the rain which -sinks into the ground be forever removed from the surface circulation, -you will at once see that the quantity of water upon the earth’s -surface must be constantly and visibly diminishing. But no such -changes, so far as can be seen, are really taking place. In spite of -the rain which disappears into the ground, the circulation of water -between the air, the land, and the sea continues without perceptible -diminution. - -You are driven to conclude, therefore, that there must be some means -whereby the water underground is brought back to the surface. This -is done by springs, which gush out of the earth, and bring up water -to feed the brooks and rivers, whereby it is borne into the sea. -Here, then, are two distinct courses which the rainfall takes—one -below ground, and one above. It will be most convenient to follow the -underground portion first. - -A little attention to the soils and rocks which form the surface of a -country is enough to show that they differ greatly from each other in -hardness, and in texture or grain. Some are quite loose and porous, -others are tough and close-grained. They consequently differ much -in the quantity of water they allow to pass through them. A bed of -sand, for example, is pervious; that is, will let water sink through -it freely, because the little grains of sand lie loosely together, -touching each other only at some points, so as to leave empty spaces -between. The water readily finds its way among these empty spaces. In -fact, the sand-bed may become a kind of sponge, quite saturated with -the water which has filtered down from the surface. A bed of clay, on -the other hand, is impervious; it is made up of very small particles -fitting closely to each other, and therefore offering resistance to -the passage of water. Wherever such a bed occurs, it hinders the free -passage of the water, which, unable to sink through it from above on -the way down, or from below on the way up to the surface again, is kept -in by the clay, and forced to find another line of escape. - -Sandy soils are dry because the rain at once sinks through them; clay -soils are wet because they retain the water, and prevent it from freely -descending into the earth. - -Now the rocks beneath us, besides being in many cases porous in their -texture, such as sandstone, are all more or less traversed with -cracks—sometimes mere lines, like those of a cracked window-pane, but -sometimes wide and open clefts and tunnels. These numerous channels -serve as passages for the underground water. Hence, although a rock -may be so hard and close-grained that water does not soak through it -at all, yet if that rock is plentifully supplied with these cracks, it -may allow a large quantity of water to pass through. Limestone, for -example, is a very hard rock, through the grains of which water can -make but little way; yet it is so full of cracks or “joints,” as they -are called, and these joints are often so wide, that they give passage -to a great deal of water. - -In hilly districts, where the surface of the ground has not been -brought under the plow, you will notice that many places are marshy -and wet, even when the weather has long been dry. The soil everywhere -around has perhaps been baked quite hard by the sun; but these places -remain still wet, in spite of the heat. Whence do they get their -water? Plainly not directly from the air, for in that case the rest of -the ground would also be damp. They get it not from above, but from -below. It is oozing out of the ground; and it is this constant outcome -of water from below which keeps the ground wet and marshy. In other -places you will observe that the water does not merely soak through the -ground, but gives rise to a little run of clear water. If you follow -such a run up to its source, you will see that it comes gushing out of -the ground as a spring. - -Springs are the natural outlets for the underground water. But, you -ask, why should this water have any outlets, and what makes it rise to -the surface? - -Let us suppose that a flat layer of some impervious rock, like clay, -underlies another layer of a porous material, like sand. The rain which -falls on the surface of the ground, and sinks through the upper bed, -will be arrested by the lower one, and made either to gather there, or -find its escape along the surface of that lower bed. If a hollow or -valley should have its bottom below the level of the line along which -the water flows, springs will gush out along the sides of the valley. -The line of escape may be either the junction between two different -kinds of rock, or some of the numerous joints already referred to. -Whatever it be, the water can not help flowing onward and downward, as -long as there is any passage along which it can find its way; and the -rocks underneath are so full of cracks, that it has no difficulty in -doing so. - -But it must happen that a great deal of the underground water descends -far below the level of the valleys, and even below the level of the -sea. And yet, though it should descend for several miles, it comes at -last to the surface again. To realize clearly how this takes place, -let us follow a particular drop of water from the time when it sinks -into the earth as rain, to the time when, after a long journey up and -down in the bowels of the earth, it once more reaches the surface. -It soaks through the soil together with other drops, and joins some -feeble trickle, or some more ample flow of water, which works its way -through crevices and tunnels of the rocks. It sinks in this way to -perhaps a depth of several thousand feet, until it reaches some rock -through which it can not readily make further way. Unable to work its -way downward, the pent-up water must try to find escape in some other -direction. By the pressure from above it is driven through other cracks -and passages, winding up and down until at last it comes to the surface -again. It breaks out there as a gushing spring. - -Rain is water nearly in a state of purity. After journeying up and -down underground it comes out again in springs, always more or less -mingled with other materials, which it gets from the rocks through -which it travels. They are not visible to the eye, for they are held -in what is called chemical solution. When you put a few grains of salt -or sugar upon a plate, and pour water over them, they are dissolved in -the water and disappear. They enter into union with the water. You can -not see them, but you can still recognize their presence by the taste -which they give to the water which holds them in solution. So water, -sinking from the soil downward, dissolves a little of the substance -of the subterranean rocks, and carries this dissolved material up to -the surface of the ground. One of the important ingredients in the air -is carbonic acid gas, and this substance is both abstracted from and -supplied to the air by plants and animals. In descending through the -atmosphere rain absorbs a little air. As ingredients of the air, a -little carbonic acid gas, particles of dust and soot, noxious vapors, -minute organisms, and other substances floating in the air, are caught -up by the descending rain, which in this way washes the air, and tends -to keep it much more wholesome than it would otherwise be. - -But rain not merely picks up impurities from the air, it gets a large -addition when it reaches the soil. - -Armed with the carbonic acid which it gets from the air, and with the -larger quantity which it abstracts from the soil, rainwater is prepared -to attack rocks, and to eat into them in a way which pure water could -not do. - -Water containing carbonic acid has a remarkable effect on many rocks, -even on some of the very hardest. It dissolves more or less of their -substance, and removes it. When it falls, for instance, on chalk or -limestone, it almost entirely dissolves and carries away the rock -in solution, though still remaining clear and limpid. In countries -where chalk or limestone is an abundant rock, this action of water -is sometimes singularly shown in the way in which the surface of the -ground is worn into hollows. In such districts, too, the springs are -always hard; that is, they contain much mineral matter in solution, -whereas rainwater and springs which contain little impurity are termed -soft. - -When a stone building has stood for a few hundred years, the -smoothly-dressed face which its walls received from the mason is -usually gone. Again, in the burying-ground surrounding a venerable -church you see the tombstones more and more mouldered the older they -are. This crumbling away of hard stone with the lapse of time is a -common familiar fact to you. But have you ever wondered why it should -be so? What makes the stone decay, and what purpose is served by the -process? - -If it seem strange to you to be told that the surface of the earth is -crumbling away, you should take every opportunity of verifying the -statement. Examine your own district. You will find proofs that, in -spite of their apparent steadfastness, even the hardest stones are -really crumbling down. In short, wherever rocks are exposed to the air -they are liable to decay. Now let us see how this change is brought -about. - -First of all we must return for a moment to the action of carbonic -acid, which has been already described. You remember that rainwater -abstracts a little carbonic acid from the air, and that, when it sinks -under the earth, it is enabled by means of the acid to eat away some -parts of the rocks beneath. The same action takes place with the rain, -which rests upon or flows over the surface of the ground. The rainwater -dissolves out little by little such portions of the rocks as it can -remove. In the case of some rocks, such as limestone, the whole, or -almost the whole, of the substance of the rock is carried away in -solution. In other kinds, the portion dissolved is the cementing -material whereby the mass of the rock was bound together; so that when -it is taken away, the rock crumbles into mere earth or sand, which -is readily washed away by the rain. Hence one of the causes of the -mouldering of stone is the action of the carbonic acid taken up by the -rain. - -In the second place, the oxygen of the portion of air contained in -rainwater helps to decompose rocks. When a piece of iron has been -exposed for a time to the weather, in a damp climate, it rusts. This -rust is a compound substance, formed by the union of oxygen with iron. -What happens to an iron railing or a steel knife, happens also, though -not so quickly nor so strongly, to many rocks. They, too, rust by -absorbing oxygen. A crust of corroded rock forms on their surface, and, -when it is knocked off by the rain, a fresh layer of rock is reached by -the ever-present and active oxygen. - -In the third place, the surface of many parts of the world is made to -crumble down by means of frost. Sometimes during winter, when the cold -gets very keen, pipes full of water burst, and jugs filled with water -crack from top to bottom. The reason of this lies in the fact that -water expands in freezing. Ice requires more space than the water would -if it remained fluid. When ice forms within a confined space, it exerts -a great pressure on the sides of the vessel, or cavity, which contains -it. If these sides are not strong enough to bear the strain to which -they are put, they must yield, and therefore they crack. - -You have learned how easily rain finds its way through soil. Even the -hardest rocks are more or less porous, and take in some water. Hence, -when winter comes the ground is full of moisture; not in the soil -merely, but in the rocks. And so, as frost sets in, this pervading -moisture freezes. Now, precisely the same kind of action takes place -with each particle of water, as in the case of the water in the burst -water-pipe or the cracked jar. It does not matter whether the water is -collected into some hole or crevice, or is diffused between the grains -of the rocks and the soil. When it freezes it expands, and in so doing -tries to push asunder the walls between which it is confined. - -Water freezes not only between the component grains, but in the -numerous crevices or joints, as they are called, by which rocks are -traversed. You have, perhaps, noticed that on the face of a cliff, or -in a quarry, the rock is cut through by lines running more or less in -an upright direction, and that by means of these lines the rock is -split up by nature, and can be divided by the quarrymen into large -four-sided blocks or pillars. These lines, or joints, have been already -referred to as passages for water in descending from the surface. You -can understand that only a very little water may be admitted at a time -into a joint. But by degrees the joint widens a little, and allows more -water to enter. Every time the water freezes it tries hard to push -asunder the two sides of the joint. After many winters, it is at last -able to separate them a little; then more water enters, and more force -is exerted in freezing, until at last the block of rock traversed by -the joint is completely split up. When this takes place along the face -of a cliff, one of the loosened parts may fall and actually roll down -to the bottom of the precipice. - -In addition to carbonic acid, oxygen, and frost, there are still -other influences at work by which the surface of the earth is made to -crumble. For example, when, during the day, rocks are highly heated by -strong sunshine, and then during night are rapidly cooled by radiation, -the alternate expansion and contraction caused by the extremes of -temperature loosen the particles of the stone, causing them to crumble -away, or even making successive crusts of the stone fall off. - -Again, rocks which are at one time well soaked with rain, and at -another time are liable to be dried by the sun’s rays and by wind, -are apt to crumble away. If then it be true, as it is, that a general -wasting of the surface of the land goes on, you may naturally ask why -this should be. Out of the crumbled stones all soil is made, and on the -formation and renewal of the soil we depend for our daily food. - -Take up a handful of soil from any field or garden, and look at it -attentively. What is it made of? You see little pieces of crumbling -stone, particles of sand and clay, perhaps a few vegetable fibers; and -the whole soil has a dark color from the decayed remains of plants -and animals diffused through it. Now let us try to learn how these -different materials have been brought together. - -Every drop of rain which falls upon the land helps to alter the -surface. You have followed the chemical action of rain when it -dissolves parts of rocks. It is by the constant repetition of the -process, drop after drop, and shower after shower, for years together, -that the rocks become so wasted and worn. But the rain has also a -mechanical action. - -Watch what happens when the first pattering drops of a shower begin -to fall upon a smooth surface of sand, such as that of a beach. Each -drop makes a little dint or impression. It thus forces aside the grains -of sand. On sloping ground, where the drops can run together and flow -downward, they are able to push or carry the particles of sand or clay -along. This is called a mechanical action; while the actual solution -of the particles, as you would dissolve sugar or salt, is a chemical -action. Each drop of rain may act in either or both of these ways. - -Now you will readily see how it is that rain does so much in the -destruction of rocks. It not only dissolves out some parts of them, and -leaves a crumbling crust on the surface, but it washes away this crust, -and thereby exposes a fresh surface to decay. There is in this way a -continual pushing along of powdered stone over the earth’s surface. -Part of this material accumulates in hollows, and on sloping or level -ground; part is swept into the rivers, and carried away into the sea. -As the mouldering of the surface of the land is always going on, there -is a constant formation of soil. Indeed, if this were not the case, -if after a layer of soil had been formed upon the ground, it were to -remain there unmoved and unrenewed, the plants would by degrees take -out of it all the earthy materials they could, and leave it in a barren -or exhausted state. But some of it is being slowly carried away by -rain, fresh particles from mouldering rocks are being washed over it by -the same agent, while the rock or sub-soil underneath is all the while -decaying into soil. The loose stones, too, are continually crumbling -down and making new earth. And thus, day by day, the soil is slowly -renewed. - -Plants, also, help to form and renew the soil. They send their roots -among the grains and joints of the stones, and loosen them. Their -decaying fibers supply most of the carbonic acid by which these stones -are attacked, and furnish also most of the organic matter in the soil. -Even the common worms, which you see when you dig up a spadeful of -earth, are of great service in mixing the soil and bringing what lies -underneath up to the surface. - -One part of the rain sinks under the ground, and you have traced its -progress there until it comes to the surface again. You have now to -trace, in a similar way, the other portion of the rainfall which flows -along the surface in brooks and rivers. - -You can not readily meet with a better illustration of this subject -than that which is furnished by a gently sloping road during a heavy -shower of rain. Let us suppose that you know such a road, and that -just as the rain is beginning you take up your station at some part -where the road has a well-marked descent. At first you notice that each -of the large heavy drops of rain makes in the dust, or sand, one of -the little dints or rain-prints already described. As the shower gets -heavier these rain-prints are effaced, and the road soon streams with -water. Now mark in what manner the water moves. - -Looking at the road more narrowly, you remark that it is full of little -roughnesses—at one place a long rut, at another a projecting stone, -with many more inequalities which your eye could not easily detect -when the road was dry, but which the water at once discloses. Every -little dimple and projection affects the flow of the water. You see -how the raindrops gather together into slender streamlets of running -water which course along the hollows, and how the jutting stones and -pieces of earth seem to turn these streamlets now to one side and now -to another. - -Toward the top of the slope only feeble runnels of water are to be -seen. But further down they become fewer in number, and at the same -time larger in size. They unite as they descend; and the larger and -swifter streamlets at the foot of the descent are thus made up of a -great many smaller ones from the higher parts of the slope. - -Why does the water run down the sloping road? why do rivers flow? and -why should they always move constantly in the same direction? They do -so for the same reason that a stone falls to the ground when it drops -out of your hand; because they are under the sway of that attraction -toward the center of the earth, to which, as you know, the name of -gravity is given. Every drop of rain falls to the earth because it is -drawn downward by the force of this attraction. When it reaches the -ground it is still, as much as ever, under the same influence; and it -flows downward in the readiest channel it can find. Its fall from the -clouds to the earth is direct and rapid; its descent from the mountains -to the sea, as part of a stream, is often long and slow; but the cause -of the movement is the same in either case. The winding to and fro of -streams, the rush of rapids, the roar of cataracts, the noiseless flow -of the deep sullen currents, are all proofs how paramount is the sway -of the law of gravity over the waters of the globe. - -Drawn down in this way by the action of gravity, all that portion of -the rain which does not sink into the earth must at once begin to move -downward along the nearest slopes, and continue flowing until it can -get no further. On the surface of the land there are hollows called -lakes, which arrest part of the flowing water, just as there are -hollows on the road which serve to collect some of the rain. But in -most cases they let the water run out at the lower end as fast as it -runs in at the upper, and therefore do not serve as permanent resting -places for the water. The streams which escape from lakes go on as -before, working their way to the seashore. So that the course of all -streams is a downward one; and the sea is the great reservoir into -which the water of the land is continually pouring. - -The brooks and rivers of a country are thus the natural drains, by -which the surplus rainfall, not required by the soil or by springs, -is led back again into the sea. When we consider the great amount of -rain, and the enormous number of brooks in the higher parts of the -country, it seems, at first, hardly possible for all these streams to -reach the sea without overflowing the lower grounds. But this does not -take place; for when two streams unite into one, they do not require a -channel twice as broad as either of their single water-courses. On the -contrary, such an union gives rise to a stream which is not so broad -as either of the two from which it flows. But it becomes swifter and -deeper. - -Let us return to the illustration of the roadway in rain. Starting from -the foot of the slope, you found the streamlets of rain getting smaller -and smaller, and when you came to the top there were none at all. If, -however, you were to descend the road on the other side of the ridge, -you would probably meet with other streamlets coursing down-hill in -the opposite direction. At the summit the rain seems to divide, part -flowing off to one side, and part to the other. - -In the same way, were you to ascend some river from the sea, you would -watch it becoming narrower as you traced it inland, and branching more -and more into tributary streams, and these again subdividing into -almost endless little brooks. But take any of the branches which unite -to form the main stream, and trace it upward. You come, in the end, -to the first beginnings of a little brook, and going a little further -you reach the summit, down the other side of which all the streams are -flowing to the opposite quarter. The line which separates two sets of -streams in this way is called the water-shed. In England, for example, -one series of rivers flows into the Atlantic, another into the North -Sea. If you trace upon a map a line separating all the upper streams -of the one side from those of the other, that line will mark the -water-shed of the country. - -But there is one important point where the illustration of the road -in rain quite fails. It is only when rain is falling, or immediately -after a heavy shower, that the rills are seen upon the road. When the -rain ceases the water begins to dry up, till in a short time the road -becomes once more firm and dusty. But the brooks and rivers do not -cease to flow when the rain ceases to fall. In the heat of summer, when -perhaps there has been no rain for many days together, the rivers still -roll on, smaller usually than they were in winter, but still with ample -flow. What keeps them full? If you remember what you have already been -told about underground water, you will answer that rivers are fed by -springs as well as by rain. - -Though the weather may be rainless, the springs continue to give out -their supplies of water, and these keep the rivers going. But if -great drought comes, many of the springs, particularly the shallow -ones, cease to flow, and the rivers fed by them shrink up or get dry -altogether. The great rivers of the globe, such as the Mississippi, -drain such vast territories, that any mere local rain or drought makes -no sensible difference in their mass of water. - -In some parts of the world, however, the rivers are larger in summer -and autumn than they are in winter and spring. The Rhine, for instance, -begins to rise as the heat of summer increases, and to fall as the cold -of winter comes on. This happens because the river has its source among -snowy mountains. Snow melts rapidly in summer, and the water which -streams from it finds its way into the brooks and rivers, which are -thereby greatly swollen. In winter, on the other hand, the snow remains -unmelted; the moisture which falls from the air upon the mountains -is chiefly snow; and the cold is such as to freeze the brooks. Hence -the supplies of water at the sources of these rivers are, in winter, -greatly diminished, and the rivers themselves become proportionately -smaller. - - [To be continued.] - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -Selected by REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -[_Sunday, November 4._] - -MORAL DISTINCTIONS NOT SUFFICIENTLY REGARDED IN SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. - - “He that walketh with wise men shall be wise; but a - companion of fools shall be destroyed.”—_Proverbs - xiii:20._ - -That “a man may be known by the company he keeps,” has passed into a -proverb among all nations, thus attesting what has been the universal -experience. The fact would seem to be that a man’s associates either -find him, or make him like themselves. An acute but severe critic of -manners, who was too often led by his disposition and circumstances -to sink the philosopher in the satirist, has said: “Nothing is so -contagious as example. Never was there any considerable good or ill -action, that hath not produced its like. We imitate good ones through -emulation; and bad ones through that malignity in our nature, which -shame conceals, and example sets at liberty.” - -This being the case, or anything like it, all, I think, must agree -that moral distinctions are not sufficiently cared for in social -intercourse. In forming our intimacies we are sometimes determined by -the mere accident of being thrown together; sometimes by a view to -connections and social position; sometimes by the fascination of what -are called companionable qualities; seldom, I fear, by thoughtful and -serious regard to the influence they are likely to have on character. -We forget that other attractions, of whatsoever nature, instead of -compensating for moral unfitness in a companion, only have the effect -to make such unfitness the more to be dreaded. - -Let me introduce what I have to say on the importance of paying more -regard to moral distinctions in the choice of friends, by a few remarks -on what are called, by way of distinction, companionable qualities, and -on the early manifestation of a free, sociable, confiding turn of mind. -Most parents hail the latter, I believe, as the best of prognostics; -and in some respects it is. It certainly makes the child more -interesting as a child, and more easily governed; it often passes for -precocity of talent; at any rate, men are willing to construe it into -evidence of the facility with which he will make his way in the world. -The father is proud of such a son; the mother idolizes him. If from -any cause he is brought into comparison with a reserved, awkward, and -unyielding boy in the neighborhood, they are ready enough to felicitate -themselves, and others are ready enough to congratulate them, on the -difference. And yet I believe I keep within bounds, when I say that, of -the two, there is more than an even chance that the reserved, awkward, -and unyielding boy will give his parents less occasion for anxiety -and mortification, and become in the end the wiser and better man. -The reason is, that if a child from natural facility of disposition -is easily won over to good courses, he is also, from the same cause, -liable at any time to be seduced from these good courses into bad -ones. On the contrary, where a child, from rigor or stubbornness of -temper, is peculiarly hard to subdue or manage, there is this hope for -a compensation: if by early training, or the experience of life, or a -wise foresight of consequences, he is once set right, he is almost sure -to keep so. - -It is not enough considered, that, in the present constitution of -society, men are not in so much danger from want of good dispositions, -as from want of firmness and steadiness of purpose. Hence it is that -gentle and affectionate minds, more perhaps than any others, stand -in need of solid principle and fixed habits of virtue and piety, -as a safeguard against the lures and fascinations of the world. A -man of a cold, hard, and ungenial nature is comparatively safe so -far as the temptations of society go: partly because of this very -impracticableness of his nature, and partly because his companionship -is not likely to be desired or sought even by the bad: he will be -left to himself. The corrupters of innocence in social intercourse -single out for their prey men of companionable qualities. Through -his companionable qualities the victim is approached, and by his -companionable qualities he is betrayed. - -Let me not be misunderstood. Companionable qualities are not objected -to _as such_. When they spring from genuine goodness of heart, and -are the ornament of an upright life, they are as respectable as they -are amiable; and it would be well if Christians and all good men -cultivated them more than they do. If we would make virtue and religion -to be loved, we must make _ourselves_ to be loved _for_ our virtue -and religion; which would be done if we were faithful to carry the -gentleness and charity of the gospel into our manners as well as into -our morals. Nevertheless, we insist that companionable qualities, when -they have no better source than a sociable disposition, or, worse -still, an easy temper and loose principles, are full of danger to their -possessor, and full of danger to the community; especially where, from -any cause, but little regard is paid to moral distinctions in social -intercourse. We also say, that in such a state of society the danger -will be most imminent to those whom we should naturally be most anxious -to save—I mean, persons of a loving and yielding turn of mind. - - -[_Sunday, November 11._] - -And this brings me back again to the position taken in the beginning -of this discourse. The reason why companionable qualities are attended -with so much danger is, that society itself is attended with so much -danger; and the reason why society is attended with so much danger -is, that social intercourse is not more under the control of moral -principles, moral rules, and moral sanctions. - -My argument does not make it necessary to exaggerate the evils and -dangers of modern society. I am willing to suppose that there have -been times when society was much less pure than it is now; and again, -that there are places where it is much less pure than it is here; but -it does not follow that there are no evils or dangers now and here. -On the contrary, it is easy to see that there may be stages in the -progressive improvement of society, where the improvement itself will -have the effect, not to lessen, but to increase the danger, _so far -as good men are concerned_. In a community where vice abounds, where -the public manners are notoriously and grossly corrupt, good men are -put on their guard. They will not be injured by such society, for they -will have nothing to do with it. A broad line of demarcation is drawn -between what is expected from good men, and what is expected from bad -men; so that the example of the latter has no effect on the former -except to admonish and to warn. But let the work of refinement and -reform go on in general society until vice is constrained to wear a -decent exterior, until an air of decorum and respectability is thrown -over all public meetings and amusements, and one consequence will be -that the distinction between Christians and the world will not be so -clearly seen, or so carefully observed, as before. The standard of the -world, from the very fact that it is brought nearer to the standard of -the gospel, will be more frequently confounded with it; Christians will -feel at liberty to do whatever the world does, and the danger is, that -they will come at length to do it from the same principles. - -Besides, are we sure that we have not formed too favorable an opinion -of the moral condition of general society—of that general society in -the midst of which we are now living, and to the influence of which we -are daily and hourly exposed? We should remember that in pronouncing -on the character of public opinion and public sentiment, we are very -likely to be affected and determined ourselves, not a little, by the -fact that we share in that very public opinion and public sentiment -which we are called upon to judge. I have no doubt that virtue, in -general, is esteemed by the world, or that, _other things being equal_, -a man of integrity will be preferred on account of his integrity. But -this is not enough. It shows that the multitude see, and are willing -to acknowledge, the dignity and worth of an upright course; but it -does not prove them to have that _abhorrence for sin_, which it is -the purpose and the tendency of the gospel to plant in all minds. If -they had this settled and rooted abhorrence for sin, which marks the -Christian, and without which a man can not be a Christian, they would -not prefer virtue to vice, “other things being equal,” but they would -do so whether other things were equal or not; they would knowingly keep -no terms with vice, however recommended or glossed over by interest or -worldly favor, or refined and elegant manners. - -Now, I ask whether general society, even as it exists amongst us, -will bear this test? Is it not incontestable that very unscrupulous -and very dangerous men, if they happen to be men of talents, or men -of fashion, or men of peculiarly engaging manners, find but little -difficulty in insinuating themselves into what is called good society; -nay, are often among those who are most courted and caressed? Some -vices, I know, are understood to put one under the social ban; but it -is because they offend, not merely against morality and religion, but -against taste, against good-breeding, against certain conventions of -the world. To be convinced of this it is only necessary to observe that -the same, or even a much larger amount of acknowledged criminality, -manifested under other forms, is not found to be attended with the -same result. The mischiefs of this state of things are felt by all; -but especially by those who are growing up in what are generally -accounted the most favored walks of life. On entering into society -they see men of known profligacy mingling in the best circles, and -with the best people, if not indeed on terms of entire sympathy and -confidence, at least on those of the utmost possible respect and -courtesy. They see all this, and they see it every day; and it is by -such flagrant inconsistencies in those they look up to for guidance, -more perhaps than by any other one cause, that their own principles and -their own faith are undermined. And besides, being thus encouraged and -countenanced in associating with dissipated and profligate men in what -is called good society, they will be apt to construe it into liberty -to associate with them _anywhere_. At any rate the intimacy is begun. -As society is constituted at present, corrupting intimacies are not -infrequently begun amidst all the decencies of life, and, it may be, -in the presence and under the countenance and sanction of parents and -virtuous friends, which are afterward renewed and consummated, and this -too by an easy, natural, and almost necessary gradation, amidst scenes -of excess—perhaps in the haunts of ignominy and crime. - - -[_Sunday, November 18._] - -If one should propose a reform in this respect, I am aware of the -difficulties and objections that would stand in his way. - -Some would affirm it to be impracticable in the nature of things. -They would reason thus: “The circle in which a man visits and moves -is made for him, and not by him: at any rate, it is not, and can not -be, determined by moral considerations alone. Something depends on -education; something on family connections or mere vicinity; something -on similarity in tastes and pursuits; something also on equality or -approximation in wealth and standing. A poor man, or a man having a -bare competency, if he is as virtuous and industrious, is just as -_respectable_ as a rich man; but it is plain that he can not pitch his -style of living, or his style of hospitality, on the same scale of -expense. It is better for both, therefore, that they should visit in -different circles.” Perhaps it is; but what then? I am not recommending -an amalgamation of the different classes in society. I suppose that -such an amalgamation would neither be practicable nor desirable in -the existing state of things. All I contend for is, that in every -class, open and gross immorality of any kind should exclude a man from -reputable company. Will any one say that this is impracticable? Let -a man, through untoward events, but not by any fault or neglect of -his own, be reduced in his circumstances,—let a man become generally -odious, not in consequence of any immorality, but because, perhaps, -he has embraced the unpopular side in politics or religion—let a man -omit some trifling formality which is construed into a vulgarity, or -a personal affront, and people do not appear to find much difficulty -in dropping the acquaintance. If, then, it is so easy a thing to drop -a man’s acquaintance for other reasons, and for no reason,—from mere -prejudice, from mere caprice,—will it still be pretended that it can -not be done at the command of duty and religion? - -Again, it may be objected that, if you banish a man from general -society for his immoralities, you will drive him to despair, and so -destroy the only remaining hope of his reformation. What! are you going -_to keep society corrupt_ in the vain expectation that a corrupt state -of society will help to reform its corrupt members? Besides, I grant -that we should have compassion on the guilty; but I also hold that we -should have compassion on the innocent too. Would you, therefore, allow -a bad man to continue in good society, when the chances are a thousand -to one that he will make others as bad as himself, and not more than -one to a thousand that he himself will be reclaimed? Moreover, this -reasoning is fallacious throughout. By expelling a dissipated and -profligate man from good society, instead of destroying all hope of -his recovery, you do in fact resort to the only remaining means of -reforming one over whom a fear of God, and a sense of character, and -the upbraidings of conscience have lost their power. What cares he for -principle, or God, or an hereafter? Nothing, therefore, is so likely to -encourage and embolden him to go on in his guilty course, as the belief -that he will be allowed to do so without the forfeiture of the only -thing he does care for, his reputable standing in the world. On the -other hand, nothing is so likely to arrest him in these courses, and -bring him to serious reflection, as the stern and determined threat of -absolute exclusion from good society, if he persists. - -Another objection will also be made which has stronger claims on our -sympathy and respect. We shall be told that the innocent as well as -the guilty will suffer—the guilty man’s friends and connections, -who will probably feel the indignity more than he does himself. God -forbid that we should needlessly add to the pain of those who are thus -connected! But we must remember that the highest form of friendship -does not consist in blindly falling in with the feelings of those whom -we would serve, but in consulting what will be for their real and -permanent good. If, therefore, the course here recommended has been -shown to be not only indispensable to public morals, but more likely -than any other to reclaim the offender, it is clearly not more a -dictate of justice to the community, than of Christian charity to the -parties more immediately concerned. Consider, also, how much is asked, -when a good man is called upon to open his doors to persons without -virtue and without principle. Unless the social circle is presided -over by a spirit which will rebuke and frown away immorality, whatever -fashionable names and disguises it may wear,—unless your sons and -daughters can meet together without being in danger of having their -faith disturbed by the jeers of the infidel, or their purity sullied -by the breath of the libertine, neither they nor you are safe in the -most innocent enjoyments and recreations. Parents at least should take -a deep interest in this subject, if they do not wish to see the virtue, -which they have reared under the best domestic discipline, blighted and -corrupted before their eyes by the temptations to which their children -are almost necessarily exposed in general society—a society which they -can not escape except by going out of the world, and which they can not -partake of without endangering the loss of what is of more value than a -thousand worlds. - - -[_Sunday, November 25._] - -I have failed altogether in my purpose in this discourse if I have -not done something to increase your distrust of mere companionable -qualities, when not under the control of moral and religious principle; -and also of the moral character and moral influence of general society, -as at present constituted. Still you may ask, “If I associate with -persons worse than myself, how can it be made out to be more probable -that they will drag me down to their level, than that I shall lift -them up to mine?” The answer to this question, I hardly need say, -depends, in no small measure, on the reason or motive which induces the -association. If you mix with the world, not for purposes of pleasure or -self-advantage—if you resort to society, not for society as an end, but -as a means to a higher end, _the improvement of society itself_—you do -but take up the heavenly mission which Christ began. For not being able -to make the distinction, through the hollowness and corruption of their -hearts, the Pharisees thought it to be a just ground of accusation -against our Lord, that he was willing to be accounted the friend of -publicans and sinners. Let the same mind be in you that was also in -Christ Jesus, and we can not doubt that the spirit which inspires you -will preserve you wherever you may go. It is of such persons that our -Lord has said: “Behold, I give unto you power to tread on serpents and -scorpions, and over all the power of the enemy; and nothing shall by -any means harm you.” Very far am I, therefore, from denying that we may -do good in society, as well as incur danger and evil. Even in common -friendships frequent occasions will present themselves for mutual -service, for mutual counsel and admonition. Let me impress upon you -this duty. Perhaps there is not one among you all, who has not at this -moment companions on whom he can confer an infinite blessing. If there -is a weak place in their characters, if to your knowledge they are -contemplating a guilty purpose, if they are on the brink of entering -into dangerous connections, by a timely, affectionate, and earnest -remonstrance you may save them from ruin. _Remember, we shall all be -held responsible, not only for the evil which we do ourselves, but for -the evil which we might prevent others from doing; it is not enough -that we stand; we must endeavor to hold up our friends._ - -Very different from this, however, is the ordinary commerce of society; -and hence its danger. If we mix with the world for the pleasure it -affords, we shall be likely to be among the first to be reconciled to -the freedom and laxity it allows. The world is not brought up to us, -but we sink down to the world; the drop becomes of the consistence -and color of the ocean into which it falls; the ocean remains itself -unchanged. In the words of an old writer: “Though the well-disposed -will remain some good space without corruption, yet time, I know not -how, worketh a wound in him, which weakness of ours considered, and -easiness of nature, apt to be deceived, looked into, they do best -provide for themselves that separate themselves as far as they can -from the bad, and draw as nigh to the good, as by any possibility they -can attain to.” “He that walketh with wise men shall be wise; but a -companion of fools shall be destroyed.” - - - - -POLITICAL ECONOMY. - -By G. M. STEELE, D.D. - - -II. - -PRODUCTION, CONTINUED—CAPITAL—COMBINATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR. - -5. We have already seen that an essential to any considerable -production is _capital_. We have seen the nature of capital and how -it comes to exist. We have also learned that though capital implies -saving, mere saving is not the sole condition of capital; indeed, a -narrow penuriousness prevents the rapid accumulation of capital. The -man who is accustomed to bring his water from a spring a quarter of -a mile from his house instead of digging a well at the cost of a few -dollars, or a few days’ work, acts uneconomically. In the long run -the bringing of the water from the spring costs him much more than -the digging of the well. The man who has extensive grain-fields, and -who, for the sake of saving the expense of a reaper, or even a cradle, -continues to use the sickle, will find that his saving results in a -loss instead of a gain. - -A man does not need to be rich in order to be a capitalist. When the -savage has invented a bow and arrows he has the rudiments of capital. -The laborer who has reserved out of his earnings enough to buy him a -set of tools, or a few acres of land, is as really a capitalist as -the owner of factories or railroads. Whatever property is used for -production is capital. - -Capital exists in many forms. It has been generally divided into -_fixed_ and _circulating_, though the limits of these divisions are -not very precisely defined. The main difference consists in this, that -while certain kinds of capital are used only once in the fulfillment of -their purposes, other kinds are used repeatedly. Fuel can be burned but -once. An axe may serve for years. Circulating capital is of two kinds: - -(1) There are the stock and commodities which are to be consumed in -reproduction; (_a_) the material out of which the new product is to be -made, as lumber for cabinet ware, leather for shoes, etc.; (_b_) food -and other provisions for the sustenance of the laborers. - -(2) There is the stock of completed commodities on hand and ready -for the market. The chairs that are finished and ready for sale in -the chair factory are of this character. It is to be observed that -the same article may be at one time circulating and at another fixed -capital. Thus the chairs just spoken of, while they are in the hands -of the manufacturer, or passing through those of the dealers, are -circulating capital. It is only when they become _fixed in use_ that -their character changes. - -Fixed capital consists (1) of all tools, implements, and machinery, -used in the trades. Here, too, belong all structures of every sort -for productive purposes; (2) all beasts of burden and draft; (3) -all improvements of land implied in clearing, fencing, draining, -fertilizing, terracing, etc.; (4) all mental acquisitions gained by -labor and which give man power for productive results. - -Obviously capital, by whomsoever owned, is an advantage to the laborer. -But such capital is useless to the owner unless he can unite it with -labor. So, too, the ability to labor is of no benefit to the laborer -unless he can employ it in connection with capital. Generally the more -capital there is in a community, other things being equal, the better -it is for the laborer; and the more laborers there are, other things -being equal, the better it is for the capitalist. When a factory burns -down it may destroy only a small part of the wealth of the owners, and -they may not palpably suffer; but it is very likely to deprive the -laborers, who are connected with it, of the means of securing their -daily sustenance. - -There is no natural antagonism of interests between capital and labor, -but rather the utmost concord and interdependence. Whatever conflicts -arise between the laborers and the capitalists come from the unnatural -selfishness and jealousy of the parties concerned. - -6. As has been intimated, it is only by application of principles -underlying political economy that we come to the conditions of the -highest production, or, in other words, find how to satisfy the largest -range of desires to the greatest extent at the smallest cost of labor. -One of the chief means of effecting this is by _the combination and -division of labor_. Recalling what was said concerning association and -individuality, we shall see what principles are involved here, and -how naturally they came into operation. As there was seen to be no -antagonism between the two latter conceptions when carefully analyzed, -so there is none, but rather the opposite, between combination -and division of labor. It is true that there are instances where -combination may take place without division, as when men unite to -effect purposes which one could not accomplish except in much more than -the proportionate time; as also in some cases to affect purposes which -the individual could not effect in any length of time, such as the -moving and placing of heavy timbers and stones, the management of ships -and railway trains, etc. But for the most part men divide their labor -in the process in order that they may combine the result. This is done -in two ways: - -(1) Men divide up the work of supplying human wants into different -trades and occupations, according to their several tastes and -aptitudes. Each man needs nearly the same that every other needs. -But while each provides for only one kind of want, he provides more -than enough to satisfy his own desire in that particular respect, -and contributes the overplus to meet that same want in others. As -all others do the same, each is contributing to meet the desires -of one and all to each. The shoemaker, the tailor, the carpenter, -the cabinet-maker, the blacksmith, the weaver, the paper-maker, the -tin-man, the miner, the smelter, the painter, the glazier, etc., are -all contributing to supply the farmer’s needs, and the farmer is -contributing to all their needs. The wants of all are many times more -fully met in this way than if each one should undertake to supply all -his own wants. - -(2) In some complicated trades the work is divided into a number of -processes. There are men who could do every one of these parts; but -such men are few, and their labor very costly, because some of the -parts require rare skill and talent. What is needed is to organize -several grades of laborers, so that the physically strong, the -intelligent and skillful may have the work that only they can do; the -less strong and skillful may find employment in the lighter and easier -parts, and so all grades of ability down to the delicate woman or the -little child, and up to the most powerful muscle and most advanced -intelligence, can find their place. It is almost incredible how great -is the increase of productiveness from the mere economical arrangement -of workers. It is said that in so simple a matter as the making of -pins, where the work is divided into ten processes and properly -distributed, that the production will be _two hundred and forty times_ -as much as if each man did the whole work on each pin. - -This connects itself with another important condition of large -production. I mean the diversification of employment in a community. -It is only in such a varied industry that all the varied tastes, -aptitudes and abilities of society can find scope and adaptation; and -without this, production must fall far short of its possibilities. -This, too, is required to develop those differences which constitute -individuality, and on which association depends. - -There are other conditions of enlarged production, such as are implied -in freedom, good government, and the moral character of the community, -the influence of each of which will easily suggest itself to thoughtful -minds. - - -III.—CONSUMPTION. - -1. Consumption is the destruction of values. Production implies -consumption. In general, all material is destroyed in entering into -new forms of wealth. Thus, leather must be destroyed in order to the -production of shoes. Flour must disappear in the manufacture of bread, -and wheat in the making of flour. Every kind of implement, or machine -or structure is consumed by use. This consumption is immediate, or -by a single use; or it is gradual. The food that we eat and the fuel -that we burn are examples of the former; tools, bridges, buildings -and aqueducts are examples of the latter. It is accomplished in a few -months or years; or is protracted through centuries. - -2. Consumption is either _voluntary_ or _involuntary_. Of the latter -kind we have instances in the _natural decay_ of objects, as in wood -and vegetables; the rusting of iron, the mildew and the moth-eating of -cotton and woolen fabrics, and the wearing away by attrition of gold, -silver, and other metals; also the destruction caused by vermin. Much -of this may be prevented by the prudent foresight which sound economy -enjoins; yet much loss will inevitably take place. A great deal of -consumption is _accidental_. Great destruction is caused by fires, -steam-boiler explosions, floods and tornadoes, earthquakes and volcanic -eruptions. - -3. Voluntary consumption is either _productive_ or _unproductive_. -The former is when the material appears in new form and with a higher -value, as cloth made into garments and iron into hardware and cutlery. -Unproductive consumption occurs, both in the cases before mentioned of -natural and accidental consumption, and in cases where gratification -of desire is the sole object sought and achieved, as when one eats and -drinks simply for the enjoyment, and without reference to the waste of -nature or the nourishment of the system. - -It is not altogether easy to discriminate between these two kinds of -consumption. We readily see the difference between a man’s drinking a -quantity of whiskey, not because it will help him in the performance -of any duty, but because he likes it, and the scattering of a quantity -of seed over the ground in spring. There is no doubt that one act is -productive and the other unproductive. But there are cases where the -distinction is less clear. - -It is not necessarily a case of unproductive consumption when one -destroys value for the sake of gratifying some desire. Probably a -majority of men eat and drink simply because they desire food and -drink, having no thought of any ulterior object. Yet this eating and -drinking is absolutely essential to productive labor. The wealth -consumed in this way reappears, to a large extent, in the products of -human industry. - -Still there is much really unproductive consumption; a destruction of -value, in the place of which no other value ever appears. There are, -for instance, men and women— - - * * * “who creep - Into this world to eat and sleep, - And know no reason why they’re born, - But simply to consume the corn.” - -Vast quantities of wealth are consumed in riotous living, in greedy -and vulgar extravagance, and unmeaning magnificence. There is also -much consumption designed to be productive, but failing of its -end through misdirection. Large amounts of property are sometimes -invested in enterprises which prove failures. This occurs partly from -miscalculation or negligence, and partly from a disposition to trust -to chances—the gambler’s calculation. In these ways much wealth is -consumed with no consequent product. - -4. It is not easy to draw the line between the ordinary conveniences of -life and its luxuries; nor can it be stated to what extent the latter -in any sense of the term are economically allowable. What to one class -of persons may be a luxury to another class may be almost a necessity. -So what might in one age have been a rare and expensive indulgence, -is in a more advanced period among the cheaper and more ordinary -commodities. I call special attention to three kinds of consumption: - -(1) There is the consumption necessary to life and the performance of -productive labor. The word _necessary_ here is used in its liberal -rather than its restricted sense. The absolute necessities of human -life are very few. It does not even require much to keep a man in -working condition. But to keep him where there is a larger kind of -living, and where his energies of both body and mind, together with the -moral qualities which render him most efficient, are at their best, the -consumption must be more generous. - -Besides subsistence there must be materials, tools, machines, and -a variety of conditions involving the destruction of value. It is -desirable to sustain man not as a mere savage, but to give him the -largest volume of human life; and the civilized man, it will be -admitted, lives a broader life than the savage. We are not to forget -that Political Economy aims at the increase of the value of man, more -than at the multiplication of material wealth, or the increase of -commerce, except as the latter are conditions of the former. - -(2) A second kind of consumption is of such articles as minister -to bodily enjoyment and meet certain mental appetencies of a lower -order. They are not necessary to sustain life, nor to render it more -efficient. On the contrary, they often impair the vigor and competence -of the person. At the best they simply gratify certain desires without -adding anything to the value of the man. To this category belong mere -dainty food, gold and jewels, and other ornaments, valued solely -because of their showiness and not for any artistic excellence; gay and -costly apparel, in which the gayety and the costliness are the main -features. These constitute a class of luxuries that are in nearly every -sense non-productive. They favorably affect neither the individual nor -society, and are for the most part hurtful to both. - -(3) But not all consumption, the object of which is to gratify desire, -is to be reckoned in this category. There are certain pleasures which -ennoble and really enrich those who participate in them. There are -desires the gratification of which enlarges the volume of one’s being. -They are related not so much to man’s productive capability as to that -which is the final cause of all production, and to which all wealth -is only a means. The labor, material, implements, and whatever else -is consumed in the production of the works or effects of genuine art, -result in the most _real wealth_ that exists. By this is meant not -merely pictures, statues, books, carved work, tasteful tapestries, -and similar objects which can be bought and sold, but also oratorios -which you may hear but once; magnificent parks to which you may be -admitted, but may never own; great actors and singers whose genius may -be exhibited to others, but not possessed by them. It is true that much -which properly belongs here may be so consumed as to deserve only a -place in the second class; but it may also have those higher and nobler -uses which imply production in the best sense. - -5. _Public consumption_ is the expenditure of means for society in its -aggregate capacity. It has reference principally to the support of -those agencies which are implied in the term _government_. The reasons -for the necessity of such expenditures have already been given. The -purposes to which such consumption is properly applied may be grouped -as follows: - -(_a_) The support and administration of government. This embraces -compensation to executive, legislative and judicial officers, -and expenditure for public buildings. (_b_) For works of public -convenience. Here are included the paving and lighting of streets, -water-works and sewerage. (_c_) For advancing science and promoting -intelligence, by means of exploring expeditions, geological surveys, -meteorological and astronomical observations, etc. (_d_) For the -promotion of popular education. (_e_) For the support of the poor and -the relief of the afflicted. (_f_) For national defense. - -6. The general law of economical consumption, both individual and -public, is that only so much and such a quality should be consumed as -is necessary to effect the purpose designed, whether that be further -production or individual gratification. It is nearly the same in the -case of labor. In relation to the work to be done, the character, -ability and skill of the laborer should be considered. - - - - -READINGS IN ART. - - -II.—SCULPTURE: GRECIAN AND ROMAN. - -While Egyptian sculpture was losing its individuality, and Assyrian -was wearing itself out in excessive ornamentation, there was a new art -growing up in the isles and on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. -The early centuries of its growth are hidden from our knowledge. The -remains are so scanty, so imperfect, that it is with difficulty that -we trace the influences which were molding the art, and the extent to -which it was taking hold of the people. Of this primitive period but -one single work of sculpture is preserved. - -“At Mycenæ, once perhaps in the days of Homer (850-800? B. C.) the most -important city of Greece, there are sculptural works in the remains -of two lions over the entrance gate. The height of these is about ten -feet, and the width fifteen feet. The stone is a greenish limestone. -The holes show where the metal pins held the heads, long since decayed. -Fragments as they are, they show an Assyrian rather than an Egyptian -influence in the strong marking of the muscles and joints, softened -though it is by decay, and in the erect attitude, which denotes action, -such as is not seen in Egyptian art of this kind. Of this gate of the -lions, which has long been known as the most ancient work of early -Greek sculpture, it must be noticed that it is not in the round, but -only in high relief. And this is the case with all the earliest works, -just as it is with the Assyrian sculptures. They tend to show therefore -that the Greek sculptor had not yet learnt to model and carve in the -round in marble and stone.” - -In the objects found by Cesnola in Cyprus, and consisting of statues -and other sculptures, incised gems, and metal work of the hammered-out -kind, the resemblance to the art of Assyria is remarkable. Three -hundred years later than the “gate of lions” are the reliefs discovered -at Xanthus in Lycia. “They belong to the Harpy monument—a pier-shaped -memorial, along the upper edge of which is a frieze ornamented in -relief.” The archaic is still visible in the figures. The drapery -falls in long straight folds, with zigzag edges. There is the stiff, -inevitable smile of the Egyptian statue. The figures are in motion, but -both feet are set flat on the ground. Though in profile the eyes are -shown in full. In spite of these primitive absurdities, and the fact -that the subjects represent foreign myths, the statues are Greek. - -In the fifth century various art schools were founded. “In Argos lived -Argeladas (515-455 B. C.), famous for his bronze statues of gods and -Olympic victors, and still more famous for his three great pupils, -Phidias, Myron, and Polycleitus. In Sicyon there lived, at the same -time, Canachus, the founder of a vital and enduring school. He executed -the colossal statue of Apollo at Miletus, and was skilled not only -in casting bronze but in the use of gold and ivory and wood carving. -Ægina, then a commercial island as yet not subjected, was rendered -illustrious by the two masters Callon and Onatas, the latter especially -known by several groups of bronze statues and warlike scenes from -heroic legends. Lastly, Athens possessed among other artists Hegias, -the teacher of Phidias and Critius. But all of these old masters were -severe, hard, archaic in their treatment.” - -But a period approaches when by a freer, happier treatment of their -work the way was led to the highest Athenian sculpture. We can but -mention the leading sculptors, Calamis of Athens, Pythagoras of -Rhegium, and, greatest of all, Myron of Athens. They do not belong -to the epoch of the finest Grecian art, but they were the immediate -forerunners. - -“Now, for the first time in opposition to the barbarians, the -national Hellenic mind rose to the highest consciousness of noble -independence and dignity. Athens concentrated within herself, as in -a focus, the whole exuberance and many-sidedness of Greek life, and -glorified it into beautiful utility. The victory of the old time -over the new was effected by the power of Phidias, one of the most -wonderful artist minds of all times. He lived in the times of Athens’ -greatest prosperity, and to him Pericles gave the task of executing -the magnificent works he had planned for adorning the city. Among -the famous statues which Phidias wrought in carrying out these plans -was that of Athene, the patron goddess of the Athenians. The booty -which had been taken at Salamis was set aside for this purpose, and -forty-four talents, equal to $589,875 of our money, was spent in -adorning the statue. The virgin goddess was standing erect; a golden -helmet covered her beautiful and earnest head; a coat of mail, with -the head of the Medusa carved in ivory concealed her bosom; and long, -flowing, golden drapery enveloped her whole figure—a statue of Niké, -six feet high, stood on the outstretched hand of the goddess. The -undraped parts were formed of ivory; the eyes of sparkling precious -stones; the drapery, hair, and weapons of gold. In it Phidias portrayed -for all ages the character of Minerva, the serious goddess of wisdom, -the mild protectress of Attica.” - -Still more than in this statue the austere maidenliness of the goddess -was elevated into noble, intellectual beauty in a figure of Athene -placed on the Acropolis by the Lemnians; so much so that an old epigram -instituted a comparison with the Aphrodite of Praxiteles of Cnidus, and -calls Paris “a mere cow-driver for not giving the apple to Athene.” - -The still more famous colossal statue by Phidias, the Zeus at Olympia -in Elis, was his last great work. It was made between B. C. 438, the -date of the consecration of the Parthenon statue, and B. C. 432, the -year of his death, at Elis. - -This was a seated statue of ivory and gold, 55 feet high, including -the throne. Strabo remarks, that “if the god had risen he would have -carried away the roof,” and the height of the interior was about 55 -feet; the temple being built on the model of the Parthenon at Athens, -which was 64 feet to the point of the pediment. - -The statue was seen in its temple by Paulus Æmilius in the second -century B. C., who declared the god himself seemed present to him. -Epictetus says that “it was considered a misfortune for any one to -die without having seen the masterpiece of Phidias.” In the time of -Julian the Apostate (A. D. 361-363) “it continued to receive the homage -of Greece in spite of every kind of attack which the covert zeal of -Constantine had made against polytheism, its temples, and its idols.” -This is the last notice we possess giving authentic information of this -grand statue. Phidias is said to have executed many other statues: -thirteen in bronze from the booty of Marathon, consecrated at Delphi -under Cimon—statues of Apollo, Athene, and Miltiades, with those ten -heroes who had given their names to the ten Athenian tribes (Eponymi); -an Athene for the city of Pellene in gold and ivory; another for the -Platæans, of the spoils of Marathon, made of wood gilt, with the head, -feet, and hands of Pentelic marble. “These,” M. Rochette says, “may be -considered the productions of his youth.” - -The great national work of the time, however, was the Parthenon, and -the ornamentation was entrusted to Phidias. Not that all the wonderful -statues were executed by him alone. He had his pupils and associates. -The most famous of these seems to have been Alcamenes, a versatile and -imaginative disciple of his master. After him were Agoracritus and -Pæonius. There were many others who assisted in the work. The outside -of the temple was ornamented with three classes of sculpture: (1) The -sculptures of the pediments, being independent statues resting on the -cornices. (2) The groups of the metopes, ninety-two in number. These -were in high relief. (3) The frieze around the upper border of the -cella of the Parthenon contained a representation in low relief of the -Panathenaic procession. All these classes of sculpture were in the -highest style of the art. - -The influence of the sculptures of the Parthenon is seen in many -directions in the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, the temple of -Niké-Apteros on the Acropolis at Athens, at Halicarnassus, etc. - -“The works which are known to have been executed by the sculptors -contemporary with Phidias, and by others who formed what is spoken of -as ‘the later Athenian school,’ did not approach the great examples of -the Parthenon. Sculpture then reached the highest point in the grandest -style, whether in the treatment of the statue in the round, or of -bas-relief as in the frieze, or alto-relievo as in the metopes. As to -the chryselephantine statues of Phidias, it may be concluded without -hesitation that though we are compelled to rely upon descriptions only, -they must have been works of the great master even more beautiful than -the marbles.” - -At Argos during the time of Phidias, a somewhat younger school -flourished under the leadership of Polycleitus. “The aspiration of -Polycleitus was to depict the perfect beauty of the human form in calm -repose.” His Amazon and Juno represent best his style; so perfect are -all his works in their proportions that the invention of the canon has -been assigned to him. - -In the works of the later Athenian school, at the head of which were -Scopas and Praxiteles, the sublime ideal of Greek art was no longer -sustained by any new creations that can be compared with those of -the Phidian school; no rivalry with those great masters seemed to -be attempted. The severe and grand was beyond the comprehension, or -probably uncongenial to the spirit of the age, which inclined toward -the poetic, the graceful, the sentimental and romantic. The whole range -of the beautiful myths found abundant illustration in forms entirely -different from the ancient archaic representations, and in these the -fancy of the sculptor was allowed the fullest and freest indulgence. -Nymphs, nereids, mænads, and bacchantes occupied the chisel of the -sculptor in every form of graceful beauty. - -After this epoch, to which so many of the fine statues -belong—repetitions in marble of famous originals in bronze—Greek -sculpture took another phase in accordance with the social life and -the taste of the age, which inclined toward the feeling for display -that arose with the domination of the Macedonian power, brought to its -height by the conquests and ambition of Alexander the Great. Lysippus, -a self-taught sculptor of Sicyon, was the leading artist of his time. -He was evidently a student of nature and individual character, as he -was the first to become celebrated for his portraits, especially those -of Alexander. He departed from the severe and grand style, and in the -native conceit of all self-taught men sneered at the art of Polycleitus -in the well-known saying recorded of him, “Polycleitus made men as they -were, but I make them as they ought to be.” He seems to have been the -first great naturalistic sculptor. - -Rhodes had unquestionable right to give her name to a school of -sculpture, both from the great antiquity of the origin of the culture -of the arts in the island, and from the number, more than one hundred, -of colossal statues in bronze. The Rhodian school is also distinguished -by those remarkable examples of sculpture in marble of large groups -of figures—the Toro Farnese and the Laocoon. In these works there is -the same feeling for display of artistic accomplishment that has been -noticed as characteristic of the Macedonian age, with that effort at -the pathetic, especially in the Laocoon, which belongs to the finer -style of the later Athenian school as displayed in the works of Scopas -and Praxiteles, in the Niobe figures and others. - -At Pergamus, another school allied in style to that of Ephesus arose, -of which the chief sculptor was Pyromachus, who, according to Pliny, -flourished in the 120th Olympiad, B. C. 300-298. A statue of Æsculapius -by Pyromachus was a work of some note in the splendid temple at -Pergamus, and is to be seen on the coins of that city. It is also -conjectured that the well-known Dying Gladiator is a copy of a bronze -by Pyromachus. The vigorous naturalistic style of these statues, -surpassing anything of preceding schools in the effort at expression, -may be taken as characteristic of the school of Pergamus, then -completely under Roman influence, and destined to become more so. But -all question as to the nature of the sculptures was set at rest by the -discovery of many large works in high relief by the German expedition -at Pergamus in 1875. These are now in the Museum at Berlin. They are -of almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny described, the -wars of Attalus and the Battles with the Giants. The nude figure is -especially marked by the effort to display artistic ability as well -as great energy in the action. In these points there is observable a -connection with the well-known and very striking example of sculpture -of this order—the Fighting Gladiator, or more properly the Warrior of -Agasias, who, as is certain from the inscription on his work, was an -Ephesian. - -The equally renowned statue of the Apollo Belvedere, finely conceived -and admirably modeled as it undoubtedly is, bears the stamp of artistic -display which removes it from the style of the great classic works of -sculpture. - -The history of Roman sculpture is soon told. If it have any real -roots, they are to be traced in the ancient Etruscan; for all that was -really characteristic in it as art is associated with that style, in -that intense naturalism which became developed so strikingly in the -production of portrait statues and busts, and in those great monumental -works in bas-relief which are marked by the same strong feeling for -descriptive representation of the most direct and realistic kind, upon -their triumphal columns and arches. - -As has already been stated, early Roman sculpture, if such it can be -called, was entirely the work of Etruscan artists, employed by the -wealth of Rome to afford the citizens that display of pomp in their -worship of the gods and the triumphs of their warriors which their -ambition demanded. All important works were made of colossal size. Some -of the early Roman (quasi Etruscan) statues spoken of by the historians -are a bronze colossus of Jupiter, an Etruscan bronze colossus of -Apollo, eighty feet high, in the Palatine Library of the temple of -Augustus. A portrait statue of an orator in the toga, and a chimæra, -both of bronze, are in the Florence Museum. Sculpture, from the love -of it as a means of expressing the beautiful in the ideal form of the -deities or the heroic and the pathetic of humanity, never existed as -a growth of Roman civilization. The inclination of the Roman mind was -toward social, municipal, and imperial system and ordering; in this -direction the Romans were inventors and improvers upon that which they -borrowed from the Greeks. But in art they began by hiring, and they -ended by debasing the work of the hired. - -They took away the bronze statues of Greece as trophies of conquest, -covered them with gold, and set them up in the palaces and public -places of Rome. They subsidized the sculptors of Greece, who under -Roman influence had fallen away from their high traditions; they did -nothing for the sake of art, but simply manufactured, as it were, -copies and imitations of Greek statues for their own use. Happily we -have to be grateful for the fact, though we can not honor the motive. -Had it not been for this bestowal of their wealth in the gratification -of their taste for luxury and display, many of the renowned statues -of ancient Greek art would have been known only by the vague mention -of them by Pausanias and Pliny, or the early Christian writers of the -Church, or the poetic allusions of the Greek anthologists and the Latin -epigrammatists. - -The Column of Trajan was the great work of Apollodorus, the favorite -architect of the emperor, dedicated A. D. 114. It is 10½ feet in -diameter and 127 feet high, made of thirty-four blocks of white marble, -twenty-three being in the shaft, nine in the base, which is finely -sculptured, and two in the capital and _torus_. The reliefs at the base -are smaller than those toward the top, being two feet high, increasing -to nearly four as they approach the summit; this was, of course, to -enable the more distant subjects to be seen equally well with the -others, a singular illustration of the intensely practical turn of -Roman art in its application. There are about 2,500 figures, not -counting horses, representing the battles and sieges of the Dacian war. -The column of M. Aurelius Antoninus, erected A. D. 174, is similar in -height, but the sculptures, although in higher relief, are not so good. -They represent the conquest of the Marcomans. - -The Augustan age (B. C. 36-A. D. 14), favorable as it was to -literature, only contributed to the multiplying of copies of the Greek -statues, such as we see in so many instances, some of which are of -great excellence, and inestimable as reliable evidence of fine Greek -sculpture. These copies were sometimes varied by the sculptor in some -immaterial point of detail. - -Nero (A. D. 54-68) is said to have adorned his Golden House with no -less than 500 statues, brought from Delphi. In the Baths of Titus, -still in existence (they were built on the ground of the house and -gardens of Mæcenas), many valuable statues have been discovered. The -Arch of Titus furnishes an excellent example of bas-relief of that -time, in it the golden candlestick and other spoils from the temple of -Jerusalem are shown. - -Hadrian (A. D. 117-138) encouraged the reproduction of the Greek -statues, with great success as regards execution, for his famous villa -at Tivoli, and besides these are the statues of his favorite Antinous, -which are the most original works of the time. Hadrian’s imperial -and liberal promotion of sculpture, gave an immense impetus to the -production of statues of every form. All the towns of Greece which he -favored made bronze portrait statues of him, which were placed in the -temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, and the enclosure round more than -half a mile in extent was filled with its many statues. - -The learned Varro speaks of Arcesilaus as the sculptor of Venus -Genetrix, in the forum of Cæsar, and of a beautiful marble group of -Cupids playing with a lioness, some leading her, others beating her -with their sandals, others offering her wine to drink from horns. - -Under the Antonines arose the outrageous fashion of representing noble -Romans and their wives as deities, and this was carried so far that -the men are not unfrequently nude as if heroic. The bas-reliefs on the -arch of Septimus Severus at Rome, and that which goes by the name of -Constantine—though made chiefly of reliefs belonging to one raised in -honor of Trajan—show the poor condition of sculpture at that time. The -numerous sarcophagi, some made by Greek sculptors for the Roman market, -and others by those working at Rome, are other examples of the feeble -style of imitators and workmen actuated by no knowledge or feeling of -art. Some of these are still to be seen in the collections at Rome, -with mythological subjects, the heads being left unfinished, so that -the portraits of the family could be carved when required. - -The rule of Constantine was, however, far more disastrous to art as the -seat of the Empire was removed to Byzantium. Most of the finest statues -accumulated in Rome were removed there only to be lost forever in the -plundering of wars and the fanatical rage of the Christian iconoclasts. -While destroying the statues of the gods, they may have spared those -which commemorated agonistic victors; but we may be sure that nearly -all the works in metal which the Christians spared were melted down by -the barbarous hordes of Gothic invaders, who under Alaric occupied the -Morea about A. D. 395. - -With this glance at the complete decadence of art and the coming -darkness that preceded its revival, we approach the subject of -sculpture as connected with the rise of ecclesiastical religious art, -which is necessarily reserved for further consideration. - - - - -SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE. - - -BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. - - I recommend the study of Franklin to all young people; - he was a real philanthropist, a wonderful man. It was - said that it was honor enough to any one country to - have produced such a man as Franklin.—_Sydney Smith._ - - A man who makes a great figure in the learned world; - and who would still make a greater figure for - benevolence and candor were virtue as much regarded in - this declining age as knowledge.—_Lord Kaimes._ - - He was a great experimental philosopher, a consummate - politician, and a paragon of common sense.—_Edinburgh - Review._ - - He has in no instance exhibited that false dignity by - which science is kept aloof from common application; - and he has sought rather to make her an useful inmate - and servant in the common habitations of man, than - to preserve her merely as an object of admiration in - temples and palaces.—_Sir Humphrey Davy._ - - His style has all the vigor, and even conciseness - of Swift, without any of his harshness. It is in no - degree more flowery, yet both elegant and lively.—_Lord - Jeffrey._ - - When he left Passy it seemed as if the village had lost - its patriarch.—_Thomas Jefferson._ - - -Extracts From Poor Richard’s Almanac. - -“Love well, whip well.” “The proof of gold is fire; the proof of -woman, gold; the proof of man, a woman.” “There is no little enemy.” -“Necessity never made a good bargain.” “Three may keep a secret, if -two of them are dead.” “Deny self for self’s sake.” “Keep thy shop, -and thy shop will keep thee.” “Here comes the orator, with his flood -of words and his drop of reason.” “Sal laughs at everything you say; -why? because she has fine teeth.” “An old young man will be a young old -man.” “He is no clown that drives the plow, but he that does clownish -things.” “Diligence is the mother of good luck.” “Wealth is not his -that has it, but his that enjoys it.” “He that can have patience can -have what he will.” “Good wives and good plantations are made by good -husbands.” “God heals, the doctor takes the fee.” “The noblest question -in the world is, What good may I do in it?” “There are three faithful -friends, an old wife, an old dog, and ready money.” “Who has deceived -thee so oft as thyself?” “Fly pleasures, and they will follow you.” -“Hast thou virtue? Acquire also the graces and beauties of virtue.” -“Keep your eyes wide open before marriage; half shut afterward.” -“As we must account for every idle word, so we must for every idle -silence.” “Search others for their virtues, thyself for thy vices.” -“Grace thou thy house, and let not that grace thee.” “Let thy child’s -first lesson be obedience, and the second will be what thou will.” -“Let thy discontents be thy secrets.” “Happy that nation, fortunate -that age, whose history is not diverting.” “There are lazy minds, as -well as lazy bodies.” “Tricks and treachery are the practice of fools, -who have not wit enough to be honest.” “Let no pleasure tempt thee, no -profit allure thee, no ambition corrupt thee, no example sway thee, no -persuasion move thee, to do anything which thou knowest to be evil; so -shalt thou always live jollily, for a good conscience is a continual -Christmas.” - - “Altho’ thy teacher act not as he preaches, - Yet ne’ertheless, if good, do what he teaches; - Good counsel failing men may give, for why? - He that’s aground knows where the shoal doth lie. - My old friend Berryman, oft when alive, - Taught others thrift, himself could never thrive. - Thus like the whetstone, many men are wont - To sharpen others while themselves are blunt.” - - -Poetry for December, 1834. - - “He that for the sake of drink neglects his trade, - And spends each night in taverns till ’tis late, - And rises when the sun is four hours high, - And ne’er regards his starving family, - God in his mercy may do much to save him, - But, woe to the poor wife, whose lot it is to have him.” - - -An Astronomical Notice. - -During the first visible eclipse _Saturn_ is retrograde: for which -reason the crabs will go sidelong, and the rope-makers backward. -Mercury will have his share in these affairs, and so confound the -speech of the people, that when a _Pennsylvanian_ would say _panther_, -he shall say _painter_. When a _New Yorker_ thinks to say _this_, he -shall say _diss_, and the people in _New England_ and _Cape May_ will -not be able to say _cow_ for their lives, but will be forced to say -_keow_, by a certain involuntary twist in the root of their tongues. No -_Connecticut man_ nor _Marylander_ will be able to open his mouth this -year but _sir_ shall be the first or last syllable he pronounces, and -sometimes both. Brutes shall speak in many places, and there will be -about seven and twenty irregular verbs made this year if grammar don’t -interpose. Who can help these misfortunes? This year the stone-blind -shall see but very little; the deaf shall hear but poorly; and the dumb -sha’n’t speak very plain. As to old age, it will be incurable this -year, because of the years past. And toward the fall some people will -be seized with an unaccountable inclination to roast and eat their -own ears: Should this be called madness, doctors? I think not. But -the worst disease of all will be a most horrid, dreadful, malignant, -catching, perverse, and odious malady, almost epidemical, insomuch that -many shall seem mad upon it. I quake for very fear when I think on’t; -for I assure you very few shall escape this disease, which is called by -the learned Albromazer—_Lacko’mony_. - - -GEORGE WASHINGTON. - - His papers which have been preserved show how he gained - the power of writing correctly—always expressing - himself with clearness and directness, often with - felicity and grace.—_George Bancroft._ - - No one who has not been in England can have an idea of - the admiration expressed among all parties for General - Washington.—_Rufus King, 1797._ - - * * * The great central figure of that unparalleled - group, that “noble army” of chieftains, sages, - and patriots, by whom the revolution was - accomplished.—_Edward Everett._ - - He had in his composition a calm which gave him - in moments of highest excitement the power - of self-control, and enabled him to excel in - patience.—_Bancroft._ - - -Account of the Battle of Trenton. - - HEADQUARTERS, MORRISTOWN, Dec. 27, 1776. - - _To the President of Congress_: - -SIR—I have the pleasure of congratulating you upon the success of an -enterprise which I had formed against a detachment of the enemy lying -in Trenton, and which was executed yesterday morning. - -The evening of the twenty-fifth I ordered the troops intended for this -service to parade back of McKonkey’s ferry, that they might begin to -pass as soon as it grew dark, imagining we should be able to throw them -all over, with the necessary artillery, by twelve o’clock, and that we -might easily arrive at Trenton by five in the morning, the distance -being about nine miles. But the quantity of ice made that night impeded -the passage of the boats so much that it was three o’clock before the -artillery could all be got over; and near four before the troops took -up their line of march. - -This made me despair of surprising the town, as I well knew we could -not reach it before the day was fairly broke. But as I was certain -there was no making a retreat without being discovered, and harassed on -re-passing the river, I determined to push on at all events. I formed -my detachment into two divisions, one to march by the lower or river -road, the other by the upper or Pennington road. As the divisions had -nearly the same distance to march, I ordered each of them, immediately -upon forcing the out-guards, to push directly into the town, that they -might charge the enemy before they had time to form. - -The upper division arrived at the enemy’s advanced post exactly at -eight o’clock: and in three minutes after I found, from the fire on the -lower road, that that division had also got up. The out-guards made but -small opposition, though, for their numbers, they behaved very well, -keeping up a constant retreating fire from behind houses. We presently -saw their main body formed; but from their motions, they seemed -undetermined how to act. - -Being hard pressed by our troops, who had already got possession of -their artillery, they attempted to file off by a road on their right, -leading to Princeton. But, perceiving their intention, I threw a body -of troops in their way; which immediately checked them. Finding, -from our disposition, that they were surrounded, and that they must -inevitably be cut to pieces if they made any further resistance, they -agreed to lay down their arms. The number that submitted in this manner -was twenty-three officers and eight hundred and eighty-six men. Colonel -Rahl, the commanding officer, and seven others, were found wounded in -the town. I do not exactly know how many they had killed; but I fancy -not above twenty or thirty, as they never made any regular stand. Our -loss is very trifling indeed—only two officers and one or two privates -wounded. - -I find that the detachment consisted of the three Hessian regiments of -Lanspach, Kniphausen, and Rahl, amounting to about fifteen hundred men, -and a troop of British light horse; but immediately upon the beginning -of the attack, all those who were not killed or taken pushed directly -down toward Bordentown. These would likewise have fallen into our hands -could my plan have been completely carried into execution. - -General Ewing was to have crossed before day at Trenton ferry, and -taken possession of the bridge leading out of town; but the quantity -of ice was so great that, though he did every thing in his power to -effect it, he could not get over. This difficulty also hindered General -Cadwallader from crossing with the Pennsylvania militia from Bristol. -He got part of his foot over; but finding it impossible to embark his -artillery, he was obliged to desist. - -I am fully confident that, could the troops under Generals Ewing and -Cadwallader have passed the river, I should have been able, with their -assistance, to have driven the enemy from all their posts below -Trenton. But the numbers I had with me being inferior to theirs below -me, and a strong battalion of light infantry being at Princeton above -me, I thought it most prudent to return the same evening with the -prisoners and the artillery we had taken. We found no stores of any -consequence in the town. - -In justice to the officers and men, I must add that their behavior upon -this occasion reflects the highest honor upon them. The difficulty of -passing the river in a very severe night, and their march through a -violent storm of snow and hail, did not in the least abate their ardor; -but when they came to the charge each seemed to vie with the other in -pressing forward; and were I to give a preference to any particular -corps I should do great injustice to the others. - -Colonel Baylor, my first aid-de-camp, will have the honor of delivering -this to you; and from him you may be made acquainted with many other -particulars. His spirited behavior upon every occasion requires me to -recommend him to your particular notice. - -I have the honor to be, etc., - - G. W. - - -THOMAS JEFFERSON. - - As a composition, the Declaration [of Independence] - is Mr. Jefferson’s. It is the production of his mind, - and the high honor of it belongs to him clearly and - absolutely. To say that he performed his great work - well would be doing him an injustice. To say that - he did excellently well, admirably well, would be - inadequate and halting praise. Let us rather say - that he so discharged the duty assigned him that all - Americans may well rejoice that the work of drawing - the title-deed of their liberties devolved upon - him.—_Daniel Webster._ - - After Washington and Franklin there is no person who - fills so eminent a place among the great men of America - as Jefferson.—_Lord Brougham._ - - -Washington. - -His mind was great and powerful, without being of the very first order; -his penetration strong, though not so acute as that of a Newton, Bacon, -or Locke; and as far as he saw, no judgment was ever sounder. It was -slow in operation, being little aided by invention or imagination, -but sure in conclusion. Hence the common remark of his officers, of -the advantage he derived from councils of war, where, hearing all -suggestions, he selected whatever was best; and certainly no general -ever planned his battles more judiciously. But if deranged during the -course of the action, if any member of his plan was dislocated by -sudden circumstances, he was slow in a re-adjustment. The consequence -was, that he often failed in the field, and rarely against an enemy -in station, as at Boston and York. He was incapable of fear, meeting -personal dangers with the calmest unconcern. Perhaps the strongest -feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every -circumstance, every consideration was maturely weighed; refraining -if he saw a doubt, but when once decided, going through with his -purpose, whatever obstacles opposed. His integrity was most pure, his -justice the most inflexible I have ever known; no motives of interest -or consanguinity, of friendship or hatred, being able to bias his -decision. He was, indeed, in every sense of the word, a wise, a good, -and a great man. His temper was naturally irritable and high-toned; but -reflection and resolution had obtained a firm and habitual ascendency -over it. If ever, however, it broke its bounds, he was most tremendous -in his wrath. In his expenses he was honorable, but exact; liberal in -contributions to whatever promised utility; but frowning and unyielding -on all visionary projects, and all unworthy calls on his charity. -His heart was not warm in its affections; but he exactly calculated -every man’s value, and gave him a solid esteem proportioned to it. -His person, you know, was fine, his stature exactly what one would -wish; his deportment easy, erect, and noble, the best horseman of his -age, and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback. -Although in the circle of his friends, where he might be unreserved -with safety, he took a free share in conversation, his colloquial -talents were not above mediocrity, possessing neither copiousness of -ideas nor fluency of words. In public, when called on for a sudden -opinion, he was unready, short, and embarrassed. Yet he wrote readily, -rather diffusely, in an easy and correct style. This he had acquired -by conversation with the world, for his education was merely reading, -writing, and common arithmetic, to which he added surveying at a -later day. His time was employed in action chiefly, reading little, -and that only in agriculture and English history. His correspondence -became necessarily extensive, and with journalizing his agricultural -proceedings, occupied most of his leisure hours within doors. On the -whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in a -few points indifferent; and it may truly be said, that never did nature -and fortune combine more completely to make a man great, and to place -him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have merited from -man an everlasting remembrance. For his was the singular destiny and -merit of leading the armies of his country successfully through an -arduous war, for the establishment of its independence; of conducting -its councils through the birth of a government, new in its forms and -principles, until it had settled down into a quiet and orderly train; -and of scrupulously obeying the laws through the whole of his career, -civil and military, of which the history of the world furnishes no -other example. - - -THOUGHTS FROM WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING. - -ON BOOKS.—It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with -superior minds and these invaluable means of communication are in the -reach of all. In the best books great men talk to us, give us their -most precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours. - -God be thanked for books! They are the voices of the distant and the -dead, and make us heirs of the spiritual life of past ages. - -Books are the true levelers. They give to all who will faithfully use -them, the society, the spiritual presence of the best and greatest of -our race. No matter how poor I am. No matter though the prosperous of -my time will not enter my obscure dwelling. If the sacred writers will -enter and take up their abode under my roof, if Milton will cross my -threshhold to sing to me of paradise, and Shakspere to open to me the -worlds of imagination and the workings of the human heart, and Franklin -to enrich me with his practical wisdom, I shall not pine for want of -intellectual companionship, and I may become a cultivated man, though -excluded from what is called the best society in the place where I live. - -ON LABOR.—Manual labor is a great good, but only in its just -proportions. In excess it does great harm. It is not a good when -made the sole work of life. It must be joined with higher means of -improvement or it degrades instead of exalting. Man has a various -nature which requires a variety of occupation and discipline for its -growth. Study, meditation, society, and relaxation should be mixed up -with his physical toil. He has intellect, heart, imagination, taste, as -well as bones and muscles; and he is grievously wronged when compelled -to exclusive drudgery for bodily subsistence. - -ON POLITICS.—To govern one’s self (not others) is true glory. To serve -through love, not to rule, is Christian greatness. Office is not -dignity. The lowest men, because most faithless in principle, most -servile to opinion, are to be found in office. I am sorry to say it, -but the truth should be spoken, that, at the present moment, political -action in this country does little to lift up any who are concerned -in it. It stands in opposition to a high morality. Politics, indeed, -regarded as the study and pursuit of the true, enduring good of a -community, as the application of great unchangeable principles to -public affairs, is a noble sphere of thought and action, but politics, -in its common sense, or considered as the invention of temporary -shifts, as the playing of a subtle game, as the tactics of party for -gaining power and the spoils of office, and for elevating one set of -men above another is a paltry and debasing concern. - -ON SELF-DENIAL.—To deny ourselves is to deny, to withstand, to renounce -whatever, within or without, interferes with our conviction of right, -or with the will of God. It is to suffer, to make sacrifice, for duty -or our principles. The question now offers itself: What constitutes -the singular merit of this suffering? Mere suffering, we all know, is -not virtue. Evil men often endure pain as well as the good and are -evil still. This, and this alone, constitutes the worth and importance -of the sacrifice, suffering, which enters into self-denial, that it -springs from and manifests moral strength, power over ourselves, force -of purpose, or the mind’s resolute determination of itself to duty. -It is the proof and result of inward energy. Difficulty, hardship, -suffering, sacrifices, are tests and measures of moral force and the -great means of its enlargement. To withstand these is the same thing -as to put forth power. Self-denial then is the will acting with power -in the choice and prosecution of duty. Here we have the distinguishing -glory of self-denial, and here we have the essence and distinction of a -good and virtuous man. - -ON PLEASURE.—The first means of placing a people beyond the temptations -to intemperance is to furnish them with the means of innocent -pleasure. By innocent pleasures I mean such as excite moderately; -such as produce a cheerful frame of mind, not boisterous mirth; such -as refresh, instead of exhausting, the system; such as are chastened -by self-respect, and are accompanied with the consciousness that life -has a higher end than to be amused. In every community there _must_ -be pleasures, relaxations and means of agreeable excitement; and if -innocent ones are not furnished, resort will be had to criminal. Men -drink to excess very often to shake off depression, or to satisfy -the restless thirst for agreeable excitement, and these motives -are excluded in a cheerful community. A gloomy state of society in -which there are few innocent recreations, may be expected to abound -in drunkenness if opportunities are afforded. The savage drinks to -excess because his hours of sobriety are dull and unvaried, because -in losing consciousness of his condition and his existence he loses -little which he wishes to retain. The laboring classes are most exposed -to intemperance, because they have at present few other pleasurable -excitements. A man, who, after toil, has resources of blameless -recreation is less tempted than other men to seek self-oblivion. He has -too many of the pleasures of the man to take up those of the brute. - - [End of Required Reading for November.] - - - - -AUTUMN SYMPATHY. - -By E. G. CHARLESWORTH. - - - The primrose and the violet, - The bloom on apricot and peach, - The marriage-song of larks in heights, - The south wind and the swallow’s nest; - All born of spring, I once loved best. - - But now the dying leaf and flower, - The frost wind moaning in the pane, - The robin’s plaintive latter song, - The early sunset in the west; - All born of autumn, I love best. - - Tell me, my heart, the reason why - Thy pulse thus beats with things that die; - Is it thine own autumnal sheaves? - Is it thine own dead fallen leaves? - - —_London Sunday Magazine._ - - - - -REPUBLICAN PROSPECTS IN FRANCE. - -By JOSEPH REINACH. - - -On the very morrow of Gambetta’s death, and when that catastrophe had -been interpreted by the immense majority of European opinion, as also -by many Frenchmen, as the certain presage of the approaching triumph -of advanced Radicalism—triumph to be followed by violent interior -discords that would infallibly bring about the fall of the Republic and -the re-establishment either of Empire or of Royalty—I said that these -predictions would not be realized, and, moreover, that Gambetta’s death -would but serve to hasten the triumph of his political ideas and party. -I will cite, word for word, what I wrote at the end of January in a -paper that appeared in this Review on February 1: - -“We even believe we may predict that the realization of several of -Gambetta’s ideas will meet with fewer obstacles, at least among a -certain fraction of public opinion, to-morrow than yesterday. A -formidable reaction will take place in favor of the great statesman -whom we weep, a reaction in favor of his theories and his principles. -In short, we shall most likely witness the contrary of what has taken -place for some years. It was enough that Gambetta should defend a -theory for it to be attacked with fury. From henceforth it will often -suffice that an idea was formerly held up by Gambetta for it to be -enthusiastically acclaimed. As in the story of Cid Campeador, it is his -corpse that leads his followers to victory.” - -What I foretold six months ago has been fulfilled in every point. Those -very Castilians who during Cid’s lifetime suspected him of the darkest -designs and reviled him as a criminal—what did they do after his death? -They put the hero’s corpse in an iron coffin, and the black gravecloth -on the bier was the standard which, in the front rank of battle, led -the Spanish army to victory. And so has it been, or nearly so, with -French Republicans and Gambetta. The political history of our country -during the last six months may be thus summed up: Out of Gambetta’s -death-bed has arisen a first (not complete) victory for his ideas and -friends; from the party more specially organized by him have been -chosen most men now in office, that they may execute his will. - -As a matter of fact, just after the excitement of the first few days, -as soon as it became necessary for the Republicans to unite and stop -the Royalists who thought the fruit already ripe, what ministers did -the President of the Republic call for? M. Jules Ferry, who for the -last five years had been, if not the direct coadjutor, at least the -most invariable and faithful political ally of Gambetta, was made Prime -Minister; M. Waldeck-Rousseau, the late Minister for Home Affairs under -Gambetta, and M. Raynal, the late Minister of Public Works, were both -recalled to the same offices. M. Challemel-Lacour, Gambetta’s most -esteemed and devoted friend, was named Minister of Foreign Affairs, and -M. Martin Feuillèe, Under-Secretary of State for Justice on November -14, Minister of Justice; M. Margue, Under-Secretary of State for Home -Affairs, resumed the same post. General Campenon could have been -Minister of War had he wished it. And a great pity it is he declined -his friends’ proposals. Thus, in its general bearings, the Ferry -Ministry is the Gambetta Ministry without Gambetta. - -Except some secondary modifications made necessary by the change of -circumstances, the political program is about the same. Abroad an -active and steady diplomacy, the regular development of our colonial -politics, the consolidation of the protectorate in Tunis; at home -the constitution of a strong government, the methodical realization -of social and democratic reforms, the policy of _scrutin de liste_, -whilst awaiting the abolition of _scrutin d’arrondissement_. The -principal bills adopted last session, except the Magistracy bill, are -but legacies from the Gambetta Cabinet. Both cabinets are animated by -the same national spirit—national above all, but also progressist and -governmental. The halo imparted by the presence of a man of genius -is certainly wanting; but Carlyle’s _hero-worship_ is by no means a -democratic necessity. There is certainly reason for rejoicing when a -nation acknowledges and appreciates in one of its sons, sprung from its -midst, an intellect of the highest order. But when Alexander leaves -lieutenants profoundly imbued with his spirit, formed in his school, -most desirous and capable of continuing his work—when these men, -instead of being at variance, remain, on the contrary, more strongly -bound together than ever—there is certainly no reason for complaining -and giving way to discouragement. - -Then it is not only in parliament that the _opportunist_ policy is -again getting the upper hand. Throughout the whole country it has -regained the ground it had lost by the intrigues of hostile parties. -The great majority of Republicans have now recovered from a number of -diseases for which Gambetta had always prescribed the remedy—remedy, -alas! that too many refused to stretch out their hand for. The mania -for decentralization is forgotten. The necessity for a strongly -constituted and vigorous central power is almost universally understood -and acknowledged. Demagogue charlatans are for the most part unmasked. -Our foreign policy is steadier—we are no longer afraid of Egyptian -shadows. Intransigeants of the Right and Left still continue to see -in our colonial enterprises but vulgar jobbing, and to denounce and -revile them in every possible way. But the great mass of the nation -is no longer to be made a fool of, and has understood the necessity -of extending France beyond the seas. There is a story of an English -peasant who locked the stable door after the horse had been stolen. -Happily for France she has several horses in her stables. If she has -lost, at least for a time, her beautiful Arabian steed on the borders -of the Nile, that is but an additional reason for taking jealous care -of the others.—_The Nineteenth Century._ - - * * * * * - -IN 404 Honorius was emperor. At that time, in the remote deserts of -Libya, there dwelt an obscure monk named Telemachus. He had heard of -the awful scenes in the far-off Coliseum at Rome. Depend upon it, they -lost nothing by their transit across the Mediterranean in the hands of -Greek and Roman sailors. In the baths and market-places of Alexandria, -in the Jewries of Cyrene, in the mouths of every itinerant Eastern -story-teller, the festive massacres of the Coliseum would doubtless be -clothed in colors truly appalling, yet scarcely more appalling than the -truth. - -Telemachus brooded over these horrors till his mission dawned upon -him. He was ordained by heaven to put an end to the slaughter of -human beings in the Coliseum. He made his way to Rome. He entered -the Coliseum with the throng, what time the gladiators were parading -in front of the emperor with uplifted swords and the wild mockery of -homage—“_Morituri te salutant._” Elbowing his way to the barrier, he -leapt over at the moment when the combatants rushed at each other, -threw himself between them, bidding them, in the name of Christ, to -desist. To blank astonishment succeeded imperial contempt and popular -fury. Telemachus fell slain by the swords of the gladiators. Legend -may adorn the tale and fancy fill out the picture, but the solid fact -remains—_there never was another gladiatorial fight in the Coliseum_. -One heroic soul had caught the flow of public feeling that had already -begun to set in the direction of humanity, and turned it. He had -embodied by his act and consecrated by his death the sentiment that -already lay timidly in the hearts of thousands in that great city -of Rome. In 430 an edict was passed abolishing forever gladiatorial -exhibitions.—_Good Words._ - - * * * * * - -ALL merit ceases the moment we perform an act for the sake of its -consequences. Truly in this respect “we have our reward.”—_Wilhelm von -Humboldt._ - - - - -CHAUTAUQUA TO CALIFORNIA. - -By FRANCES E. WILLARD, President N. W. C. T. U. - - -I. - -I.—SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. - -In one thing Chautauqua and California are alike—each is a climax, and -both are “made up of every creature’s best.” My sufficient consolation -for missing one of them this year is, that I saw the other. Let us -speed onward, then, taking Chautauqua as our point of departure, in a -Pickwickian sense only, unless for the further reason that it has the -high prerogative of making all its happy denizens believe it to be -the center of gravity (and good times) for one planet at least; the -meridian from which all fortunate longitude is reckoned and all lucky -time-pieces set. Our swift train, “outward bound,” races along through -the old familiar East and the West no longer new. - - “Through the kingdoms of corn, - Through the empires of grain, - Through dominions of forest; - Drives the thundering train; - Through fields where God’s cattle - Are turned out to grass, - And his poultry whirl up - From the wheels as we pass; - Through level horizons as still as the moon - With the wilds fast asleep and the winds in a swoon.” - -From a palace car with every eastern luxury, we gaze out on the -dappled, pea-green hills of New Mexico and the wide, empty stretches -of Arizona, stopping in Santa Fe—Columbia’s Damascus, in Albuquerque—a -pocket edition of Chicago, and in Tucson—the storm-center of -semi-tropic trade. But the “W. C. T. U.” is a plant of healing as -indigenous to every soil for good as the saloon for evil, and in the -first city the Governor’s wife has accepted leadership; in the second -that place is held by a lovely Ohio girl, the wife of a young lawyer; -and in the third a leading woman of society and church work, whose -husband is one of Arizona’s most honored pioneers, consents to be our -standard-bearer. These way-side errands, with their delightful new -friendships and tender gospel lessons over, we hasten on to California. -Some token of its affluent beauty comes to us on Easter Sabbath in the -one hundred calla-lilies sent from Los Angeles, five hundred miles -beyond, to adorn the church where we worship in Tucson, that marvelous -oasis in the desert. “Go on, and God be with you,” says the friend who -escorts us to the train; “you’ll find Los Angeles a heaven on earth.” -And so, indeed, we did, coming up out of the wilderness on a soft -spring day, between fair, emerald hills that stood as the fore-runners -of the choicest land on which were ever mirrored the glory and the -loveliness of God. - -We visited the thirty leading centers of interest and activity in the -great Golden State during the two months of our stay, but when the -courteous mayor of this “city of the angels” welcomed us thither, -and children heaped about us their baskets of flowers, rare, save -in California, we told “His Honor” that of all the towns we had yet -visited—and they number a thousand at least—his was the one most fitly -named. - -Southern California, and this its exquisite metropolis, have been a -terra incognita even to the intelligent, until the steam horse lately -caracoled this way. Now it is thronged by emigrants and tourists, men -and women of small means reaping from half a dozen acres here what a -large farm in Illinois could hardly yield, and invalids hitherto only -an expense to their friends, finding the elixir of life in this balmy -air, and joyously joining once more the energetic working forces of -the world. Flowers are so plenty here that banks and pyramids alone -can satisfy the claims of decorative art; baskets of roses are more -frequent than bouquets or even _boutonnieres_ with us. Heliotropes and -fuchsias climb to the apex of the roof, while the common garden trees -are oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, figs, olives and pomegranates. -Strawberry short-cake can be had all the year round from the fresh -fruit of one’s own garden, and oranges at the rate of nine thousand -to one tree, and in some cases fifteen inches in circumference, have -been raised in this vicinity. Riverside and Pasadena are adjacent -colonies and bear a stronger resemblance to one’s ideal Garden of Eden -than any other places I ever expect to see. Through groves of rarest -semi-tropic fruit trees you ride for miles, in the midst of beautiful, -modern homes, for the American renaissance is not more manifest in the -suburbs of Boston or Chicago than in Southern California. Fences are -nowhere visible, the Monterey cypress furnishing a hedge which puts -to blush the choicest of old England; the pepper tree with drooping -branches, and the Australian gum tree, tall and umbrageous, outlining -level avenues whose vistas seem unending. Above all this are skies -that give back one’s best Italian memories, and for a background the -tranquil amplitude of the Sierra Madre Mountains. What would you more? -“See Naples and die” is an outworn phrase. “See California and live” -has been the magic formula of how many restored and happy pilgrims! The -tonic of cold water has electrified this soil, seven years ago an utter -desert, so that now three years of growth will work a transformation -that fifteen would fail to bring about east of the Mississippi. To -my thinking this result is but a material prototype of the heavenly -estate that shall come to our America when its arid waste of brains -and stomachs, usurped by alcohol, shall learn the cooling virtues of -this same cold water. In Riverside my host planted in May of 1880, -two thousand grape cuttings (not roots, remember), and in September, -1881, gathered from them two hundred boxes of grapes. Pasadena was -founded by a good man from Maine, and is exempt from saloons by the -provisions of its charter. Here, from six acres, a gentleman realized -thirteen hundred dollars, clear of all expenses, last year, by drying -and sacking his grapes, instead of sending them to the winery. “The -profits were so much larger that hereafter his pocket-book will counsel -him, if not his conscience, to keep clear of the wine trade,” said the -wide awake temperance woman who gave me the item. In Pasadena, Mrs. -Jennie C. Carr, whose fruit ranche and gardens, largely tilled by her -own hands, disclose every imaginable variety which the most extravagant -climate can produce, sells at three thousand dollars per acre, land -purchased by her for a mere song six years ago. In Santa Ana and San -Bernardino, also near Los Angeles, there is the same luxuriance and -swift moving life. A county superintendent of schools told me he had -one school district that includes 160 miles of railroad, and has a town -of 800 people, where three months ago there was silence and vacancy. -At San Diego, the most southerly town in California, we found the _ne -plus ultra_ of climate for consumptives, its temperature ranging from -fifty-five to seventy-five degrees, and its air dry. San Diego is -the oldest town in the State, having been established as a Catholic -“Mission” in 1769. It is now altogether modernized and is Nature’s own -sanitarium, besides being a lovely land-locked harbor of the Pacific. -Santa Barbara, which we missed seeing, has a grape vine sixty years -old, and a foot through, which in 1867 bore six tons of grapes, some -of whose clusters weighed five pounds each. The railroad will soon -make this beautiful town accessible to rapid tourists to whom the -ocean is unkind. Twenty-one missions were founded over a century ago -by Franciscan friars in Southern California. They brought with them -from Spain the orange and the vine. They were conquerors, civilizers, -subduers of the soil. They brought cattle, horses, sheep, and—alas! -hogs. They conquered the land for Spain without cruelty, baptizing -the Indians into the church and teaching them the arts of peace. Then -followed the Mexican, then our own conquest of their territory, and now -the Anglo-Saxon reigns supreme in a land on which Nature has lavished -all she had to give. Upon his victory over the alcohol habit, depends -the future of this goodly heritage. If he raises grapes he will -survive; if he turns them into wine he must succumb. - - -II.—SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. - -We crossed the famous and dangerous “Tehachapi Pass” at night, and -wended our way slowly through this notable valley, three hundred miles -in length by thirty-five in width, stopping to found the W. C. T. U. in -its four chief towns, Fresno, Tulare, Merced, and Modesto. - -Irrigation is the watchword here, and as it takes capitalists to carry -this through on a scale so immense, large farms are now the rule. For -instance, we passed over one seventy-three miles in length by twenty in -width. Later on, it is to be hoped these immense proprietaries may be -settled by men whose primary object is to establish and maintain homes. -At present, in the agricultural line, “big enterprises” are alone -attractive. “Alfalfa,” a peculiarly hardy and luxuriant clover—imported -by Governor Bigler from Chili—is the first crop, and grazing precedes -grain. This plant “strikes its roots six feet or more into the soil, -and never requires a second planting, while every year there are five -crops of alfalfa and but two of wheat and barley.” - -Varied indeed is the population of this valley. One day we dine with a -practical woman from Massachusetts, who declares that the sand storms, -which most people consider the heaviest discount on the valley, are -“really not so bad, for they polish off the house floors as nothing -else could.” The next we meet a group of earnest, motherly hearts from -a dozen different States, and almost as many religious denominations, -united to “provide for the common defense” of home against saloon. Next -day a lawyer from Charleston invites us to his cozy residence, “because -his wife knows some of our Southern leaders in the W. C. T. U.” The -next we make acquaintance with half a dozen school ma’ams from the -East, who have taken a ranche and set up housekeeping for themselves; -and in the fourth town visited an Englishman born in Auckland, New -Zealand, the leading criminal lawyer of the county, and instigator of -the woman’s crusade in Oakland, who gives us a graphic description of -that movement, which was a far-off echo of the Ohio pentecost. - -So we move on at the rate of two meetings a day, with the hearty -support of the united clergy (except the Episcopal, and often they -helped us, too), and the warm coöperation of the temperance societies, -emerging in San Francisco, Monday, April 16, 1883. - - -III.—SAN FRANCISCO. - -I am glad we did not so far forget ourselves as to arrive on Sunday, -for it appears that certain good, gifted, and famous persons, who shall -be nameless, telegraphed to certain Christian leaders of their intended -arrival on that day, and received answer: “The hour of your coming will -find us at church. The Palace is the best hotel.” Now on an overland -trip, an absent-minded traveler might fail to note the precise date -of his arrival in the metropolis of the Pacific, but that would be no -excuse to our guid folk yonder, whose Sunday laws have been smitten -from their statute books, and Christians hold themselves to strict -account for their example, which now alone conserves the Christian’s -worship and the poor man’s rest. - -San Francisco is probably the most cosmopolitan city now extant. Its -three hundred thousand people sound the gamut of nationality in the -most varying and dissonant chorus that ever greeted human ears. The -struggle for survival is an astonishing mixture of fierceness and -good-nature. Crowding along the streets, Irish and Chinaman, New -Englander and Negro, show kind consideration, but in the marts of -trade and at the polls “their guns are ballots, their bullets are -ideas.” Old-time asperities are softening, however, even on these -battlegrounds. The trend is upward, toward higher levels of hope and -brotherhood. Eliminate the alcohol and opium habits, and all these -would (and will ere long) dwell together in unity. Lives like those -of Rev. Dr. Otis Gibson, and Mrs. Captain Goodall, invested for the -Christianizing of the Chinese, or like that of Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper, -devoted to kindergartening the embryo “hoodlum,” or that of Dr. R. H. -McDonald, the millionaire philanthropist, consecrated to the temperance -reform, are mighty prophecies of the good time coming. - -San Francisco is the city of bay windows, and its people, beyond any -other on this continent, believe in sunshine and fresh air. In like -manner, they are fond of ventilating every subject, are in nowise -afraid of the next thing simply because it is the next, but have broad -hospitality for new ideas. Rapid as the heel taps of its street life -is the movement of its thought and the flame of its sympathy. Much as -has been said in its dispraise, Mount Diablo—the chief feature of its -environs—is not so symbolic of its spirit as the white tomb of Thomas -Starr King, which, standing beside one of its busiest streets, is a -perpetual reminder of noble power conserved for noblest use. Everybody -knows San Francisco’s harbor is without a rival save Puget Sound and -Constantinople. Everybody has heard of its “Palace Hotel,” the largest -in the world, and one that includes “eighteen acres of floor;” of -its “endless chain” street cars, the inevitable outgrowth of dire -necessity in its up-hill streets; of its indescribable “Chinatown;” of -“Seal Rock,” with its monster sea-lions, gamboling and howling year -out and year in, for herein are the salient features of the strange -city’s individuality. For a metropolis but thirty-four years old, -the following record is unrivaled: Total value of real and personal -property, $253,000,000; school property, $1,000,000; 130,000 buildings; -11,000 streets; 12 street car lines; 33 libraries and reading-rooms; 38 -hospitals; 316 benevolent societies; 168 newspapers, and—the best fire -department in the world! - -The two drawbacks of this wonderful city are its variable climate and -its possible earthquakes. A witty writer warns the intending tourist -thus: “Be sure to bring your _summer_ clothes. Let me repeat: be sure -to bring your _winter_ clothes.” To state the fact that in August -one may see fur cloaks any day, and in January a June toilet is not -uncommon, is but another way of stating that the galloping sea breeze, -unimpeded by mountains, rushes in moist squadrons on the shore, and -has all seasons for its own, in which to battle with the genial warmth -of this most lovely climate. As to earthquakes, there have been but -three since 1849, and these were insignificant calamities compared -with one year of our domesticated western tornadoes. Less than fifty -lives have been lost in California by earthquakes, thirty-seven of -these occurring in the country outside of San Francisco, and less than -a hundred thousand dollars worth of property has been destroyed, while -two millions would not cover our loss by cyclone in a single year, -to say nothing of the number of victims. Civilization seems to have -a naturalizing effect on fleas, snakes and earthquakes, west of the -Sierras, but acts as a tonic upon hurricanes east of the Rockies. Will -our scientists please “rise to explain” this mystery so close in its -relation to human weal and woe? - - [To be continued.] - - - - -TO MY BOOKS. - -By LADY STIRLING-MAXWELL. - - - Silent companions of the lonely hour, - Friends, who can never alter or forsake, - Who for inconstant roving have no power, - And all neglect, perforce, must calmly take, - Let me return to you; this turmoil ending - Which worldly cares have in my spirit wrought, - And, o’er your old familiar pages bending, - Refresh my mind with many a tranquil thought: - Till, haply meeting there, from time to time, - Fancies, the audible echo of my own, - ’Twill be like hearing in a foreign clime - My native language spoke in friendly tone, - And with a sort of welcome I shall dwell - On these, my unripe musings, told so well. - - - - -EARTHQUAKES—ISCHIA AND JAVA. - - -PHENOMENA AND PROBABLE CAUSES. - -These violent convulsions that from time to time shake and rend the -earth, are among the most terrible calamities that come upon men, -causing immense destruction of property and of life. Their occurrence -is often most unexpected. - -Villages, cities, and whole districts of densely populated countries -sink beneath a sudden stroke, overwhelmed in a common ruin. If any -warning is given, the alarming premonitions rather confuse and paralyze -effort, because, with the appalling certainty of disaster, there is -nothing to show in what form it will come, or to indicate a place of -refuge. - -While the recent horrors at Ischia and in Java excite much painful -interest in the public mind, they naturally recall similar scenes -of other years. Earthquakes of less destructive violence are very -frequent, and suggest greater power than is exerted. Even the slight -trembling, or vibratory motions, that produce no material injury, -remind us of the prodigious forces that may at any moment burst their -barriers with great violence. - -In every perceptible shock we feel the mighty pulsations of the -agitated molten mass whose waves dash against the walls that restrain -them; or the struggling of compressed elastic gases, that must have -vent, though their escape rend the earth. The crust between us and the -seas of fire, whose extent no man knoweth, may be in places weakening, -cut away, as the inner walls of a furnace by the molten metal; so the -danger may be nearer and greater than is known or feared. A devout -man finds refuge and a comfortable assurance in the truth, “The Lord -reigneth; in his hands are the deep places of the earth. The strength -of the hills is his also.” - -There are records of earthquakes more ancient than any books written -by men. They antedate the earliest chapters of human history, and -probably belonged to the pre-adamite earth. If no human ear heard their -tread, the footprints are still visible. In all mountainous regions -the evidence of their upheaval by some mighty force is too plain to be -doubted. The marine fossils found far up on their heights, the position -of strata, often far from horizontal, with immense fissures, and chasms -of unknown depth, all tell of disturbances that may have taken place -before the historic period. If in those primitive times mountains were -literally carried into the midst of the sea, and vast tracts of the -ocean’s bed shoved up thousands of feet, it was only a more terrible -display of the gigantic powers still in action, and of whose workings -the centuries have borne witness. - -No country seems to have escaped these terrible visitations, though -some suffer more than others. Volcanoes being of the same origin, they -are more frequent in volcanic regions, and perhaps by their shocks the -seething caldrons have been uncovered. - -The same localities, as Southern Italy, and the neighboring island of -Sicily, have, from a remote period, at times been terribly shaken. From -1783 to 1786 a thousand shocks were made note of, five hundred of which -are described as having much force. Lyell considers them of special -importance, not because differing from like disturbances in other -places, but because observed and minutely described by men competent to -collect and state such physical facts in a way to show their bearing on -the science of the earth. The following, collected from Lyell, Gibbon, -Humboldt, and the encyclopædias, are facts respecting some of the -principal earthquakes on record. Their statements, much condensed, are -not given in chronological order, but as we find them: - -In 115, of the Christian era, Antioch in Syria, “Queen of the East,” -beautiful in itself, and beautiful for situation, a city of two hundred -thousand inhabitants, was utterly ruined by earthquake. Afterward -rebuilt, in more than all its ancient splendor, by Trajan, the tide of -life and wealth again flowed into it, and for centuries we read of no -serious disasters of the kind. All apprehension of danger removed, the -people became famous for luxurious refinements, and, strangely enough, -seem to have united high intellectual qualities with a passionate -fondness for amusements. In 458 the city was again terribly shaken, -and twice in the sixth century. Each time the destruction was nearly -complete; but each time, in less than a century, the city was restored -again, but only to stand until 1822, and from that overthrow it has -never recovered, being now a miserable town of only six thousand -inhabitants. The destruction of five populous cities, on one site, -involved a fearful loss of life. Probably more than half a million -thus perished. The most destructive earthquake in that, or any other -locality, of which we find any mention, was in 562. An immense number -of strangers being in attendance at the festival of the Ascension, -added to the multitudes belonging to the city. Gibbon estimates that -two hundred and fifty thousand persons were buried in the ruins. - -Among the earliest accounts of earthquakes having particular interest, -is the familiar one of that which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii -in the year 63—about sixteen years before those cities were buried in -scoria and ashes from Vesuvius. - -Of modern earthquakes three or four are here mentioned as presenting -some interesting phenomena. That of Chili, in 1822, caused the -permanent elevation of the country between the Andes and the coast. The -area thus raised is estimated at one hundred thousand square miles, and -the elevation from two to seven feet. Shore lines, at higher levels, -indicate several previous upheavals of the same region, along about the -same lines. The opposite of this, a depression of land, was occasioned -in the island of Jamaica in 1692, when Port Royal, the capital, was -overwhelmed. A thousand acres or more thus sank in less than one -minute, the sea rolling in and driving the vessels that were in the -harbor over the tops of the houses. - -The earthquake of New Madrid, below St. Louis, on the Mississippi, -was in 1811, and interesting as an instance of successive shocks, and -almost incessant quaking of the ground for months, and at a distance -from any volcano. The agitation of the earth in Missouri continued -till near the time of the destruction of the city of Caracas, in South -America, and then ceased. One evening, about this time, is described by -the inhabitants of New Madrid as cloudless, and peculiarly brilliant. -The western sky was a continual glare from vivid flashes of lightning, -and peals of thunder were incessantly heard, apparently proceeding, -as did the flashes, from below the horizon. Comparatively little harm -was done in Missouri, but the beautiful city of Caracas, with its -splendid churches and palatial homes, was made a heap of ruins, beneath -which twelve thousand of its inhabitants were buried. Just how these -events were related we know not. Whether the same pent-up forces that -were struggling in vain to escape in the valley of the Mississippi, -found vent in that distant locality, God only knows. The supposition -allowed may account for the relief that came to the greatly troubled -New Madrid. The evils they dreaded came but in part—enough only to -suggest the greater perils they escaped. Over an extent of country -three hundred miles in length fissures were opened in the ground -through which mud and water were thrown, high as the tops of the trees. -From the mouth of the Ohio to the St. Francis the ground rose and fell -in great undulations. Lakes were formed and drained again, and the -general surface so lowered that the country along the White River and -its tributaries, for a distance of seventy miles, is known as “the sunk -country.” Flint, the geographer, seven years after the event, noticed -hundreds of chasms then closed and partially filled. They may yet, in -places, be traced, having the appearance of artificial trenches. - -Fissures are occasionally met in different parts of the country, which -extend through solid rock to a great depth. “The Rocks” at Panama, N. -Y., have been elsewhere described, and furnish a profitable study. - -A more remarkable chasm of this kind extends from the western base of -the Shawangunk Mountain, near Ellenville, Ulster County, N. Y., for -about a mile to the summit. At first one can easily step across the -fissure, but further up it becomes wider, till the hard vertical walls -of sandstone are separated by a gorge several feet wide, and of great -depth. At the top an area of a hundred acres or more is rent in every -direction, the continuity of the surface being interrupted by steps -of rocks, presenting abrupt walls. The gorge traced up the mountain -becomes a frightful abyss, more than a hundred feet wide. Among the -loose stones at the bottom large trees are growing, whose tops scarce -reach half way to the edge of the precipice. Most such disruptions -of rocks and mountains were doubtless caused by earthquakes at some -unknown period. - -The great earthquake at Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, was in 1755. -“The ominous rumbling sound below the surface was almost immediately -followed by the shock which threw down the principal part of the city; -in the short space of six minutes, it is believed, 60,000 perished. The -sea rolled back, leaving the bar dry, and then returned, in a great -tidal wave, fifty feet, or more, in height. The mountains around were -shaken with great violence, their rocks rent, and thrown in fragments -into the valley below. Multitudes of people rushed from their falling -buildings to the marble quay, which suddenly sank with them, like a -ship foundering at sea; and when the waters closed over the place no -fragments of the wreck—none of the vessels near by, that were drawn -into the whirlpool, and not one of the thousands of the bodies that -were carried down ever appeared again. Over the spot occupied by the -quay, the water stood six hundred feet deep; and beneath it, locked in -fissured rocks, and in chasms of unknown depth, lie what was the life -and wealth of the place, in the middle of the eighteenth century.” - -Earthquakes, of especial interest, from their recent occurrence and -destructive effects, are those of 1857-58, in the kingdom of Naples, -and in Mexico; but we have not room to more than mention them. The -past summer will be remembered as the period of at least two terrible -disasters from earthquakes, in localities distant from each other. -The first, July 28, was at Ischia, a beautiful island at the north -entrance of the bay of Naples. The principal town, Cassamicciola, was -mostly destroyed, and much injury done at other places. The town was -a noted health resort, and it is feared many distinguished strangers -perished in it. The shocks began in the night, when a majority of the -citizens, who frequent such places, were in the theater, and the scene -there was terrible. Lamps were overturned; clouds of dust arose, and -then the walls of the building opened, and fell, giving no opportunity -for escape. The ground opened in many places, and houses and their -inhabitants were swallowed up. The hotel Picola Sentinella sank into -the earth, with all its inmates. The number destroyed, first estimated -at three thousand, was much larger, but how much is not yet certainly -known. Years must elapse before the town is restored, when it will be -with a new class of inhabitants. - -The sad tidings of disaster in Italy were soon followed by still more -startling intelligence from Java, where, as in regions bordering on -the Mediterranean, earthquakes are not a new experience with the -inhabitants. A recital of the calamities occurring in Java during -the last century would make a gloomy chapter in history, suggesting -the insecurity and transitory nature of all earthly possessions. The -island is one of the largest and, commercially, most important, in the -Indian archipelago, six hundred and sixty miles in length, and the -width varying from forty to one hundred and thirty miles. It is densely -populated, and governed by a Dutch viceroy. In the mountain range -extending through the center, with a mean elevation of seven thousand -feet, are many volcanoes; and earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, -as in other volcanic regions. In 1878 record was made of some sixteen, -in different parts of the island. One of the most famous, accompanied -by a vast eruption of Papandayang, the largest of the volcanoes, -took place a hundred years ago, overwhelming an area of a hundred -square miles, and destroying three thousand people—the island at that -time having fewer inhabitants. There were two similar eruptions from -volcanoes at the same time, respectively one hundred and thirty-four -and three hundred and fifty-two miles from Papandayang, suggesting the -fact that the power of producing them, and the earthquakes, may operate -through a field of vast extent, and breaks through where the barriers -give way. It is safe to say both have the same origin. - -Ischia and Java, though almost antipodes, are companions in disaster, -and possibly felt the dashing of the same billows, striking with -violence here or there, according as some mighty impulse drove them -on. The great calamities of the past summer, besides their appeal to -our humanity, will be of interest to scientific men, and may throw -light on the relations of earthquakes and volcanoes, and their cause, -after which they have been searching a good deal in the dark, and with -results not yet satisfactory. - -The accounts of the last fearful disaster are yet incomplete, and may -not all be verified. The latest, and apparently most reliable reports, -place it among the most terrible calamities known in the history of -the race, since the deluge. The earth trembled and shook—rocks were -rent—buildings tumbled in ruins. A large part of the city, full of -wealth and life, sank out of sight. Tidal waves carried destruction -along the coast. Volcanoes belched forth smoke, ashes and lava, -overspreading fertile valleys; and when the sulphurous clouds that hung -over them, black as night, were lifted, turbulent waters rolled over -fifty square miles of pasture lands that the day before were covered -with flocks, and the homes of men. It is estimated that seventy-five -thousand people perished. It may be a few thousand less, or more, -as there are yet no data from which to form more than a proximate -estimate. The whole number will not be known till the graves and the -sea give up their dead. - - - - -LOW SPIRITS. - -By J. MORTIMER GRANVILLE. - - -There is enough in the daily experience of life to depress the feelings -and rob the mind of its buoyancy, without having to encounter lowness -of spirits as a besetting mental state or malady. Nevertheless, it so -frequently assumes the character of an affection essentially morbid, -attacks individuals who are not naturally disposed to despondency, -and gives so many unmistakable proofs of its close relations with the -health of the physical organism, that it must needs be included in the -category of disease. The constitutional melancholy which distinguishes -certain types of character and development, is a setting in the minor -key rather than depression. Within the compass of a lower range, -individuals of this class exhibit as many changes of mood as those -whose temperament is, so to say, pitched higher, and who therefore seem -to be capable of greater elation. - -It is important to ascertain at the outset whether a particular person -upon whom interest may be centered is not naturally characterized by -this restrained or reserved tone of feeling! Unhealthy conditions of -mind are generally to be recognized by the circumstance that they offer -a contrast to some previous state. The movable, excitable temperament -may become fixed and seemingly unimpressionable, the self-possessed -begin to be irritable, the calm, passionate. It is the _change_ that -attracts attention, and when low spirits come to afflict a mind wont -to exhibit resilience and joyousness, there must be a cause for the -altered tone, and prudence will enjoin watchfulness. Mischief may be -done unwittingly by trying to stimulate the uncontrollable emotions. - -There are few more common errors than that which assumes lowness -of spirits to be a state in which an appeal should be made to the -sufferer. We constantly find intelligent and experienced persons, -who show considerable skill in dealing with other mental disorders -and disturbances, fail in the attempt to relieve the pains of -melancholy. They strive by entreaty, expostulation, firmness, and even -brusqueness, to coerce the victim, and prevail upon him to shake off -his despondency. They urge him to take an interest in what is passing -around, to bestir himself, and put an end to his broodings. This would -be all very well if the burden that presses so heavily on the spirit -simply lay on the surface, but the lowness of which I am speaking -is something far deeper than can be reached by “rallying.” It is a -freezing of all the energies; a blight which destroys the vitality, a -poison which enervates and paralyzes the whole system. - -It is no use probing the consciousness for the cause while the -depression lasts—as well look for the weapon by which a man has been -struck senseless to the earth, when the victim lies faint and bleeding -in need of instant succor. If the cause were found at such a moment, -nothing could be done to prevent its further mischief. Supposing it to -be discovered that the malady is the fruit of some evil-doing or wrong -management of self, the moment when a crushed spirit is undergoing -the penalty of its error is not that which should be selected for -remonstrance. It is vain to argue with a man whose every faculty of -self-control is at its lowest ebb. The judgment and the will are -dormant. The show of feeling made by the conscience in the hour of -dejection is in great part emotional, and the purposes then formed -are sterile. The tears of regret, the efforts of resolve, elicited in -the state of depression, are worse than useless; they are like the -struggles of a man sinking in the quicksand—they bury the mind deeper -instead of freeing it. - -The state of mental collapse must be allowed to pass; but here comes -the difficulty; the moment reaction takes place, as shown by a slight -raising of the cloud, it will be too late to interfere. The mind -will then have entered on another phase not less morbid than the -depression which it has replaced. There is no certain indication of -the right moment to make the effort for the relief of a sufferer from -this progressive malady. The way to help is to watch the changes of -temperament narrowly, and, guided by time rather than symptoms, to -present some new object of interest—a trip, an enterprise, a congenial -task—at the moment which immediately precedes the recovery. The soul -lies brooding—it is about to wake; the precise time can be foreknown -only by watching the course of previous attacks; whatever engrosses the -rousing faculties most powerfully on waking, will probably hold them -for awhile. It is a struggle between good and healthy influences on the -one hand, and evil and morbid on the other. If it be earnestly desired -to rescue the sufferer, the right method must be pursued, and wrong -and mischief-working procedures—among which preaching, persuading, -moralizing, and rallying are the worst and most hurtful—ought to be -carefully avoided. When the thoughts are revived and the faculties -rebound, they must be kept engaged with cheering and healthful subjects. - -There is no greater error than to suppose good has been accomplished -when a melancholic patient has been simply aroused. The apparently -bright interval of a malady of this class is even more perilous than -the period of exhaustion and lowness. The moment the mind resumes -the active state, it generally resumes the work of self-destruction. -The worst mischief is wrought in the so-called lucid interval. The -consciousness must be absorbed and busied with healthful exercise, -or it will re-engage in the morbid process which culminates in -depression. The problem is to keep off the next collapse, and this can -be accomplished only by obviating the unhealthy excitement by which it -is commonly preceded and produced. Healthy activity promotes nutrition, -and replenishes the strength of mind and body alike; all action that -does not improve the quality of the organ acting, deteriorates it and -tends to prevent normal function. - - - - -VEGETABLE VILLAINS. - -By R. TURNER. - - -THE LARGER FUNGI. - -To become acquainted with the bulkier of these villains, we must visit -their favorite haunts. An occasional one may occur in any kind of -place, as has already been explained. A good many, especially of the -edible sort, and notably the common mushroom, grow in open pastures. -To get among crowds of them, however, we must resort to close woods, -especially of fir and pine. There they grow on tree-stumps, fallen -trunks, and on the ground, in great variety and abundance. If we go at -the proper season their profusion will astonish us. This time of plenty -varies from early to late autumn with the character of the weather. -Clad in waterproof wraps and with leather gloves on hand, we may make -a fungus foray into the dripping woods amid russet and falling leaves -with comparative comfort; and even on a “raw rheumatic day” there will -likely be much enjoyment for us and still more instruction. It will -be strange, indeed, if we do not find some kinds to eat and very many -to think over. We ought to get examples, at least, of nearly all the -different families. Let us consider them in a general way as novices -do. A host of them have gills like the mushroom; and so we may take -that best known of them all as a type of the whole class. Mushroom -spawn runs through the soil in a rootlike way, absorbing the organic -matter it falls in with and every here and there swelling out into -roundish bodies, each consisting of a tubercle enclosed in a wrapper. -The tubercle bursts through the wrapper as growth goes on, and soon -above ground appears the well-known form of the mushroom, with a stalk -supporting a fleshy head by the center, and on the under surface of -this head radiating gills, which are at first covered by a veil that -finally gives way and leaves only a ring round the stem. These gills -are originally flesh-colored, but afterward become brown and mottled -with numerous minute purple spores. If we were to investigate further -by means of the microscope, we should find that the spores are not -contained in any case, and that they are produced in fours on little -points at the tips of special cells. Of the other kinds belonging to -this order of agarics, some differ from the mushroom in being poisonous -and others in being parasitic. There is much variety, also, in the -tints of gill and spore, different kinds having these white, pink, -rosy, salmon-colored, reddish, or yellowish, or darkish brown, purple -or black. Again, in some the stem is not central, but attached more or -less laterally to the head; in others there is no stem, and the gills -radiate out from the substance on which the agaric grows. The ring -round the stalk, too, often varies, or is sometimes wanting. There -are many other differences, and it is by these that we are able to -distinguish the one kind from the other: but, of course, little more -can be done here than merely to indicate this infinite variety. Dr. -Badham, in his admirable work on the “Esculent Funguses of England,” -puts this quaintly, as he does many other facts. “These are stilted -upon a high leg, and those have not a leg to stand on; some are -shell-shaped, many bell-shaped; and some hang upon their stalks like a -lawyer’s wig.” - -These gill-bearers, are, however, but one order in this extensive -division of plants. Nature’s plastic hand is never weary of shaping -fresh forms. It is lavish of variety, and never works in a stinted -or makeshift way. In place of gills we find in another order tubes -or pores in which the spores are produced. These tubular kinds -are sometimes fleshy, as in the edible boletus, or woody, as in -the polypores, popularly called sap-balls, which every one who -knows anything about woods and their wonders must have seen on old -tree-stumps, often growing to a great size. In yet another order, -spines, or bristles, or teeth, take the place of gills and tubes. In -the puff-balls the spores ripen inside a roundish leathern case, which -afterward bursts and discharges them as a fine dust. Then there is an -extensive class in which the spores are not produced in this offhand -way at all, but are carefully enclosed in little cases, or rather, I -should say, loaded into microscopic guns, as in the pezizas; and very -beautiful objects these are under the microscope. - -Poisonous, putrescent, strange in shape, or color, or odor, as many -of the larger fungi are, it is little to be wondered at that contempt -has been a common human feeling with respect to most of them, and a -crush with disdainful heel on occasion the lot of a good many. The -popular loathing has run out into language. Under the opprobrious -term “toadstool,” a whole host of kinds is commonly included. The -puff-balls are known in Scotland as “de’il’s sneeshin’-mills” (devil’s -snuff-boxes), an epithet which expresses with a certain imaginative -humor, and a dash of superstition, the idea of something so utterly -base that it ministers to the gratification of demons, tickling their -olfactory organs with satanic satisfaction. Indeed, in this country -the mushroom is almost the only favored exception to the popular -verdict of loathing. It has gained the hearts of the people through -their stomachs, and ketchup has overcome popular prejudice by its fine -flavor. But there are many others on which cultured palates dote. -Truffles are dear delicacies, which few but rich men taste, for fine -aroma and flavor command a high price. The Scotch-bonnets of the fairy -rings, besides possessing a certain bouquet of elfin romance, cook -into delicacies full of stomachic delight. Then there are chantarells -and morels and blewitts, and poor-men’s-beef-steaks, over which -trained appetites rejoice. A score of dainty little rogues at least -there are, and a still greater number of kinds that are nutritive -and fairly palatable. In some European countries the edible ones are -a really valuable addition to the food of the people—not from being -more plentiful than with us, but from being more eagerly gathered and -diligently cultivated. One sort or other is used as food by every -tribe of men. Not only does the edible mushroom occur in all habitable -lands, but in certain foreign parts—as in Australia—there are forms of -it very much superior in quality to our English ones. Then, of course, -every clime has its own peculiar edible kinds. The native bread of the -Australians is an instance in point; it looks somewhat like compressed -sago, and is a fairly good article of diet. The staple food of the -wild Fuegians for several months each year is supplied by a kind which -they gather in great abundance from the living twigs of the evergreen -beech. Then there are some not very pleasant, according to our ideas, -which can be safely used, and are thus available in times of scarcity, -as, for instance, the gelatinous one which the New Zealand natives -know as “thunder-dirt,” and one somewhat similar that the Chinese are -said to utilize. A curious trade has of late years sprung up between -New Zealand and China. A brown semi-transparent fungus, resembling the -human ear, grows abundantly in the North Island. This the Maoris and -others collect, dry, and pack into bags, for export to China, where -it is highly prized for its flavor and gelatinous qualities as an -ingredient in soup. It is a species nearly related to our Jew’s-ear. -The value of this fungus exported from New Zealand in 1877 was stated -at over £11,000.—_Good Words._ - - * * * * * - - When we reflect how little we have done - And add to that how little we have seen, - And furthermore how little we have won - Of joy or good, how little known or been, - We long for other life, more full, more keen, - And yearn to change with those - Who well have run. - —_Jean Ingelow._ - - * * * * * - -A TALENT for any art is rare; but it is given to nearly every one to -cultivate a taste for art; only it must be cultivated with earnestness. -The more things thou learnest to know and enjoy, the more complete and -full will be for thee the delight of living.—_Platen._ - - - - -FROM THE BALTIC TO THE ADRIATIC. - -By the author of “German-American Housekeeping,” etc. - - [Concluded.] - - -Travelers are like conchologists, vying with one another in picking -up different shells, and herein lies the unending interest of their -records. - -In the roundabout route from the Baltic to the Adriatic and -Mediterranean, Cassel, the electorate in former years of Hesse-Cassel, -afforded a most suggestive visit. To be sure, its history is not -altogether pleasant to an American, for the fact that the old elector -hired his troops to England to fight us during the Revolutionary -war, is not a savory bit of German history. Even Frederick the Great -saw the meanness of it, for when he heard they were to take their -route to England by Prussian roads, he sent word, “if they did so, he -would levy a cattle tax on them.” Perhaps some of the money paid by -England at that time was laid up in the public treasury and expended -afterward upon the extravagant ornamentation of the grounds of the -elector’s summer residence, “Wilhelmshöhe.” The palace is in itself -one of the most magnificent in Europe. Above the cascades in front -of it is the highest fountain on the continent. One stream, twelve -inches in diameter, is thrown to the height of two hundred feet. The -colossal Hercules which crowned the summit of this artificial grandeur -was thirty feet high, and the cascades are nine hundred feet long. -The whole arrangement is said to have kept two thousand men engaged -for fourteen years, and to have cost over ten million dollars! Jerome -Napoleon occupied this palace of Wilhelmshöhe when he was king of -Westphalia. - -A walk of three miles under the straight and narrow road shaded by lime -trees, leads one back to Cassel, after this visit to Wilhelmshöhe. -The town is beautifully situated on either side of the river Fulda, -and has a population of thirty-two thousand. The beautiful terrace -overlooking the _angarten_, crowned by its new picture gallery, offers -as delightful promenades as the celebrated Dresden Terrace. The strains -of sweet music coming up from the _angarten_ (meadow) while one is -looking at the beautiful Rembrandts and Van Dykes in the gallery, -give the enchantment which one never fails to find in a German town. -Napoleon carried away many of the most valuable pictures from the -Cassel gallery—but it is redeemed from the number of horrible Jordaens -and Teniers by possessing the “pearl of Rembrandts,” a portrait of -“Saskia,” his wife. - -Chemical products, snuff included, are manufactured in Cassel, and -it is quite a wide-awake business place—the old town preserved for -picturesque effect, and the new town building up for enterprising -manufacturers. - -Leaving Cassel any day at one o’clock, one can reach Coblenz at -half-past seven in the evening, and the Bellevue Hotel will shelter one -delightfully for the night, provided a room on the _hof_, or court, -is not given. Four hundred feet above the river at Coblenz stands the -old fortress of “Ehrenbreitstein.” How fine its old gray stone and -its commanding situation is! No wonder Auerbach, the novelist, in his -“Villa on the Rhine,” devoted so many pages to Ehrenbreitstein, the -Gibraltar of the Rhine. It cost the government five million dollars. -With its four hundred cannon, and capacity to store provision for ten -years for eight thousand men in its magazine, well may it scorn attacks -“as a tempest scorns a chain.” - -Instead of driving up to see this monstrous fortress, one may prefer -to wander into St. Castor’s Church in the early morning, and, like -a devout Catholic, kneel and pray. It may be more restful to thus -“commune with one’s own heart and be still,” than to keep up a -perpetual sight-seeing. Charlemagne divided his empire among his -grandchildren in this very church. It dates to the eighth century, -and is one of the best specimens of Lombard architecture in all the -Rhine provinces. Coming out in the morning about ten o’clock, the sun -will light up the severe outlines of the great old Ehrenbreitstein -across the river, and the thought comes to one, did Luther compose his -celebrated hymn, “_Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott_” (A mighty fortress -is our God), while in such a moment of inspiration as this scene -produces upon the mind? - -We left Coblenz at ten o’clock on the steamer “Lorlei” for Mainz. This -romantic name for our boat, the waters we were plying, St. Castor’s -Church on the left, and Ehrenbreitstein on the right, brought a -strange combination of war, romance and religion to the mind. The -only prosaic moment which seized me was in passing the Lorlei Felsen -on the Rhine—when instead of remembering Lorlei, I exclaimed, so my -companions told me: “O! here is where they catch the fine salmon!” -Rheinstein was to my mind the most beautiful and picturesque castle of -all, and being owned by the Crown Prince is kept in becoming repair. -The little “_panorama des Rheins_” is a troublesome little companion, -for it leaves one not a moment for calm enjoyment and forgetfulness, -constantly pointing out the places of interest and crowding their -history and romance upon one. - -The Dom at Mainz is a curious study for an architect—combining as it -does so many styles and containing such curious old tombs. - -Frankfort, the birthplace of Goethe, and the native place of the -Rothschilds family, has too much history to detail in an article like -this. When it was a free city it had, and still retains, I believe, the -reputation of being the commercial capital of that part of Germany. - -Goethe preferred little Weimar for the development of his poetical -life. His father’s stately house in Frankfort, still to be seen, was -not equal to his own in Weimar. - -But let us leave the river Main and the river Rhine and look up -Nuremberg and Munich before we follow our southern course to the -Adriatic. An erratic journey this, but have we not found some shells -which the other conchologists overlooked? - -Nuremberg seems to have lost more in population than any German city we -know of. Having once numbered 100,000, it now claims only 55,000. It is -a curious fact that Nuremberg toys which were so celebrated formerly, -have been surpassed in this country, and now American manufactures in -this line are taken to Nuremberg and actually sold as German toys. -This was told me by a gentleman interested in the trade. But buy a -lead-pencil in Nuremberg if you want a good article very cheap—perhaps -you can learn to draw or sketch with one, being inspired with the -memory of Albert Dürer. - -Nuremberg is Bavaria’s second largest city, and attracts more -foreigners or visitors than Munich, perhaps, yet to the mind of the -Bavarian Munich is Bavaria, as to the Frenchman Paris is France, and -to the Prussian Berlin is Prussia! No traveler can be contented, -however, without some time in Nuremberg, although I dare say many go -away disappointed. The old stone houses with their carved gables, the -walls and turrets, St. Sebald Church, and the fortress where Gustavus -Adolphus with his immense army was besieged by Wallenstein, are things -which never grow tedious to the memory. In this fortress now they keep -the instruments of torture used in the middle ages to extract secrets -from the criminal or the innocent, as it might chance to be. A German -in Berlin laughingly told me when I described the rusty torturous -things, that they were all of recent manufacture, and were not the -genuine articles at all! But new or old, genuine or reproduced, they -make one shudder as does Fox’s “Book of Martyrs.” I know of no church -in Germany more worthy of study than St. Sebald’s. In it one finds a -curious old gold lamp, which swings from the ceiling about half way -down one aisle of the church. It is called _die ewige lampe_, because -it has been always burning since the twelfth century. It is related of -one of Nuremberg’s respectable old citizens that he was returning in -the darkness one stormy night to his home, and finally almost despaired -of finding his way, when a faint light from the St. Sebald’s Church -enabled him to arrive safe at his own door. He gave a fund to the -church afterward for the purpose of keeping there a perpetual light. -When the Protestants took St. Sebald’s, as they did so many Catholic -churches in Germany after the Reformation, the interest money which the -old man gave had still to be used in this way according to his will. So -_die ewige lampe_ still swings and gives its dim light to the passer-by -at night. Our American consul told me a characteristic story of an -American girl and her mother, whom he was showing about Nuremberg, as -was his social duty, perhaps. They were in St. Sebald’s Church, and -he related the story of the lamp as they stood near it. Underneath -stands a little set of steps which the old sexton ascends to trim the -lamp. “Oh!” said this precocious American girl, “I shall blow it out, -and then their tradition that it has never been out will be upset.” So -she climbed the steps fast, and as she was about to do this atrocious -thing our consul pulled her back, and said she would be in custody in -an hour, and he would not help her out. The mother merely laughed, and -evidently saw nothing wrong about the performance. It is just such -smart acts on the part of American girls abroad which induce a man -like Henry James to write novels about them. The fine, intelligent, -self-poised girls travel unnoticed, while the “Daisy Millers” cause the -judgment so often passed upon all American girls by foreigners, that -they are “an emancipated set.” - -It was our good fortune while in Munich to board with most agreeable -people. The _Herr Geheimrath_ (privy counselor) had retired from active -life of one kind, to enjoy the privilege of being an antiquarian -and art critic. He had his house full of most valuable and curious -treasures. The study of ceramics was his hobby, and fayence, porcelain, -and earthenwares of the rarest kinds were standing around on his -desk, on cabinets, and on the floor. He edited _Die Wartburg_, a -paper which was the organ of _Münchener Alterthum-Verein_, and wrote -weekly articles _Ueber den Standpunkt unserer heutigen Kunst_. His -wife was formerly the _hof-singerin_ (court-singer) at the royal opera -in Munich, but was then too old to continue. Every Saturday evening -she would give a home concert, and would sing the lovely aria from -“Freischutz,” or Schumann’s songs. - -St. Petersburg never looked whiter from snow than did Munich that -winter. The galleries were cold, but the new and old Pinakothek were -too rich to be forsaken. Fortunately the new building was just across -the street from the _Herr Geheimrath’s_. If it had only been the -old Pinakothek I found myself continually saying, for who cares for -Kaulbachs, and modern German art, compared with the rich Van Dykes, -the Rubens, the Dürers, and the old Byzantine school? I should say the -Munich gallery is superior to the Dresden in numbers, but not in gems. -But they have fine specimens from the Spanish, the Italian, and German -schools. - -The Glyptothek is Munich’s boast. There is a stately grandeur in this -building that suggests Greece and her art. On a frosty morning, to -wander out beyond the Propylæum and enter through the great bronze door -of the Glyptothek, one feels like a mouse entering a marble quarry. I -presume there is no such collection of originals in any country but -Italy. Ghiberti, Michael Angelo, Benvenuti, Cellini, Peter Vischer, -Thorwaldsen, Canova, Rauch, Schwanthaler, are all represented by -original works. But it needs a warm climate to make such a collection -of statuary altogether attractive. - -Going from Germany to Italy, one takes the “Brenner Pass,” generally, -over the Alps—the oldest way known, and used by Hannibal. After winding -around the side of these snowy peaks, and being blinded by the mists -enveloping the landscape, trembling with admiration or fear, as the -case may be, a glimpse of sunny Italy is most encouraging. - -To reach the Adriatic and Venice is enough earthly joy for some -souls. Elizabeth Barrett Browning felt so; and all people feel so, -perhaps, who, as Henry James and W. D. Howells, give themselves up to -Venice, and write about her until she becomes identified with their -reputation. But let Venice and the Adriatic be silent factors in this -article, and let Verona, Florence, and Rome substitute them. - -We alighted at Verona at midnight, and in the pale moonlight, which -gave a ghastly appearance to the quaint old place. “The Two Gentlemen -of Verona” were not to be seen that night. The streets were silent, yet -I thought perhaps they might greet us in the morning; but their shadowy -old cloaks are only to be seen thrown around a thousand beggars, who -are as thick as bees and as ugly as bats. - -“The tomb of Juliet” is also a deception—a modern invention; but the -house of Juliet’s parents (the Capuletti), an old palace, stands as it -did in the days when Shakspere represents its banqueting halls and good -cheer. - -The scenery from Verona to Florence, with the exception of a few views -of the Apennines, is very tedious—nothing beyond almond orchards, -which in March, the time of the year I saw them, resembled dead apple -trees. You will be surprised to hear that the Italian gentlemen wore -fur on their coats. They were, I imagine, traveled gentlemen, for the -genuine Italian, whether count or beggar, has a cloak thrown over his -shoulders in bewitching folds. When he pulls his large felt hat over -his magnificent eyes so that it casts a dark shadow over his mysterious -face, and stands in the sunshine, he looks simply a picture. - -Verona is more Italian in appearance than Florence. The principal -street runs along either side of the river Arno, and is crowded for -some distance with little picture and jewelry shops; but farther on -toward the _cascine_, or park, the street widens, and is enriched -with handsome modern buildings, most of which are hotels. This drive -to the _cascine_ and the grand hotel was made when Victor Emmanuel -allowed the impression to exist that Florence would remain the capital -of Italy. This drive is thronged with carriages about four o’clock -in the afternoon. It was here I remember to have had the carriage of -the Medici family pointed out to me. Within sat two ladies with dark, -lustrous eyes, jet hair, and a great deal of lemon color on their -bonnets. The livery was also lemon color, and the carriage contained -the coat of arms on a lemon-colored panel. The Italians are very -partial to this shade of yellow. The beds are draped with material of -this same intense hue—very becoming to brunettes, but ruinous, as the -young ladies would say, to blondes. - -Every one knows of the old Palazzo Vecchio, which rises away above -every object in the city of Florence. Its walls are so thick that in -them there are places for concealment—little cells—and in one of these -the great reformer of Florence, Savonarola, was kept until they burned -him at the stake in front of the palace. - -“Santa Croce” is the name of the church which contains the tombs of -Michael Angelo, Alfieri Galileo, and Machiavelli. Byron, moved with -this idea, writes: - - “In Santa Croce’s holy precincts lie - Ashes which make it holier, dust which is - Even in itself an immortality.” - -Every American goes to Powers’s studio to see the original of the -Greek Slave. Next to the Venus of Milo it seems the loveliest study in -marble of the female figure. But “our lady of Milo,” as Hawthorne calls -her—there is no beauty to hers! - -The Baptistery in Florence is a curious octagonal church, built in -the twelfth century, and has the celebrated bronze doors by Ghiberti, -representing twelve eventful scenes from the Bible. Those to the south -are beautiful enough, said Michael Angelo, to be the gates of paradise. - -As often as I had reflected upon Rome and her seven hills, on arriving -there the hills seemed to be a new revelation to me, and the rapid -driving of the Italians up and down the steep and narrow streets -bewildered me not a little. I found myself on the way from the depot, -constantly asking, can this be Rome? Everything looks so new. The -houses are light sandstone, like the buildings in Paris. I was -informed that this portion of Rome was calculated to mislead me, and -that I would find our hotel quite like Paris and New York houses. The -next morning, instead of making a pilgrimage to the Roman forum, the -Colosseum, and the palace of the Cæsars, we drove to St. Peter’s, which -kept me still quite in the notion that Rome had been whitewashed, or -something done to destroy her ancient classic aspect. We spent four -hours in the great church wandering around and witnessing a procession -of priests, monks, and gorgeous cardinals. There is no gewgaw, no -tinsel in St. Peter’s as one sees in so many other Catholic churches; -although gold is used in profusion, yet it is kept in subjection to -the tone of the walls. The bronze altar over St. Peter’s tomb is -wonderfully effective in the way of concentrating color and attention. -It is almost necessary to find a niche in the base of some pillar and -sit there awhile before plunging into the immensity of this great -building, just as a bird gets ready before darting into space. But -after all, the feeling of immensity which St. Peter’s gives is not so -grateful to the religious sense as the Gothic style of architecture, -with its stained window, and deep recesses, - - “Its long drawn aisles and fretted vaults.” - -There is little solemnity in St. Peter’s, little shade and no music, -only from side chapels; but there are grand proportions, perfect -simplicity, and the pure light of heaven sending a beam upon a golden -dove above St. Peter’s tomb, which radiates in a thousand streams of -light over the marble pavement. - -Nothing impressed me so much in Rome or suggested the ancient glory -so much as the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. The magnificence of -this building must have been unparalleled. It accommodated sixteen -hundred bathers at once, and some of its walls are so thick one fears -to estimate the depth. What would the old Romans have thought of the -buildings of the present generation, which fall down or burn up without -much warning. Here is solid masonry standing since the year 212. - -The different arches and columns of Rome constitute one of the most -attractive features to almost every traveller. Let those who enjoy -them climb their steps or strain their eyes to decipher in a scorching -Italian sun the dates, the seven golden candlesticks, the shew bread, -and Aaron’s rod, on Titus’s arch for example. I shall wander off while -they are so occupied into the old capitol—into the room where Rienzi -stood and exhorted the people to recover their ancient rights and into -the basement below where St. Paul was imprisoned. - -The present king had just been crowned at that time. I saw the king and -queen in a procession where they were driving to gratify the people, -and again we saw him unattended driving with his brother through the -grounds of the Borghese Villa. The carnival was forbidden that year -in Rome on account of the death of the King and Pope, but there were -out-croppings of it on the streets. The tinseled finery and humbug of -it seem so incongruous in ancient classic Rome. I was glad to escape it. - -The old Pantheon is too important in its history for any one to write -of it, but I have always liked the following paragraph from James -Freeman Clarke concerning it: “The Romans in this church, or temple, -worshiped their own gods, while they allowed the Jews, when in Rome, -to worship their Jewish god, and the Egyptians to worship the gods of -Egypt, and when they admitted the people of a conquered state to become -citizens of Rome their gods were admitted with them; but in both cases -the new citizens occupied a subordinate position to the old settlers. -The old worship of Rome was free from idolatry. Jupiter, Juno, and -the others were not represented by idols. But there was an impassable -gulf between the old Roman religion and modern Roman thought, and -Christianity came to the Roman world not as a new theory but as a new -life, and now her churches stand by the side of the ruins of the Temple -of Vesta and the old empty Pantheon.” - - - - -ELECTRICITY. - - -What is it? and what some of its manifestations? The name was given to -an occult, but everywhere present, property of material things. First -discovered by the ancients in amber (Gr. _electron_) and brought into -evidence by friction. It is generally spoken of as a highly elastic, -imponderable fluid, or fluids, with which all matter is supposed to be -in a greater or less degree charged. Though such fluids have never been -discovered as entities, and their existence may be but imaginary, it -was asserted to account for facts that otherwise seemed inexplicable. - -Definitions of electricity are at hand, and could be easily given; but -they do not define or accurately point out that which they designate. -All that can be said, with confidence, is that certain phenomena which -come within our observation suggest the presence of such fluids, and -are not otherwise explained. The answer to the question, “What is it?” -must be the honest confession, we do not know. But, if ignorant of what -it is, we may yet intelligently study its manifestations. The phenomena -are not less capable of satisfactory discussion because the efficient -agent producing them is unknown. - -The theory of two imponderable fluids or electricities having strong -attractive and repellant forces, is adopted because probable, and it -helps make the discussion intelligible. - -The awakened interest now so widely felt in this branch of natural -science is more than just the desire to know what is knowable of the -world we live in. At first, and indeed for ages, only the curious -studied electricity, and practical men asked “_Cui bono?_” But in -the present century it has become an applied science. In no other -field have our studies of nature been more fruitful of discoveries -practically affecting the multiform industries, and improving the -rapidly advancing civilization of the age. - -Some of the skillful inventions for controlling and utilizing this -power lying all about us will be mentioned hereafter. - -It will be well first to state a few facts that are known and mostly -established by experimental tests: - -(1) The earth, and all bodies on its surface, with the atmosphere -surrounding it, are charged with electricity of greater or less -potency. This seems their permanent state, though in some cases, its -presence is not easily detected. - -(2) In quantity or intensity it is very different in different bodies, -as also in the same under different conditions. In some portions of -vast objects, as the earth and its atmosphere, it accumulates, immense -currents being poured into them, while others are perhaps to the same -extent drained. - -(3) Through some bodies the subtle fluid may pass with but slight -obstruction—and they are called _conductors_. In others the hindrance -is greater, and we call them _insulators_. But the difference is only -of degrees; as the best conductors offer some obstruction, and the most -perfect insulators do not completely insulate. The metals, charcoal, -water, and most moist substances, as the earth and animal bodies, offer -but little resistance. The atmosphere, most kinds of glass, sulphur, -india rubber, vulcanite, shellac, and other resins, with dry silk and -cotton, are our best insulators. Friction used to secure electrical -manifestations is the occasion rather than the cause of the electricity -thus developed or set free. That it does not cause it, even in the -sense that it causes heat is evident, since the quantity of electricity -bears no proportion to the amount of friction used to produce it. - -Though, really, there are not several distinct kinds of electricity, -as statical, dynamic, magnetic, frictional, and atmospheric, the -nomenclature of the science is at least convenient, and will not -mislead. It indicates the methods of production, and makes the -discussion of the subject more intelligible. And then the electricity -developed or set free by the different methods of excitement, though of -the same kind, differs much in degree and intensity. - -What is called statical electricity is the condition of the subtle -force in a state of electrical quiescence; and all electricity in -motion, however excited by friction, heat, chemical action, or -otherwise, is dynamic. - -Perpetual modifications are taking place in electrical condition of all -matter, that when made apparent, at first may seem quite inexplicable. -The excited currents flow with amazing rapidity. Their actions and -re-actions baffle our calculations, and the imagination itself is -bewildered by their extent and complexity. Yet by electrical tests and -laboratory experiments, carefully employed, the laws of electricity are -now as well known as those of any other branch of physical science, -and the phenomena, if more startling, are no more mysterious than the -manifestations of heat, light and gravitation. - -Atmospheric electricity is not different in kind from that brought into -evidence by the methods of the experimenter in the laboratory, subject -to his control, and much used in the arts and industries of life. The -lightning that shineth from the one part under heaven to the other part -under heaven, a bright light in the cloud, is the same as the electric -spark from the moderately charged receiver, when the positive and -negative poles are brought into contact—the same as the less intense -spark excited by passing the hand rapidly over the fur on the cat’s -back when the electrical conditions are favorable. - -The storm cloud is a vast receiver and by induction becomes at times -highly charged with electricity. If the cloud is at rest, and the -heated air grows moist, that which is known as sheet or heat lightning -appears in frequent flashes. The imprisoned electricity leaps forth -from the bosom or edge of the cloud, but as instantly gathers itself -back to its source, and apparently without tension or force enough -to crash through the atmosphere to any distant object. The flashes -are unaccompanied by the noise of thunder, and may be but reflections -on the cloud from a source far beyond. We watch them without fear of -danger, and the subdued impression is that of the beautiful. - -Amidst the terrific grandeur of the violent thunder storm another form -of lightning is seen; either the vivid flash that seems to envelop us, -or zigzag, sometimes forked lines that dash across the cloud earthward, -and occasionally, as in a return stroke, from the earth to the cloud. - -In about the middle of the eighteenth century the identity of lightning -with electricity was fully ascertained, and since then the most sublime -and startling phenomena of our thunder storms are better understood. -Under certain contingencies they must occur. Since the different -clouds or portions of the same cloud are charged with different -electricities, positive and negative, when these by the winds are -brought near each other, or rolled together, fierce explosions follow, -and great electrical changes take place in the clouds. Vast supplies -of the imprisoned fiery fluid leap from strata to strata, or, if the -distance is not too great, and the earth is at the same time strongly -electrified, crash down to it through whatever sufficient conductors -are found. If those not sufficient to receive and convey the charge -be in the path they are dashed aside; men and beasts are killed by -the shock, trees and other less perfect conductors are scattered in -fragments. - -Usually the more prominent objects as masts of ships, trees, and -buildings are struck in the lightning’s course from the cloud, but -occasionally those lowest down, near trees, and even in cellars receive -the shock. In these cases the current is probably from the earth, -whose electric condition is negative with respect to the clouds that -pass over it. In either case the opposite electricities that strongly -attract each other, and whose concurrence produces the destructive -discharge near the earth’s surface are held apart by the stratum of air -between them. When the attraction becomes too strong to be resisted by -the insulating medium they rush together, in their fiery embrace, the -flash and concussion being in proportion to the intensity of the charge. - -Do lightning rods protect? Yes; but not perfectly. If properly -constructed, and of sufficient conducting capacity, they are a source -of safety, and to discard them as useless is not wise. - -The instances in which buildings provided with rods have been struck -do not prove them useless; or, as some say, that the rods do harm by -attracting the lightning that they are unable to conduct to the earth -without injury to the building. The point does not attract, but only -catches the electricity that sweeps over it. When violent shocks or -explosions occur the rod may be of little service. Its office is to -prevent these by silently conducting the excess of electricity from -the air. The rod, rightly placed, conducts to the earth all it can, -lessening the evil it does not entirely prevent. But all danger is not -removed. The position of the opposite poles in the immense battery may -be such as to give the stroke a horizontal direction, and far below the -point of the rod; such currents have been known to pass long distances -through atmosphere and smite with destructive violence objects lying -in their path. Against these lateral attacks rods above our roofs are -probably little or no protection. Still the more good conductors there -are in any locality the less danger, as they prevent the accumulation -of electricity. - - - - -POACHERS IN ENGLAND. - -By JAMES TURVES. - - -It is somewhat surprising that none of our present-day novelists, -like Charles Reade or Thomas Hardy, who are always on the outlook -for romantic realism, whether it be in incident or in fact, have had -their eyes directed to the rural poachers who abound in every shire. -Poachers, though neither quite respectable members of the church -nor of society, are more interesting characters than burglars or -ticket-of-leave men, who figure frequently in the novelist’s pages. -And, very strange to say, it has been left to a lady to write the -first accounts of poaching episodes, episodes remarkable for their -masculine touches and their wonderful grip of open-air reality; Harriet -Martineau, in her “Forest and Game Law Tales,” astonishes us by her -graphic realism and her delicacy of treatment; Charles Kingsley wrote -one or two of his pathetic ballads on the subject of a poacher and -his wife; Norman Macleod made a Highland poacher the subject of a -character sketch; and in our own times Mr. Richard Jefferies, a writer -who finds pleasure in minute description and vivid realism, has in his -own style of exact word-painting given us a pleasant book about his -own experiences as an amateur poacher. But the real poacher, the rural -vagabond, the parish character, the ne’er-do-weel, whose life is a -living protest against the game-laws, is of more lasting interest than -any amateur can ever be. - -Viewed from the serene vantage-ground of the philosophy of life, -poaching is mean and ignoble, and demoralizing sport to you or me, and -is not worth the powder and shot, while the fines and punishments are -out of all proportion to the joys; yet there are not wanting apologists -for it in this apologetic century. “Poaching! Man, there’s no sin in -catching a rabbit or snaring a hare. They belong to naebody. Bless -you! it’s a gentleman’s trick, shooting.” This is the opinion of any -Northern lowland ploughman’s wife, as she looks from her red-tiled -cottage-door out upon the face of the corn-growing mother earth, which -has given her sweet memories and a host of country neighbors and -friends. - -Sixty years ago peasants could use their guns without let or hindrance, -and it was then a common thing for a farm-laborer to go out and have a -shot when no sportsman was in the way. Taking an odd shot now and then -was never, and is not even now, looked upon by them as poaching. But a -noted poacher, nicknamed the Otter, tells me, with a sigh, “Poaching -is not what it once was!” And it is true. Not so very long ago it -was a very profitable occupation, and comparatively respectable, -before railways and telegraph wires and penny newspapers stereotyped -metropolitan ideas into all and sundry. An old farmer is pointed out as -having made all his money by systematic poaching, and an influential -city official is said to have laid his early nest-egg by no other means -than being a good shot where he had no invitation to be. To-day even -rural society would look down upon a young farmer engaged in poaching. -It is no longer sport to gentlemen, says the Otter, and is left to -moral vagabonds, the waifs and strays, the parish loafers. The great -strides of agriculture, the game-laws, and the artificial breeding of -game have driven it into sneaking ways, and robbed it of its robust -picturesque adventures. To excel in it a man must give up his nights -and days to it—in short, he must become a specialist, and even then it -hardly pays. - -A genuine poacher has great force of character; he has a genius for -field and woodcraft. He is the eldest survivor of rustic romance. His -wild life is tinged with the love of adventure, the love of moon and -stars, the knowledge of the seasons, the haunts and habits of game, and -the power of trapping rabbits in dark woodland glades. No man knows -more intimately the night-side of Nature between the chilly hours -of midnight and sunrise. In this cold-blooded age there are always -some Quixotic individuals, born in the outwardly sleepy villages and -lifeless farmsteads, with the love of midnight adventure, who wage -long warfare against the game-laws, and who only knuckle under to the -law’s severity when their health gives way or an enemy turns informer. -“Rheumatics plays the mischief with poaching!” exclaims the Otter, -referring to the long night-watches in wet ditches and beside hedges -for hares on the lea fields. Irrespective of all thought of gain, there -is an infatuation to eager spirits in this midnight sport. It appeals -to strong, healthy, brave men. Charles Kingsley, in “The Bad Squire,” -with its strong sympathy and feeling, and its cry of “blood” on all the -squire owned, from the foreign shrub to the game he sold, gives us the -poacher’s wife view, a view we are too apt to ignore or forget, with -the weary eyes and heavy heart, that grow light only with weeping, and -go wandering into the night. We forget too often that in the hearts of -common folk there is the glamor of poetic romance about poaching, and a -bitter hatred toward the game-laws. Like Rizpah’s son, many a lad has -had no other incentive than that “The farmer dared us to do it,” and -that he found it sweetened by the secret sympathy of the people. Too -often, I fear, the game-laws dare a brave rustic into poaching: he has -only this one way left to satisfy the insatiable British thirst for -field sport. It is gravely whispered that some of the most striking -men have tasted its romance; and if all stories be true, the master of -the English drama owes to an unlucky deer-poaching incident the lucky -turn in his career which sent him to London and to writing plays, and -poachers may reasonably claim Shakspere as their patron saint. - -When the strong, sweet ale warms his heart, the poacher boasts of -dreadful adventures in the night, of leaping broad mill-dams when -chased, of giving fight in the dark, and discomfiting gamekeepers by -clever tricks. He paints his exploits in such heroical glory, that -the seat next the fire in the ale-house is given him by admiring and -fearing rustics. Honesty he ascribes to practicedness in the world’s -ways, and he looks upon keeping out of jail as the greatest victory -that man can achieve. He is the type of man that makes our best -soldiers, or, as he phrases it, is paid to stop the gun-shots. He -requires no almanac to tell him when the moon is to rise to-morrow, -and he could give the gamekeepers lessons. He is to be envied for his -quick feeling of life and his sympathy for field and forest sport, and -that wild exuberance of spirits which he seems to catch with his hares. -It is this rural vagabond—and not Mr. Commonplace Respectability—who -rivets young folks’ attention; his energy anywhere would achieve -success; and he is free from that unpardonable fault, dulness. In the -rustic drama of life he is the character that takes hold of us in our -best impulses—and is not that the best world of the ideal? He disdains -to shoot starlings or black-birds; he is too much a sportsman to pay -attention to such small game. He can put his hands to various ways -of living; he can collect bird’s eggs, shoot wild rock-pigeons for -a farmers’ club, gather blackberries, or, as they say in Scotland, -“brambles,” pull young ash-saplings in plantations, and sell them to -grooms in the livery stables in town.—_The Contemporary Review._ - - - - -EIGHT CENTURIES WITH WALTER SCOTT. - -By WALLACE BRUCE. - - -“The burning sun of Syria had not yet attained its highest point in -the horizon, when a knight of the Red Cross, who had left his distant -northern home, and joined the host of the Crusaders in Palestine, was -pacing slowly along the sandy deserts which lie in the vicinity of the -Dead Sea, or as it is called, the Lake Asphalites, where the waves of -the Jordan pour themselves into an inland sea, from which there is no -discharge of waters.” - -This is the graphic opening of “The Talisman.” The steel clad pilgrim -was entering upon that great plain, once watered even as the Garden of -the Lord, now an arid and sterile wilderness, sloping away to the Dead -Sea, which hides beneath its sluggish waves the once proud cities of -Sodom and Gomorrah;—a dark mass of water “Which holds no living fish in -its bosom, bears no skiff on its surface, and sends no tribute to the -ocean.” It was a scene of desolation still testifying to the just wrath -of the Almighty. As in the days of Moses, “The whole land was brimstone -and salt; it is not sown, nor beareth, nor any grass groweth thereon.” -The first sentence of the chapter revealed the descriptive and artistic -power of the novelist, for the desolation is made more desolate by the -introduction of the solitary horseman, journeying slowly through the -flitting sand, under the noontide splendor of the eastern sun. - -Almost a century has passed since the triumph of the first crusade. The -Latin Kingdom, founded by its leaders, had lasted only eighty-eight -years. Jerusalem is again in the hands of the Saracens. The crescent -gleams on the Mosque of St. Omar. The cross has been torn from her -temples, her shrines profaned, and the worshipers of the Holy Sepulcher -murdered or exiled. The second crusade had been a failure, and its -history a series of disasters. Thousands perished in the long march -across Asia Minor. Those who reached Palestine undertook the siege of -Damascus, but the attempt was disastrous. In 1187 a powerful leader -of the East appeared in the high-souled and chivalrous Saladin. By -wise counsel he united the factions of the Mohammedans, which had -been at variance for two hundred years; and on the arrival of the -third crusade, with which event we are now dealing, he was enabled to -present a solid front of warriors “like unto the sand of the desert in -multitude.” - -The land, where “peace and good will to men” had been proclaimed by the -voices of angels, and emphasized by the blessed words of the Son of -God, was again converted into a vast tournament field for the armies of -Europe and Asia: aye more, even in the mountain passes that guard the -Holy City, the mission of the crusaders was sacrificed to petty insults -and rivalries. Richard the Lion-hearted and King Philip of France were -repeating the old story of Achilles and Agamemnon. The military orders -of the Knights of the Temple and the Knights of St. John, which had -grown up in Jerusalem, founded as fraternities devoted to works of -mercy in behalf of poor pilgrims, had become powerful rivals of each -other and the clergy, and by intrigue and dissension purposely fomented -the discord. According to the historian Michaud, “On the one side were -the French, the German, the Templars and the Genoese; on the other the -English, the Pisans, and the Knights of St. John.” - -These are the historical circumstances with which Scott has to deal; -and it is on a mission from such a council, made up of discordant -factions, convened during the sickness of Richard, that we find the -Knight of the Red Cross, or as he is afterward styled, Kenneth the -Scot, bearing a message to the celebrated Hermit of Engaddi. His -adventures by the way are as romantic as any recorded in the Knights -of the Round-Table; for, as he directed his course toward a cluster of -palm trees, he saw suddenly emerge therefrom a Saracen chief mounted -on a fleet Arabian horse. As they drew near each other they prepared -for battle, each after the manner of his own country. “On the desert,” -according to an Eastern proverb, “no man meets a friend.” The heavy -armor of the crusader and his powerful horse are more than an even -match for the wily Saracen. The Scottish knight might have been likened -in the conflict to a bold rock in the sea, and the swift assaults -of the Eastern warrior to the waves dashing against it only to be -broken into foam. After a long struggle, which was worthy of a larger -audience, the Saracen calls a truce, and the Mohammedan and Christian, -so lately in deadly conflict, make their way side by side, each -respecting the other’s courage, to the well under the clustered palms. - -The student of history will find in the description of this -hand-to-hand conflict an object-lesson of the garb and manners of the -Eastern and Western races; and will learn more in the conversation that -follows, as they partake of their scanty meal, of the sentiments and -customs of the hostile races than can be gathered from the pages of any -history with which I am acquainted: for Sir Walter had the marvelous -faculty of absorbing history. He saw everything so vividly that he was -able to reproduce it in living forms. As we read his description, we -sit with them under the palms; we hear them now responding in courtesy, -and again in sharp discussion, as allusion is made to their respective -religions or modes of life; and, as they resume their journey, we feel -grateful to the novelist for the beautiful figure which he puts in -the mouth of the Scottish knight in answer to the Saracen’s boast of -harem-life as contrasted with a Christian household. - - “That diamond signet,” says the knight, “which thou - wearest on thy finger, thou holdest it doubtless of - inestimable value?” “Bagdad can not show the like,” - replied the Saracen; “But what avails it to our - purpose?” “Much,” replied the Frank, “as thou shalt - thyself confess. Take my war-axe and dash the stone - into twenty shivers; would each fragment be as valuable - as the original gem, or would they, all collected, bear - the tenth part of its estimation?” - - “That is a child’s question,” answered the Saracen; - “the fragments of a stone would not equal the entire - jewel in the degree of hundreds to one.” - - “Saracen,” replied the Christian warrior, “the love - which a true knight binds on one only, fair and - faithful, is the gem entire; the affection thou - flingest among thy enslaved wives, and half-wedded - slaves, is worthless, comparatively, as the sparkling - shivers of the broken diamond.” - -We find both soldiers courteous in conversation, and their example -teaches a good lesson to modern controversy; but the “courtesy of the -Christian seemed to flow rather from a good natured sense of what was -due to others; that of the Moslem, from a high feeling of what was -to be expected from himself. The manners of the Eastern warrior were -grave, graceful and decorous;” he might have been compared to “his -sheeny and crescent-shaped saber, with its narrow and light, but bright -and keen, Damascus blade, contrasted with the long and ponderous Gothic -war-sword which was flung unbuckled on the same sod.” - -They pursue their march to the grotto of the Hermit of Engaddi; a man -respected alike by Christian and Mohammedan; revered by the Latins -for his austere devotion, and by the Arabs on account of his symptoms -of insanity, which they ascribed to inspiration. The hermit, once -a crusader, was the man whom Kenneth was to meet. He delivers his -message; but at night, while the Saracen slept, Kenneth is conducted to -a subterraneous, but elegantly carved chapel, where he meets by chance -with the noble sister of King Richard, who with Richard’s newly wedded -wife, had come hither to pray for the king’s recovery. She drops a -rose at the knight’s feet confirming the approbation which her smiles -had already expressed to him in camp, and the story of true love, not -destined to run smoothly, is fairly commenced. But as with “Count -Robert of Paris,” “The Talisman” is not so much a romance as a picture -of the strife and jealousy of haughty and rival leaders. Its value, as -a historical novel, lies in the portrayal of these discordant elements. - -We may read the best history of the crusades, page by page, line by -line, only to forget the next month, or the next year, everything save -the issue of the long struggle; but “The Talisman,” by its wondrous -reality, makes a lasting impression upon our minds. We see Richard -tossing upon his couch, impatient of his fever and protracted delays. -We see the Marquis of Montserrat, and the Grand Master of the Knights -Templar walking together in close-whispered conspiracy. We see Leopold, -the Grand Duke of Austria, lifting his own banner, with overweening -pride, by the side of England’s standard. We see Richard dashing aside -the attendants of his sick bed, half-clad, rushing forth to avenge the -insult, splintering the staff, and trampling upon the Austrian flag. We -stand with Kenneth under the starlight, guarding alone the dignity of -England’s banner, but decoyed away in an unlucky hour by the ring of -King Richard’s sister, which had been obtained by artifice. We see the -flag stolen in that fatal absence, and the noble knight condemned to -death, to be saved only by miracle from the fierce wrath of Richard. He -is given as a present to the Arabian physician whose art had restored -the king to health. We see him again with Richard in the disguise -of a Nubian slave. We see a strolling Saracen with poisoned dagger -attempting the life of Richard, but saved by the faithful Kenneth. We -find Richard considering in his mind the giving of his royal sister -in marriage to Saladin; an affair which fortunately needed the lady’s -consent, who had in her veins too much of the proud Plantagenet blood -to know the meaning of compulsion. We see the tournament which decided -the treachery of Conrad, and the triumph of Kenneth, who turns out to -be no other than the Earl of Huntingdon, heir of the Scottish throne. -The comrade of Kenneth, and the physician who waited upon the king, -chances to be the same person, and no less renowned a hero than the -Emperor Saladin, who sends as a nuptial present to Kenneth and Edith -Plantagenet the celebrated talisman by which he had wrought so many -notable cures; which, according to Scott, is still in existence in the -family of Sir Simon of Lee. - -This tale of the crusaders is so complete that we need after closing -the volume only a few lines of history to complete the record. The -city of Ptolemais was captured after a three years’ siege. More than -one hundred skirmishes and nine great battles were fought under its -walls. Both parties were animated by religious zeal. It is said -that the King of Jerusalem marched to battle with the books of the -Evangelists borne before him; and that Saladin often paused upon the -field of battle to recite a prayer, or read a chapter from the Koran. -Philip finally returns to France. Richard remains in command of one -hundred thousand soldiers. He conquers the Saracens in battle, repairs -the fortifications of Jaffa and Ascalon, but in the intoxication -of pleasure forgets the conquest of Jerusalem. His victories were -fruitless. He obtained from Saladin merely a truce of three years -and eight months, “which insured to pilgrims the right of entering -Jerusalem untaxed,” and, without fulfilling his promise of striking -his lance against the gates of the Holy City, sets off on his homeward -journey, to be taken captive and held a prisoner in a Tyrolese castle. -In brief the history of the Third Crusade is that of a house divided -against itself. - -As “The Betrothed” brought us back from Constantinople and Palestine -to Merrie England, so “Ivanhoe” transports the reader, and some of -the prominent actors of the drama, from the eastern shores of the -Mediterranean to the pleasant district of the West Riding of Yorkshire, -watered by the river Don, “where flourished in ancient times those -bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in -English song.” - -The prominent historical features which Scott illustrates in the -romantic story of “Ivanhoe” are the domestic and civil relations -existing between the Saxon and the Norman about the year 1196, when the -return of Richard the First from Palestine and captivity was an event -rather hoped for than expected; and an event _not_ hoped for by King -John and his followers. - -The Saxon spirit had been well nigh subdued by the strict and unjust -laws imposed by the Norman kings. For one hundred and thirty years -Norman-French had been the language of the court, the language of law, -of chivalry and justice. The laws of the chase and the curfew,—and -many others unknown to the Saxon constitution,—had been placed upon -the necks of the inhabitants of the soil. With few exceptions the race -of Saxon princes had been extirpated; and it was not until the reign -of Edward III. that England became thoroughly united as one people. -The English language at the close of the twelfth century was not yet -born. The Saxon mother and Norman father were not yet wedded; the two -languages were gradually getting acquainted with each other; or, as -Scott has logically expressed it, “the necessary intercourse between -the lords of the soil, and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that -soil was cultivated, occasioned the formation of a dialect, compounded -betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they could render -themselves mutually intelligible to each other; and from this necessity -arose by degrees the structure of our present English language, in -which the speech of the victors and the vanquished has been so happily -blended together, and which has since been so richly improved by -importations from the classical languages, and from those spoken by -the southern nations of Europe.” In the first chapter—and it is always -well to read carefully the first chapter of Scott—we are introduced -to a swine-herd, born thrall of Cedric of Rotherwood, one of the few -powerful Saxon families existing in England at the time of our story. -He is attended by a domestic clown, or jester, maintained at that time -in the houses of the wealthy. With an art and unity like Shakspere, -Scott emphasizes at the very outset the chief historic feature of his -story, by putting the following conversation in the mouths of these -Saxon menials: - - “How call you those grunting brutes running about on - their four legs?” demanded Wamba, the jester. - - “Swine,” said the herd. - - “And swine is good Saxon,” said the jester; “but how - call you it when quartered?” - - “Pork,” answered the cow-herd. - - “And pork,” said Wamba, “is good Norman-French; and - so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a - Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a - Norman, and is called _pork_, when she is carried to - the castle-hall to feast among the nobles. Nay, I can - tell you more,” said Wamba, in the same tone, “there is - Alderman Ox, who continues to hold his Saxon epithet, - while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such - as thou, but becomes _beef_, a fiery French gallant, - when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are - destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes - Monsieur de _Veau_ in the like manner; he is Saxon when - he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he - becomes matter of enjoyment.” - -The third chapter brings together a strange gathering under the roof -of the hospitable Cedric: Brian de Bois Gilbert, a haughty Templar; -Prior Aymer, of free and jovial character; a poor Palmer, just returned -from the Holy Land, and a Jew known as Isaac of York; all journeying -on their way to a tournament to be held a few miles distant at Ashby -de la Zouche. Lady Rowena, descended from the noble line of Alfred, -graced the table with her presence, a ward destined by Cedric, but not -by fate, to be the wife of Athelstane,—a Saxon descended from Edward -the Confessor: in the furtherance of which idea his only son had been -exiled, when it became known that he aspired to the hand of the Saxon -beauty. - -At the tournament the remaining characters of the drama are introduced: -King John, with his retinue; Richard the Lion-Hearted, under the -disguise of the “Black Knight;” Rebecca, the Jewess; the proud baron -Front de Bœuf; Robin Hood, the brave outlaw, under the name of Loxley; -and Ivanhoe, the poor pilgrim, who wins the prize at the tournament -and crowns Rowena Queen of Beauty. At the close of the second day’s -tournament, in which Ivanhoe is again successful, a letter is handed -to King John with the brief sentence, “Take heed to yourself, for -the devil is unchained.” It was like the handwriting on the wall of -Belshazzar’s palace, and proclaimed the end of his kingdom. - -Cedric, Rowena, Isaac, Rebecca, Athelstane and Ivanhoe depart their -several ways from the tournament, but are captured and taken to Front -de Bœuf’s castle. Cedric escapes in the guise of a monk. The castle is -stormed, and now occurs one of the most dramatic pictures in the pages -of romantic literature, destined to reveal to all time the undying -hate between the Saxon and the Norman. A Saxon woman, by name Ulrica, -had lived for years in Front de Bœuf’s castle. She had seen her father -and seven brothers killed in defending their home, but she “remained -to administer ignominiously to the murderers of her family. She used -the seductions of her beauty to arm the son against the father; she -heated drunken revelry into murderous broil, and stained with a -parricide the banqueting hall of the conquerors.” She had sold body -and soul to obtain revenge for Norman cruelties; and now, grown old -in servitude, incensed by the contempt of her masters, she determines -upon a deed, which will make the ears of men tingle while the name of -Saxon is remembered. She fires the castle and appears on a turret in -the guise of one of the ancient furies, yelling forth a war-song. “Her -long, dishevelled grey hair flows back from her uncovered head; the -inebriated delight of gratified vengeance contends in her eyes with the -fire of insanity; and she brandishes the distaff which she holds in her -hand, as if she were one of the fatal sisters, who spin and abridge -the thread of human life. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole -turret gives way, and she perishes in the flames which consume her -tyrant.” - -There is another historic feature of the times emphasized in this -romance: the oppression of the Jews in England during these cruel and -adventurous times. The character of the race is vividly portrayed in -Isaac of York, in which masterly delineation Scott seems truer to -nature than Shakspere in the character of Shylock. Rebecca, his noble -and beautiful daughter, is the type of all that is pure and womanly. -Her words have the eloquence of the poets and prophets of old: “Know -proud knight,” she says, “we number names amongst us to which your -boasted Northern nobility is as the gourd compared with the cedar—names -that ascend far back to those high times when the Divine Presence shook -the mercy seat between the cherubim, and which derive their splendor -from no earthly prince, but from the awful Voice, which bade their -fathers be nearest of the congregation to the vision; such were the -princes of the house of Jacob; now such no more. They are trampled down -like the shorn grass, and mixed with the mire of the ways; yet there -are those among them who shame not such high descent, and of such shall -be the daughter of Isaac, the son of Adonikam. Farewell! I envy not -thy blood-won honors; I envy not thy barbarous descent from northern -heathens; I envy not thy faith, which is ever in thy mouth, but never -in thy heart nor in thy practice.” - -The description of Friar Tuck entertaining King Richard in disguise -is in Scott’s happiest vein; and Robin Hood, with his bold outlaws, -shares the honors gracefully with knights and nobles. But it is alike -unnecessary and unprofitable to attempt a condensation of “Ivanhoe.” -No outline can convey the beauty of a finished picture. It is not to -be taken at second hand. It is only for us to indicate its relation -to history; and it will suffice to say that King Richard was gladly -welcomed by the English people, and that Ivanhoe was wedded to the -beautiful Rowena. - -But, do I hear the reader ask, what becomes of the fair Jewess? Scott -has answered the question so beautifully in his preface that I borrow -his own words—a passage to my mind unsurpassed in English prose: “The -character of the fair Jewess found so much favor in the eyes of some -fair readers, that the writer was censured, because, when arranging the -fates of the characters of the drama, he had not assigned the hand of -Wilfred to Rebecca, rather than the less interesting Rowena. But, not -to mention that the prejudices of the age rendered such an union almost -impossible, the author may, in passing, observe, that he thinks a -character of a highly virtuous and lofty stamp, is degraded rather than -exalted by an attempt to reward virtue with temporal prosperity. Such -is not the recompense which Providence has deemed worthy of suffering -merit, and it is a dangerous and fatal doctrine to teach young persons, -the most common readers of romance, that rectitude of conduct and of -principle are either naturally allied with, or adequately rewarded -by, the gratification of our passions, or attainment of our wishes. -In a word, if a virtuous and self-denied character is dismissed with -temporal wealth, greatness, rank, or the indulgence of such a rashly -formed or ill-assorted passion as that of Rebecca for Ivanhoe, the -reader will be apt to say, ‘Verily, virtue has had its reward.’ But -a glance on the great picture of life will show that the duties of -self-denial and the sacrifice of passion to principle are seldom thus -remunerated; and that the internal consciousness of their high-minded -discharge of duty produces on their own reflections a more adequate -recompense in the form of that peace which the world can not give or -take away.” - - - - -THE GREAT ORGAN AT FRIBOURG. - -By EDITH SESSIONS TUPPER. - - -After thoroughly “doing” Berne in most approved guide-book fashion; -feeding the bears—hot, dusty looking creatures; standing in the middle -of the street, heads thrown back at the risk of dislocating our necks -to watch the celebrated clock strike, we stand one evening on the hotel -terrace and take our farewell look at the Bernese Alps. Sharply defined -against a sunset-flushed sky, as if cut from alabaster, glittering -fair and white like the pinnacles and domes of a city celestial, rise -the Mönch, Eiger, Wetterhorn, and, serene and august in her icy virgin -beauty, the Jungfrau. - - “Too soon the light began to fade, - Tho’ lingering soft and tender; - And the snow giants sank again - Into their calm dead splendor.” - -Leaving Berne, we take our way to Fribourg, to see its wonderful -gorges and skeleton bridges, and hear its more wonderful organ. On -our arrival at this quaint old Romanesque town, we are driven to the -most delightful little hotel, hanging on the very edge of the great -ravine, upon the sides of which the town is built. Through the more -closely-built region of the town runs the old stone wall with its high -watch-towers. Spanning the great gulf are the bridges—mere phantoms of -bridges they seem from our windows. A dreary, drizzling rain sets in -soon after we arrive, and some American lads across the court-yard from -time to time send forth in their sweet untrained voices the refrain of -that mournful ballad, the “Soldier’s Farewell,” - - “Farewell, farewell, my own true love.” - -A prevalent tone of _heimweh_ is in the air; eyes are filling, and -memory is stretching longing hands over the ocean, when fortunately -comes the summons to _table d’hote_. At our plates we find programs -in very bad English of a concert to be given this evening upon the -great organ in the cathedral. Thither we go at dusk, pausing a moment -to look at the grotesque carving of the last judgment over the great -door. Thereon the good, with most satisfied faces, are being admitted -to heaven by St. Peter, a stout old gentleman in a short gown, jingling -a bunch of keys; while the wicked are being carried in Swiss baskets -to a great cauldron over a blazing fire, therein to be deposited, and -to be stirred up by devils armed with pitchforks for that purpose. -We enter. Without, the ceaseless drip of the rain; within, gloom, -darkness—save for the never-ceasing light before the altar, decay. -The air is chill and damp. Around us stretch dark, shadowed aisles. -Tombs of those long dust are on every hand. The air seems peopled with -ghosts. We are seated, and patiently wait for life to be breathed -into that mighty monster looming up in the darkness, above our heads. -Suddenly, with a crash that shakes the building, the organ speaks. -Silenced, overwhelmed, we listen, possessing our souls in patience for -the “Pastorale,” representing a thunder storm among the Alps, which -is to close the evening’s entertainment. We have but recently come -from the everlasting hills, and our souls are still under their magic -enchantment. At last the moment comes. A pause, and there steals upon -the ear a light, sweet refrain. It is spring, the old, ideal spring; -the trees are budding; flowers are smiling from the meadows; we feel -warm south winds blowing; afar in the woods we hear the sylvan pipe of -the shepherd and the songs of birds. A peace is upon everything. Nature -is calm, happy, and full of promise of glad fruition. To this succeeds -a languid, dreary strain—it is a drowsy summer afternoon. A delicious -languor pervades the air; we hear the trees whispering to each other -of their perfect foliage; we hear the laughing waters leaping and -calling to each other through their rocky passes; the flocks are asleep -in the shade; the shadows are stealing and playing over the sides of -the mountains, and the whole world swims in a misty, golden haze. Now -listen closely. Do not we catch the mutter of distant thunder? And -again, do not we hear that clear, bell-like bird-call for rain? The -distant muttering grows louder, a stronger breeze sways the trees; -still we hear distinctly that bird-call. Now louder rolls the thunder, -the wind has arisen, the trees are bending to meet it, and in rage -are tossing their boughs to the overcast sky; and ah! here comes the -rain. Patter, patter, at first, now fast and faster, and now with a mad -rush down it comes in one tremendous, outpouring sheet, and now with a -terrific rumble and crash, - - “From peak to peak the rattling crags among, - Leaps the live thunder: - Not from one lone cloud, - But every mountain now hath found a tongue, - And Jura answers from her misty shroud - Back to the joyous Alps who call on her aloud.” - -The wind shrieks and howls, and yet above all this tumult and roar of -the elements, clearly and unmistakably rings that sweet flute-like -bird-call. The storm rages, spends its fury, and dies away, and from a -neighboring cloister come the voices of an unseen choir, raising a “Te -Deum” to him who holds the storms in his hands. Silently we rise and -go, a great peace upon us, for divine notes from the soul of the organ -have entered into ours. - - * * * * * - -IT is not the nature of man to be always moving forward; it has its -comings and goings. Fever has its cold and hot fits, and the cold -shiver proves the height of the fever quite as much as the hot fit. -The inventions of man from age to age proceed much in the same way. -The good nature and the malice of the world in general have the same -ebbs and flows. “Change of living is generally agreeable to the -rich.”—_Pascal._ - - - - -ECCENTRIC AMERICANS. - -By COLEMAN E. BISHOP. - - -II.—THE STATESMAN IN A STATE OF NATURE. - -David Crockett was born in the wilds of Tennessee, August 17, 1786. He -toughened rapidly, like a bear’s cub, but he showed in addition to the -usual woodsman’s instincts the unusual qualities of great tenderness -of feeling and generosity, with a remarkable gift of wit and love of -fun. The incredible stories of his hardships at the age of twelve and -thereafter we have not room to recount. In the best sense he was a -tough boy. The closing scene of his home life—if a hut presided over -by a drunken father, and a mother who left no impression on the boy’s -character that showed itself in after years can be by any courtesy -called a home—was a dissolving view of a ragged, bare-footed urchin of -fourteen chased through the brush by a father with a large goad and a -large load of liquor. Thus David Crockett set out upon the world for -himself. - -With Crockett’s story as a bear-hunter, nomadic woodsman, soldier and -Indian-fighter, exciting and marvelous as are these incidents of the -first thirty years of his life, we shall not much concern ourselves. -But I do wonder that his life-like, quaint narrative of these has not -become standard juvenile literature, along with Robinson Crusoe and -Mayne Reid’s stories of adventure. Through all these exciting though -isolated years, the young woodsman picked up a good deal of practical -knowledge, not one scrap of which he ever forgot; and withal was -developing a strange quality of unpretentious self-esteem. “The idea -seemed never to have entered his mind that there was any one superior -to David Crockett, or any one so humble that Crockett was entitled to -look down upon him with condescension. He was a genuine democrat, and -all were in his view equal. And this was not the result of thought, of -any political or moral principle. It was a part of his nature, like his -stature or complexion. This is one of the rarest qualities to be found -in any man.”[H] - -He also was developing oratorical powers. He acquired unbounded -popularity at musters and frolics, in camp and in the chase by his -fun-making qualities, his homely, kindly, keen wit. His retentive -memory was an inexhaustible store-house of anecdote, and he always had -an apt illustration for any point he wanted to make. He began to taste -the sweet consciousness of power over his fellows, and to easily fall -into the position of leadership, for which nature designed him. - -His first official position came to him at about the age of thirty. -There were a good many outlaws in the region where he at that time had -his cabin and claim, and society began to cohere for self-protection. -The settlers convened and appointed Crockett and others to be justices -of the peace, and a corps of stalwart young men to be constables. -These justices were really provost-marshals in power. There were no -statute laws nor courts; but there was authority enough, and Crockett -says everybody made laws according to his own notions of right. For -shooting and appropriating a hog running at large, for instance, the -sentence was to strip the thief, tie him to a tree and give him a -flogging, burn down his cabin and drive him out of the country. Soon -after, the new territory was organized into counties and Crockett was -regularly commissioned a justice by the legislature. His account of his -administration is interesting: - - “I was made a squire according to law; though now the - honor rested on me more heavily than before. For, at - first, whenever I told my constable, says I, ‘catch - that fellow and bring him up for trial!’ away he - went, and the fellow must come, dead or alive. For we - considered this a good warrant, though it was only in - _verbal writing_. But after I was appointed by the - Assembly, they told me my warrants must be in _real_ - writing and signed; and that I must keep a book and - write my proceedings in it. This was a hard business - on me, for I could just barely write my own name. But - to do this, and write the warrants too, was at least - a huckleberry over my persimmon. I had a pretty well - informed constable however, and I told him when he - should happen to be out anywhere and see that a warrant - was necessary and would have a good effect, he needn’t - take the trouble to come all the way to me to get one, - but he could just fill one out, and then on the trial - I could correct the whole business if he had committed - any error. In this way I got on pretty well, till by - care and attention I improved my handwriting in such a - manner as to be able to prepare my warrants and keep my - record books without much difficulty. My judgments were - never appealed from: and if they had been they would - have stuck like wax, as I gave my decisions on the - principles of common justice and honesty between man - and man, and relied on natural born sense, and not on - law learning, to guide me; for I had never read a page - in a law-book in all my life.” - -Crockett made his first stump speech when he was about thirty-four -years old. A militia regiment was to be organized, and a Captain -Mathews, after promising Crockett the majority of the regiment if he -would support him for its colonel, turned against Crockett in favor of -his own son. At a great muster prepared by Mathews, he made a stump -speech in his own and his son’s favor. Crockett, entirely unabashed, -mounted the stump as soon as Mathews finished, and on the captain’s own -grounds proceeded to expose his duplicity and argue the total unfitness -of both him and his son for the command. The speech was fluent, -witty, full of anecdote, and carried the rude audience by storm. It -effectually beat both father and son. The fame of this maiden effort -traveled fast in a community where oratory was the great, if not the -only engine of popular control, and the result was that a committee -soon waited on Crockett and asked him to stand for the legislature then -about to be elected (1821). Some of his first electioneering adventures -illustrate the frankness and tact so queerly combined in him, and also -show how he got his education in politics. Hickman county wanted to -change its county seat. He says: “Here they told me that they wanted to -move their town nearer to the center of the county, and I must come out -in favor of it. I did not know what this meant, or how the town was to -be moved, and so I kept dark, going on the same identical plan that I -now find is called _non-committal_.” - -On one occasion the candidates for governor of the State, Congress, -and several for legislature, some of them able stump-speakers, were -announced. As he listened, a sense of inferiority for the first time, -probably, penetrated him; he drank in all they said, and remembered it. -He says: - - “The thought of having to make a speech made my knees - feel mighty weak, and set my heart to fluttering almost - as bad as my first love scrape with the Quaker’s niece. - But as luck would have it, these big candidates spoke - nearly all day, and when they quit the people were worn - out with fatigue, which afforded me a good apology for - not discussing the government. But I listened mighty - close to them, and was learning pretty fast about - political matters. When they were all done I got up and - told some laughable story and quit.” - -He was elected, and in the legislature proved a good story-teller, a -formidable antagonist in repartee, and above all a good listener. He -says the first thing that he took pains to learn was the meaning of the -words “judiciary” and “government,” as up to that time he had “never -heard that there was any such thing in all nature as a judiciary.” The -halls of the Tennessee legislature were again brightened in 1823-24 by -the wit and good sense of “the gentleman from the cane” as an opponent -derisively dubbed him, very much to his subsequent regret. - -Crockett was now so well known that he was put forward for Congress. -His rapid advancement staggered even his self-sufficiency, and -he objected, saying he “knowed nothing about Congress matters.” -Fortunately, perhaps, he was given time to learn more, for he was -beaten at the polls this time. It was claimed by his supporters the -result was obtained by fraud, and as the adverse majority was small, he -was urged to contest the election; but he declined, saying he did not -care enough for office to take it unless the clearly expressed will of -the people called him thereto. From hunting for men he turned with zest -to hunting for bears; his endurance, hardihood and success, and the -never-failing benevolence with which he divided the fruits of the hunt -with poor settlers, or lent a helping hand in many other ways, made him -more political capital than the best stump speeches could have done. He -killed one hundred and five bears one season. Two years later (1827) -he ran for Congress again and was triumphantly elected over two strong -opponents. Thus the bear-hunting, Indian-fighting “gentleman from the -cane,” barely able to write his name, so poor that he had to borrow -money to pay his traveling expenses to Washington, became a law-maker -of a great nation by sheer force of native talent and goodness of heart. - -His fame preceded him to Washington. His prowess in arms, his dexterity -in politics, and his quaint wit had been in the papers; all his sayings -had been, as is the style of American journalism, exaggerated and -embellished and distorted, until the general impression of him was that -of a coarse, outlandish, swaggering yahoo. His appearance in Washington -dispersed these illusions thence, but the misrepresentations did not -cease in the prints. As in the case of Lincoln, every profane and -vulgar thing that cheap wit could invent was attributed to Crockett, -and received as his. Many of these false impressions survive to this -day; it is therefore proper here to give a picture of the man as he -was seen at home. It is thus reported by an intelligent gentleman who -visited his cabin just after his election. The visitor penetrated to -Crockett’s cabin eight miles through unbroken wilderness by a path -blazed on the trees. He says: - - Two men were seated on stools at the door, both in - their shirt-sleeves, engaged in cleaning their rifles. - As the stranger rode up, one of the men came forward - to meet him. He was dressed in very plain homespun - attire, with a black fur cap upon his head. He was - a finely proportioned man, about six feet high, - apparently forty-five years of age, and of very frank, - pleasing, open countenance. He held his rifle in his - hand, and from his right shoulder hung a bag made of - raccoon-skin, to which there was a sheath attached - containing a large butcher-knife. - - “This is Colonel Crockett’s residence, I presume,” said - the stranger. - - “Yes,” was the reply, with a smile as of welcome. - - “Have I the pleasure of seeing that gentleman before - me?” the stranger added. - - “If it be a pleasure,” was the courteous reply, “you - have, sir.” - - “Well, Colonel,” responded the stranger, “I have ridden - much out of my way to spend a day or two with you, and - take a hunt.” - - “Get down, sir,” said the Colonel, cordially. “I am - delighted to see you. I like to see strangers. And the - only care I have is that I can not accommodate them as - well as I could wish. I have no corn, but my little boy - will take your horse over to my son-in-law’s. He is a - good fellow, and will take care of him.” - - Leading the stranger into his cabin, Crockett very - courteously introduced him to his brother, his wife, - and his daughters. He then added: - - “You see we are mighty rough here. I am afraid you will - think it hard times. But we have to do the best we can. - I started mighty poor, and have been rooting ’long ever - since. But I hate apologies. What I live upon always, I - think a friend can for a day or two. I have but little, - but that little is as free as the water that runs. So - make yourself at home.” - -He seemed to have a great horror of binding himself to any man or -party. “I will pledge myself to no administration,” he said. “When -the will of my constituents is known, that will be my law; when it -is unknown my own judgment shall be my guide.” So clear and lofty an -idea had this unlearned man formed of the duties of a representative! -Well for the country if as high a standard of political duty even now -prevailed among the best and wisest legislators! - -Nothing is recorded of his first term in Congress except that he -“brought down the house” every time he spoke, and once so discomfited a -colleague that a duel was talked of; upon which Crockett gave out that -if any one challenged him he should select as their weapons _bows and -arrows_. - -He was re-elected in 1829. This was the Jackson tidal wave—the -inauguration of that craze of hero-worship and spoils-grabbing which -entailed its curse upon our politics, even to this day. During this -term came the turning point in Crockett’s career and a triumphant test -of the strength of his character. At first he supported Jackson’s -administration and acted with the party. But when that “constitutional -democrat” blossomed out into an unconstitutional autocrat, one man of -his party was found manly enough to act upon his own convictions. One -of these unconstitutional measures was an act to vote half a million -of dollars for disbursements made without color of law, and Crockett -opposed it. The result is best told in his own words: - - “Soon after the commencement of this second term, I - saw, or thought I did, that it was expected of me that - I would bow to the name of Andrew Jackson, and follow - him in all his motions, and mindings, and turnings, - even at the expense of my conscience and judgment. - Such a thing was new to me, and a total stranger to - my principles. I know’d well enough, though, that if - I didn’t ‘hurrah’ for his name, the hue and cry was - to be raised against me, and I was to be sacrificed, - if possible. His famous, or rather I should say his - _infamous_ Indian bill was brought forward, and I - opposed it from the purest motives in the world. - Several of my colleagues got around me, and told me how - well they loved me, and that I was ruining myself. They - said this was a favorite measure of the President, and - I ought to go for it. I told them I believed it was a - wicked, unjust measure, and that I should go against - it, let the cost to myself be what it might; that I - was willing to go with General Jackson in everything I - believed was honest and right; but, further than this, - I wouldn’t go for him or any other man in the whole - creation. - - “I had been elected by a majority of three thousand - five hundred and eighty-five votes, and I believed they - were honest men, and wouldn’t want me to vote for any - unjust notion, to please Jackson or any one else; at - any rate, I was of age, and determined to trust them. - I voted against this Indian bill, and my conscience - yet tells me that I gave a good, honest vote, and one - that I believe will not make me ashamed in the day - of judgment. I served out my term, and though many - amusing things happened, I am not disposed to swell my - narrative by inserting them. - - “When it closed, and I returned home, I found the storm - had raised against me sure enough; and it was echoed - from side to side, and from end to end of my district, - that I had turned against Jackson. This was considered - the unpardonable sin. I was hunted down like a wild - varment, and in this hunt every little newspaper in - the district, and every little pin-hook lawyer was - engaged. Indeed, they were ready to print anything - and everything that the ingenuity of man could invent - against me.” - -It proved as he had anticipated; he failed of re-election, but only by -a majority of seventy votes. Two years of bear-hunting followed, during -which Crockett thirsted for the nobler pursuit of ambition of which he -had had a taste. Some of his predictions as to Jackson’s course had -been verified, and many things conspired to open his constituents’ -eyes to the high character of their representative’s course. In the -canvass of 1833 he was elected the third time, winning one of the -most remarkable political triumphs ever known in this country. He had -against him all the education, talent and wealth of his district; the -administration made it a test vote, and all that promises of reward, -threats of punishment, political and social, unlimited money, the -influence of the national banks, and every appliance that the most -tyrannical disposition ever dominant in our affairs could bring to bear -were used. Men of genius, eloquence, influence and fortune rode the -district; whiskey was free as water. The entire press opposed Crockett -with the ingenuity and abandon which only “patronage” can inspire. -More than all this the common people of the district, with whom lay -Crockett’s influence, if he had any, worshiped “Old Hickory,” under -whom many of them had fought. Against these odds the impoverished, -uneducated hunter, with no aid but his natural gifts and a clean -record, canvassed the district of seventeen counties and 100,000 -inhabitants and won. This remarkable victory in Jackson’s own State, -when his popularity was at its height, gave Crockett a new and better -title to respect than any he had before presented; and it increased -the mystery hanging about this strange, uncultured genius. The world -abandoned its preconceived notions of the back-woodsman when it saw his -power; but it was at loss to conceive a true idea of him. - -During this session of Congress (1833-34) Crockett wrote his -autobiography. As might be expected, it is a very unique work. Its -style is simple and vigorous; the language is Shaksperian in its -monosyllables and short sentences, but the _ensemble_ is graphic, and -as the events narrated are of the most extraordinary kind, it makes -very exciting reading. On the title page appears his famous motto: - - “I leave these words for others when I’m dead; - Be always sure you’re right, then GO AHEAD!” - -Crockett submitted the manuscript of this work to a critic for -revision; but he declared afterward that the reviser had not improved -the work—probably because he toned down its vigorous language. Such -expressions as “my son and me went,” occur, and spelling like this: -“hawl,” “tuff,” “scaffled,” “clomb” (for climbed); “flower” (for -flour). But he positively objected to some of the orthographical -corrections, as he said “such spelling was contrary to nature.” He -brought the narrative of his life up to the date, and concluded it as -follows: - - “I am now here in Congress, this 28th day of January, - in the year of our Lord 1834; and, what is more - agreeable to my feelings, as a free man. I am at - liberty to vote as my conscience and judgment dictate - to be right, without the yoke of any party on me or the - driver at my heels with the whip in hand commanding - me to ‘gee-wo-haw!’ just at his pleasure. Look at my - arms: you will find no party handcuffs on them! Look at - my neck: you will not find there any collar with the - engraving, - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . MY DOG.—ANDREW JACKSON. . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - But you will find me standing up to my rack as the - people’s faithful representative, and the public’s most - obedient, very humble servant, - - “DAVID CROCKETT.” - -What would not senators and representatives of to-day give for the same -independence? What health and manliness it would impart to public life, -if every legislator were thus free of handcuffs and collars! - -In the spring of 1834, Crockett made his famous “starring tour” through -the East. From Philadelphia to Portland, and back to Washington, it -was a continuous ovation. Crockett and the populace were mutually -astonished; he at his receptions, and they at the actions, appearance, -and utterances of the man who had been represented to them by his -political opponents as a buffoon and semi-savage. He was more than -all impressed with the developments of wealth and enterprise in the -North; he frankly confessed the prejudices he had formed against the -Yankees, and praised their thrift and principles. He spoke well and -appropriately on each occasion, though—strange change in him!—with -evident confusion at the lionizing. He wrote of the ovation he received -on landing in Philadelphia: - - “It struck me strangely to hear a strange people - huzzaing for me; it took me so uncommon unexpected, - as I had no idea of attracting attention. The folks - came crowding around me, saying, ‘Give me the hand - of an honest man.’ I thought I had rather be in the - wilderness with my gun and dogs, than to be attracting - all that fuss.” - -In a happy little speech here, from the hotel balcony, he said: - - “I am almost induced to believe this flattery—perhaps - a burlesque. This is new to me, yet I see nothing but - friendship in your faces.” - -At a grand banquet in New York City, Crockett having been toasted as -“The undeviating supporter of the constitution and the laws,” made -this neat and characteristic hit, as he reports it: - - “I made a short speech, and concluded with the story of - the red cow, which was, that as long as General Jackson - went straight, I followed him; but when he began to go - this way, and that way, and every way, I wouldn’t go - after him; like the boy whose master ordered him to - plough across the field to the red cow. Well, he began - to plough, and she began to walk; and he ploughed all - forenoon after her. So when the master came, he swore - at him for going so crooked. ‘Why, sir,’ said the boy, - ‘you told me to plough to the red cow, and I kept after - her, but she always kept moving.’” - -Most enthusiastic of all was his reception in Boston, where President -Jackson’s policy was most unpopular. It was even proposed to confer -on Crockett the degree of LL.D., an honor that had been awarded to -Jackson: but, unlike Jackson, Crockett had the wit to decline an honor -which neither of the two deserved. - -The more he saw and heard the more humble he became. When called -up for an after-dinner speech in Boston he burst out in his honest -way—“I never had but six months’ schooling in all my life, and I -confess I consider myself a _poor tyke_ to be here addressing the most -intelligent people in the world.” If he had not culture, he had what -was far more rare in that age of truckling to one-man power—_manhood_. -It seemed as if unlettered David Crockett was the only man in public -life to stand up straight, and people acknowledged the power of true -character. The culture and wealth of the East bowed to unspoiled -manhood; it was a revelation fresh from Nature’s hand. - -A few extracts from one of his more sustained and dignified efforts -will illustrate the development Crockett had attained by simple -observation. After praising New England he said: - - “I don’t mean that because I eat your bread and drink - your liquor, that I feel so. No; that don’t make me see - clearer than I did. It is your habits, and manners, - and customs; your industry; your proud, independent - spirits; your hanging on to the eternal principles of - right and wrong; your liberality in prosperity, and - your patience when you are ground down by legislation, - which, instead of crushing you, whets your invention to - strike a path without a blaze on a tree to guide you; - and above all, your never-dying, deathless grip to our - glorious Constitution. These are the things that make - me think you are a mighty good people. - - “I voted for Andrew Jackson because I believed he - possessed certain principles, and not because his name - was Andrew Jackson, or the ‘Hero,’ or ‘Old Hickory.’ - And when he left those principles which induced me to - support him, I considered myself justified in opposing - him. This thing of man-worship I am a stranger to; I - don’t like it; it taints every action of life. - - “I know nothing, by experience, of party discipline. I - would rather be a raccoon-dog, and belong to a Negro in - the forest, than to belong to any party, further than - to do justice to all, and to promote the interests of - my country. The time will and must come, when honesty - will receive its reward, and when the people of this - nation will be brought to a sense of their duty, and - will pause and reflect how much it cost us to redeem - ourselves from the government of one man. It cost the - lives and fortunes of thousands of the best patriots - that ever lived. Yes, gentlemen, hundreds of them fell - in sight of your own city. - - “Gentlemen, if it is for opposing those high-handed - measures that you compliment me, I say I have done so, - and will do so, now and forever. I will be no man’s - man, and no party’s man, other than to be the people’s - faithful representative: and I am delighted to see the - noble spirit of liberty retained so boldly here, where - the first spark was kindled; and I hope to see it shine - and spread over our whole country.” - -He took his seat in Congress, a central object in the political -field. His position was anomalous. Party ties were closely drawn, -and party rancor bitter as it can be only when nothing but plunder -is at stake between parties. The Democrats could not claim Crockett -so long as he antagonized their god, Jackson; and the alliance of -the Whigs he most distinctly repudiated. He was an independent, an -“unattached statesman;” the prototype of an element which has now -become formidable in our politics, but a character for whom there was -no place in those times. He was, like all eccentrics, ahead or apart -from his age, and was at first feared, then shunned, and then called -crazy by the great body of public men, whose standard of sanity was to -sacrifice manhood to party, to betray the Republic for spoils. - -It was during this Congress that he created a sensation by antagonizing -benevolence of representatives at government expense. A bill had -been reported and was about to pass, appropriating a gratuity to a -naval officer’s widow. Crockett made an unanswerable argument on the -unconstitutionality of this and other such appropriations, and closed -by offering, with other friends of the widow, to give her a week of his -salary as congressman. Not a member dared to answer or to vote for the -bill, and not one followed Crockett’s example of charity at his own -expense. - -But the independent, honest eccentric had reached the end of his public -career. In the next congressional election he was beaten by tricks such -as would not be tolerated at this time. One of these devices was to -announce fictitiously a large number of public meetings in Crockett’s -name on the same day. When he failed to appear, as announced, speakers -of the Jackson party, who would always arrange to be present, denounced -Crockett as afraid to face his constituents upon his “treacherous and -corrupt record in Congress.” The defeat was a surprise to him; more, it -almost broke his heart. He wrote, manfully, but pathetically, “I have -suffered myself to be politically sacrificed to save my country from -ruin and disgrace.” I may add, like the man in the play, “Crockett’s -occupation’s gone.” - -Shortly after he made a farewell address to his constituents, into -which he compressed a good deal of plain speaking, or as he says, -“I put the ingredients in the cup pretty strong, I tell you: and -I concluded by telling them that I was done with politics for the -present, and that they might all go to hell and I would go to Texas.” - -“When I returned home,” he adds, “I felt sort of cast down at the -change that had taken place in my fortunes; sorrow, it is said, will -make even an oyster feel poetical. Such was my state of feeling that I -began to fancy myself inspired; so I took my pen in hand, and as usual, -I went ahead.” This is - - -CROCKETT’S FAREWELL TO HOME. - - “Farewell to the mountains whose mazes to me - Were more beautiful far than Eden could be; - No fruit was forbidden, but Nature had spread - Her bountiful board, and her children were fed. - The hills were our garners—our herds wildly grew - And Nature was shepherd and husbandman too. - I felt like a monarch, yet thought like a man, - As I thanked the Great Giver, and worshiped his plan. - - “The home I forsake where my offspring arose; - The graves I forsake where my children repose. - The home I redeemed from the savage and wild; - The home I have loved as a father his child; - The corn that I planted, the fields that I cleared, - The flocks that I raised, and the cabin I reared; - The wife of my bosom—Farewell to ye all! - In the land of the stranger I rise or I fall. - - “Farewell to my country! I fought for thee well, - When the savage rushed forth like the demons from hell. - In peace or in war I have stood by thy side— - My country, for thee I have lived, would have died! - But I am cast off, my career now is run, - And I wander abroad like the prodigal son— - Where the wild savage roves, and the broad prairies spread, - The fallen—despised—will again go ahead.” - -We can not follow our hero—for he was a moral hero—in his adventures -while going across the country to Texas. Only one incident have we -room for. On the way he rode apace with a circuit preacher, a man not -less a hardy adventurer than himself. He narrates this: - - “We talked about politics, religion, and nature, - farming, and bear-hunting, and the many blessings that - an all-bountiful Providence had bestowed upon our - happy country. He continued to talk on this subject, - traveling over the whole ground, as it were, until - his imagination glowed, and his soul became full to - overflowing; and he checked his horse, and I stopped - mine also, and a stream of eloquence burst forth from - his aged lips, such as I have seldom listened to: - it came from the overflowing fountain of a pure and - grateful heart. We were alone in the wilderness, but as - he proceeded, it seemed to me as if the tall trees bent - their tops to listen; that the mountain stream laughed - out joyfully as it bounded on like some living thing; - that the fading flowers of autumn smiled, and sent - forth their fresher fragrance, as if conscious that - they would revive in spring; and even the sterile rocks - seemed to be endued with some mysterious influence. We - were alone in the wilderness, but all things told me - that God was there. The thought renewed my strength and - courage. I had left my country, felt somewhat like an - outcast, believed that I had been neglected and lost - sight of. But I was now conscious that there was one - watchful eye over me; no matter whether I dwelt in - the populous cities, or threaded the pathless forests - alone; no matter whether I stood in the high places - among men, or made my solitary lair in the untrodden - wild, that eye was still upon me. My very soul leaped - joyfully at the thought. I never felt so grateful in - all my life. I never loved my God so sincerely in all - my life. I felt that I still had a friend. - - “When the old man finished, I found that my eyes were - wet with tears. I approached and pressed his hand, and - thanked him, and says I, ‘Now let us take a drink.’ I - set him the example, and he followed it, and in a style - too that satisfied me, that if he had ever belonged - to the temperance society, he had either renounced - membership, or obtained a dispensation.” - -Crockett reached Texas just in time to take part with the American -filibusters in the famous defense of the fortress of the Alamo, against -Santa Anna’s army. On the 6th of March, 1836, the citadel was carried -by the Mexicans by assault, only six of the little garrison surviving, -of whom Crockett was one. When captured he stood at bay in an angle of -the fort, his shattered rifle in one hand and a bloody bowie-knife in -the other; twenty Mexicans, dead or dying, were at his feet. His face -was covered with blood flowing from a deep gash across his forehead. -Santa Anna ordered the prisoners to be put to the sword. Crockett, -hearing the order, though entirely unarmed, sprang like a tiger at the -throat of the Mexican general, but a dozen swords interrupted him and -cut off his life. - -Thus in its prime was thrown away a life that in many respects was -one of the most extraordinary in our annals. If he had enjoyed early -advantages, he would have been one of the greatest of Americans. -Nay, it is possible that if he had not been so deeply wounded by -ingratitude, treachery and defeat, and had remained at home, he, -instead of General Harrison, would have been the one to lead the -popular revolution, when came the reaction from the unlicensed _regime_ -of Jackson and Van Buren. - -David Crockett’s courage, independence, honesty, goodness of heart, -made him shine “like a good deed in a naughty world.” He ought not -to be forgotten by his countrymen, for a noble illustration of the -capabilities that may be found among the common people, and of the -career possible to even the lowliest-born American citizen. - - * * * * * - -WHEN a man is called feeble, what is meant by the expression? -Feebleness denotes a relative state; a relative state of the being to -whom it is applied. He whose strength exceeds his necessities, though -an insect, a worm, is a strong being; he whose necessities exceed his -strength, though an elephant, a lion, a conqueror, a hero, though a -god, is a feeble being.—ROUSSEAU. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[H] Abbott. - - - - -ETIQUETTE. - - -Etiquette is from the French word for ticket, and its present use in -English suggests the old custom of distributing tickets or cards on -which the ceremonies to be observed at any formal proceedings are -fully set forth—a kind of program for important social gatherings of -distinguished persons. Modern usage has given the word a much wider -significance. It means the manners or deportment of cultured people; -their bearing toward, or treatment of others. - -The suggestions in a recent number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, respecting -“street etiquette,” or things proper to be observed in riding, driving -and walking, will not now be repeated, though many of our younger -readers might profit by having, on so familiar a subject, “line upon -line, precept upon precept.” - -The etiquette proper for the home and every-day life, in town and -country, is quite as important, and embraces more things than there is -space to notice. - - -CALLS AND CARDS. - -Home, the dearest spot on earth, would be no fit abode for social -beings if closed against the entrance and friendly offices of those -without. The courtesies and kindness of neighbors must be received and -reciprocated to make the home comforts complete. By simple methods -the most important amicable relations in society are established and -maintained. - -Calls may be distinguished as ceremonious or friendly. The latter -among intimate friends may, and ought to be quite informal, and for -them no rules need be prescribed. Common-sense may be safely trusted, -as to their manner, frequency, and the time spent in making them. But -well-disposed, cultured people will usually have friendly relations -with a much larger number than can be received on terms of close -intimacy. As a means of establishing and maintaining such relations, -mere formal calls are made. In the country and in small towns residents -are expected to call on new-comers without having any previous -acquaintance with them, or even having met them before. Ordinarily the -new-comer, of whatever rank, should not call formally on a resident -first, but wait till the other has taken the initiative. If after the -first meeting, for any reason, the resident does not care to pursue the -acquaintance, it will be discontinued by not leaving cards or calling -again. The newcomer in like manner if not wishing to extend or continue -the acquaintance, will politely return the first call, leaving cards -only if the neighbors are not at home. - -In some sections of the country calling on newcomers is done rather -indiscriminately and with little regard to the real, or supposed social -standing of the persons. This accords best with our American ideas of -equality, and is consistent for those whose friendships are decided by -character and personal accomplishments, rather than by the accidents -of birth or wealth. The good society for which all may rightly aspire -claims as among its brightest jewels some who financially rank with -the lowly—rich only in the nobler qualities of mind and heart. The -etiquette that, in any way, closes the door to exclude them is more -nice than wise. - -Those in high esteem in their community and most worthy will naturally, -if circumstances permit, take the responsibility of first calls on -strangers who come to reside among them. The call itself is a tender -of friendship, and friendly offices, even though intimacy is not found -practicable or desirable. - -Custom does not require the residents of large cities to formally call -on all new-comers in their neighborhood, which would be impracticable, -only those quite near and having apparently about the same social -status are entitled to this courtesy. Some discrimination is not only -allowable but necessary. - -A desirable acquaintance once formed, however initiated, is maintained -by calls more or less frequent, as circumstances may decide, or by -leaving cards when for either party that is more convenient. - -Visiting cards must be left in person, not sent by mail or by the -hand of a servant, unless in exceptional cases. Distance, unfavorable -weather or delicate health might be sufficient reasons for sending the -cards, but, as a rule, ladies leave their cards themselves, this being -found more acceptable. - -A lady’s visiting card should be plain, printed in clear type, with no -ornamental or old English letters. The name printed on the middle of -the card. The place of residence on the left-hand corner. - -A married lady would never use her christian name on a card, but that -of her husband after Mrs., before her surname. - -In most places it is customary and considered in good taste for -husbands and wives to have their names printed on the same card: “Mr. -and Mrs.,” but each would still need separate cards of their own. - -The title “Honorable” is not used on cards. Other titles are, omitting -the “The” preceding the title. - -It is not in accordance with etiquette in most places for young ladies -to have visiting cards of their own. Their names are printed beneath -that of their mother, on her card, either “Miss” or “the Misses,” as -the case may be. If the mother is not living, the daughter’s name would -be printed beneath that of her father, or of her brother, in case of a -brother and sister residing alone. - -If a young lady is taken into society by a relative or friend, her name -would properly be written in pencil under that of her friend. - -If a lady making calls finds the mistress of the house “not at home” -she will leave her card and also one of her husband’s for each, the -mistress and her husband; but if she have a card with her own and her -husband’s name on it, she leaves but one of his separate cards. - -If a lady were merely leaving cards, and not intending to call she -would hand the three cards to the person answering at the door, saying, -“For Mrs. ——,” without asking whether she is at home or not. - -If a lady is sufficiently intimate to call, asks for and finds her -friend at home, she should, on leaving the house, leave two of her -husband’s cards in a conspicuous place on the table in the hall. She -should not drop them in the card-basket or hand them to the hostess, -though she might silently hand them to the servant in the hall. She -will on no account leave her own card, having seen the lady which -removes all occasion for leaving her card. - -If the lady were accompanied by her husband and the lady of the house -at home, the husband would leave one of his own cards for the master of -the house, but if he also is at home no cards are left. A lady leaves -her card for a lady only, while a gentleman leaves his for both husband -and wife. - -A gentleman when calling takes his hat in his hand into the room and -holds it until he has met the mistress of the house; he may then either -place it on a chair or table near him, or hold it in his hand till he -takes his leave. - - * * * * * - - DREAMS, books, are each a world: and books we know, - Are a substantial world, both pure and good; - Round these, with tendrils strong as flesh and blood, - Our pastime and our happiness will grow. - There find I personal themes, a plenteous store, - Matter wherein right voluble I am, - To which I listen with a ready ear; - Two shall be named, preëminently dear,— - The gentle lady married to the Moor; - And heavenly Una, with her milk-white lamb. - - Blessings be with them, and eternal praise, - Who gave us nobler loves and nobler cares— - The poets, who on earth have made us heirs - Of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays! - Oh! might my name be numbered among theirs, - Then gladly would I end my mortal days. - - —_Wordsworth’s “Personal Talk.”_ - - - - -NAPOLEON’S MARSHALS. - - -Napoleon’s marshals were twenty-six in number, of whom seven only -were born in a rank which would have entitled them to become general -officers under the old Monarchy. These were Kellermann, Berthier, -Davoust, Macdonald, Marmont, Grouchy, and Poniatowski, a Pole. Of -the others, Murat was the son of an innkeeper, Lefèbvre of a miller, -Augereau of a mason, Bernadotte of a weaver, and Ney of a cooper. -Masséna’s father, like Murat’s, kept a village wine-shop; Lannes was -the son of an ostler, and was himself apprenticed to a dyer; Victor, -whose real name was Perrin, was the son of an invalided private -soldier, who after leaving the service became a market-crier; while -Soult’s mother kept a mercer’s shop, and Oudinot’s a small _cafè_ with -a circulating library. The marshals sprung from the _bourgeoisie_ or -middle class were Serrurier, whose father was an officer, but never -rose above the rank of captain; Bessières, whose father, though a poor -clerk in a lawyer’s office, was the son of a doctor; Suchet, who was -the son of a silk-merchant; Moncey, the son of a barrister; Gouvion, -who assumed the name of Saint-Cyr, and whose father practiced as an -attorney; and Brune, who started in life as a journalist. It is curious -to trace through the lives of the different men the effect which -their earliest associations had upon them. Some grew ashamed of their -parentage; whilst others bragged overmuch of being self-made men. Only -one or two bore their honors with perfect modesty and tact. - -The noblest character among Napoleon’s marshals was beyond doubt -Adrien Moncey, Duc de Conégliano. He was born at Besançon in 1754, -and enlisted at the age of fifteen, simply that he might not be a -charge to his parents. From his father, the barrister, he had picked -up a smattering of education, while Nature had given him a talent -for drawing. He looked so small and young when he was brought before -the colonel of the Franche Comté regiment for enrollment, that the -latter, who was quite a young man—the Count de Survilliers—asked him, -laughing, whether he had been tipsy from “drinking too much milk” -when he fell into the hands of the recruiting sergeant. The sergeant, -by way of proving that young Moncey had been quite sober when he had -put on the white cockade (which was like taking the king’s shilling -in England), produced a cleverly executed caricature of himself which -the boy had drawn; upon which M. de Survilliers predicted that so -accomplished a recruit would quickly win an epaulette. This promise -came to nothing, for in 1789, after twenty years’ service, Moncey was -only a lieutenant. It was a noble trait in him that in after years he -never spoke resentfully of his slow promotion. He used to say that he -had been thoroughly well-trained, and he alluded kindly to all his -former officers. After Napoleon’s overthrow, Moncey’s conduct was most -chivalrous; he privately blamed Ney’s betrayal of the Bourbons, for it -was not in his nature to approve of double-dealing, but he refused to -sit in judgment upon his former comrade. Marshal Victor was sent to -shake his resolution, but Moncey repeated two or three times: “I do not -think I should have acted as Ney did, but I believe he acted according -to his conscience and did well; ordinary rules do not apply to this -case.” He eventually became governor of the Invalides, and it fell to -him in 1840 to receive Napoleon’s body when it was brought from St. -Helena. It was remarked at the time that if Napoleon himself could have -designated the man who was to discharge this pious duty, he would have -chosen none other than Moncey, or Oudinot, who by a happy coincidence -became governor of the Invalides in 1842 after Moncey’s death. - -Nicolas Oudinot, Duc de Reggio, was surnamed the Modern Bayard. He was -born in 1767, and like Moncey enlisted in his sixteenth year. He was -wounded thirty-two times in action, but was so little of a braggart -that in going among the old pensioners of the Invalides he was never -heard to allude to his own scars. At Friedland a bullet went through -both his cheeks, breaking two molars. “These Russians do not know how -to draw teeth,” was his only remark, as his wound was being dressed. - -After Friedland he received with the title of count a grant of £40,000, -and he began to distribute money at such a rate among his poor -relations, that the emperor remonstrated with him. “You keep the lead -for yourself, and you give the gold away,” said His Majesty in allusion -to two bullets which remained in the marshal’s body. - -Macdonald comes next among the marshals for nobility of character. He -was of Irish extraction, born at Sancerre in 1765, and served under -Louis XVI. in Dillon’s Irish Regiment. Macdonald won his colonelcy at -Jemmapes. In 1804, however, all his prospects were suddenly marred -through his generous espousal of Moreau’s cause. Moreau had been -banished on an ill-proven charge of conspiracy; and Macdonald thought, -like most honest men, that he had been very badly treated. - -But by saying aloud what most honest men were afraid even to whisper, -Macdonald incurred the Corsican’s vindictive hatred, and during -five years he was kept in disgrace, being deprived of his command, -and debarred from active service. He thus missed the campaigns -of Austerlitz and Jéna, and this was a bitter chagrin to him. He -retired to a small country-house near Brunoy, and one of his favorite -occupations was gardening. He was much interested in the projects -for manufacturing sugar out of beetroot, which were to render France -independent of West India sugar—a matter of great consequence after -the destruction of France’s naval power at Trafalgar: and he had an -intelligent gardener who helped him in his not very successful efforts -to raise fine beetroots. This man turned out to be a police-spy. -Napoleon in his jealousy of Moreau and hatred of all who sympathized -with the latter, had thought it good to have Macdonald watched, and -he appears to have suspected at one time that the hero of Otricoli -contemplated taking service in the English army. There were other -marshals besides Macdonald who had reasons to complain of Napoleon; -Victor’s hatred of him was very lively, and arose out of a practical -joke. Victor was the vainest of men; he had entered Louis XVI.’s -service at fifteen as a drummer, but when he became an officer under -the Republic he was weak enough to be ashamed of his humble origin -and assumed his Christian name of Victor as a surname instead of his -patronymic of Perrin. He might have pleaded, to be sure, that Victor -was a name of happy augury to a soldier, but he does not appear to -have behaved well toward his Perrin connections. He was a little man -with a waist like a pumpkin, and a round, rosy, jolly face, which had -caused him to be nicknamed _Beau Soleil_. A temperate fondness for red -wine added occasionally to the luster of his complexion. He was not a -general of the first order, but brave and faithful in carrying out his -master’s plans; he had an honorable share in the victory of Friedland, -and after this battle was promoted to the marshalate and to a dukedom. -Now Victor would have liked to be made Duke of Marengo; but Napoleon’s -sister Pauline suggested that his services in the two Italian wars -could be commemorated as well by the title of Belluno—pronounced in -French, Bellune. It was not until after Napoleon had innocently acceded -to this suggestion that he learned his facetious sister had in choosing -the title of Bellune (Belle Lune) played upon the sobriquet of Beau -Soleil. He was at first highly displeased at this, but Victor himself -took the joke so very badly that the emperor ended by joining in the -laughter, and said that if the marshal did not like the title that had -been given him, he should have no other. Wounds in vanity seldom heal, -and Victor, as soon as he could safely exhibit his resentment, showed -himself one of Napoleon’s bitterest enemies. During the Hundred Days he -accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent, and he figured in full uniform at -the _Te Deum_ celebrated in the Cathedral of Saint Bavon in honor of -Waterloo. - -Augereau, Duc de Castiglione, was of all the marshals the one in whom -there is least to admire; yet he was for a time the most popular among -them, having been born in Paris and possessing the devil-may-care -impudence of Parisians. He was the son of a mason and of a street -fruit-vendor, and he began life as apprentice to his father’s trade. -Soon after he enlisted, and proved a capital soldier; but his character -was only good in the military sense. He was thirty-two when the -Revolution broke out, and was then wearing a sergeant’s stripes; in -the following year he got a commission; in 1793 he was a colonel; in -1795 a general. His rapid promotion was not won by valor only, but by -sending to the war office bombastic despatches in which he magnified -every achievement of his twenty-fold, and related it with a rigmarole -of patriotic sentiments and compliments to the convention. - -There was one great point of resemblance between Augereau and Masséna: -they were both inveterate looters. In 1798, when Masséna was sent -to Rome to establish a republic, his own soldiers were disgusted by -the shameless way in which he plundered palaces and churches, and he -actually had to resign his command owing to their murmurs. Augereau was -a more wily spoiler, for he gave his men a good share of what he took, -and kept another share for Parisian museums, but he always reserved -enough for himself to make his soldiering a very profitable business. - -It was politic of Napoleon to make of Augereau a marshal-duke, for -apart from the man’s intrepidity, which was unquestionable (though he -was a poor general), the honors conferred upon him were a compliment -to the whole class of Parisian _ouvriers_. Augereau’s mother, the -costerwoman, lived to see him in all his glory, and he was good to -her, for once, at a state pageant, when he was wearing the plumed -hat of a senator, and the purple velvet mantle with its _semis_ of -golden bees, he gave her his arm in public. This incident delighted -all the market-women of Paris, and helped to make Napoleon’s court -popular; but in general respects Augereau proved an unprofitable, -ungrateful servant. He was one of the first marshals to grumble against -his master’s repeated campaigns, and he deserted him in 1814 under -circumstances which looked suspicious. Napoleon accused him of letting -himself be purposely beaten by the Allies. After the escape from Elba, -Augereau first pronounced himself vehemently against the “usurper;” -then proffered him his services, which were contemptuously spurned. The -Duc de Castiglione’s career ended then, for he retired to his estate at -Houssaye, and died a year afterward, little regretted by anybody. - -Masséna, who had been born the year after Augereau, died the year after -him, in 1817. He too had enlisted very young, but finding he could get -no promotion, had asked his friends to buy his discharge, and during -the five years that preceded the Revolution, he served as potman in his -father’s tavern at Leven. Re-enlisting in 1789, he became a general in -less than four years. After Rivoli, Bonaparte dubbed him “The darling -of victory;” but it was a curious feature in Masséna that his talents -only came out on the battle-field. Usually he was a dull dog, with no -faculty for expressing his ideas, and he wore a morose look. Napoleon -said that “the noise of cannon cleared his mind,” endowing him with -penetration and gaiety at the same time. The din of war had just the -contrary effect upon Brune, who, but for his tragic death, would have -remained the most obscure of the marshals, though he is conspicuous -from being almost the only one of the twenty-six who had no title of -nobility. Brune was a notable example of what strong will-power can -do to conquer innate nervousness. He was the son of a barrister, and -having imbibed the hottest revolutionary principles, vapored them -off by turning journalist. He went to Paris, and was introduced to -Danton, for whom he conceived an enthusiastic admiration. He became -the demagogue’s disciple, letter-writer, and boon companion, and it is -pretty certain that he would eventually have kept him company on the -guillotine, had it not been for a lucky sneer from a woman’s lips which -drove him into the army. Brune had written a pamphlet on military -operations, and it was being talked of at Danton’s table, when Mdlle. -Gerfault, an actress of the Palais Royal, better known as “Eglé,” said -mockingly, “You will be a general when we fight with pens.” Stung to -the quick, Brune applied for a commission, was sent into the army with -the rank of major, and in about a year, through Danton’s patronage, -became a brigade-general; meanwhile poor Eglé, having wagged her pert -tongue at Robespierre, lost her head in consequence. - -The marshal on whom ducal honors seemed to sit most queerly was -François Lefèbvre, Duc de Dantzig. He was born in 1755, the son of a -miller, and was a sergeant in the French guards at the time of the -Revolution. He had then just married a _vivandière_. The anecdotes of -Madame Lefèbvre’s incongruous sayings at the consular and imperial -courts are so many as to remind one of the proverb, “We yield only to -riches.” Everything that could be imagined in the way of a _lapsus -linguæ_ or a bull was attributed to this good-natured Mrs. Malaprop, -whose oddities amused Josephine, but not always Napoleon. - -Once Lefèbvre fell ill of ague, and his servant, an old soldier, caught -the malady at the same time. The servant was quickly cured; but the -fever clung to the marshal until it occurred to his energetic duchess -that the doctor had blundered by giving to a marshal the same doses as -to a private soldier. She rapidly counted on her fingers the different -rungs of the military ladder. “Here, drink, this suits your rank,” she -said, putting a full tumbler to her husband’s lips, and the duke having -swallowed a dozen doses at one gulp, was soon on his legs again. “You -have much to learn, my friend,” was the lady’s subsequent remark to the -astonished doctor. - -Napoleon was a great stickler for appearances, and for this reason -loathed the dirtiness and slovenliness of Davoust. Madame Junot, in -her amusing “Memoirs,” relates that the Duc d’Auerstadt, having some -facial resemblance to Napoleon, was fond of copying him in dress and -manners; but she adds that Napoleon himself was very neat. A marshal -had no excuse for being untidy. Davoust had been at Brienne with -Bonaparte, and had thus a longer experience of his master’s character -than any of the other marshals. Had he been wise he would have turned -it to account, not only by cultivating the graces, but by giving the -emperor that ungrudging, demonstrative loyalty which Napoleon valued -above all things, and rewarded by constant favor. But Davoust was a -caballer, a grievance-monger, and a _grognard_; and it must have been -rather diverting to see him aping the manners of a master at whom he -was always carping in holes and corners. On the other hand, it must -be said that Davoust proved faithful in the hour of misfortune, and -did not rally to the Bourbons till 1818; that is, when all chances of -an imperial restoration were gone; moreover, every time he held an -important command he did his duty with courage, talent, and fidelity. -His affected brusqueness of speech was an unfortunate mannerism, for it -made him many enemies, and sometimes exposed him to odd reprisals. The -roughness of tongue which was affected in Davoust was natural in Soult. -This marshal had an excellent heart, but he could not, for the life -of him, refrain from snarling at anybody whom he heard praised. The -proverb about bite and bark might have been invented for him, as the -men at whom he grumbled most were often those whom he most favored. - -Soult was born in the same year as Napoleon, 1769, and out-lived -all his brother marshals, dying in 1852, when the second empire was -already an impending fact. He had been a private soldier under Louis -XVI., he passed through every grade in the service, he became prime -minister, and when he voluntarily resigned office in 1847, owing to -the infirmities of age, Louis Philippe created him marshal-general—a -title which had only been borne by three marshals before him, Turenne, -Villars, and Maurice de Saxe. But these honors never quite consoled -Soult for having failed to become king of Portugal. He could not -stomach the luck of his comrade Bernadotte, the son of a weaver, who -was wearing the crown of Sweden. - -Bernadotte, whom Soult envied, has some affinities with M. Grévy. -This president of the republic first won renown by a parliamentary -motion to the effect that a republic did not want a president; so -Bernadotte came to be a king, after a long and steadfast profession -of republican principles. Born in 1764, he enlisted at eighteen, and -was sergeant-major in 1789. He was very nearly court-martialed at that -time for haranguing a crowd in revolutionary terms. Five years later -he was a general, and in 1798 ambassador at Vienna. He was an able, -thoughtful, hardy, handsome man, who, having received no education as a -boy, made up for it by diligent study in after years; and no man ever -so well corrected, in small or great things, the imperfections of early -training. Tallyrand said of him, “He is a man who learns and _unlearns_ -every day.” One thing he learned was to read the character of Napoleon -and not to be afraid of him, for the act which led to his becoming king -of Sweden was one of rare audacity. Commanding an army sent against -the Swedes in 1808, he suspended operations on learning the overthrow -by revolution of Gustavus IV., against whom war had been declared. -The Swedes were profoundly grateful for this, and Napoleon dared not -say much, because he was supposed to have no quarrel with the Swedes -as a people; but Bernadotte was marked down in his bad books from -that day, and he was in complete disgrace when in 1810 Charles XIII. -adopted him as crown prince with the approval of the Swedish people. -Bernadotte made an excellent king, but remembering his austere advocacy -of republicanism, it is impossible not to smile and ask whether there -is not some truth in Madame de Girardin’s definition of equality as _le -privilége pour tous_. - -Napoleon always valued Kellerman as having been a general in the old -royal army. Born in 1735, he was a maréchal de camp (brigadier) when -the war broke out. The emperor would have been glad to have had more -of such men at his court; but it was creditable to the king’s general -officers that very few of them forgot their duties as soldiers during -the troublous period when so many temptations to commit treason beset -men holding high command. Grouchy, who in 1789 was a lieutenant in -the king’s body-guard, hardly cuts a fine figure as a revolutionist -accepting a generalship in 1793 from the convention which had beheaded -his king. He was an uncanny person altogether; the convention having -voted that all noblemen should be debarred from commissions, he -enlisted as a private soldier, and this was imputed to him as an act -of patriotism; but he had friends in high quarters who promised that -he should quickly regain his rank if he formally renounced his titles; -and this he did, getting his generalship restored in consequence. In -after years he resumed his marquisate, and denied that he had ever -abjured it. Napoleon created him marshal during the Hundred Days for -having taken the Duc d’Angoulême prisoner; but the Bourbons declined -to recognize his title to the _bâton_, and he had to wait till Louis -Philippe’s reign before it was confirmed to him. Grouchy was never -a popular marshal, though he fought well in 1814 in the campaign of -France. His inaction on the day of Waterloo has been satisfactorily -explained, but somehow all his acts have required explanation; he was -one of those men whose records are never intelligible without footnotes. - -But how many of the marshals remained faithful to their master when his -sun had set? At St. Helena Napoleon alluded most often to Lannes and -Bessières, who both died whilst he was in the heyday of his power, the -first at Essling, the second at Lützen. As to these two Napoleon could -cherish illusions, and he loved to think that Lannes especially—his -brave, hot-headed, hot-hearted “Jean-Jean”—would have clung to him like -a brother in misfortune. Perhaps it was as well that Lannes was spared -an ordeal to which Murat, hot-headed and hot-hearted too, succumbed. It -is at all events a bitter subject for reflection that the great emperor -found among his marshals and dukes no such friend as he had among the -hundreds of humbler officers, captains, and lieutenants, who threw up -their commissions sooner than serve the Bourbons.—_Temple Bar._ - - - - -C. L. S. C. WORK. - -By REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D., SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION C. L. S. C. - - -The Class of ’84 rules the year. - - * * * * * - -The readings for November are: “History of Greece,” Timayenis, volume -II, parts 10 and 11, or (for the new Class of 1877) “Brief History of -Greece;” Chautauqua Text-Book No. 5, “Greek History;” Required Readings -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -Memorial Day for November, Special Sunday, November 11. Read Job, -twenty-eighth chapter. One of the finest passages in all literature. - - * * * * * - -Talk much about the subject of your reading. You know what you have by -your speech caused others to know. - - * * * * * - -Have you ever tried to control conversation at a table in the interest -of some sensible subject? It will be a curious study for you to see -how this mind and that will run away with or from the topic you have -proposed. It will tax your ingenuity to bring the company back to the -original topic. The measures of your success will be the interest you -can awaken in others, the amount of information on the subject which -you can elicit from them, and the amount, also, which you can give them -without seeming to be a lecturer or preacher for the occasion. - - * * * * * - -We must insist upon the observance of the Memorial Days. Put up your -list of Memorial Days in plain sight, so that you may not forget them. -Order a copy of the little volume of “Memorial Days” from Phillips & -Hunt, 805 Broadway, New York, or Walden & Stowe, Cincinnati, Ohio. -Price, 10 cents. - - * * * * * - -It is proposed that “the C. L. S. C. as a body organize a lecture -bureau, to be entirely or partially sustained by small contributions -from each member, thereby enabling weak circles to obtain one or two -good lectures during the year at reasonable prices.” A proposition to -be considered. - - * * * * * - -“Will I be required to read the ‘Preparatory Latin Course in English’ -next year? I have studied the same thing in the original very lately.” -Answer: You will be required to read the “Preparatory Latin Course in -English.” You can not have studied, except under such a teacher as Dr. -Wilkinson, the Latin Course in English as we require it under the C. L. -S. C. The book must be read. - - * * * * * - -“Does the C. L. S. C. confer a degree? If so, what is it?” Answer: -The C. L. S. C. is not a university or college. It has no charter, -consequently it has no power to confer degrees. There is a university -charter in the hands of the Chautauqua management—a university to be. -In this university there will be non-resident courses of study, with a -rigid annual examination, to be followed by degrees and diplomas. There -may sometime in the future be a permanent Chautauqua University at -Chautauqua. Further than this I can say nothing now. It is to be hoped -the Chautauqua University will never confer honorary degrees. - - * * * * * - -Correspond with some one on the studies of the C. L. S. C. Make your -letter a means of self-improvement. Congratulate yourself if your -friend, in reply, shows where you made two or three mistakes in your -letter. - - * * * * * - -Will you find out the names of the latest graduating class of the high -school in your town, and send them to me? I may interest them in the C. -L. S. C. course of study, by sending a “Popular Education Circular.” -Address Drawer 75, New Haven, Conn. - - * * * * * - -Are you willing wisely to distribute from ten to a hundred copies of -the “Popular Education Circular,” and would you scatter copies of the -tiny C. L. S. C. advertisement, if they were sent you? - - * * * * * - -The most indefatigable worker in the C. L. S. C., next to our worthy -secretary, Miss Kimball, is the secretary of the new class—the Class of -1887—Mr. Kingsley A. Burnell, who is making a remarkable record as he -travels to and fro in the far West, visiting editors of papers, offices -of railroad superintendents, cabins of employes, and on the cars, -urging persons to adopt this new plan of self-culture. - - - - -C. L. S. C. STATIONERY. - - -A promise was made at the Round-Table at Chautauqua that in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN for November there should be something said about all kinds -of C. L. S. C. stationery known to the writer. - -William Briggs, 80 King St., E., Toronto, Ont., sells several styles -of stationery, sheets and envelopes, with a monogram printed in blue, -mauve, or crimson. Information can be obtained by addressing him at -Toronto. - -By the time this number has reached the hands of its readers, or -within a few days after, there will be for sale at the various book -stores dealing in the “Required Reading” of the C. L. S. C. a variety -of _papeterie_ stationery, having on the front page a beautiful -design most artistically engraved, showing Chautauqua Lake, with the -Chautauqua landing on the right, as seen from the railroad station, -and in the upper left hand corner an oval, or circle, with the Hall -of Philosophy very tastily enshrined therein. In the foliage drooping -into the lake there is inwrought the monogram of the C. L. S. C. A box -of this very fine paper and envelopes will cost about fifty cents. It -will be sent by mail from Messrs. Fairbanks, Palmer & Co., 133 Wabash -Avenue, Chicago, Ill., or from J. P. Magee, 38 Bromfield St., Boston, -Mass., or from H. H. Otis, Buffalo, N. Y. An advertisement of this -stationery will be found in the December number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -Another style of stationery can be had of Messrs. Fairbanks, Palmer & -Co., for the class of 1884, with a beautiful design especially arranged -for that class. Forty cents for a quire of paper and envelopes to match. - -Ten thousand sheets prepared for general use by the members and -officers of the several classes, specially designed to be used by -gentlemen, can be had by addressing the several class officers. - -For further information write to Rev. W. D. Bridge, 718 State St., New -Haven, Conn. - - - - -NEW ENGLAND BRANCH OF THE CLASS OF ’86. - - -While at Lake View a New England Branch of the Class of ’86 was -organized, with the following officers: President, Rev. B. T. Snow, -Biddeford, Me.; vice-presidents, Rev. W. H. Clark, South Norridgewock, -Me., Edwin F. Reeves, Laconia, N. H., Rev. J. H. Babbitt, Swanton, Vt., -Charles Wainwright, Lawrence, Mass., Miss Lousia E. French, Newport, R. -I., Rev. A. Gardner, Buckingham, Ct.; secretary and treasurer, Mary R. -Hinckley, Bedford, Mass. The above officers were authorized to act also -as an executive board. - -The badge of Class of ’86 can be obtained of the President. It has -been decided to use in private correspondence a certain style of -letter paper marked with “C. L. S. C. ’86” in a neat monogram. Further -particulars in regard to this paper will soon be given. - -Just before leaving Chautauqua the Class of ’86 adopted a motto: “We -study for light, to bless with light.” The New England branch adopts -this motto, in addition to the one chosen at Lake View: “Let us keep -our Heavenly Father in the midst.” - - - - -C. L. S. C. TESTIMONY. - - -_Canada._—It was a bitter disappointment to me that I was compelled -to leave school at fourteen and earn my own living, giving up the -idea of a college course. The C. L. S. C. has been to me therefore an -unspeakable boon. - - * * * * * - -_Vermont._—I have received large benefit as well as pleasure during the -year that I have been a member of the C. L. S. C. The course of reading -has taken me into broader fields, opened new avenues of thought and -reflection, widened my field of vision, and altogether made me a better -man. - - * * * * * - -_Vermont._—According to Isaiah xxx:7, I have been trying to show my -strength by “sitting still” four years. I often ask myself, what -should I have done had I not had this interesting course—the C. L. S. -C. During these four years of deprivation how many sorrows have been -almost forgotten while reading the many interesting thoughts that are -presented in our reading. I thank God many times for this glorious -enterprise. - - * * * * * - -_Connecticut._—I have been very much interested in the studies of -the C. L. S. C. during the first year. It is an honor as well as a -privilege to be a member. - - * * * * * - -_Rhode Island._—Many times home duties have occupied time and thought -so fully as to discourage me. But realizing that I am to live “heartily -as to the Lord,” and viewing the course as his special blessing, I have -gathered inspiration and journeyed on patiently. - - * * * * * - -_New York._—I have enjoyed my four years’ course very much, and hope -that it has been profitable to me. Though having reached the age of -sixty years my love for improvement has not been gratified, and I -purpose to continue the course that is marked out. - - * * * * * - -_New York._—I am surprised at the pleasure and advantage the C. L. S. -C. has been to me. I have read no more than usual, but have read more -systematically, and received greater benefit. There is inspiration in -being “one of many.” - - * * * * * - -_New York._—I have taken great pleasure in the reading. Am very -enthusiastic over the course, and will try my best to graduate. I do it -a great deal for my children, hoping that I may be a better mother, and -train their minds so that they will make better men and women than they -would have been had I not become a member of the C. L. S. C. Am all -alone in my reading, except what my boy of fourteen does with me; even -my little girl just turned seven studies geology with me, and is much -interested in finding specimens. - - * * * * * - -_Pennsylvania._—I have only been a member of the C. L. S. C. for about -four months and in that time I have done most of my reading at night, -reading usually from eight o’clock until eleven. As I have to work hard -all day, I have little time for reading except at night, I find the -course very interesting, and I am deriving a great amount of good from -it. - - * * * * * - -_Pennsylvania._—For almost two years my work has required my presence -twelve hours every week day, and part of the time sixteen and eighteen -hours. I gave up last summer, thinking I could not finish the course, -but after being present at Chautauqua I had a greater desire than ever -to continue. I have at leisure moments read up for the two years, and -must ever feel grateful to Chautauqua influence. - - * * * * * - -_Ohio._—I am a farmer’s wife, but with all the care of the work that -position in life brings (and a good share of the work too), I still -find time to read the regular four years’ course of the C. L. S. C., -and desire to do as thorough work as I am capable of doing. Am reading -not merely for pleasure, far less to criticise, but for _instruction_, -and have been greatly helped by this first year’s study. - - * * * * * - -_Ohio._—In many ways I think the C. L. S. C. has been of benefit to -the little ones. This last winter my eldest daughter said: “Why can’t -we have a society of our own?” “We,” meant the family. I seconded it -gladly, and my husband also, and we resolved ourselves into the “Clio -Clique” and took as our work “Art and Artists,” as mapped out in the -_St. Nicholas_. Each member pledged themselves to take the work given -them by the president (who was our only officer), and also to commit -not less than eight lines of some poem to memory. We had no outside -members, and we did our work right well, I think. - - * * * * * - -_Illinois._—The C. L. S. C. has done much for me. Life has been -brighter, sweeter and better than it might otherwise have been. -Friendships have been formed which I am sure will survive life, and add -another link in the golden chain that binds us to another world. - - * * * * * - -_Michigan._—To the C. L. S. C. I owe everything. - - * * * * * - -_Michigan._—Were it not that I still may keep a place in the Circle, -I should be sorry the four years were over. They have been pleasant -ones, so far as the Circle was concerned, and have passed swiftly. It -seemed a great undertaking to me four years ago, when I commenced the -course. For one thing, I did not see my way clear to get the books, but -I resolved to try, and it has seemed all along that it was God’s way of -helping me to the knowledge I had so much desired. - - * * * * * - -_Wisconsin._—A lady writes: The regular methods of the C. L. S. C. have -suggested to me the plan of having a little home monthly, contributed -to only by members of the family, written, and read aloud on a -specified evening each month. The children write prose and poetry that -are a surprise, but only the effect of a regular course of reading and -conversations by one member of the family. While reading astronomy, -one of the little girls, aged ten years, took two looking-glasses and -illustrated, in play, the motions of a planet. She held them by the -window in the sun, so as to throw the reflection on the ceiling. One -she had stationary, for the sun, the other she caused to go around -it, causing the motion to hasten at perihelion, and to become slow at -aphelion, describing the motions correctly. Then she imagined a comet, -causing it to go out of sight, then return, and upon its approach to -the sun rushing it past with lightning speed. I called the attention -of their father to their play with much delight, for I had no idea -they understood the motions so well, simply from conversations on the -subject in the family circle. They all joined in the conversation at -play, and seemed to comprehend it all. - - * * * * * - -_Iowa._—The studies have benefited me much more than I can express -in words. May heaven’s choicest blessings rest upon the officers and -everyone connected with the C. L. S. C. - - * * * * * - -_Kansas._—I am one of the busy housekeepers, but always find time -to read. My reading has uplifted my soul, and led me to a fuller -appreciation of the power and love of God, and I feel thankful that I -am numbered with the army of Chautauquans. - - * * * * * - -_California._—When I read the C. L. S. C. testimony in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -I always think Chautauqua has been _all that_ and _more_ to me, for -it has led me from cold, dark skepticism to my Bible and my Father in -heaven, and it is gradually leading some of my friends into the light. -I prize my C. L. S. C. books more highly that they are worn and soiled -by many readers, and I believe I can do no better missionary work than -by enlarging the Circle. - - - - -C. L. S. C. REUNION. - - -On the afternoon of June 27, at Pendleton, Indiana, a delightful C. L. -S. C. reunion was held. The circle of Pendleton invited the circle from -the neighboring village of Greenfield to join with them in their last -meeting for the year. A goodly number of visitors were present. After -an entertaining program of speeches, songs, toasts, etc., had been -carried out, the following class histories were read: - - -PENDLETON LOCAL CIRCLE. - - On the evening of the 28th of December, 1881, a little - company of eight ladies and five gentlemen assembled - at the home of Dr. Huston, Pendleton, Indiana, for the - purpose of more fully discussing the Chautauqua Idea, - and if possible to organize a branch of the great - Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. Three months - behind in the year’s studies, the outlook was not as - encouraging as could have been wished, but finding one - of the class mottoes to be “Never be discouraged,” - it was unanimously agreed that we organize. Teachers - were also chosen for the principal studies, and it - was thought best that they should present the lessons - to the class in the form of questions. This method - was generally observed throughout the year, with the - exception of some lectures on geology. At each session - two of the members were appointed to write papers - for the following week, on some subject pertaining - to the lessons. Longfellow’s birthday was the only - memorial observed. Besides the usual exercises of the - evening a short sketch of the life of the poet was - read, followed by the reading of two of his poems. Our - weekly meetings were well kept up, and much interest - manifested in the studies until the first of May, when - owing to summer heat, and many calls on the time of the - different members, it was thought best to meet once a - month, each member being given a portion of the studies - to be brought forward at the next session. This plan - was found to be a good one for the summer months, and - was continued until the beginning of the new year’s - studies, when the weekly meetings were again resumed, - and the meetings were spent in much the same manner as - the first year with the exception of the evening of the - thirtieth of November, when a complete change was made - in the program, by having a C. L. S. C. thanksgiving - supper and a general good time at the residence of Mr. - and Mrs. Whitney. Since that time our circle has lost - several of its members either from sickness or change - of residence, but we hope ere the beginning of another - year to be fully reinforced and ready to continue the - good work. - - - GREENFIELD LOCAL CIRCLE. - - Although we have met to-day as strangers, we find that - the unity of thought and purpose that has characterized - our work the past year has made us friends. The history - of our circle is necessarily brief because of the short - time it has been in existence. When we first organized - in the fall of ’82, a part of us supposed we were - entering the society temporarily and did not expect to - matriculate and become regular members of the mystic - tie, but we only met a few times till we perceived the - advantages we were deriving from the association, one - with another, and saw the necessity of a permanent - organization. Now there are ten of us enrolled as - students of the “University of the C. L. S. C.” We - pursued the course with a great deal of enthusiasm and - delight, and if it were possible, each study seemed - more interesting than the preceding. With a great deal - of reluctance we laid aside geology and Greek history - for astronomy and English history, but we soon saw we - were susceptible of inspiration from the latter as well - as the former. Our circle, except two, is composed of - married ladies. As housewives we feel that the course - has been very beneficial—it has relieved the monotony - and tedium of housekeeping because it has given us - something ennobling to think of—it has also given us - a taste for something else than the last novel and - the latest piece of gossip in the daily papers. We - feel as though we could adopt the sentiment of Plato. - A friend who observed that he seemed as desirous to - learn himself as to teach others, asked him how long he - expected to remain a student? Plato replied, “As long - as I am not ashamed to grow wiser and better.” - - * * * * * - -TEMPERANCE and labor are the two best physicians of man; labor -sharpens the appetite, and temperance prevents him from indulging to -excess.—_Rousseau._ - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLES. - - -=Province of Quebec (Bedford).=—The Harmony Circle was organized here -last September. We are seven in number, all having so many cares that -the Chautauqua work has to be done by improving the spare moments, and -often by giving up some pleasure or recreation; but the sacrifice is -made willingly. Each member prepares seven questions; the number to be -chosen from each subject in hand is determined at the previous meeting. -Each in turn puts a question to his or her nearest neighbor, then the -second time round to the nearest but one, and so on; thus each member -puts a question to every other member. This, with discussions and -conversations which arise from the lesson, occupies more than two hours -in a very enjoyable manner. We have derived profit from the work, both -in increase of knowledge and improvement of literary taste. Our circle -has also been the source of much kindly feeling and mutual interest, -and a strong bond of friendship amongst us. - - * * * * * - -=Maine (Brownfield).=—Our circle was organized early in October, 1882, -with ten regular members, five gentlemen and five ladies. We arranged -to meet once in two weeks, and enjoyed our evenings together so much -that it was extremely difficult to keep the length of our sessions -within reasonable bounds. We congratulated ourselves constantly on the -pleasure afforded us by our studies, and on the obvious improvement, -from month to month, in the work of individual members. It was -decided, for the present year at least, to change the whole board of -officers once in three months, that the educating influences of the -responsibilities connected with the various offices might be shared, in -turn, by all who were willing to accept them. - - * * * * * - -=Maine (Fairfield).=—A local circle was organized here in October, -1882, and now numbers fifteen members, nearly all of whom have -completed the required readings to date. Teachers are assigned to each -of the subjects as they are taken up, and recitations are conducted -with excellent system and thoroughness. In addition to this we have -numerous essays and readings, and the enthusiasm is such that, -notwithstanding our regular meetings occur fortnightly, we have many -special meetings. It is the custom at all of our meetings to criticize -freely, and this leads to an exactness of pronunciation when reading, -not otherwise to be attained. - - * * * * * - -=Maine (Brownfield).=—Our circle meets once in two weeks, takes -up questions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and then devotes a short time to -questions of our own asking, using a question-box. We think this an -excellent plan. After this we generally have short essays on the -subjects we are reading, often closing with general conversation. - - * * * * * - -=Massachusetts (Wareham).=—The Pallas Circle closed for the season with -a lawn party, June 18. - - -PROGRAM. - - Singing—“A Song of To-day.” - - Roll-Call—Responses of quotations from any of the - reading of the past year. - - Secretary’s report. - - Selected questions in Astronomy, answered by members of - the circle. - - Reading—“The Vision of Mirza.” - - Essay—“The Mythological Story of Ursa Major and Ursa - Minor.” - - Reading—Selections from “Evangeline.” - - Reading—“The Fan-drill.”—(Addison.) - - Singing—Chautauqua Carols. - - Supper—Toasts and Responses, including two original - poems. - -Though small in numbers the circle is very enthusiastic in its work. -New members for the coming year were enrolled from the invited guests -of the occasion, and the readings will be commenced in October with -fresh vigor. - - * * * * * - -=Massachusetts (Haverhill).=—A local circle was organized in Haverhill, -March 14, 1883, with the following officers: R. D. Trask, president; -George H. Foster, vice president; Delia Drew, secretary. Whole -membership numbers seventeen. - - * * * * * - -=Massachusetts (Natick).=—The Natick local circle was organized -September 20, 1879. Eight of the original members, keeping in view the -motto, “never be discouraged,” have completed the four years’ course. -At the commencement of the present year our local circle numbered -twenty-five. We enjoy our reading greatly, and consider the Natick C. -L. S. C. a success. - - * * * * * - -=Connecticut (West Haven).=—Our circle was organized November 14, -1881, and numbers seventeen members. We meet once a week. Our circle -is divided into committees of three and four to arrange programs for -the month’s entertainments. They include reviews, essays on different -subjects connected with the course, readings and recitations. -“Shakspere’s Day” was observed by reading a portion of the play, -“Merchant of Venice,” the committee having previously assigned the -different characters to the members present. We are very social at -our meetings, and occasionally have a little collation at the close -of the exercises. Most of us are well up with the class, and find the -Chautauqua evenings not only instructive, but exceedingly enjoyable. - - * * * * * - -=New York (Angola).=—A local circle was organized here February 5, -1883, and consists of eighteen members. We usually do the reading in -THE CHAUTAUQUAN at our meetings, information being given, and questions -asked by all. We have made use of the questions and answers in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN, and found them to be of much assistance. Occasionally -topics are assigned, upon which we are to read or speak at the next -meeting. Criticism upon pronunciation is unsparingly given to all. We -intend to continue our meetings, and hope that another year may bring -us a larger membership. - - * * * * * - -=Pennsylvania (Allegheny City).=—In November, 1882, the Woodlawn -segment of the C. L. S. C. was organized and officers elected. The -president having drawn up a constitution, it was read and unanimously -adopted. Our constitution regulates the manner of conducting the -society, prescribes parliamentary rules, etc. During our study of -geology, we were favored with an interesting and instructive lecture by -A. M. Martin, Esq., General Secretary of the C. L. S. C. Our membership -now consists of seventeen persons, six being ladies. - - * * * * * - -=Pennsylvania (Gillmor).=—Our circle owes its being to the earnest, -persistent efforts of two or three persons who had read one year alone. -The first meeting was held October 24, 1882, and the circle organized -with fifteen members. We labor under some peculiar difficulties. Our -members represent several little villages, and are so scattered that -it is some times hard to get together. Then we are in the oil country -where people stay rather than live, so they gather around them only -such things as are needful for comfortable living. The majority have -but few books of reference, or other helps to study. Our meetings -were opened with prayer and the singing of a Chautauqua song, and -sometimes repeating the Chautauqua mottoes, any items of business being -attended to before beginning the regular work of the circle. Before -closing members were appointed by the president to conduct the various -exercises in the succeeding meeting. In the latter part of the winter -the president proposed a course of lectures. It was a decided success. -Our lecturers were J. T. Edwards, D.D., Randolph, N. Y.—subject: -“Oratory and Eloquence;” D. W. C. Huntington, Bradford, Pa., “Rambles -in Europe;” C. W. Winchester, Buffalo, N. Y., “Eight Wonders of the -World.” This course closed with a home entertainment, consisting of -vocal and instrumental music, readings, essays, etc., mostly by members -of the circle. Our number is at present nineteen, and we are happy to -have proved those to be false prophets who predicted that three months -would be the limit of our existence. - - * * * * * - -=District of Columbia (Washington).=—The Parker Circle has been -reorganized for the course of 1883-84. Several new members were -received, and the circle now numbers about thirty-six. On Tuesday -evening, the 18th, Dr. Dobson, our president, will organize a new -circle in another part of the city, beginning with a dozen members. -Foundry Circle reorganizes the same night, and several new circles will -be organized during the fall. There is considerable interest manifested -in the course. - - * * * * * - -=Maryland (Baltimore).=—The Class of 1887 was organized on Thursday -evening, September 20, at the Young Men’s Christian Association -Hall. The membership for the coming year will be about thirty. The -officers constitute the committee on instruction. The class of the -past year, the fourth since its organization, was one of the best; the -method adopted was that of the question box; each member placing such -questions of interest in the box as he had met with in his reading. -The director, Prof. J. Rendell Harris, would read the questions one at -a time, and open the discussion upon them, in which all joined. Two -meetings each month from October to June were held, and the entire time -spent on the three books, the rest of the books being used for home -reading only. This plan was considered preferable to the study of two -or three at one time. The outlook for the new class is good. - - * * * * * - -=Ohio (Harrisburg).=—We have eleven members, of whom ten are regular -members of the C. L. S. C. Our method of work thus far has consisted of -essays, readings, and conversations. The interest in the work increases -with each meeting. - - * * * * * - -=Illinois (Fairburg).=—We have here a small circle of eight members. We -have met regularly once a week, taking each study in its course, and -in an informal way have discussed the various subjects presented. Much -interest has been felt and expressed, and we all feel that a prescribed -course of reading is by all means the best and most direct means of -self-culture. - - * * * * * - -=Illinois (Yorkville).=—For the past two years quite a number of our -people have pursued the course of studies, but not until last year -did we see proper to unite with the home society. Our class comprised -lawyers, bankers, insurance agents, carriage trimmers, preachers, -teachers and farmers. All feel that it has been two years of very -profitable study for us. We closed our last year’s study by a meeting -at the residence of one of the members, where we were entertained by a -program consisting of essays, character sketches, class history, music, -and last, but not least, refreshments for the inner man. It was indeed -an enjoyable occasion. We hope to organize a much larger class for the -coming year. - - * * * * * - -=Tennessee (Knoxville).=—The local circle at this place reorganized -this year with a membership of twenty-eight, an increase of twenty -over last year. How was this accomplished? The secret can be given in -just two words: _personal influence_. At the close of last year we -felt that our circle here was dying. The members were negligent about -the preparation of lessons, careless and indifferent about attendance, -and we disbanded for the summer feeling almost discouraged, yet in the -heart of each member was a secret determination to do something to -make the circle more interesting next year. One of our members went -to Monteagle, another to Europe, and another to Chautauqua. Those -who remained at home worked also for the C. L. S. C., and all worked -earnestly and with enthusiasm. We thought, wrote and talked C. L. S. -C. until our friends laughingly called us “people of one idea.” We -sent for circulars, which we gave to every one whom we could betray -into the slightest expression of interest. We loaned our books and -magazine with the request, “please just look it over and tell us what -you think of it.” The seventh of September we held a meeting at the Y. -M. C. A. rooms, kindly tendered to us for that purpose. All who were -interested in the C. L. S. C. were invited, and two of the ministers of -our city also encouraged us by their presence and cheering words. Then -we began to reap the fruits of our summer’s work. Seven new members -were reported and two more asked for membership. Another meeting was -held September 21 for reorganization, at which six new names were -reported and five more requested admission to the circle, making our -number twenty-eight. The circle will meet once a week, and we hope to -accomplish results worthy of our enthusiasm. We send greeting to our -sister circles, especially to the weak, to whom we would say: _Use your -influence_ as a society and as individuals, and _success_ is yours. - - * * * * * - -=Michigan (Niles).=—Our circle was organized last October, with -thirteen members. We have held thirty-three meetings, at which reviews -upon the topics studied and readings from THE CHAUTAUQUAN have formed -part of the program. In addition, we have read Bryant’s translation of -the “Iliad,” and “Evangeline.” All the Memorial Days have been kept. -Selections from the author, sketches of his life and home, responses to -roll-call with quotations from the same, and familiar talks upon the -subject of the memorial, have made these occasions of unusual interest. - - * * * * * - -=Michigan (Imlay City).=—On Tuesday evening, November 28, 1882, we -organized a local circle of the C. L. S. C. We have eight regular and -three local members. The meetings have been held once in two weeks, -at the houses of the members, and from the interest manifested in the -work, we have every reason to hope for a large increase in numbers next -year. On the evening of February 27 we observed Longfellow’s birthday -by an interesting program of essays, readings, recitations and songs. -We closed with a sentiment from each one present, from Longfellow. - - * * * * * - -=Wisconsin (La Crosse).=—A local circle was organized here last -January. The membership is small, but we have been faithful to the -work. Although we began very late, we have nearly completed the year’s -work. We are all glad we began such a course of study, and have found -much pleasure in gathering round our “round-table.” The prospects for -an increase in numbers and interest for the coming year are encouraging. - - * * * * * - -=Minnesota (Minneapolis).=—The Centenary Circle has just finished the -work of the year. Our circle has numbered forty-two in all, with six -local members, though six, at least, have been unable to attend the -meetings on account of distance,—one even living in another State—but -most are keeping up their work. There has been more interest and -enthusiasm all through the year than during our first year. - - * * * * * - -=Minnesota (Albert Lea).=—This is the first year of our local circle, -and we number five, all ladies with home cares. We have short sketches -of the “Required History Readings” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, which we think -make us remember them better. We are reading the “White Seal Course” -aloud, and enjoy it so much. Can not be glad enough that we have taken -up this course. - - * * * * * - -=Iowa (Muscatine.)=—The Acme Circle is composed of fifty-five members, -with an average attendance of thirty-five. We are very enthusiastic, -and expect to take the examinations. We recite the lesson, occasionally -reading a part which it does not seem worth while to commit to -memory. Our exercises are varied by essays on topics of importance in -connection with the lesson. - - * * * * * - -=Iowa (St. Charles).=—I wish to report from our town a circle of three -(myself and family). We hold no regular meetings. Although we began the -first year’s course late last December, we have completed the reading -up to this month. It has been very profitable and entertaining to us. -We are each determined to complete the course. We will advertise it -in our county papers, and do our utmost to solicit members and get -up local circles. We do not think any better plan than the C. L. S. -C. could be devised for furnishing those who have not the privilege -of an academic or collegiate course an opportunity to acquire a good -practical education. - - * * * * * - -=Texas (Palestine.)=—The Houston _Daily Post_ gives the following -history of the local circle in Palestine: Some young people and some -adults of Palestine have formed themselves into a branch of the now -world-renowned Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, and have -entered upon the four years’ course of study prescribed by that -institution. The circle was organized in October, 1882, and now has a -membership of twenty-three. Meetings are held every week at the homes -of the members. The evenings thus spent are highly profitable to the -members, socially and intellectually. Dr. Yoakum has assisted the -circle greatly by lectures and talks on geology, astronomy, botany and -history. The program of exercises is varied semi-occasionally from the -regular channel, and the evening is spent in purely a literary way. -Such seasons of refreshment occur on the birth anniversaries of popular -authors. On the 23d of April a Shakspere memorial meeting was held -at Sterne’s Hotel, on which occasion Mrs. Overall read “The Fall of -Cardinal Wolsey.” Miss Kate Colding rendered “Hamlet’s Soliloquy” most -admirably. Miss Florence Finch presided at the organ and lead in the -Chautauqua songs. On May 1 the circle did honor to the life and memory -of Addison. Mrs. J. C. Bradford read a sketch of his life and writings, -Miss Ena Sawyers read “The Omnipresence and Omniscience of the Deity,” -and Miss Fannie Reese read “The Vision of Mirza.” - - * * * * * - -=California (Brooklyn).=—Our circle is an informal quartet of congenial -spirits who have been close friends and companions for some time past. -We meet every Monday evening and have a delightful free and easy -discussion over what we have read during the week, with Webster’s -Unabridged in its post of honor—the piano stool, and the encyclopædia -rack within reachable distance. We are enjoying the course very much, -and feel that it is just what we need. - - - - -HOW TO CONDUCT A LOCAL CIRCLE.[I] - - -THE TROY METHOD OF ORGANIZING A CIRCLE. - -The “Rock of Ages” was sung, a prayer was offered by Mr. Martin, after -which Mr. Farrar said: - -I desire to give you a little history of the inauguration of our circle -work in Troy. I do so because I am confident that what was done there -last year may be done in every city, in every village, and may be -multiplied a thousand times. - -About the middle of last September I wrote an article on “Reading, -Circles for Reading, and The C. L. S. C.,” and published it in the Troy -_Daily Times_. - -I wrote this article, published it on Wednesday, calling a meeting -at my church for Thursday evening, inviting anybody and everybody -who desired, to be present. The evening was quite unfavorable. I -expected about twenty. I was exceedingly surprised and gratified in the -interests of the C. L. S. C. work when I found nearly three hundred -people present. Being inspired by their presence, I began to talk to -them on reading, the importance of it, the value of it to-day, and the -cheapness of literature. I unfolded to them the C. L. S. C. plan, the -numbers that were taking it up, the enthusiasm that prevailed here at -Chautauqua, and how the Circle was spreading all over the world, not -only in this country but in other countries. It was all new to many of -them. - -At the conclusion of my half hour’s talk I asked how many persons -wanted to join some such circle as this. About every hand in the -audience went up. I was surprised again. Looking over the audience, -I knew nearly every one of them, for I was back the second time as -pastor of the same church, and knowing that four or five denominations -were represented there, I suggested that there ought to be a circle in -every church. I did not want to “scoop up” the whole right there in -our church, and I was generous enough to say that there ought to be a -dozen circles established in our city, one in connection with every -church, and in the suburbs. I said that a week from that night we would -organize a circle there, and any who desired to be connected with that -circle would be gladly welcomed. - -During the week I received several letters from parties in the city, -and out of the city, asking about the C. L. S. C., what its course -of reading was, etc. I followed it in the _Daily Times_ with another -letter on Wednesday, saying that our circle was to meet on Thursday, -and explaining the text books that we were to take up for the year, -and more fully entering into the C. L. S. C. idea. Our evening came, -and we had over three hundred present. I had the whole list of books -with me. I took them up and showed them to each person. I said, “this -is the course.” I went on unfolding the whole idea of the course, the -amount of time each year, the examinations at the end of the year, -and the outlook of the four years’ course. I told them that this was -the student’s outlook from college halls, with the exception of the -mathematics and the languages to be translated. - -Then I asked how many desired to join this Circle. Over two hundred -hands went up. Immediately we fell to organization. Fortunately, -or unfortunately, I was elected president, and a Protestant -Episcopal clergyman, rector of Christ Church, close by me, was -elected vice-president. We have in our organization a president, -vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and a board of managers -consisting of five. - -I found on inspecting the number that joined our circle that we -were about equally divided Baptists, Protestant Episcopalians, -Presbyterians, and Methodist Episcopalians. Our board of managers -was wisely selected from these various churches, so that there might -be the largest remove possible from anything like an organization -confined to our church. I say this because I believe that people are -hungry for just such an organization as this. There are thousands in -our communities who are tired of idle gossip. They want something to -talk about, and the only way to stop gossip is to put something into -their heads on a higher plane. I have had testimony from our members -repeatedly, “Now we have so little time to talk about these other -things.” Whenever they come together they talk about these wonders -found in the C. L. S. C. work. - -This board of five managers arranges our monthly plan. Our large -meetings are monthly. Our circle divides itself up; six or a dozen, or -twenty, form little organizations, read together, meet once a week, and -then we meet as a large circle monthly and review our work. This board -of managers lays out the month’s work. The first week after our monthly -meeting this board of managers is called together. They make out their -plan, print it on a postal card, and send it out at once to every -member of the circle, so that every member knows what the plan is to be -three weeks before the meeting. Our method in the large meeting is to -review our work by the essay method. - -Let me give you a program. First, singing. I was fortunate enough to -have an enthusiastic singer in our number, and I gave him the work of -organizing a glee club. He gathered twenty or twenty-five of the very -best young people in the number, and formed a glee club, and they led -our devotions. We followed with scripture and prayer. And then began -our essays. We usually have three, four, sometimes five essays, and no -essay is over ten minutes in length. We desire that the essays shall -not exceed eight minutes. It requires a deal of skill and practice to -reduce our thoughts on a subject to a six or eight minutes essay, but -it is practicable. Then we are all interested in the subject which we -have been studying for a month. When an individual rises and reads, we -feel that we have gone over the same subject, and it is like a review -to us, and helps to fasten it more definitely in our minds. Following -each essay we have remarks and questions. We never criticise an essay. -That would be unkind. You could not do it. You would intimidate -everybody. - -We ask questions and throw in additional remarks. We take up half an -hour, or three-quarters at most, devoted to the three, four or five -essays. Following these we appoint some person to ask the questions -which are printed in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Any person who will ask and -answer these questions will find that he has a wonderfully clear -_résumé_ of the whole subject in his mind. I suppose that we are -indebted to Mr. Martin for them. They are very clear, very concise, and -greatly appreciated by the Troy members. - -Following these questions we have a recess of twenty minutes, in which -it is the custom of our circle to shake hands, make each others’ -acquaintance, encourage each other, find out about each other, and -inquire about the work. Upon the recall the Glee Club gives a song. -Then follows the round-table. I need not explain this because you are -all familiar with the round-table. After that a _conversazione_ on some -prominent character of the world, old or new. We desire that every -member will give us some extract of five lines, not to exceed five -lines, unless it would break the harmony of the thought, from every -person brought before us. We have had Shakspere, Longfellow, Bryant, -and a variety of persons. - -Immediately after this _conversazione_ follows “a miscellaneous -exercise”—anything that needs to be taken up. While we were studying -geology, we went down to the village of Albany where the capital is -located. They have a very fine series of geological rooms arranged by -Prof. Hall, the State Geologist. As you enter the room, there are the -very lowest specimens of the rocks with their fossils. As you go up -story after story you reach the highest rocks. Prof. Hall, by previous -appointment, met our large circle of about two hundred. We chartered -a car or two and went down. He met us and gave us a very satisfactory -lecture. We appreciated it. - -When we came to astronomy, we found out where we could find an -astronomer. We invited him, and he came and gave us a lecture. Then -we had a teacher of the high school stand before us, and allow us to -question him to our heart’s content. We found it available to work in -all the outside force possible. When we studied the subject of art we -got together all the pictures of the town that we could find. I was in -Gloversville as pastor at that time. We arranged them, and spent two or -three very delightful evenings. You have two or three, another has one, -another has six; bring them all together and discuss the whole subject -of art. We found it very profitable. - -In Troy our circle is so enthusiastic in its work that there is a -constant clamor of outside people to get in. We sometimes allow a few -outsiders, and there is hardly a session that we do not have four to -five hundred in our gathering, but the front seats are always reserved -for members, and visitors, if there be any, must take the back seats. -There are anywhere from fifty to one hundred and fifty clamoring to be -admitted into the circle this fall. I do not know what we shall do. If -we admit them, we shall go into the audience room. I think it is better -to divide up. - -I have given you our work. I said in the outset, it is possible for -any young man or woman, pastor or superintendent, through your village -paper, to write a short article calling the attention of the people to -it, saying that in such a place there will be an organization of this -work. I have the impression that you can gather quite a large circle -in every place, two or three of them. But my conviction is from the -work as I have observed it through Troy and vicinity, that you need -somebody in that circle, at the head of it, who loves it. You can make -nothing in this world grow without love. Not even the flowers you may -plant in your garden will grow unless you love them. - -As the result of the article in the Troy _Times_, eight circles were -organized in our city. As the result of those two articles, twenty-six -circles were organized around Troy. - -I would be glad to hear from you to-day. Criticise my plan as much as -you please. I have taken more time because Dr. Vincent urged me to do -so. He urged me to take twenty-five minutes. I have only taken twenty. -Give me your plans, any suggestions, any practical idea that you have -worked out in your circles. - -MR. MARTIN: I can say that I commend every feature that has been -mentioned here by Mr. Farrar in the method of conducting local circles. -I believe we have tested in Pittsburgh every one he has mentioned. -There are several others we have tried, to which I would like to refer. -For instance, I think it well for persons to start with the inspiration -and a love of the Circle right here at Chautauqua. A great many persons -have come to me on the ground, and asked me how to form a local circle, -saying they had no local circles in their vicinity. I say to them if -they have two or three members on the ground here who belong together -in a circle, meet under the trees and start your organization here. We -started with seven members under these trees by the Hall of Philosophy, -in the year 1878, and we had somewhere between three and four hundred -before the following January, and have as many more since. Last year -about half a dozen who graduated in the class of ’82 met under the -trees here, and we formed our preliminary organization. We carried -the spirit and love of the C. L. S. C. home with us, and we formed in -Pittsburgh an alumni association of nearly sixty members. We expect to -increase the number largely during the coming year. - -One word with reference to the use of newspapers. Our executive -committee apportion the different papers of the city between them. We -have five members, and each member looks after a paper to see that the -paper looks after C. L. S. C. matters. We make each member the editor -of a C. L. S. C. department in a newspaper, and it is his duty to get -in as many notices about the C. L. S. C. as possible. Our press has -very generously opened to us its columns. Every monthly meeting is -noticed before and after in the papers. I am glad to say that we have -got into many considerable controversies in the newspapers. We like -them because they bring our organization into notice. - -We avail ourselves of the papyrograph, the electric pen, the type -writer, and the various plans for duplicating that we now have, in the -way of sending out notices, preparing the programs, etc. Any of you who -know how cheaply any of these appliances can be used for printing, will -see how efficiently they can be employed for the use of the circle. - -Another point: If we get a little depressed, or a little behind, we -get Dr. Vincent or one of the counselors to come and give us a rousing -lecture. We have given them good audiences, and they have spread a -new enthusiasm. What an amount of enthusiasm can be developed about -the C. L. S. C. If you will have the patience to answer clearly and -fully all questions that are asked you about the C. L. S. C., you will -find that you are doing a grand missionary work. I know my business -is often interrupted by people who come in and ask about the C. L. S. -C., but I am always sorry if I ever have to turn any one away without -information. If I give them full information, and they go away and join -the C. L. S. C., and form a local circle afterward, I feel that I have -done a missionary work. - -MR. FARRAR: Any suggestions? - -A VOICE: Did you permit persons to become members of your local circle -who did not belong to the parent society? - -MR. FARRAR: Yes. But we requested them, if they did not wish to take up -the full course of reading, to join the C. L. S. C. and pay their fifty -cents, and take THE CHAUTAUQUAN. We honored the home office. But they -need not fill out the questions unless they choose. - -MR. BRIDGE: In that way you will get a great many members of the C. L. -S. C. who are not doing the work. - -MR. FARRAR: Very few. We took a few husbands who wanted to come with -their wives. “Very good,” I said, “pay your fifty cents and take THE -CHAUTAUQUAN.” - -REV. J. O. FOSTER: We had a large circle where I was last appointed. -We found in the school a man well posted in geology. We found the -depot agent was an astronomer, and he was very enthusiastic over the -invitation that we gave him. He came down and spattered the blackboard -all over with facts. He got a long strip of paper and stuck up around -the room, and marked out the planets. He gave us a very fine lecture on -astronomy, so good that the people requested him to repeat it before -the whole congregation. We had this “jelly-pad business,” and struck -off our programs the week before. Every one knew what he was expected -to do. We secured plenty of books, if any one was at a loss for books. -We had about twenty in the circle, and that circle is now running. I -think it is three and a half years old. I do not know of any older than -that. - -MR. MARTIN: We have one five years old. - -MR. FOSTER: Very good. Dr. Goodfellow organized this. Another member -and I went to people in the city and asked them to lend us their -pictures upon several subjects. You will be astonished at the amount of -material you can gather together in a single afternoon to illustrate -any subject. - -DR. VINCENT: I have no doubt that some small local circles have quite -unique plans which they have adopted, and I hope if they hesitate to -speak out, that they will write out their plans for us. - -A LADY: I was about to speak for a small circle. I am very positive -in our circle of twenty it would be almost impossible to have essays, -except occasionally. The members generally would be so frightened at -the idea of having to write an essay that we should lose the circle -entirely. We have to pet them a little, and we use the conversational -method as freely as possible to get them to express themselves. What -they can not tell we tell them. In my experience—I have been conductor -four years—I find the essay method frightens small circles. Where you -have circles of two hundred, where they have a great many ministers, -and lawyers, you can get them to write essays. - -A LADY: I would say that I belong to a circle out West of six members. -We pursued the essay work for the first two years entirely. Every one -of us for the first two years wrote an essay every week. [Applause.] - -DR. EATON: I would like to speak for another small circle. We had a -program. We opened with singing and prayer, and then the leader, who -had prepared himself thoroughly, or tried to prepare himself thoroughly -on the lesson, particularly in science and in history, examined every -class by questioning and removing every difficulty connected with -them. The whole circle replied at once, answering the questions. If -there were any in the circle that could not answer a question, they -had it answered for them, and were not placed under any embarrassment -by the sense of failure. A great many said of these meetings every two -weeks, that they obtained a better knowledge by this thorough drill -than by reading privately at home. Likewise we had essays, but not very -frequently. We had essays in the first part of the evening. Sometimes -there was a failure to respond, but generally the subject was assigned -to particular individuals, and a great many facts in connection with -the difficulties in history were brought in that way. I think we -commenced with a circle of about twenty or thirty, and we graduated -here a year ago some sixteen members, I think. And others are coming -in, but with what success I am unable to say, as I have not been in -that place all the time. I think that every one in that circle would -bear testimony that in this way—by close examination, the plan of a -regular class drill—we have obtained a better knowledge than in any -other way, and that they were satisfied at the end of the year they -had accomplished more and better work than they would under any other -circumstances. - -A VOICE: I would like to say we consider that the writing of these -essays and insisting upon it, was as much for the advantage of the -persons writing these essays as for that of those who listened to them. -Therefore, we had a critic who was to write the criticisms, and had -them read by the president. Do you think that was a good way? - -MR. FARRAR: We thought it was not the best way. Dr. Vincent suggests -that the criticisms might be given privately to the writer. I found it -quite difficult to get essays. Many young ladies and gentlemen looked -upon it as a fearful task. Many times I had to call on them, and sit -down with them, and talk them into it, showing them how they could do -it. And never one wrote an essay in our circle but said “When you want -me to write an essay, call on me again.” I have tried a dozen others -who persisted in refusing, but at the close of the year they came to -me and said: “If you will forgive us for our refusing to write you may -call upon us next year.” - -After singing, the benediction was pronounced by Dr. Vincent. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[I] Round-Table held in the Hall of Philosophy, at Chautauqua, August -16th, 1883, conducted by Rev. H. C. Farrar, of Troy, N. Y. - - - - - [_Not required._] - - - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - - ONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “HISTORY OF - GREECE,” VOLUME II, PARTS 10 AND 11—“THE ROMAN - SUPREMACY, AND BYZANTINE HELLENISM.” - -By A. M. MARTIN, GENERAL SECRETARY C. L. S. C. - - -1. Q. When is it generally said by historians that Hellas fell under -the Roman rule? A. In 145 B. C., when Mummius captured Corinth. - -2. Q. Strictly speaking, when did Hellas become a Roman province? A. -During the reign of Augustus. - -3. Q. Where was the principal theater of the Mithridatic war? A. -Hellas, transplanted thither by the daring king of Pontus. - -4. Q. Whom did the Romans finally find it necessary to send against -him? A. Sulla. - -5. Q. During this war what Hellenic city did Sulla capture after a long -siege? A. Athens. - -6. Q. What is the assertion of several modern historians in regard -to the devastation of the land and the slaughter of the inhabitants -during this war, which ended in 84 B. C.? A. They did their work so -effectually that Asia never thereafter recovered from the Roman wounds. - -7. Q. By what was the moral decay of the nation which began long before -now followed? A. By a corresponding material ruin. - -8. Q. By what was the Ægean Sea from the earliest times infested? A. By -pirates, who boldly attacked the coasts, islands and harbors, seizing -vessels and plundering property. - -9. Q. In the year 78 B. C., what action did the Romans take against -these pirates? A. They declared war against them, and entrusted the -conduct of hostilities to Pompey. - -10. Q. What was the result of Pompey’s expedition against them? A. Ten -thousand of them were put to death, twenty thousand captured, and one -hundred and twenty of their harbors and fortifications were destroyed. - -11. Q. In the great struggle between Pompey and Cæsar for the supremacy -of the world, whom did Hellas furnish with every possible assistance? -A. Pompey. - -12. Q. In the year 44 B. C., what Hellenic city did Cæsar rebuild that -had been destroyed a hundred years before by Mummius? A. Corinth. - -13. Q. In the Roman civil wars which followed the death of Cæsar, with -whom did Athens ally herself? A. With Brutus and Cassius. - -14. Q. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius by Octavius and Anthony, -followed by hostilities between the latter two, for whom did the -greater part of Hellas declare? A. For Anthony. - -15. Q. Shortly after Octavius assumed the name of Augustus to what did -he reduce Hellas? A. To a Roman province. - -16. Q. What is said of the jurisdiction of the Roman proconsul -thereafter sent annually to rule Hellas? A. Many cities and countries -continued still to be regarded as “freed and allied.” The subject -territory was designated by the name of Achaia as if it did not remain -an integral part of “free Hellas.” - -17. Q. During the reign of Tiberias what did both Achaia and Macedonia -become by reason of the harsh treatment received from the proconsuls? -A. Cæsarean instead of public provinces. - -18. Q. What was the course of Nero toward Hellas? A. In the year 66 he -declared the country autonomous, and at the same time plundered Hellas, -inflicting far greater misfortunes on it than those sustained through -the invasion of Xerxes. - -19. Q. When Vespasian ascended the throne what political change did he -make? A. He reduced the country again to a Roman province. - -20. Q. During the reign of Vespasian what action was taken in regard -to the Greek philosophers? A. Nearly all the Greek philosophers were -banished from Rome. - -21. Q. How did Trajan prove to be one of the greatest benefactors of -the Hellenic nation? A. He sent Maximus to Hellas as plenipotentiary -and reorganizer of the free Hellenic cities, with instructions to -honor the gods and ancient renown of the nation, and revere the sacred -antiquity of the cities. - -22. Q. What was Hadrian’s treatment of Hellas? A. He visited Athens -five times; sought to ameliorate the condition of the people, and -adorned Athens and other cities with temples and buildings. - -23. Q. What political rights did he give the Hellenes? A. The rights of -Roman citizenship. - -24. Q. During the reigns of what two Roman emperors did Hellas -pre-eminently flourish? A. The Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus -Aurelius. - -25. Q. Notwithstanding the benefits received from the Roman emperors -what did Hellas continue to do? A. To wither and decline. - -26. Q. During the latter part of the third century what destructive -invasion of Hellas took place? A. The invasion of the Goths and -other northern barbarians, who overran the country like a deluge, -depopulating cities and destroying everything in their path. - -27. Q. What relation does our author give Hellenism to Christianity? A. -He makes it the first herald of Christianity. - -28. Q. Who was the first Roman emperor that issued a decree in favor of -Christianity? A. Constantine the Great. - -29. Q. What discussions led Constantine to the convocation of the first -General Council of the Christian Church, which assembled at Nice in -A. D. 325? A. The discussions of Arianism, or opinions concerning the -nature of the second person of the Trinity. - -30. Q. Who was the most noted opponent of Arianism? A. Athanasius. - -31. Q. What city did Constantine dedicate as the capital of his empire? -A. Constantinople. - -32. Q. During the general slaughter of the relatives of Constantine -that took place after his death, what cousin of his escaped and was -assigned to the city of Athens for his place of habitation? A. Julian. - -33. Q. By comparing the present with the past, to what conclusion -did Julian arrive as to the cause of the decline of the empire? A. -That Christianity was the cause of the decline, or was not adapted to -prevent the demoralization of the empire; that the change of affairs -resulted from the debasement of the ancient religion and life, and that -the reformation of the world could only be accomplished through their -reëstablishment. - -34. Q. By what class of philosophers was Julian sustained in his views? -A. By the Neapolitanists. - -35. Q. After Julian was recognized as emperor what was his main object -on entering Constantinople? A. The restoration of the ancient religion. - -36. Q. What were some of the steps he took to accomplish this object? -A. He restored the ancient temples and caused new ones to be erected to -the gods; the games were celebrated with magnificence, and the schools -of philosophy were especially protected. - -37. Q. Who was the successor to Julian? A. Jovian. - -38. Q. What was his course toward Christianity? A. He abolished the -decrees enacted by Julian on behalf of idolatry, and seemed favorably -inclined toward Christianity, but he died suddenly on his way to -Constantinople. - -39. Q. About this time what two names became prominent in theological -controversies? A. Basil the Great and Gregory the theologian. - -40. Q. What new invasion of the northern barbarians took place in the -latter part of the fourth century? A. That of the Goths, who overran -Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly, ravaged the country, killed the -inhabitants, and destroyed the cities that were not strongly fortified. - -41. Q. To what did Theodosius first direct his attention after he -became emperor? A. To the pacification of the Goths, and succeeded -within the space of four years in rendering them if not fully -submissive to his scepter, at least anxious to seek terms of peace. - -42. Q. What did the solemn edict which Theodosius dictated in 380 -proclaim? A. The Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, branded all who -denied it with the name of heretics, and handed over the churches in -Constantinople to the exclusive use of the orthodox party. - -43. Q. What synod did he convene at Constantinople a few months -afterward, in the year 381? A. The second General Council of the -Christian Church, which completed the theological system established by -the Council of Nice. - -44. Q. After the death of Theodosius, who were the nominal rulers of -the Roman empire? A. Arcadius in the East, and Honorius in the West, -both sons of Theodosius. - -45. Q. Who, however, were the real rulers of the empire? A. Rufinus in -the East and Stilicho in the West. - -46. Q. How are each characterized? A. Stilicho was noted for his -military virtues, but Rufinus became notorious only for his wickedness. - -47. Q. Failing in his project of marrying his daughter Maria to -Arcadius, how did Rufinus seek to revenge himself? A. By plotting the -destruction of the empire itself. - -48. Q. What barbarians is it said he called into the empire? A. The -Huns, who laid waste many provinces in Asia; and Alaric, the daring -general of the Goths, who invaded Hellas, plundering and destroying -everything in his path. - -49. Q. Who, called the greatest orator of Christianity, became -archbishop of Constantinople near the close of the fourth century? A. -John Chrysostom. - -50. Q. After the death of Arcadius, who virtually assumed the -government of the empire? A. Pulcheria, the daughter of Arcadius. - -51. Q. What are we told as to the kind of life she led? A. That she -embraced a life of celibacy, renounced all vanity in dress, interrupted -by frequent fasts her simple and frugal diet, and devoted several hours -of the day and night to the exercises of prayer and psalmody. - -52. Q. How did her brother Theodosius, who was the nominal emperor, -spend his time? A. His days in riding and hunting, and his evenings in -modeling and copying sacred books. - -53. Q. How long did Pulcheria continue to reign? A. For nearly forty -years. - -54. Q. What is said of the condition of Hellenism in the meantime? A. -It continued to wither in Hellas, while the modern began to spread and -strengthen itself in Constantinople. - -55. Q. What is said of Hellenic literature from this time onward? A. It -produced none of those works by which the memory of nations is honored -and perpetuated. - -56. Q. To what is its intellectual decline mainly due? A. To the -incursions of the barbarians, by which society was shaken to its -very foundations, and the genius and enterprise of the nation almost -paralyzed. - -57. Q. Under what leader did the Huns ravage without restraint and -without mercy the suburbs of Constantinople and the provinces of Thrace -and Macedonia? A. Attila, called the “Scourge of God.” - -58. Q. With the dethronement of what emperor did all political -relations between Rome and the Eastern Empire cease? A. Romulus -Augustulus in 476. - -59. Q. How did the emperors of the East continue to be styled? A. -They continued to be styled emperors of the Romans, but legislation, -government, and customs became thoroughly Hellenized. - -60. Q. What was the mainspring of the success in life of Justinian who -became emperor in 527? A. An unrestrained desire for great deeds and -his wonderful good fortune in the choice of ministers. - -61. Q. What military victories glorified the early years of his reign? -A. Splendid victories over the Persians. - -62. Q. What general began his career in this war? A. Belisarius, the -general who imparted such eminent distinction to the reign of Justinian. - -63. Q. What were Justinian’s most glorious and useful memorials? A. -The composition of the celebrated collection of laws comprising the -Institutes, the Digest or Pandects, and the Code. - -64. Q. To whom was the work entrusted? A. To ten law-teachers, over -whom the famous Tribonian presided. - -65. Q. What are of special importance as among other memorable events -which signalized the reign of Justinian? A. The successful wars which -he waged against the Vandals in Africa and the Goths in Italy, and his -expeditions to Sicily and Spain. - -66. Q. Among the many edifices erected during the reign of Justinian -which is the most famous? A. That of St. Sophia. - -67. Q. To what epoch does the reign of Justinian partly belong? A. To -the Roman epoch of the Eastern Empire. - -68. Q. What does the reign of Heraklius from 610 to 641 form? A. An -integral part of mediæval Hellenism. - -69. Q. By what was Heraklius invited to ascend the throne, and how long -did his posterity continue to reign over the empire of the East? A. The -voice of the clergy, the senate, and the people invited him to ascend -the throne, and his posterity till the fourth generation continued to -reign over the empire of the East. - -70. Q. In 627, after many brilliant actions, what defeat did Heraklius -inflict upon the Persians? A. So severe a defeat that their empire was -nearly crushed. - -71. Q. Almost at the same time what unexpected and more terrible -opponent arose in the Arabian peninsula whose conflict with Hellenism -continues to the present day? A. Mohammedanism. - -72. Q. What did the Mohammedans of Arabia wrest from the empire? A. -Syria, Egypt, and Northern Africa. - -73. Q. What was the Mohammedan religion called, and to what two dogmas -was it limited? A. Islam, meaning devotion; its dogmas were the belief -in a future life, and the unity of God. - -74. Q. In what words was the latter expressed? A. “There is only one -God, and Mohammed is the apostle of God.” - -75. Q. Who was the next emperor of real historic value after the death -of Heraklius? A. Constantine IV., surnamed Poganatus, or the Bearded. - -76. Q. For what was the reign of Constantine especially memorable? A. -For the first siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans. - -77. Q. How long did this siege last? A. For seven years, but was not -carried on uninterruptedly throughout this time. - -78. Q. What was the result of the siege? A. The Mohammedans were -finally forced to relinquish the fruitless enterprise in 675. - -79. Q. What formidable weapon did the Byzantines employ during this -siege, the composition of which is now unknown? A. The Greek fire. - -80. Q. What declarations of an œcumenical council he convoked at -Constantinople in 680 did Constantine sanction by a royal edict, and -thus reëstablish religious union in the empire? A. That the church has -always recognized in Christ two natures, united but not confounded—two -wills, distinct, but not antagonistic. - -81. Q. When did the next siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans -take place? A. In the year 717, during the reign of Leo III. - -82. Q. What was the result? A. In the following year the Arabs were -driven away, having suffered a loss of twenty-five hundred ships and -more than five hundred thousand warriors. - -83. Q. What decrees did Leo III. issue in 726 and 730? A. A decree -forbidding the worship of images, and another banishing them entirely -from the churches. - -84. Q. How did these decrees divide the nation? A. Into two -intensely hostile parties, of iconoclasts or image-breakers, and -image-worshipers, by whose contests it was long distracted. - -85. Q. What action did Leo V. take in regard to image-worship? A. He -not only banished the images from the churches, but also destroyed the -songs and prayers addressed to them. - -86. Q. What further order was made in regard to their worship by -Theophilus who became emperor in 829? A. He forbade the word “holy” to -be inscribed on the images, and also that they should be honored by -prayers, kissing, or lighted tapers. - -87. Q. After the death of Theophilus what action did the empress -Theodora, into whose hands the positive power of the government passed, -take in regard to the images? A. She herself worshiped images. The -pictures were again hung in the churches, and the monastic order more -than ever became potent both in society and government. - -88. Q. During the reign of Alexius what storm suddenly burst from the -west? A. The so-called First Crusade. - -89. Q. Who was the Pope at this time? A. Urban II. - -90. Q. By whom were the crusades first incited? A. Peter the Hermit. - -91. Q. When did Jerusalem fall into the hands of the crusaders? A. July -15, 1099. - -92. Q. Who were the leaders of the second crusade? A. Conrad III., king -of Germany, and Louis VII., king of France. - -93. Q. What was the ostensible intention of the crusaders? A. To free -Eastern Christianity from the oppression of the Turks. - -94. Q. What does our author say was their ultimate object? A. The -capture of Constantinople and the abolition of the Byzantine empire. - -95. Q. What was the result of the second crusade? A. It was wholly -inglorious, being relieved by no heroic deeds whatever. - -96. Q. What took place in Syria during 1187? A. The Christian authority -was overthrown in Syria, and Jerusalem was captured by Saladin, the -sultan of Egypt. - -97. Q. What occurred to Constantinople during the fourth crusade, in -the year 1204? A. After a siege of five months it fell into the hands -of the crusaders. - -98. Q. When and by whom was Constantinople recovered? A. In 1261, under -the leadership of Michael Palœologus. - -99. Q. When was Constantinople again attacked by the Turks? A. In 1453, -under the famous Mohammed II. - -100. Q. What was the result of the final decisive engagement? A. The -city fell before overwhelming numbers, and passed under Turkish rule. - - - - -OUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. STUDIES. - - -NOVEMBER, 1883. - -The C. L. S. C. readings for November include parts 10 and 11 of -Timayenis’s “History of Greece,” for students having read the first -volume; or from page 93 to the end of “Brief History of Greece,” for -students of Class of ’87. - -Chautauqua Text-Book, No. 5, “Greek History.” - -Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_First week_ (ending November 8)—1. “History of Greece,” from page 258 -to “Arius,” page 293; or, “Brief History of Greece,” from page 93 to -“The Battle of Salamis,” page 118. - -2. Readings in German History and Literature in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -3. Sunday Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for November 4. - -_Second Week_ (ending November 15)—1. “History of Greece,” from -“Arius,” page 293, to chapter viii, page 328; or, “Brief History of -Greece,” from “The Battle of Salamis,” page 118, to “Life of Socrates,” -page 143. - -2. Readings in Physical Science and Political Economy in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. - -3. Sunday Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for November 11. - -_Third Week_ (ending November 22)—1. “History of Greece,” from chapter -viii, page 328, to chapter iii, page 359; or, “Brief History of -Greece,” from “Life of Socrates,” page 143, to “Causes of the Sacred -War,” page 169. - -2. Readings in Art, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -3. Sunday Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for November 18. - -_Fourth Week_ (ending November 29)—1. “History of Greece,” from chapter -iii, page 359, to the end of part 11, page 342; or, “Brief History of -Greece,” from “Causes of the Sacred War,” page 169, to the end of the -book. - -2. Readings in American Literature in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -3. Sunday Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for November 25. - - - - -CHAUTAUQUA NORMAL CLASS. - -Season of 1884. - -J. L. HURLBUT, D.D., and R. S. HOLMES, A.M., INSTRUCTORS. - - -I. The course of instruction to be pursued in the Sunday-school -Normal Department of the Chautauqua Assembly, at its session in 1884, -will embrace lessons upon the following subjects, prepared by the -instructors in the department. The full text of these lessons will be -printed during the year in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, which should be taken by -all who desire to prepare for the Normal Department. - -_Twelve Lessons on the Bible._—(1) The Divine Revelation; (2) The Bible -from God through Man; (3) The Bible as an English Book; (4) The Canon -of Scripture; (5) The World of the Bible; (6) The Land of the Bible; -(7) The History in the Bible; (8) The Golden Age of Bible History; (9) -The House of the Lord; (10) The Doctrines of the Bible; (11) Immanuel; -(12) The Interpretation of the Bible. - -_Twelve Lessons on the Sunday-school and the Teacher’s Work._—(1) -The Sunday-school—its Purpose, Place, and Prerogatives; (2) The -Superintendent—his Qualifications, Duties, and Responsibility; (3) The -Teacher’s Office and Work; (4) The Teacher’s Week-day Work; (5) The -Teacher’s Preparation; (6) The Teacher’s Mistakes; (7) The Teaching -Process—Adaptation; (8) The Teaching Process—Approach; (9) The Teaching -Process—Attention; (10) The Teaching Process—Illustration; (11) The -Teaching Process—Interrogation; (12) The Teaching Process—Reviews. - -II. Students of the Normal Course should study in addition to the -outlines in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, the following Chautauqua Text-Books (ten -cents each): No. 18, “Christian Evidences;” No. 19, “The Book of -Books;” No. 36, “Assembly Bible Outlines;” No. 37, “Assembly Normal -Outlines;” No. 38, “The Life of Christ;” No. 39, “The Sunday-school -Normal Class” (including the preparation of the Normal Praxes); and -No. 41, “The Teacher Before his Class.” - -III. Students of the Normal Course are also desired to read the -following books: Chautauqua Text-Book No. 1, “Bible Exploration;” No. -8, “What Noted Men Think of the Bible;” No. 10, “What is Education?” -No. 11, “Socrates;” and “Normal Outlines of Christian Theology,” by -L. T. Townsend (price, forty cents). These books may be obtained -of Phillips & Hunt, 805 Broadway, New York; or of Walden & Stowe, -Cincinnati or Chicago. - -IV. Students in special classes in churches or schools, or individual -students who prosecute the course as given above, may receive by mail -outline memoranda for examination, and if they can certify to having -studied the lessons and text-books, and will also prepare the Normal -Praxes named in Chautauqua Text-Book No. 39, and fill out the Outline -Memoranda, may receive the diploma of the Chautauqua Teachers’ Union, -and will be enrolled as members of the Chautauqua Society. Such -students will send name and address, with twenty-five cents, to Rev. J. -L. Hurlbut, D.D., Plainfield, N. J. - - -CHAUTAUQUA NORMAL CLASS—BIBLE SECTION. - -_Twelve Lessons on Bible Themes._ - - -LESSON I.—THE DIVINE REVELATION. - -I. There is in me a something which is called mind. I do not know what -it is. I can neither tell whence it came, nor whither it will go when -it ceases to inhabit this body. That in me, which is thus ignorant -concerning the mind, is the mind itself. There are therefore matters -beyond my mental range. That is, my mind is limited, bounded, finite -in its powers. What is true of my mind is true of all human mind. Here -then is one of the first results of consciousness: FINITE MIND IN THE -WORLD. - -II. This finite mind did not produce itself; it sees in the body which -it controls evidence of a design of which it is not the author. It -turns to the phenomena of the universe and discovers in them the same -evidences of design. It seeks the attributes and character of the -designer or designers of human body and of natural phenomena, and finds -them to be unlimited in action, unbounded by time or space, infinite in -power, and uniform in manifestation. It therefore concludes that there -is but one designer of all the phenomena of created nature, and that -he is both intelligent and infinite. Here then is a second result of -consciousness: INFINITE MIND IN THE UNIVERSE. - -III. We have so far brought to view two powers, infinite mind in the -universe and finite mind in the world, and between them a distance -immeasurable and impassable from the finite side. They are extremes in -the progression of the universe. Let us notice some facts concerning -each of these powers: - -1. The infinite mind is self-existent; eternal. - -2. The infinite mind created finite mind in its own likeness. Both -these points will be considered in our lesson on the “Doctrines of the -Bible.” - -3. The infinite mind has _provided a means of passing the distance -between itself and the finite mind_, so that the finite might know the -infinite; i. e. it has revealed itself to the finite mind. - -4. The finite mind is the highest created existence. This is left -without discussion for the student to amplify. - -5. The finite mind exists because of the infinite mind. The gas jet -burning above my head affords an illustration. It exists because of a -well-stored gasometer two miles away; because of complicated machinery -by which coal has been caused to yield up its hidden stores of light; -because of a system of underground conductors that terminates in -the burner on the wall. Without the burner and the light all these -appliances would be useless; and they in turn exist only that there -may be light. So the finite mind exists because of the infinite—nor -can we think with satisfaction of infinite mind in the universe and no -creation or correlated force. - -6. The finite mind hungers to know the infinite; it peers into the -measureless space which its eye can not pierce, and longs for the -infinite to reveal itself. This fact is historical, “Canst thou by -searching find out God?” has been the question of the ages; and -the answer has been “the world by wisdom knew not God.” The cry of -multitudes of hungering souls has been: “O, that I knew where I might -find him.” As light is necessary to the eye, and air to the bird’s -wing, and sound to the ear, that each may perform the work for which -it is adapted, so a knowledge of the infinite mind that is of God, is -essential that the finite mind—that is, man—may fulfill its destiny. -And this knowledge is possible only through self-revelation by God to -man. That such a revelation has been made we have already asserted. -That the Bible is that revelation is our claim, which we will discuss -in a future lesson. The present lesson will be content to inquire -simply, how that revelation has been effected. We answer: - -_God wrought it out in the presence of the race_ in ways unmistakable, -exhibiting every attribute of his character, _even to those of mercy -and forgiveness_. God wrought (not wrote). What we call the inspired -Word is a mediate, not an immediate act of God. God wrought, the work -extending through many ages, perhaps not even yet finished. - -_Wrought_ (_a_) in nature, so that “the invisible things of him since -the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through -the things that are made.” Creation then is itself a part of the -revelation, but only a part; for out of it comes no hint of forgiveness -or redemption. - -(_b_) In man, _by spiritual manifestations_, _by intellectual -enlightenments_, _by illuminations of conscience_, such as could not -originate in the human soul. These revelations or workings of God in -man mark a large portion of the history of thought through the ages; -and in that dim twilight of the race, when men like Enoch walked with -God, though history is but a shadow, yet it is the shadow of God -working in man. - -(_c_) In Providence—that is, in his ordering the work of the world. He -not only “produced a supernatural history extending through centuries, -... and working out results which human wisdom could never have -conceived, nor human power executed,”[J] but also he has directed all -the workings of all history in accordance with the central purpose of -his revelation. - -(_d_) In grace, by his spirit revealing what the human mind could -never have discovered for itself, redemption and atonement through -forgiveness of sin. - -IV. This divine revelation so wrought by God _has been, and is being -reported_ that all the world may know and confess that “the Lord, he is -the God.” Reported: - -1. _Through Tradition._—There was an unwritten Bible before the -written word, handed down from patriarchs to scribes; and even in -lands destitute of the Scriptures, we trace the dim outlines of truth -transmitted from ancient authority. - -2. _Through Philosophy._—Wise men and thinkers have read the revelation -in nature and gathered it up from human thought, and the highest -philosophy, as that of a Socrates and a Plato, finds God. - -3. _Through Prophecy._—In the earlier ages, and perhaps through all the -ages, God has communed with chosen men who have lived in fellowship -with himself; and has made them the mouthpiece uttering his will to the -world. - -4. _Through Preaching._—The pulpit, when it is true to its mission, -voices the message of God to man. - -V. _We find also that this divine revelation has been written out, -under a divine direction_: - -1. _In Various Books._—The Bible is not one book, but sixty-six books, -a whole library, presenting the divine revelation under varied aspects, -but all under one divine origin and supervision. - -2. _By Various Writers._—Not less than thirty authors, and probably -many more, shared in the composition of the Scriptures, but all wrote -under a divine control, and expressed, each in his own style, the mind -of the Spirit. - -3. _Through Various Ages._—Moses may have begun the writing, doubtless -from earlier documents. Samuel, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezra, Matthew, -Paul, John, each in turn carried on the work through a period of -sixteen hundred years. The book grew like a cathedral, rising through -the centuries, under many successive master-builders, yet according to -one plan of one divine Architect. - -4. _In Various Languages._—Two great tongues, one Semitic, the other -Aryan, were employed, the Hebrew in the Old Testament, the Greek in the -new; but the Hebrew of Moses is not that of Daniel a thousand years -later. - -VI. _We find this divine revelation preserved_: - -1. _By being stereotyped into Dead Languages._—A living language is -ever changing the meaning of its words; and truth written in it is in -danger of being misunderstood by another generation. But the words of -a dead language, like the Hebrew and the Greek, are fixed in their -meaning, and once understood are not likely to be perverted. Soon after -the Bible was completed, both its languages ceased to be spoken, and -have been kept since as the shrine for the great truths contained in -the Word. - -2. _By being translated into Living Languages._—The Bible has been -translated into all the tongues of earth, and thus its perpetuation -to the end of time has been assured. No other work has been read by -so many races, and no other is so capable of being understood by the -masses of mankind. - -3. _By being incorporated into Literature._—If every copy of the -Scriptures in the whole world were destroyed every sentence of it could -be reproduced from the writings of men, since it has become an integral -part of the thought of the world. - -4. _By being perpetuated in Institutions._—The Jewish church -perpetuates the Old Testament; the Christian church the New; and while -either endures, the Bible containing the divine revelation must endure. - -VII. _We find this divine revelation proved_: - -1. _By Testimonies._—The child looking upon the opened page of the -Bible at his mother’s knee, accepts her testimony that it is the word -of God, and thus each generation receives the book from the preceding -generation with a declaration of its divine origin. - -2. _By Probabilities._—Such has been the history of this book in its -relation to the world, and its triumph over opposing forces; such has -been its early, continuous and present acceptance; that there is every -probability in favor of its being, what it appears to be, a divine book. - -3. _By Experience._—There are many who have put this book to the test -in their own lives; have tried its promises; have tasted its spiritual -experience; have brought it into contact with their own hearts; and -have obtained from it a certain assurance that it comes from God. - -4. _By Evidences._—If any reader will not accept the Bible upon the -testimonies of others; if he fails to see in its behalf the weight of -probability; if he has not been able to put it to the test in his own -experience, there is yet a strong line of argument appealing to his -reason, and proving the book divine. - -VIII. _We find this divine revelation searched_: - -1. _Through Curiosity._—There are some who read and study the Bible -from no higher motive than desire to know its contents. - -2. _Through Literary Taste._—There are others who read the Bible from -an appreciation of its value as a work of literature, recognizing the -high poetic rank of David and Isaiah, the historic worth of Joshua and -Samuel, the philosophic thought of Paul. - -3. _Through Opposition._—In every age there have been searchers of the -Bible actuated by the motive of unbelief; men trying to find in it the -weapons for its own destruction. Yet even their study has often proved -serviceable to the believer in the divine revelation. - -4. _Through Spiritual Desire._—Multitudes have studied the Bible, -multitudes are studying it now because they find in it that which their -spiritual nature craves, the knowledge of God. They feed upon the Word -because it satisfies the hunger of their spirits. - -IX. We find this _divine revelation circulated among men_. The history -of the Bible since its translation into English has been the history -of multiplication. Language after language has had the Bible added to -the library of its language. Unwritten languages have had characters -invented for them to represent their words and the Bible has thus -become the first book of the new-made written language of the people. -All the leading languages of the world have thus been put in possession -of the Bible, and the signs of the times point to a speedy realization -of the hope that soon all the nations of the earth will know the divine -revelation of our Father which is in heaven. - - -CHAUTAUQUA NORMAL CLASS. - -_Twelve Lessons on the Sunday-school and the Teacher’s Work._ - - -LESSON I.—THE PLACE, PURPOSE AND PREROGATIVES OF THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL. - - -_I. The place of the Sunday-school._ - -1. The Sunday-school is one of the means employed by the Church of -Christ for bringing men under the influence of the Gospel. It is not -designed to fill the place of any of the other accepted agencies of the -church. - -2. The Sunday-school does not, and should not accomplish the work -belonging to the pulpit and the pastor, nor does it subserve the -purpose of the church meeting for prayer and interchange of Christian -experience. - -3. The Sunday-school can in no sense do the work of the Christian home. -It is an agency differing from all other agencies of the church, and is -made necessary by the nature and extent of the body of truth accepted -by the church, so necessary that without it the church would be to a -certain extent crippled. - -4. It is a school, _organized and officered as such_; occupying a well -defined place in the religious system of the church, having a specific -purpose, and entitled to certain prerogatives. - -5. As a school, its constituency is a body of teachers and pupils, -associated together voluntarily, but not without responsibility and -accountability. - -6. The Sunday-school in its theoretic constitution is the parallel of -the secular school. - -(_a_) As the latter derives its life from the community, so the -Sunday-school derives its life from _the religious community, the -church_. - -(_b_) As the community delegates the power of control over the secular -school to a representative body which exercises supreme authority over -its affairs, so the church entrusts the management of the Sunday-school -to her representative executive body, by whatever name known. - -(_c_) As the representative body controlling the secular school places -the oversight of the system and its details of management in the hands -of a general executive officer, or superintendent, so the governing -power of the church entrusts the management of the Sunday-school to one -of similar name—a superintendent. - -(_d_) As the secular school is within and subordinate to the -community, and alongside of the home as its aid and supplement, so the -Sunday-school is within and subordinate to the church, and beside the -Christian home as its supplement. - -Let us gather up these propositions concerning the Sunday-school into a -general definition. - -_Definition._ - -The Sunday-school is a department of the church of Christ, in which the -word of Christ is taught for the purpose of bringing souls to Christ -and building up souls in Christ. - -As suggested by this definition, we make the following propositions: - -(1) The Sunday-school is a _school_. - -(2) The Sunday-school is not a substitute for the church. - -(3) The Sunday-school is not a substitute for the prayer meeting. - -(4) The Sunday-school is not a substitute for home training. - -(5) The Sunday-school is _in_ the church as an integral part. - -(6) The Sunday-school is subordinate to the church. - -(7) The Sunday-school is an aid to the Christian home. - -_II. The Purpose of the Sunday-school._ - -1. The chief purpose of the Sunday-school is the _spiritual education_ -of the soul. By education we do not mean the mere putting in possession -of knowledge. There have been learned men who were not educated men; -men of wide knowledge, but with the power of _self-control_ and -_self-use_ undeveloped. By education we mean leading the soul out -of its natural condition, into a condition where it can do what God -meant it to do, and be what God meant it to be. Spiritual education -will therefore be the development of a soul by nature averse to divine -control, into a condition of oneness with the divine will, such as -is made possible by the at-one-ment of Jesus Christ. This process -involves, (1) conversion, and (2) upbuilding in Christ, and would -produce, if unhindered, a character that would reach toward the measure -of the fulness of Christ. - -But many souls in the church have never reached farther than the first -or preparatory step in spiritual education—the step which we call -conversion. Hence, - -2. A second purpose of the Sunday-school is upbuilding in Christ, and -this is possible only through searching study of the Word of God. - -As the astronomer must know all the intricacies of his science, and -be able with the telescope to read the heavens as an open book, and -scan their farthest depths, so the Christian must know the hidden -mysteries and deep things of God as revealed in the Bible, which is -both text-book and telescope to the soul. - -3. A third purpose of the Sunday-school is the development of the -teaching power in the church. “Go teach,” in the Revised version -becomes “Go disciple.” Sunday-school teaching therefore becomes -_disciple-making_. In this respect its aim is the same as that of -the church. To accomplish it by preaching, the church provides years -of careful training for her ministers in special schools. As careful -training is needed by the Sunday-school teacher, and the school itself -is the only means by which the end can be secured. - -_III. The Prerogatives of the Sunday-school._ - -The Sunday-school exists within the church and because of the church. -Yet though a part of the church, it maintains a separate organic -life. As a member of the body it has certain _rights_ which we call -Prerogatives. We name the most important. - -1. _Care._—As no member of the body can be neglected without physical -loss, so if any part of the body of Christ be left without watchful -care, spiritual loss must ensue. The Sunday-school has a _right to -the care_ of the church, exercised (_a_) officially by the governing -body, that no want may be left unsupplied, and (_b_) individually that -sympathy, help, prayer and interest may never be lacking, and that -ample provision may be made for the efficient working of the school. - -2. _Support._—The Sunday-school has a right to the pecuniary support -of the church. It never should be crippled by lack of means to carry -out its plans. The school should not be expected to provide for its own -necessary expenses. The voluntary contributions of the school should -never be applied to the support of the school as such. Systematic -giving should be taught, and should include all the benevolent -operations of the church, even to the extent of contributing toward the -general church expenses, but that the school should use its funds for -defraying its own expenses is clearly an evil. - -(3) _Recognition._—The school has a right to be recognized as an -established agency of the church. This recognition should include (1) -regular notice from the pulpit of the time and place of holding its -sessions; (2) the same prominence to the annual meeting for the choice -of officers that is given to the same meetings of the church, and (3) -its importance as a church agency should be recognized by giving to the -school official recognition in the governing body of the church. - -(4) _Pastoral Supervision._—The school has a right to the watchful -oversight and regular presence of the pastor. It is not necessary that -he should superintend the school—it is better not. It is not necessary -that he should be burdened with its cares. But it is essential (1) -that he use it as a field of pastoral labor; (2) that he give to it -the encouragement of his commendation; (3) that he extend to it the -sympathy of his presence; (4) that he know as to the character of the -work being done within it. - -(5) _Coöperation._—The Sunday-school has a right to the hearty -coöperation of the whole church, so that (1) there may be no lack of -teachers to do the work of the school, and (2) that the work of the -teacher may be understood and appreciated in the Christian family, -which is the church unit; and (3) that teacher and parent may work in -perfect harmony. - -This is not intended as an exhaustive treatment of this subject. It -presents in outline some salient points concerning the Sunday-school, -and leaves the student to continue by himself the line of thought -suggested, and to this end reference is made to “Hart’s Thoughts on -Sunday-schools,” “Pardee’s Sunday-school Index,” and the “Chautauqua -Normal Guide,” by J. H. Vincent, D.D., 1880. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[J] J. H. Vincent, D.D. - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -DR. HAYGOOD’S BATTLE FOR THE NEGRO. - -There is something sublime in the spectacle of an earnest man -contending for his cause. The sublimity is heightened when we remember -that his cause and his convictions are identical, without any reckoning -of the cost. Of this character was the figure of Dr. Atticus G. Haygood -on the Chautauqua platform, uttering brave words for the Negro, his -former slave, but present fellow-citizen. Nor did we have to wait till -opportunity made him heard at Chautauqua. From the close of the war -until now, he has been a moulder and leader of the best sentiment in -the South, and has occupied advanced ground upon all questions relating -to the education and welfare of the liberated slave. His recent book, -“Our Brother in Black,” is the ablest contribution we have had to the -“Negro question.” It breathes throughout the same generous, Christian -sentiment and sympathy that characterize all his utterances and his -work elsewhere. Nor is the word “battle” too strong a term to be -used. When we remember the jealousies, hates, and prejudices of long -standing, and greatly intensified by the war; and how they have been -kept alive by designing men on both sides; when we bear these things -in mind, it is easy to see that it has required no little courage for -a Southern man, in the midst of Southern people, with their sentiments -and feelings, to take up the black man’s cause and advocate it in words -of bold, plain truth. - -Dr. Haygood is the Christian, and not the politician. When he praises, -as he does without stint, the work accomplished for the Negro by the -people of the North, it is not the work of that particular politician, -with his promise of “a mule, forty acres, and provisions for a year,” -but of teachers, secular and religious, who, with a motive higher than -the personal, have sought the elevation, moral and intellectual, of -the Negro. He pleads no apology for his Southern brethren who have -met these benevolent workers with opposition, social ostracism, and -other forms of persecution, but utters his condemnation of this spirit -whenever and wherever manifested. - -And the results of the first twenty years’ history have justified his -high and hopeful views. It is only two years since Senator Brown, -of Georgia, said of the Negro, in a speech delivered in the United -States Senate: “He has shown a capacity to receive education, and a -disposition to elevate himself that is exceedingly gratifying, not -only to me, but to every right-thinking Southern man.” The results -show that the Negro has a real hunger for the education he so greatly -needs. It is shown that in the year 1881, forty-seven per cent. of the -colored school population was enrolled as attending the public schools, -whilst in the same year there was enrolled fifty-two per cent. of the -white population. Though both figures are painfully low, and suggest a -condition of great illiteracy, yet, when we remember the past of the -Negro—how he has been trampled down and trodden under—the figure 47 at -the end of his first twenty years, is both encouraging and significant. - -But Dr. Haygood finds his strongest hope in the religious nature of -the Negro. The religious element of the race was very manifest in the -days of slavery, and since its freedom still more so. The moral and -religious progress of twenty years is encouraging. Of seven millions, -the entire colored population, a million and a half are communicants of -the various churches. Whilst their notions are crude, their conceptions -of religious truth often painfully realistic and grotesque, yet their -religion is real and worthy of confidence. More than to all other -influences combined, to the black man’s religion is due the shaping of -his better character. It is from this basis, and working along this -line, that Dr. Haygood sees the success of the future. His closing word -at Chautauqua is a statement of the whole theory which will commend -itself to the sympathy and judgment of right-thinking Christian men -everywhere: “Mere statesmanship can not solve this hard problem. It -is not given to the wisdom of man; but God reigns, and God does not -fail. We are workers with him in his great designs. When we stand by -the cross of Jesus Christ we will know what to do. We can solve our -problem, God being our helper. But on no lower platform than this—the -platform of the Ten Commandments and of the Sermon on the Mount.” - - - - -THE POLITICAL OUTLOOK. - - -In a few months we shall be in the midst of another presidential -campaign, and one as exciting, perhaps, as the country has known. -Already we see earnest preparations for the fray. The party managers -are busily laying their schemes; the question of candidates and the -measures to secure victory are being thoroughly canvassed by the rival -parties. - -What now strikes the thoughtful person as he considers the political -outlook is the lack of party issues. Two great parties are seen on the -eve of a tremendous struggle for the reins of government; but when the -question is asked, what are the living issues at the bottom of this -fight? one is puzzled for a reply. The situation is about this: instead -of coming before the people with certain great principles as a ground -of contention, one party has for its cry, “Put the rascals out;” and -the other, “Let us keep the rascals from coming in.” - -Our feeling is that the case should be different. Are there no living -issues important enough to serve as the rallying cry of political -parties? Must parties live on a past record? Is there nothing for -them to do but to glory in what they have done, and point a finger of -contempt at the other side? By no means is this the case. There are -to-day vitally important matters pertaining to the public welfare which -call loudly to our political leaders for attention; and the party -which shall take hold of these matters in an earnest way, and boldly -present itself as the champion of principles of truth and justice and -purity, ought to be, and must be, the party of the future. - -The reform of the civil service might very well be a party issue, but -it is not. Neither of the great parties shows a disposition to take a -hearty and united stand in favor of such reform. Some prominent men in -both parties have it at heart, and the movement which has been seen -can not be claimed as a party movement. The reform of the tariff wise -men see to be one of the crying needs of the hour; but how hopelessly -at sea seem our party leaders in dealing with the question. It can not -be said that any principles of tariff are a party issue. There is a -wide diversity of sentiment among those who have the management of the -parties; on either side are seen free-trade men and protective tariff -men; and probably some have their opinions yet to form upon a subject -so live and important as the tariff. The nation has a yearly surplus -revenue of $100,000,000, to get rid of which extravagant and needless -appropriations are made; the embarrassment of certain branches of -industry in our land, as things are, is evident; but to which party can -we point as the one intelligently and earnestly bent on tariff reform? -The time may come when the prohibition of the liquor traffic will be -the underlying principle of a great political party, but it is not now. -We may have our opinions as to which of the great parties bidding for -the suffrages of the people is the more a temperance party, but either -is a great way from being ready to adopt as an issue the righteous -principle of prohibition. In just one State to-day (Iowa), one of the -parties appears as the supporter of this principle. Turn to another -State (Massachusetts), which sometimes is thought to lead all the -rest in moral ideas, and see the same party fighting neither for this -principle nor any other, but simply to wrest the power from Governor -Butler. - -We judge of the coming national campaign by that now in progress in -different States, and we see it is to be marked by a lack of high and -worthy party issues. It will be—what it should not be—a contest without -great underlying principles. Let whichever party may triumph, the -victory can not be regarded one of living principles; it will be rather -the success of individuals to whom the majority of the people choose -to commit the reins of authority, or the triumph of a party which -the people prefer for its record, or to which they give a blind and -unthinking preference. Whatever the outcome of the impending political -struggle, we have faith in the perpetuity of our institutions, and that -there is a nobler destiny for the American people than they have yet -attained. - - - - -HISTORY OF GREECE. - - -The installment of Grecian History required in the C. L. S. C. course -is not extensive, but has been prepared with much care, and is adapted -to its purpose. A careful study—enough to give possession of the -principal facts stated, can hardly fail to kindle the desire for -further knowledge of a people who had so many elements of greatness, -and for centuries surpassed all others in knowledge and culture. The -most advanced nations of to-day are largely indebted to the Greeks. -Modern art and literature bear witness to the indebtedness. The race -had wonderful capabilities. Their country, climate, blood, early habits -of self-control, or all these together, secured in that corner of -Europe a class of stalwart men, physically and intellectually capable -of great deeds. - -Much of their early history is, of course, fabulous. The gods, -goddesses, heroes and kings, whose councils and exploits are rehearsed, -were but myths. Yet the legendary traditions respecting them have -charms that attract and hold the reader. We may utterly discredit -the story, but pay homage to the ability and versatile genius of -the writer, whose glowing words so paint the scenes described. Only -a slight basis of fact is conceded to some of the most captivating -Homeric descriptions; yet they are in an important sense true. False -in history, but sublimely true to the conceptions of the greatest of -poets, as a bold delineator, peerless in his own, or any other age. If -the ideal of the divinities thought to be interested in the affairs of -men falls far below the conceptions of a monotheist, and seems unworthy -of a philanthropic heathen, the portraiture is both complete and -captivating. - -When the mists, that for centuries shrouded Greece and the neighboring -isles, are dispersed, and we recognize the certain dawn of the -_historic_ period, though the descendants of those mighty heroes and -kings that were deified as sons of the gods, shrink to the proportions -of men, they are still found to be mighty men, whose noble deeds and -achievements have been an inspiration to millions in the generations -since. Excepting only such as have the true light, and are blest with -Christian civilization, we adopt the statement “No other race ever did -so many things well as the Greeks.” - -Let the book be closely studied. If the cursory, objectless reader -lacks interest, and tires in the work, the student feels more than -compensated for his toil. - - - - -A COLLEGE REFORM. - - -The present agitation touching college courses of study is one from -which good is likely to come. There is danger, however, that we swing -to the other extreme. That undue prominence in the ordinary college -curriculum has hitherto been given to classical studies, and too little -room made for the modern languages, natural science, and English -literature is coming to be widely felt. But the true reform is not -utterly to eliminate the classics; it is not the part of wisdom to -decry as folly the study of the dead tongues. - -The oration of Charles Francis Adams, Jr., last summer at Harvard, -published under the title of “A College Fetich,” was quite as -unexpected and sensational as that of Wendell Phillips on another -similar occasion. Mr. Phillips arraigned his _alma mater_ that her sons -were no more active in social reforms, while Mr. Adams charged upon her -that, in retaining the dead languages as a required part of the course -of study, she was guilty of worshiping a fetich. This grandson and -great-grandson of a President, whose illustrious ancestors one after -another were inmates of Harvard’s halls, makes against the venerable -institution, the most serious charge that her graduates, upon leaving -her, are not fitted as they should be for practical life. She sends -them forth, he affirms, with a smattering of the dead languages, which -is quite without advantage, instead of with a thorough knowledge of -what can be turned to practical account and will qualify them for the -duties of active life. He would have a drill in the classics no longer -required of the college student; but would allow him to win his A. B. -by pursuing other and more useful branches of study. Mr. Adams’s bold -claim against Harvard, if sustained, would of course hold against other -colleges, and against some others would hold in a higher degree. - -But we think his statements are too sweeping, and the reform he -advocates, because it goes too far, would not be a wise reform. We -would not abolish the study of Latin and Greek in our colleges. They -are dead tongues, but it does not follow that time spent in their -study is wasted. On the contrary, we would have them taught with such -thoroughness, by such qualified and skillful teachers that the college -graduate will go out with something more than a smattering of them. It -is a fact which can not be disproved, that from a study of the classics -comes a mental discipline and a mastery of good English, such as can -be acquired from nothing else. But that too much comparative attention -has been given to these branches is freely conceded. There is a want -of more thorough study in our higher institutions of the natural -science, the modern tongues, and the models of our own language. The -true reform is to cease to magnify Latin and Greek at the expense of -these other things, and to give to the latter their due attention. Of -the wisdom of elective college courses there can be no doubt. It may -not be always best for the young man who has not in view one of the -learned professions, but a business life, to spend years in the study -of the ancient languages. But it is our judgment that a knowledge of -these should always be required of the candidate for the Bachelor of -Art’s degree. Certain things are in the air, and we rejoice. Natural -science, that field of study in richness so exhaustless, is attracting -the student as never before. The importance of gaining a knowledge of -languages now spoken, other than our own, is being felt as it was not -once. We welcome the indications that promise a college reform. Let us -have it without over-shooting the mark. - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -The trustees of the Garfield monument to be erected in Cleveland, Ohio, -have more than one hundred and thirty thousand dollars on hand, and -they expect to secure a sufficient increase to this sum, at an early -day, to complete the work. This, with the fund of more than three -hundred thousand dollars which the American people contributed and -presented to the widow of the lamented Garfield, is positive proof that -our republic is not ungrateful. - - * * * * * - -The old statement that a low grade of moral character may exist in -the same community with a high grade of mental culture may be true of -any type of the best modern civilizations, but it is not necessarily -true. Education, like the gospel, may be the savor of death unto death, -but moral death need not be its effect. A good illustration of the -elevating tendencies of education in the community is found in the fact -that since the compulsory school law went into operation in New York, -juvenile crime in that city has been reduced by more than thirty-six -per cent. And yet it is said the law has been only partially enforced. - - * * * * * - -Scientific temperance education has been by legislative action -introduced into the public schools of Vermont and Michigan, and at the -last session of the legislature in New Hampshire it was by a unanimous -vote introduced into the schools of that State. The W. C. T. U. is -laying its hand on legislatures in a very effective way, and we may -look for an abundant harvest in the next generation. “Long voyages make -rich returns.” - - * * * * * - -Prince Bismarck is a timber merchant, and why should not a dealer -in timber be called a merchant? But this is not all. He is a large -distiller of spirituous liquors. The Germans do not object to his -occupation as a distiller, for their drinking customs are on a low -grade. Public opinion, in this country, would not long tolerate a -statesman, even of great abilities, who manufactured distilled liquors -for sale as a beverage. And herein we see one point of difference -between these two nations on a great moral reform. - - * * * * * - -The _Scientific American_ of a recent date says: “Too much reliance -is placed on the sense of taste, sight and smell in determining the -character of drinking water. It is a fact which has been repeatedly -illustrated that water may be odorless, tasteless and colorless, and -yet be full of danger to those who use it. The recent outbreak of -typhoid fever in Newburg, N. Y., is an example, having been caused by -water which was clear, and without taste or smell. It is also a fact -that even a chemical analysis sometimes will fail to show a dangerous -contamination of the water, and will always fail to detect the specific -poison if the water is infected with discharges of an infectious -nature. It is therefore urged that the source of the water supply -should be kept free from all possible means of contamination by sewage. -It is only in the knowledge of perfect cleanliness that safety is -guaranteed.” - - * * * * * - -Mr. Henry Hart, of Brockport, N. Y., manufactures a C. L. S. C. gold -pin of beautiful design for gentlemen, and another one attached to -an arrow, which is equally handsome, for ladies. Either one makes an -appropriate badge for members of the Circle to wear in everyday life, -and at times it will serve to introduce strangers when traveling or in -strange places, who have a common sympathy in a great work, and thus -aid the possessor in extending his circle of acquaintances. - - * * * * * - -One of the most embarrassing questions in the management of colleges -and universities is, how shall trustees superannuate a certain class of -professors, whose days of usefulness in the recitation room are past. -When that problem is solved the unity and peace of the management will, -as a rule, be secured. - - * * * * * - -The New York _Herald_ is led to pronounce against capital punishment -because in many cases the law against murder is a dead letter, and -produces the following historical reference to confirm the statement: -“It appears that from 1860 to 1882 a hundred and seventy persons were -tried in Massachusetts for murder in the first degree. Of this number -only twenty-nine were convicted, and only sixteen paid the extreme -penalty of the law. Of those convicted one committed suicide, and -twelve got their sentences commuted. Here, then, during a period of -little more than twenty years were a hundred and seventy murders in one -State, and only sixteen executions.” - - * * * * * - -They have one hundred and fifty miles of electric railway in operation -in Europe. Active preparations are making by rival inventors and -corporations in New York City to introduce electricity on a large scale -as a safe, rapid, and cheap motor. As in lighting houses, towns, and -cities we have passed from the tallow candle to kerosene, and then to -gas, and on to the electric light, so by many steps and advances we -are almost ready to accept electricity as the moving power of railway -trains. - - * * * * * - -The pardoning power of the general government is liable to work -pernicious results in the regular army. Cases of embezzlement and -fraud among army officers have been growing in number since our civil -war, and laxity in the enforcement of the laws against these offenders -is a growing evil. General J. B. Fry, an officer of repute, and a -graduate of West Point, thus points out the evil: “The interposition -of higher authority in favor of offenders has been so frequent since -the war, especially from 1876 to 1880, as to be a great injury to -the service. Many of the evils which have been exposed recently are -fairly chargeable to executive and legislative reversal of army action. -* * * When the strong current of military justice is dammed by the -authorities set over the army, stagnant pools are formed which breed -scandal, fraud, disobedience, dissipation, and disgrace, sometimes even -among those educated for the service.” - - * * * * * - -Cable intelligence, received September 3, shows that the Baron -Nordenskjöld, as a Greenland explorer, has accomplished a large part of -his original purpose. The expedition entered West Greenland in latitude -68°, and proceeded 220 miles inland, attained an altitude of seven -thousand feet above the sea level. In 1878 Lieutenant Jansen, of the -Danish navy, penetrated fifty miles from the coast, and reached an “icy -mountain, in lat. 62° 40′, five thousand feet high.” But no explorer -has since done anything worth mention toward solving the mystery of -Greenland’s interior physical geography. The expedition with Professor -Nordenskjöld has gone farther and seen more of the “immense desert of -ice;” and the latest telegrams claim that some important scientific -data have been obtained. - - * * * * * - -The prohibition amendment, submitted to the voters of Ohio, is -defeated, and our cherished hopes of its success, for the present, -sadly disappointed. The non-partisan temperance people, everywhere, -felt deeply interested in the issue, and will hear the result with -profound sorrow. Multitudes of Ohio’s best men and women, who had -prayed, worked, and hoped that deliverance might come in that way, -and that from the 9th of October we would see the unspeakable curse -of the liquor traffic placed where it ought to be, under the ban of -the constitution, from which corrupt tinkering politicians would be -unable to protect it, will confess their disappointment, but neither -suppress their prayers nor cease their efforts. They are clearly in the -majority, and when united will succeed. - - * * * * * - -Telegraphic report says the Vicar of Stratford has authorized the -exhumation of the remains of Shakspere that they may compare the skull -with the bust that stands over the grave. Dr. Ingleby, of London, who -is a trustee of the Shakspere Museum at Stratford, wishes, it seems, -to photograph the face and take a cast of the skull. The absurdity of -the proposal makes it almost incredible, and should itself prevent the -desecration. We are not surprised that the bishop and local authorities -have protested, and the intended outrage will hardly be perpetrated. -By the terms of the deed of interment the consent of the Mayor of -Stratford-on-Avon must first be given before the body can be moved. To -this proposal, that official has given a decided refusal, and the dust -of the poet will not be disturbed. Shakspere has been dead two hundred -and sixty-seven years. The type of face and head, universally accepted -as his, is sufficiently accurate. If it were not the correction of any -fault in that likeness is now impossible. - - * * * * * - -The Pittsburgh Exposition building, with most of its contents, was -entirely consumed by fire during the exposition week. The principal -loss was the goods on exhibition, including many articles of exquisite -workmanship, and valuable relics that can not be replaced. The building -itself, though a wooden structure, was large, and seemed suitable for -the purpose. It was valued at $150,000 and not heavily insured. Perhaps -sufficient care was not taken to secure the property against the -calamity that, in so short a time, destroyed the whole. The company, -who had before suffered some reverses and losses, and were struggling -into what seemed a safe condition, with hopes of future prosperity, -have the sympathy of the public. - - * * * * * - -During the last decade, and especially since the great Centennial, -expositions have been numerous, and, in many cases, attended with most -gratifying results. When the associations providing them are controlled -by men of culture, they are generously sustained. The articles they -have to exhibit are not only numerous, but in kind and quality, -worthy of our advanced civilization. These American expositions are -becoming notably rich in manufactured articles, and in the extent and -variety of useful machinery. For inventive genius the Yankee nation is -unrivaled, while in the mechanical execution of the designs our skilled -artisans have few, if any, superiors. In the principal western cities -the holding of at least annual expositions is no longer a tentative -measure. The institutions are established, and their continuance, in -most cases, pretty well assured. An example of these is the “Detroit -Art and Loan Exposition” of recent origin. Already it has fair -proportions, being from the commencement, in most respects, equal -to the best. Evidently the project for having there a creditable, -first-class exposition was clearly conceived, generously sustained, and -most successfully executed. - - * * * * * - -Before Congress opens General W. T. Sherman will close up the affairs -of his office, and General Sheridan will succeed him as commander -of the United States Army. General Sherman has made a good officer, -but his reputation in history will rest chiefly on his bravery and -skill as a general in his famous march to the sea. The Sherman family -have served their country well. John Sherman, in the Senate, and as -Secretary of the Treasury, in times when great abilities were in -demand, has made a name as great in his line as the general in the army. - - * * * * * - -The receipts of the great Brooklyn bridge for nineteen weeks from the -opening, were: For passengers, $34,464; for vehicles, $31,563; for -cars, $3,936. Total receipts, $69,163. The average per day was $526.04. -The total expenses during the nineteen weeks were $51,418.08. - - * * * * * - -The C. L. S. C. continues to grow with great rapidity in all parts of -the country. There is no sign of the interest waning in any community -from which we have heard. From Plainfield, N. J., the central office, -we receive news that the new class will be the largest of our history. -New England is rolling up a large membership. All over the West -and Northwest there is an interest among the people amounting to -enthusiasm. Mr. Lewis Peake, of Toronto, reports a C. L. S. C. revival -in Canada. This is the time to circulate C. L. S. C. circulars, and to -use your town, city, and county papers to call the attention of the -people to the aims and methods of work. By these means a C. L. S. C. -fire may be kindled on every street in every town and city in the land. - - * * * * * - -The recent pastoral letter of the Cardinal and other high officials -in the Romish Church, caused a reporter to ask one of these officers -some questions about marriage and divorce, to which he replied as -follows. It is wholesome truth: “Marriage is a divine institution, -and the Catholic Church under no circumstances whatever permits the -sacred contract to be broken.” To the question, “Is there no such thing -as separation between husband and wife recognized in the Catholic -Church?” he answered: “Separation, yes, for the gravest reasons and -under restrictions that do not admit of the remarriage of either of the -parties to the original contract while both are living. But divorce in -the sense generally accepted, never. Rather than permit divorce, the -Church let England separate from the Holy See. The same question was -raised by the first Napoleon, and it was ruled against him by the Pope. -You will find that if anything bearing the appearance of divorce has -been allowed in the Catholic Church, it has always been a case where -the most careful investigation showed that the marriage was originally -invalid.” - - * * * * * - -The Germans on October 8 in many towns and cities celebrated the -bi-centennial of the arrival of the first German immigrants in this -country, on the ship “Concord.” Their singing, secret, and literary -societies paraded in regalia, with banners and music. It was a notable -day among the Germans of America. - - * * * * * - -Bishop Paddock, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in charge of the -diocese of Washington Territory, when speaking of his field of labor -before the Episcopal Council in Philadelphia last month, said: “I am -decidedly opposed to separating the colored people in their worship -from the whites.” - - * * * * * - -We learn from an exchange that the authorities of the Erie Railway -have decided to discharge every employe who uses liquor as a beverage, -whether he gets drunk or not. It is plain that for the safety of -passengers a drinking man should not be entrusted with an engine, -the care of a switch, with messages as a telegraph operator, or as a -superintendent in charge of a division. - - * * * * * - -The Methodists of Canada have eliminated the words “serve” and “obey” -from the woman’s part of the marriage ceremony. Even the argument that -the New Testament enjoins this kind of obedience on wives, did not -preserve the words in the ritual. We congratulate the wives on the -change. - - * * * * * - -Professor W. F. Sherwin has been appointed by Dr. E. Tourjee chorus -director in that prosperous institution, the New England Conservatory -of Music, in Boston, Massachusetts. The Professor will make Boston -his home, and continue to lecture and conduct musical conventions, as -heretofore. - - * * * * * - -The Cooper Union was crowded one evening last month to welcome Francis -Murphy home from England and his own native Ireland. Judge Noah Davis -presided and delivered the address of welcome. “In speaking of Mr. -Murphy’s work in England and Scotland he quoted the statistics of the -United Kingdom to prove that Mr. Murphy’s efforts had been effectual in -reducing the excise revenues many thousands of pounds sterling. He said -that during his two years’ stay in England and Scotland he had obtained -half a million signers to the pledge. Mr. Murphy responded in a few -brief words, declaring that the occasion was the happiest of his whole -life. A number of short addresses were made by clergymen, and with the -singing of songs and choruses, in which the whole assembly engaged, the -ceremonies were prolonged until about half-past ten o’clock.” - - * * * * * - -The C. L. S. C. is rapidly becoming an established institution among -New England people. This is to be accounted for in part by the fact -that the religious press of Boston and other New England cities has -favored the work with earnest, strong words. The Rev. Dr. B. K. Pierce, -editor of _Zion’s Herald_, closes a leading editorial on the C. L. S. -C., in his paper of a recent date, with these words: “There is another -reason why we look with great satisfaction upon this widely-extended -home-university. We have fallen upon an era of doubt. The literature -of the hour is full of sneers at revealed religion and of arrogant -and destructive criticism upon the Holy Scriptures. The daily, weekly -and monthly press is strongly flavored with this. Our young people -breathe it in the atmosphere of the school and of the streets. Here -is one of the best, silent, powerful, positive correctives. This -carefully-arranged plan of study and reading for successive years is -entirely in the interest of the ‘truth as it is in Jesus.’ It is not -narrow, nor dogmatic, nor polemical, nor confined to purely religious -subjects, but the whole system is arranged and followed out upon -the presumption of the inspiration of the Bible, the divine origin -of Christianity, and its ultimate triumph upon the earth. It will -powerfully strengthen the faith of young Christians, preserve them from -the insidious attacks of infidelity, and enable them to have, and to -give to any serious inquirer, an answer for the hope that is in them.” - - * * * * * - -The jury system has some glaring defects which should be laid bare -and made the subject of agitation till they are corrected. Recently -in a famous bribery case (so called) at Albany, N. Y., when jurors -were being called and questioned, one of them said, “I don’t know who -were the United States Senators two years ago from New York.” Yet -this ignorant man was accepted as a juror. This is a common custom in -the selection of jurors. It is exalting ignorance at the expense of -intelligence and justice. Some remedy should be found for this growing -and terrible evil. - - * * * * * - -A new field of artistic ability is being developed in the East. It is -the decoration of the interior of private residences. Already in New -York a number of young artists, who find it difficult to sell all the -pictures they paint, are giving their attention to this work, which -promises to be very remunerative and very extensive. - - * * * * * - -The Chicago agency of Alice H. Birch has been abandoned, and her old -patrons may order any game previously advertised by her, at her home, -Portland, Traill Co., Dakota. - - * * * * * - -The Commissioner of Education has prepared a table showing the -illiteracy among voters in the South, which presents a painfully -interesting study for educators and statesmen. In the formerly -slaveholding States there are 4,154,125 men legally entitled to vote. -Of these, 409,563 whites, and 982,894 colored, are unable to write -even their names, and their ability to read is very limited. Many, who -profess to be able to read, can only with difficulty spell out a few -simple sentences in their primers, and really get no knowledge, such as -the citizen needs, from either books or papers. Thousands of them have -neither books nor papers, and could not read them if they had. Surely a -great work must be done for these freed men and poor whites before they -are quite equal to all the duties of citizens in a country like ours. - - - - -EDITOR’S TABLE. - - -Q. Dec´orus or deco´rus, which? - -A. Webster authorizes both, giving preference to the latter. The -former has the advantage of placing the accent on the root syllable, a -rule that is very helpful in settling questions of pronunciation, and -conforms to usage in the accentuation of cognate words, as “dec´orate,” -“dec´oration,” etc. We prefer it. - -Q. What is the meaning of “liberal,” in the phrases, “liberal -education,” and “liberal religious views?” - -A. An education extended much beyond the practical necessities of our -every-day business and social life, is liberal. It is not a possession -belonging alone to the alumni of colleges and universities. Any person -of culture, who, with or without the aid of teachers, has mastered -the curriculum of studies prescribed by colleges, or its equivalent, -is liberally educated. In the best sense, a man of “liberal religious -views” is generous, freely according to others the right to their -opinions on all subjects about which good men may differ. He is not -creedless, but not bigoted; and cordially approves “things that -are most excellent,” wherever they are found. The claim to great -liberality, set up by those who have no rule of faith, and no views -they are willing to formulate, does not seem well founded. - -Q. Where is the line, “Far from the madding crowd’s ignoble strife” -found? and should not the word “madding” be “maddening?” - -A. The line is from Gray’s Elegy (73). The adjective “mad” is made a -causative verb, without the usual suffix, “en.” We do not find the form -in prose, and would not use it. - -Q. Are there any books purporting to prove scientifically the -immortality of the soul? - -A. If by “scientifically,” the querist means, as we suppose, -rationally, philosophically, our answer is, yes, very many. More -books have been written upon this one subject than one could read -carefully in a lifetime. Several thousand distinct works, written in -Greek, Latin, English, and the principal languages of Europe, have -been catalogued by Ezra Abbott. The catalogue itself, published as -an appendix to Alger’s “Doctrine of a Future Life,” would make a -respectable volume, containing, as it does, a list of more than five -thousand books, by almost as many authors, who discuss, more or less -satisfactorily, the great problem of the soul. Some propose, not -argument, but only a history of the doctrine of a future, immortal -life as held by the different races of men, with various shades -of opinion respecting it. Some doubt, some disbelieve, and some, -discarding all rational processes, accept the dogma as a matter of -faith alone, lying beyond the field of our reason. But many Christian -writers, thankful for the “more sure word of prophecy,” and that -“life and immortality are brought to light by the gospel,” hold also -that outside the realm of faith, it is a fit subject for rational -investigation, and as capable of proof or demonstration as other -moral and psychical problems. Perhaps most of the works named in -the catalogue consulted, treat of the soul and its immortality in -connection with other principles and facts of the religious systems -accepted by the authors, and are too voluminous for common use. Drew’s -“Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul” founded wholly -on psychological and rational principles is regarded a masterpiece of -metaphysical argument—clear, logical, satisfactory. - -Q. Is the expression “as though” ever correct? - -A. “Though” is often used in English, taking the place of the -conditional _if_, especially in the phrases _as though_ and _what -though_, which interchange with _as if_ and _what if_; _e. g._: - - “If she bid me pack, I’ll give her thanks _as though_ - she bid me stay by her a week.”—_Shakspere._ - - “A Tartar, who looked _as though_ the speed of thought - were in his limbs.”—_Byron._ - -Other examples need not be given. These approve the expression as -correct, though not much used at present. - -Q. Will the firing of cannon over water bring a dead body at the bottom -to the surface; if so, why, or how? - -A. The concussion or violent agitation of the water may loosen a body -slightly held at the bottom, when, if specifically lighter than water, -it will rise. - -Q. In “Recreations in Astronomy,” p. 163, it is said 192 asteroides -have been discovered, with diameters from 20 to 400 miles; and on the -next page it is “estimated” that if all these were put into one planet, -it would not be over 400 miles in diameter. How can that be? - -A. Allowing, as the author does, that the density of the masses remains -the same, it would, of course, be impossible. We have not the means -at hand to either verify or correct the diameters given, and can not -locate the error. - - - - -C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR NOVEMBER. - - - - -TIMAYENIS’S HISTORY OF GREECE. - - -PARTS 10 AND 11. - -P. 258.—“Mummius,” mum´mi-us. See Timayenis, p. 251, vol. II. - -“Delos,” de´los. - -“Mithradatic,” mith´ra-da=´=tic. For history of Mithradates see -Timayenis, vol. II., p. 254. - -P. 259.—“Sulla,” sul´la. (B. C. 138-78). A Roman general, the rival of -Marius. After the close of this war Sulla went to Italy, defeated the -Marian party and issued a proscription by which many thousands of his -enemies perished. For the two years following he held the office of -dictator, which in 79 he resigned to retire to private life. - -“Epidaurus,” ep´i-dau=´=rus. One of the most magnificent temples in all -Greece, that of the god Æsculapius, was situated there. - -“Peiræan,” pei-ræ´an. Through this gate ran the road to the Piræus, and -at the Sacred Gate began the sacred road to Eleusis where the festivals -and mysteries were celebrated. - -“Bithynia,” bi-thyn´i-a; “Kappadokia,” cap=´=pa-do´ci-a; “Paphlagonia,” -paph=´=la-go´ni-a. - -P. 260.—“Chrysostom,” krĭs´os-tom. See Timayenis, vol. II., 319 sq. - -“Anthemius,” an-the´mi-us; “Isidorus,” is´i-do=´=rus. Eminent -architects. - -P. 261.—“Pompey.” (B. C. 106-48.) Pompey had been a successful general -from early life, receiving from Sulla the surname of Magnus. - -P. 262.—“Soli,” so´li. The word solecism (to speak incorrectly) is said -to have been first used in regard to the dialect of the inhabitants of -this city. - -“Pompeiopolis,” pom´pe-i-op=´=o-lis; “Armenia,” ar-me´ni-a. - -“Tigranes,” ti-gra´nes. The king of Armenia from B. C. 96-55. He was an -ally of Mithradates until this invasion by Pompey, when he hastened to -submit to the latter, thus winning favor and receiving the kingdom with -the title of king. - -P. 263.—“Phillippi,” phil-lip´pi; “Octavius,” oc-ta´vi-us. - -“Philhellenist,” phĭl-hĕl´len-ist. A friend to Greece. - -“Philathenian,” phĭl-a-the´ni-an. A friend to Athens. - -“Actium,” ac´ti-um. - -P. 264.—“Ægina,” æ-gi´na; “Eretria,” e-re´tri-a. - -“Stoa,” sto´a. Halls or porches supported by pillars, and used as -places of resort in the heat of the day. - -“Athene Archegetes,” a-the´ne ar-cheg´e-tes; “Peisistratus,” -pi-sis´tra-tus; “Nikopolis,” ni-cop´o-lis. - -P. 265.—“Cæsarean,” cæ-sā´re-an. - -“Seneca.” (B. C. 5?-A. D. 65.) A Roman Stoic philosopher. The tutor and -afterward adviser of Nero. When the excesses of the latter had made -Seneca’s presence irksome to him, he was dismissed and soon after, by -order of Nero, put to death. His writings were mainly philosophical -treatises. - -“Agrippina,” ag-rip-pi´na. Nero was the son of Agrippina by her first -husband. On her marriage with her third husband, the Emperor Claudius, -she prevailed upon the latter to adopt Nero as his son. In order to -secure the succession she murdered Claudius and governed the empire in -Nero’s name until he, tired of her authority, caused her to be put to -death. - -“Isthmian,” ĭs´mĭ-an; “Pythian,” pyth´i-an; “Nemean,” nē´me-an; -“Olympian,” o-lym´pi-an. See author for accounts of these games. - -“Pythia,” pyth´i-a. See Timayenis, p. 44-45, vol. I. - -P. 266.—“Vespasian,” ves-pā´zhĭ-an; “Lollianus,” lol-li-a´nus. - -“Aristomenes,” ar´-is-tom=´=e-nes. The legendary hero of the Second -Messenian War. In 865 B. C. he began hostilities and defeated Sparta -several times but was at last taken prisoner. The legends tell that he -was rescued, from the pit where he had been confined, by an eagle and -led home by a fox. When at last Ira fell, Aristomenes went to Rhodes, -where he died. - -“Aratus,” a-ra´tus; “Achæan,” a-chæ´an. See Timayenis, vol II., p. -242-243. - -P. 267.—“Zeno.” The founder of the Stoic philosophy. A native of -Cyprus. He lived, probably, about 260 B. C. He is said to have spent -twenty years in study, after which time he opened his school in a stoa -of Athens. From this place his disciples received the name of _Stoics_. - -Translation of foot-notes: “They call those sophists who for money -offer knowledge to whomsoever wishes it.” “A sophist is one who seeks -the money of rich young men.” “Sophistry consists in appearing wise, -not in being so; and the sophist becomes wealthy by an appearance of -wisdom, not by being wise.” - -“Gorgias,” gor´gi-as. “Leontine,” le-on´tine. An inhabitant of Leontini -in Sicily. - -P. 268.—“Dion,” di´on chry-sos´to-mus, or Dion, the golden mouthed, so -called from his eloquence. - -“Strabo,” stra´bo. His geography is contained in seventeen books. It -gives descriptions of the physical features of the country, accounts of -political events, and notices of the chief cities and men. - -“Plutarch.” His “Parallel Lives” is a history of forty-eight different -Greeks and Romans. They are arranged in pairs, and each pair is -followed by a comparison of the two men. - -“Appianus,” ap-pi-a´nus. The author of a history of Rome. - -“Dion Cassius.” (A. D. 155.) The grandson of Dion Chrysostomus. - -“Herodianus,” he´ro-di-a=´=nus. - -“Epiktetus,” ep´ic-te=´=tus. Few circumstances of his life are known. -Only those of his works collected by Arrian are extant. As a teacher it -is said that no one was able to resist his appeals to turn their minds -to the good. - -“Hierapolis,” hi´e-rap=´=o-lis. - -“Longinus,” lon-gi´nus. The most distinguished adherent of the Platonic -philosophy in the third century. His learning was so great that he -was called “a living library.” He taught many years at Athens, but at -last left to go to Palmyra, as the teacher of Zenobia. When she was -afterward defeated by the Romans and captured, Longinus was put to -death (273). - -“Lucian.” See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for May, 1883. - -“Samosata,” sa-mos´a-ta. - -P. 270.—“Thesmopolis,” thes-mop´o-lis. “Sappho,” sap´pho. “Domitian,” -do-mish´ĭ-an. - -P. 271.—“Pliny,” plĭn´ĭ. (61?-115?) The nephew of the elder Pliny. His -life was largely spent in literary pursuits. His works extant are the -_Panegyricus_, an eulogium on Trajan, and his letters. - -“Seleukidæ,” se-leu´ci-dæ. So named from Seleucus, the first ruler of -the Syrian kingdom, one of the four into which Alexander’s kingdom was -divided on his death. - -P. 272.—“Archon Eponymus,” ar´chon e-pon´y-mus. The first in rank of -the nine Athenian Archons, so called because the year was named after -him. - -“Favorinus,” fav´o-ri=´=nus. He is known as a friend of Plutarch and -Herodes. Although he wrote much, none of his books have come down to -us. “Herodes,” he-ro´des. - -“Mnesikles,” mnes´i-cles. The architect of the Propylæa. - -“Ilissus,” i-lis´sus. A small river of Attica. - -Translations of Greek inscriptions: “This is Athens the former city of -Theseus.” “Here stands the city of Adrian, not of Theseus.” - -P. 273.—“Stymphalus,” stym-pha´lus. A lake of Arcadia. - -“Patræ,” pa´træ. - -P. 275.—“Pliny.” (23-75.) Although he held various civil and military -positions, and during his whole life was the intimate friend and -adviser of Vespasian, he applied himself so incessantly to study that -he left one hundred and sixty volumes of notes. Pliny, the younger, -says that the lives of those who have devoted themselves to study -seem to have been passed in idleness and sleep when compared with the -wonderful activity of his uncle. The only work of value come down to us -is his “Historia Naturalis.” - -“Lebadeia,” leb´a-dei=´=a. - -“Stoa Pœkile.” The painted porch, so-called from the variety of curious -pictures which it contained. - -“Theseum,” the-se´um. The temple erected in Athens in honor of the hero -Theseus. To-day it is the best preserved monument of the splendor of -the ancient city. - -“Kerameikus,” cer´a-mi=´=cus. A district of Athens, so called from -Ceramus, the son of Bacchus, some say, but more probably from the -potter’s art invented there. - -P. 277.—“Commodus,” com´mo-dus; “Caracalla,” car´a-cal=´=la; “Dacia,” -da´ci-a; “Mœsia,” mœ´si-a; “Decius,” de´ci-us. - -P. 278.—“Gallienus,” gal´li-e=´=nus; “Valerianus,” va-le´ri-a=´=nus. - -“Pityus,” pit´y-us; “Trapezus,” tra-pe´zus; “Chrysopolis,” -chry-sop´o-lis; “Kyzikus,” cyz´i-cus. - -“Dexippus,” dex-ip´pus. He held the highest official position at -Athens. Was the author of histories, only fragments of which remain. - -P. 279.—“Artemis,” ar´te-mis. This temple of Artemis, or Diana, -Lübke calls the “famous wonder of the ancient world.” Its dimensions -were enormous, being 225 feet broad and 425 feet long. “Aurelian,” -au-re´li-an. - -P. 280.—“Flavius Josephus,” fla´vi-us jo-se´phus. (37?-100?) The author -of “History of the Jewish War” and “Jewish Antiquities.” - -“Philo Judæus,” phi´lo ju-dæ´us. His chief works are an attempt to -reconcile the Scriptures with Greek philosophy. - -P. 281.—“Nikolaus,” nic´o-la=´=us; “Nikomedeia,” nic´o-me-di=´=a; -“Claudius Ptolemæus,” clau´di-us ptol´e-mæ=´=us; “Pelusium,” -pe-lu´si-um; “Plotinus,” plo-ti´nus; “Lykopolis,” ly-cop´o-lis. - -P. 282.—“Zenobia,” ze-no´bi-a; “Palmyra,” pal-my´ra. - -P. 286.—“Maximian,” max-im´i-an. - -P. 287.—“Constantius,” con-stan´ti-us. “Chlorus,” chlo´rus, “the pale;” -“Naissus,” nais´sus; “Galerius,” ga-le´ri-us. - -P. 288.—“Eboracum,” eb´o-ra=´=cum; “Licinius,” li-cin´i-us; -“Maxentius,” max-en´ti-us. - -P. 290.—“Labarum,” lăb´a-rŭm. The word is supposed by many to have been -derived from the Celtic word _lavar_, meaning command, sentence. - -P. 292.—“Zosimus,” zos´i-mus; “Adrianopolis,” a=´=dri-an-op´o-lis. - -“St. Jerome.” (340-420.) The most famous of the Christian fathers. He -spent many years in study and travel, was the friend of Gregory of -Nazianzus and Pope Damascus. Much of his labor was given to obtain -converts to his theories of monastic life. His commentaries on the -Scriptures and translations into Latin of the New and Old Testaments -are his most valuable works. - -P. 294.—“Athanasius,” ath´a-na=´=si-us. - -Translations of Greek in foot-note; “Speech against the Greeks.” -“Concerning the incarnation of Christ and his appearance to us.” - -P. 295.—“Eusebius,” eu-se´bi-us. He afterward signed the creed of the -Council of Nice. - -“Porphyrius,” por-phyr´i-us. - -P. 297.—“Tanais,” tan´a-is. Now the Don. “Borysthenes,” bo-rys´the-nes; -the Dneiper. - -P. 299.—“Arianism,” a´ri-an-ism. - -P. 302.—“Magnentius,” mag-nen´ti-us. - -P. 303.—“Sapor,” sa´por. “Nisibis,” nis´i-bis. - -P. 304.—“Eusebia,” eu-se´bi-a. “Eleusinian,” el´u-sin=´=i-an. See -foot-note p. 215, vol. II. Timayenis. - -P. 305.—“Aedesius,” ae-de´si-us. “Chrysanthius,” chry-san´thi-us. - -P. 306.—“Ochlus,” och´lus. The crowd, the populace. - -“Thaumaturgy,” thau=´=ma-tur´gy. The act of performing miracles, -wonders. - -P. 307.—“Gregory Nazianzen,” greg´o-ry na-zi-an´zen; “Basil.” See page -312 for sketches of these men. - -P. 308.—“Hierophant,” hī-er´o-phănt, a priest; “Oribasius,” -or-i-ba´si-us. - -P. 311.—“Dadastana,” dad-as-ta´na. - -P. 312.—“Valentinian,” va-len-tin´i-an. - -P. 313.—“Eleemosynary,” ĕl´ee-mŏs´y-na-ry. Relating to charity. - -P. 315.—“Gratian,” gra´ti-an; “Theodosius,” the´o-do=´=si-us; -“Eugenius,” eu-ge´ni-us. - -P. 317.—“Rufinus,” ru-fi´nus; “Stilicho,” stil´i-cho. - -“Claudian,” clau´di-an. The last of the classic poets of Rome. During -the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius he held high positions in court, -and from Stilicho he received many honors. Many of his poems are -extant, all of them characterized by purity of expression and poetical -genius. - -P. 318.—“Eutropius,” eu-tro´pi-us; “Eudoxia,” eu-dox´i-a; “Bauto,” -bau´to; “Gainas,” gai´nas. - -“Alaric,” al´a-ric (all rich). Alaric made a second invasion into Italy -in 410, taking and plundering Rome. His death occurred soon after. - -P. 319.—“Libanius,” li-ba´ni-us. The emperors Julian, Valens and -Theodosius showed much respect to Libanius, but his life was -embittered by the jealousies of the professors of Constantinople, and -by continual dispute with the Sophists. His orations and a quantity -of letters addressed to the eminent men of the times are still in -existence. - -P. 320.—“Nectarius,” nec-ta´ri-us. - -P. 321.—“Theophilus,” the-oph´i-lus; “Chalkedon,” chal-ce´don. - -P. 322.—“Cucusus,” cu´cu-sus; “Comana,” co-ma´na. - -P. 323.—“Anthemius,” an-the´mi-us. “Pulcheria,” pul-che´ri-a. - -P. 324.—“Kalligraphos,” cal-lig´ra-phos; “Athenais,” ath´e-na=´=is; -“Leontius,” le-on´ti-us. - -P. 326.—“Nestorius,” nes-to´ri-us; “Germanikeia,” ger-man´i-ci=´=a; -“Marcian,” mar´ci-an; “Yezdegerd,” yez´de-jerd. - -“Successor.” This successor was Varanes I. He waged wars with the Huns, -Turks and Indians, performing deeds which ever since have made him a -favorite hero in Persian verse. - -P. 327.—“Attila,” at´ti-la; “Aetius,” a-ē´ti-us. - -P. 328.—“Aspar,” as´par; “Basiliscus,” bas-i-lis´cus; “Verina,” -ve-ri´na. - -P. 329.—“Odoacer,” o-do´a-cer; “Ariadne,” a-ri-ad´ne; “Isaurian,” -i-sau´ri-an; “Anastasius,” an-as-ta´si-us. - -P. 330.—“Sardica,” sar´di-ca. - -“Prokopius,” pro-co´pi-us. (500-565.) An historian as well as -rhetorician. His talents early attracted the attention of Belisarius, -who made him his secretary. Afterward Justinian raised him to the -position of prefect of Constantinople. Among his extant works are -several volumes of histories and orations, besides a collection of -anecdotes, mainly court gossip about Justinian, the empress Theodora, -Belisarius, etc. - -P. 331.—“Belisarius,” bel-i-sa´ri-us. - -“Collection of Laws.” Justinian first ordered a collection of the -various imperial _constitutiones_ which he named “Justinianeus Codex.” -The second collection was of all that was important in the works -of jurists, and was called the “Digest.” This work contained nine -thousand extracts, and the compilers are said to have consulted over -two thousand different books in their work. But for ordinary reference -these volumes were of little value, so that the “Institutes” were -written, similar in contents, but condensed. A new code was afterward -promulgated; also several new _constitutiones_—together these books -form the Roman law. - -“Tribonian,” tri-bo´ni-an; “Side,” si´de. - -P. 333.—“Kalydonian Kapros.” The Calydonian wild boar. - -“Bronze-eagle.” In every race-course of the ancient Greeks a bronze -eagle and a dolphin were used for signals in starting. The eagle was -raised in the air and the dolphin lowered. - -P. 334.—“Chosroes,” chos´ro-es. “The generous mind.” One of the most -noteworthy of the kings of Persia. He carried on several wars with the -Romans and extended his domain until he received homage from the most -distant kings of Africa and Asia. Although despotic, his stern justice -made him the pride of the Persians. - -P. 335.—“Hæmus,” hæ´mus; “Aristus,” a-ris´tus; “Antes,” an´tes. - -P. 336.—“Melanthias,” me-lan´thi-as. - -P. 338.—“Fallmerayer,” fäl´meh-rī-er. (1791-1862.) A German historian -and traveller. Among his important works are “Fragments from the East,” -in which he publishes the results of his studies and travels there, and -“The History of the Peninsula of Morea in the Middle Ages.” It is in -this latter work that he advances the strange views here mentioned. - -“Malelas,” mal´e-las. A Byzantine historian who lived soon after -Justinian. He wrote a chronological history from the creation of the -world to the reign of Justinian, inclusive. - -P. 342.—“Heraclius,” her´a-cli=´=us; “Mauricius,” mau-ri´ci-us. - -P. 345.—“Ayesha,” â´ye-sha. The favorite wife of Mohammed and daughter -of Abubeker, who succeeded him. The twenty-fourth chapter of the Koran -treats of the purity of Ayesha. After her husband’s death she in many -ways supported the religion. - -“Fatima,” fâ´te-ma. The only child living at the time of the Prophet’s -death. She became the ancestress of the powerful dynasty of the -Fatimites. - -P. 347.—“Aiznadin,” aiz´na-din; “Yermuk,” yer´muk; “Khaled,” kha´led. - -P. 348.—“Herakleonas,” her-ac-le-o´nas; “Pogonatus,” pog-o-na´tus; -“Moawiyah,” mo-â-wē´yâ. - -P. 349.—“Charles Martel.” (690-741.) The duke of Austrasia, and the -mayor of the palace of the Frankish kings. The name Martel, or “the -hammer,” was given to him from his conduct in this battle. - -P. 350.—“Kallinikus,” cal-li-ni´cus. - -“Naphtha.” A volatile, bituminous liquid, very inflammable. - -P. 352.—“Rhinotmetus,” rhin-ot-me´tus. - -P. 353.—“Chersonites,” cher-son´i-tes. - -“Crim-Tartary.” The Crimea, also called Little Tartary. - -“Absimarus,” ab-sim´a-rus; “Khazars,” kha´zars. - -P. 354.—“Terbelis,” ter´be-lis. - -P. 356.—“Bardanes,” bar-da´nes; “Phillippicus,” phil-lip´pi-cus. - -P. 357.—“Moslemas,” mos´le-mas. - -P. 365.—“Haroun al-Rashid,” hä-roon´ äl-răsh´id. (765-809.) Aaron the -Just, the fifth caliph of the dynasty of the Abassides. His conquests -and administration were such that his reign is called the golden age of -the Mohammedan nations. Poetry, science and art were cultivated by him. -Haroun is the chief hero of Arabian tales. - -“Nikephorus,” ni-ceph´o-rus. - -P. 368.—“Theophilus,” the-oph´i-lus. - -P. 369.—“Armorium,” ar-mo´ri-um. - -P. 370.—“Bardas,” bar´das; “Theoktistus,” the-ok´tis-tus. - -“John Grammatikus.” John the grammarian. It was he that held that there -were three Gods and rejected the word unity from the doctrine of the -being of God. - -P. 371.—“Photius,” fo´shĭ-us. He played a distinguished part in the -political, religious and literary affairs of the ninth century. After -holding various offices, he was made patriarch by Bardas, deposing -Ignatius. This incensed the Romish Church, and the controversy which -arose did much to widen the gulf between the Eastern and Western -Churches. Photius was deposed from his position, but replaced until the -death of Basil, when he was driven into exile. Among his writings the -most valuable is a review of ancient Greek literature. Many books are -described in it of which we have no other knowledge. - -P. 372.—“Arsacidæ,” ar-sac´i-dæ. So called from Arsaces, the founder -of the Parthian empire. About 250 B. C. Arsaces induced the Parthians -to revolt from the Syrian empire, of the Seleucidæ. The family existed -four hundred and seventy-six years, being obliged in 226 A. D. to -submit to Artaxerxes, the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanidæ. - -P. 373.—“Porphyrogenitus,” por-phy-ro-gen´i-tus. - -P. 374.—“Seljuks,” sel-jooks´; “Commeni,” com-me´ni. - -P. 375.—“Robert Guiscard,” ges´kar=´=. Robert, the prudent. -(1015-1085.) The founder of the kingdom of Naples. He had come from -Normandy to Italy, where by his wit and energy he had been appointed -Count of Apulia in 1057. Soon after he added other provinces to his -kingdom, conquered Sicily, and drove the Saracens from Southern Italy. -His hasty departure from Thessaly was to relieve the Pope from the -siege of Henry IV. After accomplishing this he immediately undertook -the second expedition against Constantinople. - -P. 376.—“Kephallenia,” ceph´al-le=´=ni-a; “Durazzo,” doo-rät´so. - -P. 377.—“Anna Commena.” The daughter of Alexis I. She wrote a full -history of her father’s life; one of the most interesting and valuable -books of Byzantine literature. - -P. 379.—“Piacenza,” pe-ä-chen´zä. The capital of the province of the -same name in the north of Italy. - -P. 382.—“Nureddin,” noor-ed-deen´. A Mohammedan ruler of Syria and -Egypt. - -P. 383.—“Dandolo,” dän´do-lo. - -P. 385.—“Scutari,” skoo´tă-ree. - -P. 386.—“Morisini,” mo-ri-si´ni. - -P. 387.—“Boniface,” bŏn´e-făss; “Montferrat,” mŏnt-fer-răt´; -“Bouillon,” boo´yon=´=; “Laskaris,” las´ca-ris. - -P. 388.—“Palæologus,” pa-læ-ol´o-gus. - - * * * * * - -BRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE. - -The November readings in the “Brief History of Greece” are almost -identical with the October readings in Timayenis’s history. For this -reason no notes have been made out on the work. By consulting the notes -on Timayenis’s history in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October, all necessary -help will be obtained. The papers on Physical Science and Political -Economy, also the Sunday Readings, are too clear to need annotating. - - -NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -P. 63, c. 1.—“Hermann.” The Latinized form of whose name was Arminius. -He had learned the language and the military discipline of the Romans -when he led his tribe as auxiliaries to their legions. - -“Varus,” va´rus. He had been consul at Rome in B. C. 13, and afterward -governor of Syria, where he accumulated great wealth. After this battle -Varus put an end to his life. - -P. 63, c. 2.—“Alemanni,” al-e-man´ni. - -“Sicambrians,” si-cam´bri-ans. In early German history one of the most -powerful tribes. They lived in Westphalia, between the Rhine and Weser. - -“Chatti,” or “Catti,” so called from an old German word _cat_ or _cad_, -meaning “war.” They dwelt south of the Sicambrians in the modern state -of Hesse. - -“Batavi.” A Celtic people who had settled in the portion of the present -Netherlands lying at the mouth of the Rhine. Their chief city was -Leyden. The country was afterward extended and called Batavia. - -P. 64, c. 1.—“Salzburg,” sälts´boorg; “Ratisbonne,” ra´tis-bon; -“Augsburg,” owgs´boorg; “Basle,” bâl, or “Basel,” bä´zel; “Baden,” -bä´den; “Spires,” spīr´es; “Metz,” mĕts; “Treves,” treevz. - -“Ammianus,” am´mi-a=´=nus mar´cel-li=´=nus. A Greek serving under the -emperor Julian 363. Later we find him in Rome where he wrote a history -from the time of Nerva, 96, to the death of Valens, 378. Many of the -events were contemporaneous, so that the descriptions and incidents are -particularly valuable. - -P. 64, c. 2.—“Vandals.” This tribe first appeared in the north of -Germany, from whence they went to the Reisengebirge, sometimes called -from them the Vandal Mountains. In the fifth century they worked their -way from Pannonia into Spain, marched southward and founded the once -powerful kingdom of Andalusia (Vandalusia). In 429 they conquered -Africa. An hundred years afterward Belisarius overthrew their power, -and the race disappeared. Many claim that descendants of the Vandals -are to be seen among the Berber race, with blue eyes and light hair. - -“Troyes,” trwä. - -“Catalaunian,” cat´a-lau=´=ni-an. A people formerly living in -northeastern France, their capital the present Châlons-sur-Marne. - -“Méry-sur-Seine,” mā-rē-sur-sane. - -“Visigoths.” In the fourth century the Goths were divided into the -Ostrogoths and Visigoths or the Eastern and Western Goths; the latter -worked their way from the Danube westward to France and Spain where -they built up a splendid kingdom which lasted until 711, when it was -overthrown by the Moors. - -P. 65, c. 1.—“Genseric,” jĕn´ser-ik. A king of the Vandals under whom -the tribe invaded Africa in 429. They conquered the entire country, -capturing Carthage in 439 and making it their capital. After the sack -of Rome, the entire coast of the Mediterranean was pillaged. Genseric -ruled until his death in 477. - -“Heruli,” her´u-li; “Sciri,” si´ri; “Turcilingi,” tur-cil-in´gi; -“Rugii,” ru´gi-i. - -“Theodoric.” The king of the Visigoths, who in 489 undertook to expel -Odoacer from Italy. He defeated him in several battles and finally laid -siege to Ravenna, where Odoacer had taken refuge. After holding out -three years, Odoacer submitted on condition that he rule jointly with -Theodoric, but the latter soon murdered his rival. For thirty-three -years Theodoric ruled the country. He was a patron of art and learning -and his sway was very prosperous. The porphyry vase in which his ashes -were deposited is still shown at Ravenna. - -“Thuringians,” thu-rin´gi-ans. Dwellers in the central part of Germany -between the Harz Mountains and the Thuringian forest. - -“Dietrich,” dē-trich; “Hildebrand,” hĭl´de-brand. - -“Siegfried,” seeg´freed. See notes on “Nibelungenlied” in this number. - -P. 65, c. 2.—“Langobardi” or Lombards. A German tribe which migrated -southward from the river Elbe. In 568 they conquered the plains of -northern Italy and founded a kingdom which lasted two centuries. - -GERMAN LITERATURE. - -The article on German Literature is abridged from Sime’s article on -this subject in the “Encyclopædia Britannica.” - -P. 66, c. 1.—“Nibelungelied.” The song of the Nibelungen. “The work -includes the legends of Siegfried, of Günther, of Dietrich, and of -Attila; and the motives which bind them into a whole are the love and -revenge of Kriemhild, the sister of Günther and Siegfried’s wife. -She excites the envy of Brunhild, the Burgundian queen, whose friend -Hagen discovers the vulnerable point in Siegfried’s enchanted body, -treacherously slays him, and buries in the Rhine the treasure he -has long before conquered from the race of the Nibelungen. There is -then a pause of thirteen years, after which Kriemhild, the better to -effect her fatal purpose, marries Attila. Thirteen years having again -passed away her thirst for vengeance is satiated by slaying the entire -Burgundian court. The Germans justly regard this epic as one of the -most precious gems of their literature.”—_Sime._ - -“Ulfilas,” ŭl´fĭ-las. (310-381.) The family of Ulfilas were Christians -supposed to have been carried away by the Goths. In 341 he became the -bishop of these people and soon induced a number of them to leave their -warlike life to settle a colony in Mœsia. Here he cultivated the arts -of peace, doing much to civilize the people. He introduced an alphabet -of twenty-four letters and translated all of the Bible except the book -of Kings. This work is the earliest known specimen of the Teutonic -language. - -“Wolfram von Eschenbach,” fon esh´en-bäk. He lived at the close of the -twelfth century. A nobleman by birth and a soldier in the civil wars. -He joined the court of Hermann of Thuringia in the castle of Wartburg -(where Luther escaped after the Diet of Worms) and was a contestant in -the famous musical contest called “The war of the Wartburg.” Leaving -here he afterward sang at many other courts, dying in 1225. - -“Parzival” or Parcival, par´ci-val. - -“Holy Grail.” The chalice said to have been used by Christ at the -Last Supper and in which the wine was changed to blood. As the legend -runs it fell into the hands of Joseph of Arimathea, by whom it was -held for centuries, but finally, at his death, it passed to his -descendants, with whom it remained until its possessor sinned; then the -cup disappeared. The Knights of the Round-Table sought it, but until -Sir Galahad no man was found so pure in heart and life that he could -look upon it. Sir Galahad in some romances is called Sir Percival or -_Parzival_. Eisenbach wrote another romance, “Titural,” founded on the -same legend. - -“Gottfried,” gott´freed; “Tristram and Iseult,” trĭs´tram, is´eult; -“Gudrun,” gu´drun. - -“Walther von der Vogelweide,” wäl´ter fon der fō=´=gel-wī´deh. -(1165?-1228?) Walter “from the bird meadow.” He lived some time at -Wartburg and was a friend of King Philip and of Frederick II. He died -on a little estate the latter had given him. - -“Sachenspiegel.” Codex of the Saxon law. - -“Schwabenspiegel.” Codex of the Swabian law. - -“Berthold,” bĕr´tōlt. (1215-1272.) His love for the poor led him to -zealous work in their behalf. Through many years he preached in the -open air in Germany, Switzerland and Hungary. - -“Eckhart,” ĕk´hart. The father of German speculative thought, as Bach -calls him, was a Dominician monk who attempted to reform his order but -preached so exalted a philosophy that the Pope demanded a recantation. -Eckhart never gave this but claimed that his views were entirely -orthodox. His prose is among the purest specimens in the German -language. - -“Meistersänger.” Master-singer. - -P. 66, c. 2.—“Shrove-Tuesday,” or confession Tuesday is the day before -Lent. Although originally a day of preparation for the Lenten fast, it -was soon changed to one of merry-making and feasting. As everything was -devised to increase the gaiety of the occasion, these plays soon became -a regular feature. - -“Reineke Vos.” Reynard the fox. - -“Barkhusen,” bark´hu-sen; “Rostock,” ros´tŏck. - -“Ulrich von Hutten,” ul´rich fon hoot´en. (1488-1523.) His life was -spent in hot contests with the enemies of his reforms. As an advocate -of the new learning, he went from city to city teaching and writing; -“Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum” was written in defense of this theory. He -espoused the cause of the Reformation more because it favored religious -and secular progress than from sympathy with its principles. - -“Hans Sachs.” (1494-1576.) “Honest Hans Sachs,” as he was called, -was a cobbler of Nuremberg, who had learned verse-making from a -_meistersänger_ of Munich. His verses included every style of poetry -known, but the “Shrove-Tuesday plays” were the best, being full of -strong characters and striking situations. The hymn mentioned, “Why art -thou cast down, O, my soul?” is but one of several by him. - -“Leibnitz,” līp´nits. (1646-1716.) Educated at Leipsic, he says of -himself, that before he was twelve, he “understood the Latin authors, -had begun to lisp Greek and wrote verses with singular success.” After -taking his degree he went to Frankfort under the patronage of a wealthy -gentleman; here he devoted himself to composing treatises on religion, -philosophy, law, etc. All manner of projects interested him. He tried -to bring about a union between the Catholic and Lutheran Churches, to -introduce a common alphabet for all languages, to urge the king of -France to conquer Egypt, and other plans, more or less Utopian. In the -latter part of his life he received high honor from Hanover, Vienna, -and Peter the Great. His correspondence was voluminous, and his works -covered almost the whole field of human thought. - -“Klopstock,” klop´stok. (1724-1803.) - -“Wieland,” wee´land. (1733-1813.) - -“Lessing,” lĕs´ĭng. (1729-1781.) - -“Oberon,” ŏb´er-on. The Oberon of Shakspere. The king of the fairies -and the husband of Queen Titania. - -“Agathon,” ag´a-thon. A tragic poet of Athens, who died about 400 B. C. - -“Pietist,” pī´e-tist. The name was applied to a certain class of -religious reformers in Germany, who sought to restore purity to the -Church. - -P. 67, c. 1.—“Herder,” hĕr´der. (1744-1803.) - -“Kant.” (1724-1804.) - -“Kritik.” Critique of pure reason. - -“Fichte,” fik´teh. (1797-1879.) - -“Hardenburg.” (1772-1801.) - -“Wilhelm von Schlegel,” shlā´gel. (1767-1845.) - -“Friedrich.” (1772-1829.) - -“Tieck,” teek. (1773-1853.) - -“Fouquè,” foo=´=ka´. (1777-1843.) - -“Schleiermacher,” shlī´er-mä-ker. (1768-1834.) - -“Feuerbach,” foi´er-bäk. (1804-1872.) - -“Schopenhauer,” sho=´=pen-how´er. (1788-1860.) - -“Freytag,” frī´täg; “Heyse,” hī´zeh; “Spielhagen,” speel´hä-gen; -“Reuter,” roi´ter. - - -READINGS IN ART. - -The papers on Sculpture are compiled from Redford’s “Ancient Sculpture” -and Lübke’s “History of Art.” - -P. 75, c. 1.—“Mycenæ,” my-ce´næ. - -“Cesnola,” ches´no-la. Born in Turin in 1832. He served in the Crimean -war, and afterward in the war of the Rebellion. Having been made an -American citizen he was appointed consul to Cyprus, where he discovered -the necropolis of Idalium, a city which ceased to exist two thousand -years ago. He began excavations, opening some eight thousand tombs, -but an edict from the sultan stopped the work. Cesnola had already, -however, gathered a magnificent collection of antiquities, which, in -1872 was purchased for the Metropolitan Museum of New York. - -“Harpy.” The reliefs on this monument represent harpies, fabulous -monsters in Greek mythology, carrying off children. - -“Frieze,” freez. The broad band resting upon the columns of a porch is -called the entablature. It is divided into three portions; the central -one is the frieze. - -P. 75, c. 2.—“Ageladas,” ag´e-la=´=das. _Not Argeladas._ - -“Myron.” A Bœotian, born about 480 B. C. His master-pieces were all -in bronze. The “quoit-player” and the “cow” are most famous. Myron -excelled in animals and figures in action. - -“Canachus,” can´a-chus. (B. C. 540-508.) He executed the colossal -statue of Apollo at Miletus, was skilled in casting bronze, in gold and -silver, and in wood carving. - -“Callon,” cal´lon. (B. C. 516.) - -“Onatus,” o-na´tus. (B. C. 460.) “Hegias,” he´gi-as; “Critius,” -cri´ti-us. - -“Calamis,” cal´a-mis. (B. C. 467-429.) He worked in marble, gold and -ivory. His horses are said to have been unsurpassable, and his heroic -female figures superior to those of his predecessors. - -“Pythagoras.” Lived about 470 in Magna Græcia. He executed life-like -figures in bronze. - -“Lemnians,” lem´ni-ans. - -“Paris.” At a certain wedding feast to which all the gods had been -invited except the goddess of Strife, she, angry at the slight, threw -an apple into their midst with the inscription “to the fairest.” Juno, -Minerva and Venus claimed it, and Jupiter ordered that Paris, then a -shepherd on Mount Ida, should decide the dispute. As Venus promised him -the most beautiful of women for his wife, he gave her the apple. - -P. 76, c. 1.—“Pellene,” pel-le´ne. A city of Achaia. - -“Rochette,” ro´shĕt=´=. (1790-1854.) A French archæologist. - -“Alcamenes,” al-cam´e-nes. (B.C. 444-400.) His greatest work was a -statue of Venus. - -“Agoracritus,” ag´o-rac=´=ri-tus. (B. C. 440-428.) His most famous work -was also a Venus, which he changed into a statue of Nemesis and sold -because the people of Athens preferred the statue of Alcamenes. - -“Pæonius,” pæ-o´ni-us. - -“Pediment.” The triangular facing or top over a portico, window, gate, -etc. - -“Metope,” met´o-pe. In the Doric style of architecture, the frieze was -divided at intervals by ornaments called triglyphs. The spaces between -these ornaments were called metopes. - -“Cella.” The interior space of a temple. - -“Phigalia,” phi-ga´li-a. - -“Niké-Apteros.” The wingless goddess of victory. Wingless, to signify -that the prayer of the Athenians was that victory might never leave -their city. - -“Scopas,” sco´pas. (395-350.) An architect and statuary, as well as -sculptor. He was the architect of the temple of Minerva at Tegea, and -assisted in the bas-reliefs of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The -famous group of Niobe and her children is supposed to have been the -work of Scopas. - -“Praxiteles,” prax-it´e-les. Born at Athens B. C. 392. He worked -in both marble and bronze. About fifty different works by him are -mentioned. First in fame stands the Cnidian Venus, “one of the most -famous art creations of antiquity.” Apollo as the lizard-killer, his -faun and a representation of Eros are probably best-known. - -“Nereid,” nē´re-id. A sea nymph. - -“Mænad,” mæ´nad. A priestess or votary of Bacchus. - -P. 76, c. 2.—“Toro Farnese” or Farnese Bull. Was discovered in the -sixteenth century and is now in the Naples museum. It represents the -sons of Antiope tying Dirce to a bull by which she is to be dragged to -death. The work when discovered went to the Farnese palace in Rome, -hence the name of Farnese bull. - -“Laocoon,” la-oc´o-on. One of the chief groups in the Vatican -collection; discovered at Rome in 1506. Laocoon was a priest of Apollo, -who having blasphemed the god was destroyed at the altar with his two -sons by a serpent sent by the deity. - -“Niobe,” ni´o-be. The group of Niobe and her children was probably -first an ornament of the pediment of a temple. The subject is the -vengeance of Apollo and Artemis upon the Theban queen Niobe, who had -boasted because of her fourteen children, that she was superior to Leda -who had but two. As a punishment all her children were destroyed. - -“Pyromachus,” py-rom´a-chus. - -“Æsculapius,” æs-cu-la´pi-us. The god of the medical art. - -“Apollo Belvedere,” bel-vā-dā´rā, or bĕl=´=ve-deer´. This statue by -many is considered the greatest existing work of ancient art. The -subject is the god Apollo at the moment of his victory over the Python. -It was discovered in 1503, and takes its name from its position in the -belvedere of the Vatican, a gallery or open corridor of the Vatican -which is called _belvedere_, (beautiful view) from the fine views it -commands. It is of heroic size, and is considered the very type of -manly beauty. - -P. 77, c. 1.—“Torus,” to´rus. A large moulding used in the base of -columns. - -“Mæcenas,” mæ-ce´nas. (B. C. 73?-8.) A Roman statesman. His fame rests -on his patronage of literature. He was a patron of both Horace and -Virgil. - -“Tivoli,” tiv´o-le. - -“Varro.” (B. C. 116-28.) “The most learned of the Romans and the most -voluminous of Roman writers.” He composed no less than 490 books; but -two of these have come down to us. - -“Arcesilaus,” ar-ces=´=i-la´us. - -“Genetrix.” A mother. - -“Septimius Severus,” sep-tim´i-us se-ve´rus. (A. D. 146-211.) Roman -Emperor. - - -AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -P. 77, c. 2.—“Sydney Smith.” (1771-1845.) Educated at Oxford, he took -orders and became a curate in 1794. Afterward he taught, and in 1802 -assisted in establishing the _Edinburgh Review_, of which he was the -first editor. Although he had charge, during his life, of various -parishes, he was active in literary work; for twenty-five years he -contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_; he published “Sketches of Moral -Philosophy,” several volumes of sermons, papers on “American Debt,” and -many miscellaneous articles, all characterized by humor and sound sense. - -“Kaimes,” or Kames, kāmz. (1696-1782.) A Scottish jurist, educated at -Edinburgh, and for thirty years practiced law; was then made Lord Chief -Justice. He wrote many works on law, metaphysics, criticism, etc. - -“Davy.” (1778-1829.) The English chemist. His attention was first -directed to chemistry by his medical studies, and he made such progress -in original investigation that at twenty-three he was made lecturer on -chemistry in the Royal Society of London. In 1817 he became a member -of the French Institute, and his reputation as a chemist was second to -that of no one in Europe. He wrote much and among his discoveries were -the bases potassium, sodium, and iodine as a simple substance. His most -valuable invention was the miner’s safety lamp. - -“Jeffrey.” (1773-1850.) Educated for the law, but was deeply interested -in literature. After being admitted to the bar this division of -interest for a long time hindered his success. He was one of the -original founders of the _Edinburgh Review_, and became its editor -with the fourth number. He soon made the magazine an organ of liberal -thought on every theme. His most valuable contributions were his -literary criticisms. His work at the bar improved with his literary -ability, and in 1834 he was made a judge, a position he held until his -death. - -“Passy,” päs=´=se´. - -P. 78, c. 1.—“Bancroft,” băng´kroft. (1800.) See American Literature. - -“Rufus King.” (1755-1827.) American statesman. - -“Everett.” (1794-1865.) American orator and statesman. - -P. 78, c. 2.—“Hessian,” hĕsh´an. The troops were from Hesse-Cassel. The -king, Frederick II., between 1776 and 1784, received over £3,000,000 by -hiring these soldiers to the English government to fight against the -Americans. - -“Lanspach,” lanz´päk; “Kniphausen,” knip´how=´=zen. - -P. 79, c. 1.—“Brougham,” broo´am. (1779-1868.) A British statesman -and author. After leaving school he spent some time in traveling -and writing before being admitted to the bar. In 1810 he entered -Parliament, and his first resolution was to petition the king to -abolish slavery. From this time he was allied with the reforms of the -age: the emancipation of Roman Catholics, government reforms, etc. The -education of working people and charity schemes received the aid of his -pen and voice, and he was instrumental in founding several societies -since very powerful. In 1834 the change of ministry ended his official -life, but his interest and zeal in public works never ceased. - - - - -TRICKS OF THE CONJURORS. - -By THOMAS FROST. - -The dense ignorance which prevailed during the seventeenth century -on the subject of conjuring, as the word is now understood, would be -scarcely credible at the present day, if instances did not even now -occur at intervals to show that there are still minds which the light -of knowledge has not yet penetrated. Books did not reach the masses in -those days, and hence the beginning of the eighteenth century found -people as ready to drown a wizard as their ancestors had been. - -A book which was published in 1716, by Richard Neve, whose name is the -first which we meet with in the conjuring annals of the eighteenth -century, bears traces of the lingering fear of diabolical agency -which still infected the minds of the people. Having stated, in his -preface, that his book contained directions for performing thirty-three -legerdemain tricks, besides many arithmetical puzzles and many jests, -Neve says: “I dare not say that I have here set down all that are or -may be performed by legerdemain, but thou hast here the most material -of them; and if thou rightly understandest these, there is not a trick -that any juggler in the world can show thee, but thou shalt be able to -conceive after what manner it is done, if he do it by sleight of hand, -and not by unlawful and detestable means, as too many do at this day.” - -The following are a few of the tricks which puzzled the people of -those days: The tricks of the fakirs, or religious mendicants of India -were remarkable. One of these fellows boasted that he would appear at -Amadabant a town about two hundred miles from Surat, within fifteen -days after being buried, ten feet deep, at the latter place. The -Governor of Surat resolved to test the fellow’s powers, and had a grave -dug, in which the fakir placed himself, stipulating that a layer of -reeds should be interposed between his body and the superincumbent -earth, with a space of two feet between his body and the reeds. This -was done, and the grave was then filled up, and a guard was placed at -the spot to prevent trickery. - -A large tree stood ten or twelve yards from the grave, and beneath its -shade several fakirs were grouped around a large earthern jar, which -was filled with water. The officer of the guard, suspecting that some -trick was to be played, ordered the jar to be moved, and, this being -done by the soldiers, after some opposition on the part of the fellows -assembled round it, a shaft was discovered, with a subterranean gallery -from its bottom to within two feet of the grave. The impostor was -thereupon made to ascend, and a riot ensued, in which he and several -other persons were slain. - -This trick has been repeated several times in India, under different -circumstances, one of the most remarkable instances being that related -by an engineer officer named Boileau, who was employed about forty -years ago in the trigonometrical survey of that country. I shall relate -this story in the officer’s own words, premising that he did not -witness either the interment or the exhumation of the performer, but -was told that they took place in the presence of Esur Lal, one of the -ministers of the Muharwul of Jaisulmer. - -“The man is said, by long practice, to have acquired the art of -holding his breath by shutting the mouth, and stopping the interior -opening of the nostrils with his tongue; he also abstains from solid -food for some days previous to his interment, so that he may not be -inconvenienced by the contents of his stomach, while put up in his -narrow grave; and, moreover, he is sewn up in a bag of cloth, and the -cell is lined with masonry, and floored with cloth, that the white ants -and other insects may not easily be able to molest him. The place in -which he was buried at Jaisulmer is a small building about twelve feet -by eight, built of stone; and in the floor was a hole, about three -feet long, two and a half feet wide, and the same depth, or perhaps a -yard deep, in which he was placed in a sitting posture, sewed up in -his shroud, with his feet turned inward toward the stomach, and his -hands also pointed inward toward the chest. Two heavy slabs of stone, -five or six feet long, several inches thick, and broad enough to cover -the mouth of the grave, so that he could not escape, were then placed -over him, and I believe a little earth was plastered over the whole, -so as to make the surface of the grave smooth and compact. The door of -the house was also built up, and people placed outside, that no tricks -might be played, nor deception practised. - -“At the expiration of a full month, the walling of the door was broken, -and the buried man dug out of the grave; Trevelyan’s moonshee only -running there in time to see the ripping open of the bag in which the -man had been inclosed. He was taken out in a perfectly senseless state, -his eyes closed, his hands cramped and powerless, his stomach shrunk -very much, and his teeth jammed so fast together that they were forced -to open his mouth with an iron instrument to pour a little water down -his throat. He gradually recovered his senses and the use of his limbs; -and when we went to see him he was sitting up, supported by two men, -and conversed with us in a low, gentle tone of voice, saying that ‘we -might bury him again for a twelvemonth, if we pleased.’” - -A conjuror was exhibiting a mimic swan, which floated on real water, -and followed his motions, when the bird suddenly became stationary. He -approached it more closely, but the swan did not move. - -“There is a person in the company,” said he, “who understands the -principle upon which this trick is performed, and who is counteracting -me. I appeal to the company whether this is fair, and I beg the -gentleman will desist.” - -The trick was performed by magnetism, and the counteracting agency was -a magnet in the pocket of Sir Francis Blake Delaval. - -In 1785 the celebrated automatic chess player was first exhibited in -London, having previously been shown in various cities of Germany and -France. It had been invented about fifteen years before by a Hungarian -noble, the Baron von Kempelen, who had until then, however, declined to -permit its exhibition in public. Having witnessed some experiments in -magnetism by a Frenchman, performed before the Court of Maria Theresa, -Kempelen had observed to the empress that he thought himself able to -construct a piece of mechanism the operations of which would be far -more surprising than the experiments they had witnessed. The curiosity -of the empress was excited, and she exacted a promise from Kempelen to -make the attempt. The result was the automatic chess-player. - -The figure was of the size of life, dressed as a Turk, and seated -behind a square piece of cabinet work. It was fixed upon castors, so as -to run over the floor, and satisfy beholders that there was no access -to it from below. On the top, in the center, was a fixed chess-board, -toward which the eyes of the figure were directed. Its right hand and -arm were extended toward the board, and its left, somewhat raised, held -a pipe. - -The spectators, having examined the figure, the exhibitor wound up -the machinery, placed the cushion under the arm of the figure, and -challenged any gentleman present to play. - -The Turk always chose the white men, and made the first move. The -fingers opened as the hand was extended toward the board, and the piece -was deftly picked up, and removed to the proper square. If a false move -was made by its opponent, it tapped on the table impatiently, replaced -the piece, and claimed the move for itself. If a human player hesitated -long over a move, the Turk tapped sharply on the table. - -The mind fails to comprehend any mechanism capable of performing with -such accuracy movements which require knowledge and reflection. Beckman -says indeed that a boy was concealed in the figure, and prompted by the -best chess-player whose services the proprietor could obtain. - - - - -TALK ABOUT BOOKS. - - -Oliver Wendell Holmes is a philanthropist in the world of letters. -Since his college days at Harvard, where he distinguished himself by -his contributions to the _Collegian_, he has been giving to his wide -circle of readers strong, clean, good thoughts, mixed with the happiest -humor. His essays have been among the most enjoyable of his writings. -His publishers have recognized this and collected a dozen of them into -“Pages from an Old Volume of Life.”[K] There are many subjects touched, -but his “Phi Beta Kappa” oration of 1870, “Mechanism in Thought and -Morals,” is, perhaps, the best in the collection. The two essays, -written during the war for _The Atlantic_ readers, have a pathos so -touching, it completely does away with the false idea that Holmes is -only a humorist. The volume is a pleasant book for an hour’s reading; -indeed, it may well be classed along with what the author himself has -aptly called “pillow-smoothing authors;” not a dull, heavy book, but -one whose easily-flowing thoughts and continued good humor, quiet the -mind and allow the reader to pass into dreamy forgetfulness. - -“Things that have to be done, should be learned by doing them.” -Teachers know as well, perhaps, as any class of people how applicable -this old truism is to their work. They only learn by doing; but too -often they learn the routine, not the science. A little book just -published by A. Lovell & Co.,[L] is sent out in the interest of -thoughtful teaching. There are some excellent development lessons, in -which, simply by questions, and a few simple materials, are developed -ideas of the senses, of forms, flat and solid, ideas of right and -left, etc. A series of lessons on plants and insects have for their -object “to bring the child into contact with nature, to teach him to -observe, think, reason, and to express himself naturally.” The book -contains an excellent paper on the much-discussed “Quincy School -Work.” No new departure in the educational world has caused more talk. -That there is something in it no one doubts that knows of the results -of Superintendent Parker’s system, but how to use it is not easily -explained. This essay will help teachers to understand the method and -show them how it may be used. - -During this year Messrs. Harper & Brothers have added to the -biographies of eminent Americans three very valuable works. Following -Mr. Godwin’s life of Bryant, is the “Memoirs of John A. Dix.”[M] In so -pretentious a work as the latter it is unfortunate that the compilation -should have been made by his son. The unbiased, impersonal judgment -that makes a biography trustworthy, is wanting. The fondness of the -writer is continually evident to the reader. The book, however, is -valuable from its fullness and exactness. It is really an epitome of -the history of the most exciting times in our annals. General Dix’s -part in the stirring events before and after the rebellion, his work -as secretary of the treasury, as military commander during the New -York riots in ’63, and his position upon various questions of national -policy, are all explained minutely, and his correspondence is given in -full. Although so voluminous, the work is never fatiguing. A feature -which adds to the interest of the book is the selections from his -translations, sketches, etc. General Dix added to his political and -military ability a literary taste that led him to cultivate letters. -His translations are particularly good. _Stabat Mater_, his son has -seen fit to publish; it seems a pity that _Dies Iræ_ was not also given. - -The third of these biographies is the “Life of James Buchanan.”[N] -The author himself says of this work, that “it was followed within a -week by an amount of criticism such as I do not remember to have seen -bestowed on any similar book in the same space of time.” Mr. Curtis was -assigned a task from which most men would have shrunk. Mr. Buchanan’s -administration as President of the United States was not popular. The -belief that he favored the secession of the Southern States has been -general. For his biographer to treat him as a conscientious actor in -the struggle before the war has necessarily entailed criticism. Mr. -Curtis says in his preface, “My estimate of his abilities and powers as -a statesman has arisen with every investigation I have made and it is, -in my judgment, not too much to say of him as a President of the United -States, that he is entitled to stand very high in the catalogue—not -a large one—of those who have had the moral courage to encounter -misrepresentation and obloquy, rather than swerve from the line of -duty which their convictions marked out for them.” Mr. Curtis will not -change the popular opinion on the Buchanan administration, but he must -modify that opinion. This treatment alone makes the work worth reading -by both friend and foe. The most entertaining part of the book is the -voluminous private correspondence, which well portray Mr. Buchanan’s -social and friendly nature. - -One of the most delightful books of the season is “Spanish Vistas,”[O] -by Mr. Lathrop. The publishers have given us a genuine _édition de -luxe_, heavy paper, numberless choice illustrations, and beautiful -binding. The book is the joint product of two artists, and if one -wields the quill instead of the pencil he is no less artistic. Two -things are particularly noticeable in Mr. Lathrop’s fine descriptions -of scenery, of architecture, city sights and peasant gatherings: the -skill with which he chooses his point and time of observation, and -his really superior coloring. He knows at what hour the Alhambra will -exercise its supreme spell, where the picturesque vagabondism of these -handsome Spanish rascals will be most striking. To this power add his -ability in colors and there is not a page but glows with effective -pictures. Character sketches enliven the volume. The commonplace -American abroad is introduced in Whetstone, a man of “iron persistence -and intense prejudice,” who continually exclaims “I don’t see what -I came to Spain for. If there ever was a God-forsaken country,” and -who amid the grandeur of the cathedral of Seville squints along the -cornice to see if it is straight. The writer has been ably assisted by -his “Velveteen,” alias Mr. C. S. Reinhart, whose pictures give doubled -value to the book. To all contemplating a trip to Spain the chapter on -“Hints to Travelers” will be valuable. - -“Spanish Vistas” represents one class of books on travels. There is -another more interesting to the majority of people, in which facts -and adventures are the chief elements. Such a work is “The Golden -Chersonese,”[P] by Isabella Bird. After having traveled on horseback -through the interior of Japan, and braved the roughest passes of the -Rocky Mountains, and spent six months among the wonders of the Sandwich -Islands, this indefatigable woman penetrates that _terra incognita_, -the Malay Peninsula. The dangers and inconveniences which she undergoes -to get there and get through are remarkable. She sailed from Hong Kong -not long after a party of piratical Chinese, shipping as steerage -passengers on board a river steamer, had massacred the officers and -captured the boat. There was but one English passenger on board besides -herself, and some two thousand Chinese imprisoned in the steerage, an -iron grating over each exit, and an officer ready to shoot the first -man who attempted to force it. The decorations of the saloons consisted -of stands of loaded rifles and unsheathed bayonets. She penetrates the -country where the mosquitoes are a terror to life; snakes, land-leeches -and centipedes are everywhere, but the enthusiastic traveler mentions -them but casually. The dangers and bravery of the writer of course add -piquancy to the interesting description of the scenes, the customs and -peculiarities of “The Golden Chersonese.” - -Along with these fresh works comes out a new edition of one of the -pioneers in this field of literature. We refer to Dr. Hayes’ “Arctic -Boat Journey.”[Q] In 1860 it was first published, and speedily took -its place as an authority on Arctic travels. The fresh interest given -to this subject by the sad fate of the “Jeannette” has led to a new -edition. The accounts lose nothing of interest by time, but rather -become clearer from the added knowledge we have of the frozen seas and -icy lands. - -No work will be found a more valuable addition to a C. L. S. C. library -than Lübke’s “History of Art.”[R] In connection with the art readings -it will be found invaluable. Since its first publication in 1860 it has -gone through seven editions, and that, too, in critical Germany. The -new translation from the latest German edition is the best. - - -BOOKS RECEIVED. - -“Bible Stories for Young Children,” by Caroline Hoadley. Philadelphia: -J. B. Lippincott. & Co. - -“Ancient Egypt in the Light of Modern Discoveries,” by Professor H. S. -Osborn, LL.D. Cincinnati: Robert Clark & Co., 1883. - -“Woman and Temperance; or, The Work and the Workers of The Woman’s -Christian Temperance Union,” by Frances E. Willard, President of the W. -C. T. U. Hartford, Conn.: Park Publishing Co., 1883. - -“The Soul Winner.” A Sketch of Facts and Incidents in the Life and -Labors of Edmund J. Zard, for sixty-three years a class-leader and -hospital visitor in Philadelphia. By his sister, Mrs. Mary D. James. -New York: Phillip & Hunt; Cincinnati: Walden & Stowe, 1883. - -“The Preacher and His Sermon.” A Treatise on Homiletics. By Rev. John -W. Etter, B.D. Dayton, O.: United Brethren Publishing House, 1883. - -“Seven Stories, with Basement and Attic.” By the author of “Reveries of -a Bachelor.” New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884. - -“Reveries of A Bachelor; or, A Book of the Heart,” by Ik Marvel. New -and revised edition. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884. - -“The Story of Roland,” by James Baldwin. New York: Charles Scribner’s -Sons, 1883. - -“Our Young Folks’ Plutarch;” edited by Rosalie Kaufman. Philadelphia: -J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1883. - -“Young Folks’ Whys and Wherefores.” A Story by Uncle Lawrence. -Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1884. - -“Mrs. Gilpin’s Frugalities.” Remnants, and Two Hundred Ways of using -them. By Susan Anna Brown, author of “The Book of Forty Puddings.” New -York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1883. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[K] Pages from an Old Volume of Life; a collection of essays -(1857-1881) by Oliver Wendell Holmes. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., -1883. - -[L] Development Lessons for Teachers, by Esmond V. DeGraff and Margaret -K. Smith. New York: H. Lovell & Co., 1883. - -[M] Memoirs of John A. Dix; compiled by his son, Morgan Dix. In two -volumes. New York, Harper & Brothers, 1883. - -[N] Life of James Buchanan, Fifteenth President of the United States. -By George Ticknor Curtis. In two volumes. New York: Harper & Brothers, -1883. - -[O] Spanish Vistas, by George Parsons Lathrop, illustrated by Charles -S. Reinhart. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1883. - -[P] The Golden Chersonese, by Isabella Bird. New York: G. P. Putnam’s -Sons, 1883. - -[Q] An Arctic Boat Journey in the Autumn of 1854, by Isaac I. Hayes, M. -D. New edition, enlarged and illustrated. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & -Company, 1883. - -[R] Outlines of the History of Art, by Dr. Wilhelm Lübke. A new -translation from the seventh German edition, edited by Clarence Cook. -New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1881. - - - - - -[Illustration: - - ROYAL - BAKING - POWDER - -Absolutely Pure. - -This powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength and -wholesomeness. More economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be -sold in competition with the multitude of low test, short weight, alum -or phosphate powders. _Sold only in cans._ ROYAL BAKING POWDER CO., 106 -Wall Street, New York.] - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -1883-1884. - - -The Fourth Volume Begins with October, 1883. - -A monthly magazine, 76 pages, ten numbers in the volume, beginning with -October and closing with July. - - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN - -is the official organ of the C. L. S. C., adopted by the Rev. J. H. -Vincent, D.D., Lewis Miller, Esq., Lyman Abbott, D.D., Bishop H. W. -Warren, D.D., Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D., and Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D., -Counselors of the C. L. S. C. - -One-half of the “Required Readings” in the C. L. S. C. course of study -for 1883-84 will be published only in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -Our columns will contain articles on Roman, German, French and American -History, together with “Sunday Readings,” articles on Political -Economy, Civil Law, Physical Science, Sculpture and Sculptors, Painting -and Painters, Architecture and Architects. - -Dr. J. H. Vincent will continue his department of C. L. S. C. Work. - -We shall publish “_Questions and Answers_” on every book in the course -of study for the year. The work of each week and month will be divided -for the convenience of our readers. Stenographic reports of the -“Round-Tables” held in the Hall of Philosophy during August will be -given. - -Special features of this volume will be the “C. L. S. C. Testimony” and -“Local Circles.” - - -THE EDITOR’S OUTLOOK, EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK AND EDITOR’S TABLE, - -WILL BE IMPROVED. - -The new department of _Notes on the Required Readings_ will be -continued. The notes have met with universal favor, and will be -improved the coming year. - -Miscellaneous articles on Travel, Science, Philosophy, Literature, -Religion, Art, etc., will be prepared to meet the needs of our readers. - -Prof. Wallace Bruce will furnish a series of ten articles, especially -for this Magazine, on Sir Walter Scott’s “Waverley Novels,” in which -he will give our readers a comprehensive view of the writings of this -prince of novelists. - -Rev. Dr. J. H. Vincent, Rev. Dr. G. M. Steele, Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, -D.D., Prof. W. G. Williams, A.M., Bishop H. W. Warren, A. M. Martin, -Esq., Rev. C. E. Hall, A.M., Rev. E. D. McCreary, A.M., and others, -will contribute to the current volume. - -The character of THE CHAUTAUQUAN in the past is our best promise of -what we shall do for our readers in the future. - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN, one year, $1.50 - - - CLUB RATES FOR THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - Five subscriptions at one time, each, $1.35 - Or, for the five 6.75 - - In clubs, the Magazine must go to one postoffice. - -Remittances should be made by postoffice money order on Meadville, or -draft on New York, Philadelphia or Pittsburgh, to avoid loss. Address, - - THEODORE L. FLOOD, - Editor and Proprietor, - MEADVILLE, PA. - -Complete sets of the _Chautauqua Assembly Herald_ for 1883 furnished at -$1.00. - - - - -CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS’ NEW BOOKS. - - - =Biblical Study.= Its Principles, Methods, and a - History of its Branches. Together with a Catalogue of - a Reference Library of Biblical Study. By CHARLES A. - BRIGGS, D.D., Professor of Hebrew and Cognate Languages - in Union Theological Seminary. 1 vol. 12mo, $2.50. - -Professor Briggs’ book is admirably adapted for the use of the great -number of readers and Bible students who desire to know the results -of the most recent investigation and the best modern scholarship in -the field of Biblical Study. Without such a guide it is impossible to -comprehend the discussions which now agitate the religious world as -to the canon, the languages, the style, the text, the interpretation, -and the criticism of Scripture. Each of these departments, with other -kindred topics, is treated in a brief but thorough and comprehensive -manner, and their history and literature are presented together with -their present aspect. - - =The Scriptural Idea of Man.= By MARK HOPKINS, D.D., - LL.D., 1 vol., 12mo, $1.00. - -“We wish every theological student in the land might have the chance, -at least, of reading this book. The doctrines of the Bible in relation -to man in his original nature have seldom been more powerfully -enforced, and the different schools of modern infidelity have seldom -been exposed more completely in all their weakness. It is like taking a -tonic or a breath of mountain air for one to listen to such teachings -as the pen of Doctor Hopkins here gives to the younger race of -ministers.”—_The Christian Intelligencer._ - - =The Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief.= - By GEORGE P. FISHER, D.D., LL.D., Professor of - Ecclesiastical History in Yale College, 1 vol., crown - 8vo. $2.50. - -This volume embraces a discussion of the evidences of both natural and -revealed religion, and prominence is given to topics having special -interest at present from their connection with modern theories and -difficulties. Professor Fisher’s learning, skill in argument, and -power of language have given him the position of one of the foremost -defenders of the faith now living, and this volume will be useful to -many in clearing up perplexities and throwing new light upon the nature -of the Christian faith and its relation to modern thought. - - =Christian Charity in the Ancient Church.= By - Dr. GERHARD UHLHORN, author of “The Conflict of - Christianity with Heathenism.” 1 vol. crown 8vo, $2.50. - -Dr. Uhlhorn is favorably known on this side of the Atlantic by his able -and fascinating treatment of one of the most important chapters in -history, “The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism.” - - =The Life of Luther.= By JULIUS KOSTLIN, Professor - in the University of Halle. With more than 60 - illustrations from original portraits, documents, etc. - 1 vol. 8vo. - -“At last we have a life of Luther which deserves the name.... The Herr -Kostlin, in a single well-composed volume, has produced a picture which -leaves little to be desired. A student who has read these six hundred -pages attentively will have no question left to ask.”—JAMES ANTHONY -FROUDE in _The Contemporary Review_. - - =The Middle Kingdom.= A survey of the Geography, - Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History - of the Chinese Empire and its inhabitants. With - illustrations and a new map of the Empire. By S. WELLS - WILLIAMS, D.D., LL.D. 2 vols. royal 8vo, $9.00. - -This new issue of Dr. S. Wells Williams’s standard and important work, -“The Middle Kingdom,” is practically a new book. The text of the old -edition has been largely rewritten, and the work has been expanded so -as to include a vast amount of new material collected by Dr. Williams -during the later years of his residence in China, as well as the most -recent information regarding all the departments of the Empire. - - =The Story of Roland.= By JAMES BALDWIN. With a series - of illustrations by R. B. Birch. 1 vol. square 12mo, - $2.00. - -This volume is intended as a companion to “The Story of Siegfried.” As -“Siegfried” was an adaptation of Northern myths and romances to the -wants and understanding of young readers, so is this story a similar -adaptation of the Middle Age romances relating to Charlemagne and his -paladins. - - =The Hoosier School-Boy.= By EDWARD EGGLESTON, author - of “The Hoosier School-Master,” etc. With full-page - illustrations. 1 vol. 12mo, $1.00. - -“Those who have read ‘The Hoosier School-master’—and who has not?—will -feel that they must have this companion volume. Mr. Eggleston is a -writer of very charming stories of a peculiar character. His stories -always mean something, and are pervaded by a Christian tone of thought -and feeling.”—_Christian Secretary, Hartford._ - - =Mrs. Gilpin’s Frugalities.= Remnants, and 200 Ways of - Using Them. By SUSAN ANNA BROWN, author of “The Book of - Forty Puddings.” 1 vol. illuminated, $1. - -This little volume, which in the range of cook-book literature occupies -a new and unoccupied field, aims to combat the spirit of wastefulness -that is the besetting sin of American housekeeping. Miss Brown provides -a multitude of receipts for transforming these remnants into savory and -nutritious _plats_, side dishes, entrees, etc. Some of these receipts -are from the French, but most of them are from the author’s own -experiments. - - - _These books are for sale by all book-sellers, or will - be sent, post-paid, on receipt of price._ - - CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS, Publishers, - 743 and 745 Broadway, New York. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Note: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. - -Page 66, “Muremburg” changed to “Nuremburg” (of Nuremburg, is now) - -Page 81, “Lybia” changed to “Libya” (deserts of Libya, there dwelt) - -Page 82, “Fresho” changed to “Fresno” (four chief towns, Fresno) - -Page 88, “Propylænm” changed to “Propylæum” (the Propylæum and enter) - -Page 97, “ti” changed to “it” (huzzaing for me; it) - -Page 98, stanza break placed between first and second stanza of poem. - -Page 103, “Lousta” changed to “Louisa” (Lousia E. French) - -Page 108, “be” changed to “he” (he came and gave) - -Page 109, “invested” changed to “infested” (earliest times infested) - -Page 116, “city” changed to “City” (New York City to introduce) - -Page 128, “cannon” changed to “canon” (as to the canon) - -Page 128, “Ulhorn” changed to “Uhlhorn” (Dr. Uhlhorn is favorably) - -Page 128, “adaption” changed to “adaptation” (an adaptation of Northern) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. IV, November 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, NOVEMBER 1883 *** - -***** This file should be named 52043-0.txt or 52043-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/0/4/52043/ - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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